Level two Analytical Chemistry 2020/2021

THEORICAL LESSONS
ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY (PSE
232)

BODA EMMANUEL
2020/2021
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PROGRAM OF WORK
1. FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS OF ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY
2. EQUILIRIUM CHEMISTRY
3. OBTANING AND PREPARING SAMPLES FOR ANALYSIS
4. SPECTROSCOPIC METHODS OF ANALYSIS
5. CHROMATOGRAPHIC AND ELECTROPHORETIC METHODS

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Chapter 1: FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS OF

ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY
I. INTRODUCTION
Chemistry is the study f matter, including its composition, structure, physical
properties and reactivity. Chemistry is called the science of atoms and molecule.
Branches of Chemistry include:
 Organic Chemistry -This branch deals with study of carbon compounds
especially hydrocarbons and their derivatives.
 Inorganic Chemistry-This branch deals with the study of compounds of
all other elements except carbon. It largely concerns itself with the study
of minerals found in the Earth's crust.
 Physical Chemistry-The explanation of fundamental principles
governing various chemical phenomena is the main concern of this
branch. It is basically concerned with laws and theories of the different
branches of chemistry.
 Industrial Chemistry-The chemistry involved in industrial processes is
studied under this branch.
 Analytical Chemistry-This branch deals with the qualitative and
quantitative analysis of various substances.
 Biochemistry-This branch deals with the chemical changes going on in
the bodies of living organisms; plants and animals.
 Nuclear Chemistry-Nuclear reactions, such as nuclear fission, nuclear
fusion, transmutation processes etc. are studied under this branch.
What is Analytical Chemistry?
Analytical chemistry is often describe the branch of chemistry responsible
for the characterizing the composition of matter, both qualitatively (what is
present) and quantitatively (how much is present). Analytical chemistry is not
performing a routine of analysis on a routine sample which is more
appropriately called Chemical analysis but Analytical chemistry is improving
established methods, extending existing methods to new type of samples and
developing new methods for measuring chemical phenomena.
An example of the different between analytical chemistry and chemical
analysis is: Mining engineers evaluate the economic feasibility of extraction of
an ore by comparing the cost of removing the ore with the value of its contents.
To estimate its value they analyse a sample of the ore. The challenge of
developing and validating. Once developed, the routine daily application of the

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method become the job of the chemical analyst. Meaning analytical chemist
work to improve establish methods for chemical analysis.
Analytical perspectives
Each field of chemistry brings a unique perspectives to the study of
chemistry. So analytical chemist describe analytic perspectives as the approach
to solve problems which follows five fundamentals steps which include:
1. Identify and define the problem
2. Design the experimental procedure
3. Conduct an experiment and gather data
4. Analyse the experimental data
5. Propose a solution to the problem

Common Analytical problems

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Analytical chemistry is more than a collection of qualitative and

quantitative methods of analysis. Many problems on which analytical chemists
work ultimately involve:
 Qualitative analysis
 Quantitative analysis
 Characterization analysis
 Fundamental analysis
Qualitative analysis: It is an analysis in which we determine the identity of the
constituent species in a sample. Many problems in analytical chemistry begin
with the need to identify what is Present in a sample. This is the scope of a
qualitative analysis. Much of the early work in analytical chemistry involved the
development of simple chemical tests to identify the presence of inorganic ions
and organic functional groups. Currently, most qualitative analyses use methods
such as infrared spectroscopy, nuclear magnetic resonance, and mass
spectrometry.
Quantitative analysis: it is an analysis in which we determine how much of a
constituent species is present in a sample. The most common type of problem
encountered in the analytical lab is a quantitative analysis. Much of the
analytical work in clinical, pharmaceutical, environmental, and industrial labs
involves developing new methods for determining the concentration of targeted
species in complex samples.
Characterization analysis: it is an analysis in which we evaluate a sample’s
chemical or physical properties. Another important area of analytical chemistry,
is the development of new methods for characterizing physical and chemical
properties. Determinations of chemical structure, equilibrium constants, particle
size, and surface structure are examples of a characterization analysis.
Fundamental analysis
An analysis whose purpose is to improve an analytical method’s capabilities.
The purpose of a qualitative, quantitative, and characterization analysis is to
solve a problem associated with a sample. A fundamental analysis, on the other
hand, is directed toward improving the experimental methods used in the other
areas of analytical chemistry. Extending and improving the theory on which a
method is based, studying a method’s limitations, and designing new and
modifying old methods are examples of fundamental studies in analytical
chemistry
Exercise For each of the following problems indicate whether its solution
requires a qualitative, quantitative, characterization, or fundamental study. More
than one type of analysis may be appropriate for some problems.

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a) A hazardous-waste disposal site is believed to be leaking contaminants

into the local groundwater.
b) An art museum is concerned that a recent acquisition is a forgery.
c) A more reliable method is needed by airport security for detecting the
presence of explosive materials in luggage.
d) The structure of a newly discovered virus needs to be determined.
e) A new visual indicator is needed for an acid–base titration.
f) A new law requires a method for evaluating whether automobiles are
emitting too much carbon monoxide.

II. BASIC TOOLS PF ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY

Fundamental Units of Measure
Measurements usually consist of a unit and a number expressing the
quantity of that unit. Unfortunately, many different units may be used to express
the same physical measurement. For consistency, and to avoid confusion,
scientists use a common set of fundamental units, several of which are listed in
the table below. These units are called SI units after the Système International
d’Unités. Other measurements are defined using these fundamental SI units.
Chemists frequently work with measurements that are very large or very small.
A mole, for example, contains 602,213,670,000,000,000,000,000 particles, and
some analytical techniques can detect as little as 0.000000000000001 g of a
compound. For simplicity, we express these measurements using scientific
notation which is a shorthand method for expressing very large or very small
numbers by indicating powers of ten. Sometimes it is preferable to express
measurements without the exponential term, replacing it with a prefix.

Fundamentals SI Unit
Measurement Unit Symbol
Mass kilogram kg
Volume liter L
Distance meter m
Temperature kelvin K
Time second s
Current ampere A
Amount of substance mole mol

Other SI and Non-SI Units

Measurement Unit Symbol Equivalent SI units
Length angstrom Å 1 Å = 1 ´ 10–10 m
Force newton N 1 N = 1 m ×kg/s2
Pressure pascal Pa 1 Pa = 1 N/m2 = 1 kg/(m ×s2)
Atmosphere atm 1 atm = 101,325 Pa
Energy work, heat joule J 1 J = 1 N ×m = 1 m2 ×kg/s2

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Power watt W 1 W = 1 J/s = 1 m2 ×kg/s3

Charge coulomb C 1 C = 1 A ×s
Potential volt V 1 V = 1 W/A = 1 m2 ×kg/(s3 ×A)
Temperature degree Celsius °C °C = K – 273.15
degree Fahrenheit °F °F = 1.8(K – 273.15) + 32

Table of Prefixes used in the SI System

Multiple Prefix Symbol
10-24 yocto y
10-21 zepto z
10-18 atto a
10-15 femto f
10-12 pico p
10-9 nano n
10-6 micro μ
10-3 milli m
10-2 centi c
10-1 deci d
101 deca da
102 hecto h
103 kilo k
106 mega M
109 giga G
1012 tera T
1015 peta P
1018 exa E
1021 zeta Z
1024 yotta Y

Significant Figures
The digits in a measured quantity, including all digits known exactly and one
digit (the last) whose quantity is uncertain. Recording a measurement provides
information about both its magnitude and uncertainty. Significant figures are a
reflection of a measurement’s uncertainty. The number of significant figures is
equal to the number of digits in the measurement, with the exception that a zero
(0) used to fix the location of a decimal point is not considered significant.
Significant figures using the following simple rules.
1. Retain the least significant figure if it and the digits that follow are less than
halfway to the next higher digit; thus, rounding 12.442 to the nearest tenth gives
12.4 since 0.442 is less than halfway between 0.400 and 0.500.
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2. Increase the least significant figure by 1 if it and the digits that follow are
more than halfway to the next higher digit; thus, rounding 12.476 to the nearest
tenth gives 12.5 since 0.476 is more than halfway between 0.400 and 0.500.
3. If the least significant figure and the digits that follow are exactly halfway to
the next higher digit, then round the least significant figure to the nearest even
number; thus, rounding 12.450 to the nearest tenth gives 12.4, but rounding
12.550 to the nearest tenth gives 12.6. Rounding in this manner prevents us from
introducing a bias by always rounding up or down.

Units for Expressing Concentration

Concentration: it is an expression stating the relative amount of solute per unit
volume or unit mass of solution. Or it is a general measurement unit stating the
amount of solute present in a known amount of solution.

amount of solute
𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 =
amount of solution

Although the terms “solute” and “solution” are often associated with
liquid samples, they can be extended to gas-phase and solid-phase samples as
well. The actual units for reporting concentration depend on how the amounts of
solute and solution are measured. Table below lists the most common units of
concentration.
Molarity and Formality
Both molarity and formality express concentration as moles of solute per
liter of solution. There is, however, a subtle difference between molarity and
formality. Molarity is the concentration of a particular chemical species in
solution or the number of moles of solute per liter of solution (M). Formality,
on the other hand, is a substance’s total concentration in solution without regard
to its specific chemical form or the number of moles of solute, regardless of
chemical form, per liter of solution (F). There is no difference between a
substance’s molarity and formality if it dissolves without dissociating into ions.
The molar concentration of a solution of glucose, for example, is the same as its
formality. For substances that ionize in solution, such as NaCl, molarity and
formality are different.

moles solute
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑦 =
liters solution

numers of FWs solute

𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 =
liters solution
FW = formula weights, it is the mass of a compound containing one mole.

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Normality: It is the number of equivalents of solute per liter of solution.

Normality is the concentration unit used in Standard Methods for the
examination of Water and Wastewater. It is an older unit of concentration which
is frequently ignored in today’s laboratories.

numers of EWs solute

𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 =
liters solution
EW = the mass of a compound containing one equivalent (EW).
The number of equivalents, n, is based on a reaction unit, which is that part of a
chemical species involved in a reaction. In a precipitation reaction, for example,
The reaction unit is the charge of the cation or anion involved in the reaction.

FW
𝐸𝑊 =
n
Consequently, the following simple relationship exists between normality and
molarity.
𝑁 =n⨯M

Molality
It is the number of moles of solute per kilogram of solvent (m). It is used in
thermodynamic calculations where a temperature independent unit of
concentration is needed. Molarity, formality and normality are based on the
volume of solution in which the solute is dissolved. Since density is a
temperature dependent property a solution’s volume, and thus it’s molar, formal
and normal concentrations, will change as a function of its temperature. By
using the solvent’s mass in place of its volume, the resulting concentration
becomes independent of temperature.

moles solute
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 =
kg solvent

Weight, Volume, and Weight-to-Volume Ratios

Weight percent (% w/w), volume percent (% v/v) and weight-to-volume percent
(% w/v) express concentration as units of solute per 100 units of sample. A
solution in which a solute has a concentration of 23% w/v contains 23 g of
solute per 100 mL of solution. Parts per million (ppm) and parts per billion
(ppb) are mass ratios of grams of solute to one million or one billion grams of
sample, respectively.Then solution concentrations can be expressed in parts per
million or parts per billion using the following relationships

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