“RIZAL AND HIS TIMES”* This

On
BY NICOLAS SAFRA

[Taken from JOSÉ RIZAL: HISTORICAL STUDIES

Quezon City University of the Philippines Press 1977 pp. 1-23]

June 19, 1961, the Philippines observed with fitting event, in all likelihood, passed unnoticed to the world
ceremonies the centenary of the birth of Dr. José Rizal. except within the limited circle of relatives and, perhaps,
The various activities which were held on that day close friends of the Rizal family. For Rizal’s parents did
throughout the Philippines were only a part of the year not belong to the class of the mighty or of persons of
long program of activities which the José Rizal national importance and prominence. To be sure they
Centennial commission had prepared for the were of the principalia class which, in every town of the
commemoration of that event. They reflect the high Philippines at that time, constituted the élite in Filipino
regard which the present generations of Filipinos have for society. To be sure, too, they were among those of that
Dr. José Rizal and their deep sense of gratitude for his class who, taking advantage of the opportunities offered
patriotic labors and sacrifices. in their times, had, through their industry, intelligence,
and enterprise, become prosperous and well to do.

To us Filipinos, Rizal represents the type of Filipino But, except for these particulars, Rizal’s parents were
manhood most worthy of emulation by the youth of the indistinguishable from the myriads of Filipino families
land. It is for this reason that we have by law prescribed which were to be found at that time in the Philippines. An
in our schools the study of his life and works. 1 We want to incident in their lives like the birth of another child was
make him better known to our youth so that they may not likely to cause unusual excitement in the quiet little
increase in their love and respect for him and incidentally town of Calamba much less in the country at large.
be inspired to conduct themselves at all times, but
particularly in their later years as citizens of their country It can well be taken for granted, therefore, that the
in the spirit in which Rizal lived and labored in the Muse of History surveying the events of that day, hardly
service of his people. took notice of the birth of Rizal. It can also be presumed
that, not being endowed with the gift of prophecy, Clio
could not then envision what the years had in store for the
This study is here presented as a modest contribution newly born child of Francisco Rizal Mercado and
to our efforts to make Rizal better known to the youth of Teodora Alonzo.
the land.
But history has many things to tell us regarding events
The meaning of men’s lives and the events associated and developments that took place contemporaneously
with them can best be understood and appreciated when with the coming of Rizal to “this valley of tears.” In
viewed in their proper historical context. To better various parts of the world, significant events occurred
understand and appreciate Rizal’s labors and sacrifices affecting the lives and fortunes of peoples and nations.
and his dimension as a figure in Philippine history, it is
important to know something of the times in which Rizal In the lands embracing the southern portion of
lived. Malaysia, three European states held powers of
sovereignty – Portugal, England and Holland. Portugal
Rizal in his autobiography tells us that, on the night of had as her colony the eastern portion of the island of
Wednesday, June 19, 1861, at Calamba, Laguna, after a Timor. It was, however, all that remained of the extensive
difficult and painful labor on the part of his mother, he Portuguese colonial empire that arose in the Malay
came, to use his own words, “into the valley of tears.”2 archipelago in the 16th century.

1
Republic Act No. 1425: Official Gazette, Vol. 52, No. 6, June 1956. Britain held sway a vast portion of Borneo. She
2
Memorias de Un Estudiante de Manila. Por El Dr. José Rizal acquired sovereignty over the area mainly through the
Mercado, Manila, Junio, 1949. And English edition of the “Memorias” activities of a British adventurer, James Brooke. Brooke
by Leon Ma. Guerrero, Jr. was published in 1950 under the title, The in 1842 obtained from the Sultan of Brunei the
Young Rizal.
1
governorship of the territory of Sarawak on the vast west Orient a colonial empire. In 1857, the execution of the
coast of Borneo. Subsequently, in 1844, the British Spanish Dominican bishop of Tongkin on orders of
acquired the island of Labuan. Two years later, as a
sequel of anti-British riots in Brunei, Brooke, with the aid Emperor Tu Duc of Annam furnished a convenient
of British naval units, captured Brunei.3 excuse for intervention in Indo-China. In 1858, with the
support of the Spanish government in the Philippines, the
Tropical Holland, as the Dutch colony in Malaysia was French occupied Tourane, in Annam. Other areas in Indo-
called, comprised an area of over 700,000 square miles. China were occupied in rapid succession: Saigon in 1859,
Java, Sumatra, Celebes, the Moluccas and Dutch Borneo and Bienhoa in 1861. These military operations were the
were the principal islands in the group. The Dutch had beginnings of French imperialism in Southeast Asia,
replaced the Portuguese in the seventeenth century as which within a few years, brought under French control,
colonial rulers in Malaysia. By means of the Culture not only the whole of Vietnam, but also the ancient
System, they developed to a high degree the productive kingdoms of Cambodia and Laos. 4 at the time Rizal was
capacity of Indonesia. On the island of Java, large tracts born, a strong public sentiment for the discontinuance, for
of land were put under cultivation for the growing of reasons of humanity, of the Culture System.5
coffee, sugar, tobacco, spices and other well-known
products of the East Indies. Thanks to the Culture In India, the old Mogul empire had come to an end.
System, the colonial empire of Holland in the Far East Four years before the birth of Rizal (1857), the Sepoys
grew rich and prosperous. But the System did not bring (native soldiers in the British Indian Army) staged a
much in the way of material and social well-being to the mutiny. The mutiny, after killing their officers, hurried
native population. Material prosperity was achieved at off to Delhi and offered their services to the Mogul
the sacrifice of the interests and welfare of many people emperor for the restoration of the Mogul empire. The
in the colony. Because of this fact, there arose in Holland, British Indian Empire was rudely shaken to its
In Indo-China, as in Burma, the native dynasty, founded foundations. But the British were able to weather the
by Gialong, in the latter part of the 18 th century, was, at storm. With the help of loyal Indian troops, they
about the time that Rizal was born, faced with the succeeded in putting down the uprising. Swift and harsh
problem of preserving the territorial integrity and retribution was meted out to the rebels. The last of the
independence of its dominions. France under Napoleon Mogul emperors, Bahadur Shah II, was stripped of his
III was then looking for opportunities to build up in the sovereign powers and kept a prisoner in the hands of the
British. The old Mogul empire founded by Akbar three
centuries before was extinguished. What remained of its

3 4
For a brief account of Brooke’s role in the founding of British Ibid., chapter 34. Of interest to the Philippines is the fact that a
sovereignty in Borneo, see Hall, D. D. E., A History of South-East Asia. contingent of Filipino troops took part in the campaign in Annam.
London, 1955, ch. 27 5
Ibid., Chapters 28, 29. See also de Klerck, E. S., History of the
Netherlands Indies, vol. 2, ch. 9.
2
dominions were incorporated with the British-ruled
territories of India.6

In Burma, the dynasty which Alaungpaya

(Alompra) had founded (1753) was engaged in a
losing struggle against the British to preserve
Burma’s territorial integrity and independence. In
1853, the southern portion of the old empire of
Burma including the city of Rangoon fell into the
hands of the British. In 1866, the rest of Burma
was conquered and the dynasty of Alaungpaya was
extinguished.7

In Thailand, at the time of Rizal’s birth, an

enlightened ruler, Maha Mongkut (1851-73), was
on the throne. A keen observer of contemporary
events, Mongkut was aware of the trends of the
times, of the external forces that were threatening the A 1900 American cartoon depicting the “carving of China by other nations.”
territorial independence and integrity of many Can you identify the nations represented by these animals? The Lion, the Bear,
the bald and the black Eagle, the Wolf, the Rooster, the Vulture? The slain
nations in Asia. Mongkut took adequate steps to dragon is China.
safeguard his country’s interests. He concluded
treaties of friendship and commerce with various her own share of the
countries of the world. The first of such treaties was the spoils of war. In 1860,
1855 Treaty of Friendship and Commerce with Great she
Britain. Subsequently, Mongkut made similar treaties
with other western powers; with France and the United “suggested” that China would
States in 1856; Denmark and the Hanseatic League cities do well to cede to her a large
in 1858; Portugal in 1859; Holland in 1860; and Prussia in area of Manchuria lying to
1862.8 the east of the Ussuri River.
China was constrained to
It is interesting to note that the British diplomat who accede to the “suggestion.”
negotiated the 1855 Treaty with Thailand was Sir John The territory which Russia
Bowring. This was the same John Bowring who visited thus acquired with 600 miles
the Philippines in 1858. He wrote an interesting account of coast line and an excellent
of his travels in the Philippines under the title, A Visit to natural port at Vladivostok,
the Philippines. One of the places he visited was Biñan, greatly enhanced Russia’s position as a colonial power in
Laguna, the birthplace of Rizal’s father. In that town, he Eastern Asia.
was a house guest of Rizal’s maternal uncle, José Alberto.
Empress Dowager
In China at this time, the Manchu dynasty was faced Tsu Hzi
with many serious internal and external problems. 9 In
1856, as a result of misunderstandings regarding the
treaty rights and privileges of British traders in China, war
broke out between England and China. France joined
England against China. In the course of war, Peking was
occupied by the Anglo-French allies (1860). The Manchu
royal family fled and took refuge in the city of Jehol.

The war had disastrous results for China. She paid a

heavy indemnity to England and France. Besides, she had
to cede Kowloon, the peninsula lying opposite Hongkong,
to England. To add to her misfortune, Russia, which was
not a participant in the war, took advantage of China’s
situation to get valuable portions of Chinese territory as
6
For an Indian view of the Mutiny, see Nehru, Jawaharlal, The
Discovery of India. London, 1951, chapter 7.
7
Hall, op. cit., chapters 32, 33 The European powers as well as Japan
8
Ibid., chapter 36. carving China into their so called
9 “Spheres of Influence.”
For brief but satisfactory accounts on China and Japan, see Buss,
Claude A., The Far East, chapters 5 and 10.
3
 The Manchu government was greatly handicapped in commercial treaty with the Shogun making certain
its efforts to deal with the European allies by a formidable designated ports of Japan available to citizens of the
rebellion which was in progress at that time. This was the United States for trade and residence. Other nations –
Tai Ping rebellion which had flared up in 1852. The Holland, Russia, England and France – immediately
outbreak of the Anglo-Chinese war in 1856 prevented the followed in the footsteps of the U.S., concluding treaties
Manchu government from dealing effectively with the similar to that negotiated by Townsend Harris. These
rebels. As soon as the foreign troubles were adjusted, treaties brought to an end the centuries-old isolation of
however, stronger measures were taken. The rebellion Japan from the rest of the world.
was finally suppressed in 1864.
The action of the Shogunate, however, in consenting to
The ultimate success of the Chinese imperial forces open the country to foreigners aroused a great deal of
was made possible by the assistance rendered by foreign dissatisfaction among the Japanese people. A strong anti-
military adventurers. One of these, Frederick Townsend foreign movement
Ward, an American, offered to organize an army against arose led by influential
the Tai Ping. The proposal was readily accepted. Ward’s feudal lords such as the
army won many battles for the government. This was the Prince of Sat-suma and
army which in 1862 elicited from the Chinese government the Prince of Choshu.
the title “Ever Victorious Army.” Of interest to the Popular resentment
Philippines is the fact that, in the ranks of the “Ever was directed, not only
Victorious Army,” were several Filipinos from the against the foreigners,
Filipino community in Shanghai. They were volunteers in but also against those
the foreign-led force of the Chinese Empire. Japanese who were
responsible for the
In the midst of the Tai Ping rebellion, the Manchu negotiations of the
ruler died at Jehol, leaving as his successor his five-year treaties.
old child Tung Chih. To rule the country during the
minority of the child emperor, a regency was created with But it did not take long for the leaders of the anti-
Tsu Hzi, mother of Tung Chih, as regent (1861). This foreign movement to realize that it was futile for them to
was the first time (there were two other occasions) that attempt through force and violence to close the country to
Tsu Hzi assumed the regency, in the government of the world. They accepted the new situation and they
China. She proved to be an able administrator. A woman themselves led in urging the establishment by the
of energy and strong will power, she guided the destinies Japanese government of full intercourse with foreign
of China throughout the greater part of the last fifty years nations. Accordingly, on November 24, 1865, the
of the Manchu dynasty. Emperor gave official sanction to the treaties which the
Shogun had made with the foreign nations.

This event was followed by

changes of momentous
significance to Japan. Foremost
among these was the abolition of
the Shogunate, the dual system of
government established way back
in the twelve century by
Yoritomo. Under that system the
Shogun, not the Emperor, was the
real ruler of Japan. The latter had
merely the shadow, not the
Emperor Meiji substance, of authority. This
situation was completely
The reopening of Japan to the World, 1854. changed. In November 1867, the last of the Shoguns
surrendered the powers of government into the hands of
In Japan, at the time of Rizal’s birth, the Shogunate as the Emperor.
re-organized by Iyeyasu 250 years before was still in
existence. But events had taken place which were This was an epoch-making event for Japan. It meant
destined to revolutionize the government and to usher a the restoration of the Emperor to his former status and
new era in Japan. Seven years before (1854), dignity as supreme ruler of the country. It ushered a new
Commodore Perry forced the Shogun to open two ports of era (the Meiji Era), in Japanese history. This era
Japan to American vessels. In 1858, Townsend Harris, witnessed the transformation of Japan into a modern
the first American consul in Japan, concluded a nation and her rise to the rank of a great world power.
This was the country which a few years later (1888) Rizal
4
visited while on his way to Napoleon III in France, Victor Emmanuel in Italy, Otto
the United States. von Bismarck in Prussia, Alexander II in Russia, and of
The United States in the particular interest to the Catholic world, Pope Pius IX. It
year of Rizal’s birth was was an age in which the concepts of nationalism and
faced with a grave crisis. liberalism were bringing their influence strongly to bear
Following the presidential upon the thoughts and actions of peoples in many
election of 1860 in which countries of the world. Forces were at work in many
Abraham Lincoln was elected countries of Europe seeking the enlargement of
to the presidency of the participation of the people in the affairs of government
United States, seven States in and the improvement of social and economic conditions
the South, led by South of the masses.
Carolina, seceded from the
Union. On February 14, 1861, the seceding States formed Of the European events
themselves into the “Confederate States of America” with that occurred in the year of
Jefferson Davis as President Rizal’s birth, perhaps the one
Abraham Lincoln
and Alexander H. Stephens as US President during the Civil
that attracted wide interest at
Vice-President. When War the time was the unification of
President-elect Lincoln was Italy. It was a sequel of the
inaugurated on March 4, 1961, the United States was Austro-Sardinian War. It was
dangerously close to the brink of dissolution and civil effected in February 1861
war. when King Victor Emmanuel
of Sardinia was proclaimed
President Lincoln in his inaugural speech made known king of a united Italy. It was a
his firm determination to preserve the Union. He said that notable triumph of
it was his purpose to defend the Constitution and to nationalism in the nineteenth century, a glorious
enforce and execute the laws of the land. His words, fulfillment of the
Otto von Bismarck
however, reflected a sincere desire for peace and Risorgimento, the long Germany’s “Iron Chancellor
conciliation. “We are not enemies,” he said, “but friends. cherished aspiration of the
We must not be enemies. Though passion may have
strained, it must not break our bonds of affection.”

Efforts were, taken at a peaceful solution of the

problem. These efforts, however, failed. On April 22,
1861, Confederate batteries opened fire on Fort Sumter
and forced its garrison to surrender. This incident
precipitated the American Civil War (1861-65). The war
was fought, in the words of Abraham Lincoln, “to test
whether the (American) nation, or any nation, conceived
in liberty and dedicated to the proposition that all
men are created equal, can long endure.”10 In the course
of the war (January 1, 1863), President Lincoln by
proclamation set free the slaves in the states at war against
the United States. As a sequel of the war, the institution Italian people.
of slavery was forever abolished in the United States.
Queen Victoria of England [Left];
The situation Europe at the time Rizal was Napoleon III of France [Right]
born was, in the main, peaceful. Europe,
however, had recently been through the throes
and turmoil of two international conflicts: the
Crimean War (1854-56) and the Austro-
Sardinian War (1859-60). In the first, Turkey,
aided by England, France and Sardinia, fought King Victor
Emmanuel of
against Russia. The second was a war of the Sardinia,
liberation waged by the Italian people against proclaimed
Austria. The age was marked by the King of United
emergence of distinguished personalities to Italy, 1861
positions of honor and importance in various
countries in Europe – Queen Victoria in England, To the
Catholic
10 Czar Alexander II of Russia world, two religious events of great interest
Gettysburg Address.
5
 were still fresh in the memory placed in direct telegraph communication with the rest of
of millions of Catholics then the world as the laying of the first cable was not to take
living. One was the place until several years later (1880). However, postal
proclamation on December 8, communication existed between the Philippines and
1854, by Pope Pius IX of the foreign countries by way of the neighboring ports of
dogma of the Immaculate Singapore and Hongkong. A fortnightly mail service was
Conception. The other took then being carried on between Manila and Hongkong.
place about two years later,
September 23, 1856. On that The opening of the Philippines to foreign trade had
date Pope Pius IX extended much to do to promote the material progress of the
the feast of the Sacred Heart of Philippines. Philippine agriculture was greatly stimulated.
Jesus to the Universal Church. The foreign commercial firms that established themselves
It can well be presumed that in the Philippines found quite profitable the exportation of
Rizal’s parents, good Catholics that they were, had Philippine crops, particularly sugar and hemp, which were
knowledge of these events. It can be taken for granted, then in great demand in the markets of the world. They
too, that, in union with Catholics everywhere, they held gave inducements to Filipino farmers in the form of crop
the veneration of the Immaculate Conception and loans to produce the crops they needed in their export
devotion to the Sacred Heart as cherished family business. Many Filipino planter took advantage of the
traditions. new situation to expand his production. In the Bikol
region, abaca plantations were enlarged; in Pampanga,
Laguna and the island of Negros new areas for sugarcane
were put under cultivation; Ilocos, Pangasinan, Cagayan,
Batangas and many other provinces of Luzon and the
Visayas, farmers expanded their production of staple
crops for which demand was rising both at home and
II abroad.

The progress of Philippine agriculture had brought

material prosperity to many Filipino families. The family
Now, for the survey of the situation in the Philippines of Dr. Rizal was a case in point. Rizal’s father built up a
and in Spain at the time of Rizal’s birth. modest fortune in Calamba from the raising of sugar, rice
and other agricultural products in the lands that he leased
The province of Laguna, the home province of Rizal, from the managers of the Dominican-owned estate in that
was then an alcaldia of the first class. It was one of the town. Such families acquired the means which enabled
nine provinces in Luzon which were given that status by them to maintain a higher standard of living. They sent
the Provincial Reform of 1844. The eight others were their children to the schools and colleges of better
Albay, Batangas, Bulacan, Cagayan, Ilocos Sur, Manila, standing in the country and even to schools and colleges
Pampanga and Pangasinan. According to the noted abroad. It was from the class of Filipinos that came many
German scholar Jagor, who visited the Philippines, only a of the leaders and spokesmen of Filipino people in the
few years before (1858-59), Laguna had, at the time of latter half of the nineteenth century.
Jagor’s visit, twenty-six towns and a population of 121,
251. Contemporaneously also with the birth of Rizal were
important developments affecting the educational
A keen observer of the contemporary scene in the situation in the Philippines. One of these concerned the
Philippines could not fail to note many significant trends status of elementary education in the country. In 1855,
of the times. He could readily see, for example, that the Governor Crespo created a commission to study the
country was progressively brought into closer contact conditions and needs of elementary education in the
with the rest of the world. The commercial isolation of the Philippines and to recommend appropriate remedial
Philippines from Europe and America, which was a measures. In 1861, during the administration of José
distinguishing feature of Spain’s colonial policy in the Lemery (1861-62) the commission submitted its report.
Philippines during the first 200 years of Spanish rule, had The report was, in turn, forwarded to Spain. On the bases
ended in the first decades of the nineteenth century when of the report’s findings and recommendations, the famous
the port of Manila was made open to foreigners both for Educational Decree of December 20, 1863, was
trade and for residence (1820-30). The expansion of formulated.
Philippine foreign trade which followed this development,
led to the opening of other ports. In 1855, Sual in The Decree reorganized the elementary school system
Pangasinan, Iloilo in the Western Visayas, and of the Philippines. Among other things, it ordered the
Zamboanga in Mindanao, were opened to foreign establishment in each town of one elementary school for
commerce. In 1865 Cebu in the Central Visayas was also boys, and another for girls; established a normal school in
made an open port. The Philippines had not yet been Manila for the training of elementary school teachers,
6
 under the management of the
Fathers of the Society of Jesus;
fixed a definite scale of salaries Of the events taking place at the time of Rizal’s birth
for teachers; and provided for the one that was destined to have great historical
pensions and other benefits and significance was that which concerned the rights and
privileges to teachers. The interests of the Filipino clergy. More specifically, it was
Educational Reform Decree of the controversy being waged by the Filipino clergy over
1863 constitutes an outstanding their rights to hold and administer parishes in their own
landmark in the history of country. This episode reflected the spirit of nationalism
education in the Philippines. which was then rising in the Philippines.

Another notable development In its earlier stages, the controversy revolved mainly
of the times concerned the Alma around the question of the wisdom and advisability, from
Mater of Dr. José Rizal, the the standpoint of the general interests of religion, of
Ateneo Municipal de Manila. In entrusting to Filipino priests the administration of
October 1859, the management of the Ateneo Municipal, Philippine curacies. At the time of Rizal’s birth, however,
a primary school maintained by the Ayuntamiento of the it had acquired political and national character in which
City of Manila, was turned over to the Fathers of the racial and nationalistic prejudices and considerations
Society of Jesus. The latter had just returned to the played a major role.
Philippines from heir nearly one hundred years of exile.
The school began to operate under the new management
in December of that year. In 1865 the school was raised to The beginnings of this question went back to the times
the status of a college. The Jesuit Fathers, reorganized the of Archbishop Sta. Justa and Governor Anda (1767-
institution along the lines laid down in the Ratio 1776). To fill the vacancies which were created at that
Studiorum. Changes were made in the course of study and time in many parishes of his diocese, Archbishop Sta.
internal regulations of the college to bring it in conformity Justa availed himself of the services of newly ordained
with Jesuit ideas of education. Filipino priests. The latter were place in curacies which
had been vacated by Spanish friar curates as a result of
Under Jesuit management the Ateneo became one of differences and misunderstandings which had arisen
the leading educational institutions of the country. It between them and the Archbishop over matters of
attracted to itself the sons of well-to-do Filipino families ecclesiastical administration. Archbishop Sta. Justa thus
from many parts of the Philippines. This was the school inaugurated what was known as the policy of
where, in 1872, young Rizal first came to study. He secularization, the assigning of Filipino secular priests
stayed there for five years graduating in 1877 with highest instead of Spanish regulars to take charge of parochial
honors. work. Such a policy had the full support and endorsement
of Governor Anda.

The Archbishop’s actuations provoked at the time bitter

controversy. The important question at issue was the
advisability, from the standpoint of the general interests
of religion, of entrusting to the native priesthood the
administration of parochial affairs.

The controversy, having been elevated to the Conseco

de Indias, was settled by a royal decree promulgated in
December 1776. The decree ordered that the
secularization policy inaugurated by Archbishop Sta.
Justa be suspended and the parishes which had been
assigned to Filipino priests be restored to their former
pastors.

The royal decree, however, by implication, made it

clear that the suspension of the secularization of the
parishes was only temporary and that it would be resumed
if and when duly qualified Filipino secular priests were
available for appointment to the curacies. For one of the
provisions of the decree ordered that steps should be
taken to prepare and train a competent body of clerics so
that the filling of the curacies with Filipino secular priests
The Ateneo Municipal de Manila in the late 1800’s 7
would eventually be affected in conformity with the plans The plans and proposals of the leaders of the Filipino
and desires of Archbishop Justa. clergy were bitterly opposed by the Spanish ruling
elements in the Philippines. The latter claimed that
The resumption of the policy of secularization, Filipinos were inherently incapable of discharging the
however, as envisioned by the decree of December 1776 duties and responsibilities of parish priests. Besides, they
was never realized. On the contrary, the Spanish suspected that what the Filipino priests really wanted was
government adopted and put into effect a course of action the emancipation of the
which tended to reduce the limited opportunities in the Philippines from Spain.
field of parochial administration which were open to
Filipino clergy. A number of laws promulgated by the While the controversy
Spanish government in the nineteenth century reflected was at its height, a
this tendency of Spanish colonial policy. The royal order political event of major
of 1826 was a case in point. That order reiterated a former importance occurred in
decree which commanded the return to the Spanish Spain. In October 1868,
regular clergy of the curacies which had been given to the regime of Queen
Filipino secular priests during the governorship of Anda. Isabel II was
The enforcement of that order resulted in the overthrown. The
dispossession of Filipino priests of parishes formerly Revolution of 1868 as
administered by them in Zambales, Bataan, and this event is called,
Pampanga. In 1849, a royal decree transferred a number brought the Spanish
of parishes in Cavite administered by Filipino priests to Liberals into power. The
Spanish curates. Then, on September 10, 1861, the latter set up a provisional
Spanish government ordered that the curacies in the government with
Queen Isabella II of Spain
archbishopric of Manila administered by Filipino priests Marshall Serrano as
were to be assigned to the Spanish regular clergy.11 Regent.

The Filipino clergy could not remain indifferent to The new government sent as governor and captain
these actuations of the Spanish government. They viewed general of the Philippines Carlos Ma. de la Torre. The
the course that was being followed as indicative of a new governor brought to the Philippines something of the
deliberate plan and desire on the part of the Spanish liberal and democratic spirit of the Revolution of 1868.
government to discourage the growth and development of He did away with the censorship on the press and the ban
the Filipino priesthood. They felt that such a policy, apart on the holding of public demonstrations. He displayed a
from the fact that it was unfair and unjust to themselves, friendly and cordial attitude toward the inhabitants of the
was contrary to the ideas and principles of ecclesiastical Philippines. He befriended several Filipinos prominent in
administration which the Church herself had laid down in the religious, social and cultural life of the country.
the Council of Trent. They knew that the ultimate end of
such a policy would be the elimination of the Filipino Thanks to de la Torre’s liberal and democratic spirit
clergy as a factor in the promotion of the cultural and and attitude, many prominent Filipinos became closely
spiritual life of their own people. attached to the administration. They took part in the
serenade which on July 12, 1869, was held in his honor.
Following the promulgation of the order of September Later that year, on the occasion of the proclamation in
10, 1861, a major controversy arose between the Filipino Manila of the new Spanish constitution of 1869, they
clergy and the Spanish regular clergy. The Filipino clergy joined in a demonstration of loyalty and affection to him
had able defenders and spokesmen in Fathers Pelaez, and to the new regime in Spain.
Burgos, Gomez, and Zamora. In the view of these men,
the time had come when Filipino priests should assume a The coming into power of the Spanish Liberals as a
larger share of the responsibility for the administration of result of the Revolution of 1868 gave to the leaders of
the religious and spiritual affairs of their own people. Spain a splendid opportunity to demonstrate their capacity
They wanted as a step towards that goal the gradual for political wisdom and sound statesmanship in dealing
Filipinization of the Philippine curacies in line with the with the Philippines. They had firmly in their hands the
policy inaugurated by Archbishop Sta. Justa. It was reins of government. They were in a position to put into
believed that such a reform, apart from the fact that it effect a program of government, a course of action, that
would meet the legitimate demands and aspirations of the could insure the loyalty and goodwill of the Filipino
Filipino priesthood, would, in the end, establish the people towards Spain.
Catholic Faith more firmly in the Philippines.
The Spanish Liberals, unfortunately, did not make
11
An interesting account of the question of the Philippine curacies in the good use of this opportunity. In the Constituent Cortes in
19th century is found in a letter written by Archbishop Gregorio Meliton 1869, they did not give full support to proposals to grant
Martinez to Marshall Serrano, Regent of Spain, on December 341, 1870. greater political liberties to the inhabitants of the
Text of the letter in English translation is in Zafra, N., Readings in
Philippine History. Philippines. The new Spanish constitution which they
8
formed made no change whatsoever in the administrative deserving of the sympathy and support of the Filipino
organization of the Philippines or in the political status of people. The three Filipino priests were themselves
its inhabitants. acclaimed as national heroes and martyrs, worthy of the
respect and grateful remembrance of posterity.
Moreover, in 1871 Governor de la Torre was recalled
from the Philippines. To succeed him, the Spanish For another, it helped determine the direction and goal
government, which was still very much under the control of the life work of Rizal and that of many of his
and influences of the Spanish Liberals, sent Rafael de contemporaries. This significant fact was made known by
Izquierdo. The new governor was, in his views and Rizal in a letter which he wrote to Mariano Ponce. In that
attitude, very different from de la Torre. He was less letter, Rizal, among other things, said:12
cordial, for one thing, towards the inhabitants of the
Philippines. Moreover, he regarded with suspicion all Without 1872, there would now be neither Plaridel,
those Filipinos who had been quite prominent in their nor Jaena, nor Sanciano.13 Neither would there exist
demonstrations of friendship and loyalty to Governor de now the valiant and generous Filipino colonies in
Europe. Without 1872, Rizal would now be a Jesuit
la Torre. He restored the restrictions on individual
and instead of the Noli me tángere, he would
freedom which de la Torre had abolished. He withdrew have written one of contrary nature and purpose. In
from the Filipino laborers at the Cavite arsenal a privilege the face of those injustices and cruelties my youthful
enjoyed by them from time immemorial, namely imagination was aroused and I swore to avenge
exemption from the tribute and the personal services. someday those numberless persons who suffered
from them. To this end, I have been studying; one
It was during Izquierdo’s administration that the can read about this in all my works and writings.
Cavite incident occurred. In January 1872 Filipino God, will someday give me an opportunity to put my
soldiers stationed in Cavite mutinied. The mutiny was an plans into effect.
outgrowth of the unrest caused by Izquierdo’s
The Cavite affair of 1872, as could well be inferred
cancellation of the privilege of exemption from the tribute
from the aforementioned letter, had a great deal to do in
and personal services which the laborers in the Cavite
bringing into being the nationalistic movement which in
arsenal had long enjoyed. The uprising, however, was of
Philippine history is referred to as the Propaganda Period.
local character and was quickly suppressed.
The latter in turn brought into being the Katipunan of
Andrés Bonifacio which, in 1896, broke forth into an
The Cavite incident was utilized by the Spanish
armed uprising against the sovereignty of Spain in the
authorities as an excuse for putting out of the way those
Philippines. It was in connection with the Propaganda
Filipinos whose actuations during de la Torre’s time had
episode that Rizal played his historic role.
rendered them hateful and undesirable to the Spanish
reactionaries in the Philippines. Charges were brought
Rizal’s role in the Propaganda movement can be made
against Fathers Burgos, Gomez and Zamora and a number
fully understood and appreciated if viewed against the
of prominent Filipino laymen as being the promoters and
background of contemporary conditions and
instigators of the uprising.
developments in Spain and in the Philippines.
The three priests
In Spain, the thirty-five year span of life of Rizal
maintained to the end
(1861-1896) is contemporaneous with the following
their innocence of the
segments of Spanish political history; (1) the last years of
crime imputed to them.
the reign of Queen Isabel II (1861-68); (2) the rule of
No definite
Marshall Serrano as Regent of Spain (1868-71); (3) the
incontrovertible proof
reign of Amadeo I (1871-73); (4) the period of the
was ever adduced in the
Spanish Republic (1873-74); (5) the Bourbon Restoration
trial to establish their
and the reign of Alfonso XII (1875-85); and (6) the first
guilt. They were
years of the regency of Queen Maria Cristina (1885-
nevertheless, declared
1896).14
guilty and ordered
executed. Of the others
During a considerable part of this period, Spain’s
charged with complicity
national life was very much agitated and disturbed. The
in the affair, some were
Spanish people had the misfortune of living through what
sentenced to long terms
The three martyred priests Toynbee would call “a period of troubles.” Revolts, civil
GOMBURZA of imprisonment; others
were banished to the
12
Marianas Islands. Episcolario Rizalino. Vol. 2, No. 254
13
The persons referred to were Marcelo H. del Pilar, Graciano Lopez-
The Cavite affair is a landmark in the political history Jaena, and Gregorio Sanciano y Gozon, respectively.
14
For a good survey of the period, see Salvador de Madriaga, Spain (2nd
of the Philippines. It raised, for one thing, the cause of the
ed.) London, 1942. For a more detailed history, see Rafael Altamira’s
Filipino clergy to the status and dignity of a national issue Historia de España. 5 vols. Barcelona, 1909.
9
wars, factional conflicts occurred with painful regularity. endeavored, in all sincerity and with the best of intentions
Throughout the reign of Isabel II (1843-1868), there were to help bring to Spain the blessings of peace. Conditions
few intervals of complete domestic peace and tranquility in the country, however, made it difficult for him to fulfill
for Spain. Apart from the recurrent Carlist wars, 15 there his desires. Throughout his brief reign (1871-73), Spain
were military uprisings in which soldier-politicians continued to suffer from her chronic ills – uprisings,
through revolutionary pronunciamientos or golpes de factional rivalries, intrigues, and bitter party struggles.
estado, rose to power and held momentarily in their hands Moreover, Amadeo did not enjoy the sympathy and
for, and in the name of, the Queen, the reins of goodwill of many of his Spanish subjects. He was looked
government. In 1868, Queen Isabel herself was ousted upon with suspicion and distrust. He was regarded by
from the throne. The Revolution of 1868, as that many Spaniards as an alien who did not deserve the
revolutionary movement is historically known, was the loyalty, affection and devotion of the Spanish people. The
culmination of the efforts of the Spanish Liberals to general feeling of a considerable portion of the Spanish
establish a more popular system of government in Spain. people towards Amadeo was reflected in the Carlist war
cry in the Carlist revolt of 1872: “Down with the stranger
The Spanish Liberals, as a result of the Revolution, set – long live Spain!”
up a provisional government with Marshall Serrano as
Regent of Spain. The government’s outstanding The governmental system established by the
accomplishment was the adoption of a new constitution, Constitution of 1869 was admirable in many ways. But in
the Constitution of 1869. The new Constitution continued the conditions then existing, it could not function
the monarchial form of government. It incorporated, efficiently and satisfactorily. The political leadership of
however, as the basis of the Spanish monarchy, liberal the nation lacked the strength and the solid popular
ideas and principles of government – freedom of worship, support to maintain national unity and governmental
civil marriage, the jury system, and all the other stability. It could not provide adequate safeguards to life
fundamental tenets of individual liberty. Members of the and prosperity. In fact, the Queen herself barely escaped
Bourbon dynasty were, by express provision of the death from the hands of an assassin. Indicative of the
Constitution, excluded from the throne. confusion and instability which marked the administration
of national affairs was the fact that, during the first year of
It is interesting to note that, in the Constituent Cortes Amadeo’s reign, four different ministers successively
which framed the Constitution of 1869, efforts were made occupied the premiership – Serrano, Zorilla, Malcampo
by some Spanish liberals to incorporate into the and Sagasta.
constitutional project then under consideration reforms
designated to improve Spain’s colonial administrative Disgusted with the existing situation, Amadeo decided
system in the Philippines. Abelardo Lopez de Ayala, to give up the Crown of Spain. In February 1873, he
Minister of the Colonies in the Provisional Government, formally tendered to the Cortes his resignation as King of
presented a “Memoria:” proposing certain changes in the Spain. In his letter of abdication, Amadeo, among other
governmental system in the Philippines. A group of things, said:16
congressmen composed of Julian Pellón y Rodriguez,
Tomás Rodriguez Penilla, Miguel Uzuriaga, Victor Those who, with the sword, the pen, and the
Balaguer, Joaquin Baeza, Francisco Javier Moya, and spoken word, aggravate and perpetuate the
Roberto Fernández de la Cuevas, proposed to grant evils of the nation, are the Spaniards
themselves. All invoke the sweet name of
greater political liberties to the inhabitants of the
country, all fight and act supposedly for her
Philippines. In the session of the Cortes of May 25, 1869, well being. And in the heat of combat, in the
Julian Pellón spoke in favor of the proposals of his group. confused, thunderous and conflicting clamors
None of the proposed reforms, however, was approved by of the factions, among so many manifestation
the Constituent Cortes. of public opinion, it is impossible to guess
the true will and desires of the nation and
The leaders of the Revolution of 1868, offered the even more difficult to find a remedy for the
Spanish Crown to Amadeo, son of King Victor nation’s ills.
Emmanuel of Italy. As king of Spain, Amadeo
Amadeo’s words accurately presented the nature and
15 source of the ills which afflicted Spain.
The Carlist wars were wars of succession waged between the forces of
the Crown and the followers of Carlos, younger brother of Ferdinand
VII. In 1830, three years before he died, Ferdinand manipulated a Following the abdication of Amadeo, the Spanish
pragmatic sanction in which he named his newly born daughter, Isabel Liberals decided to establish a republican form of
to be his rightful successor to the throne. Carlos, claiming the throne government. The Republic during its brief period of
under the law of succession, contested Isabel’s right. The first of the
Carlist wars (1833-39) broke out shortly after Ferdinand’s death (1833). existence (1873-1874) was successively ruled by four
They flared up time and again during the latter part of the 19 th century. eminent Spanish Republicans – Figueras, Pì y Margal,
Together with other internal troubles, they contributed to make
conditions in Spain very much disturbed and unsettled, bringing, at 16
Juan Ortega Rubio, Historia de España. 8 vols. Madrid, 1910.
times, the nation to the verge of chaos and anarchy. (Appendix.) Copy of the text is in Zafra, Readings in Philippine History.
U.P., 1956.
10
Salmeron and Castellar. All were widely known in the of individual liberty which were fought for in the
country for their liberal ideas and progressive spirit. Revolution of 1868 and which were embodied in the
Castelar was, among his contemporaries, particularly Constitution of 1869 – freedom of worship, freedom of
distinguished for his eloquence as a public speaker. expression, freedom of assembly, freedom of domicile.

It was the fond hope and expectation of many people The Constitution extended to the inhabitants of Cuba
in Spain that, with the institution of a government truly and Porto Rico the right and privileges of representation
popular in form and substance, an era of real peace and in the Spanish Cortes. This concession, however, was
prosperity would at last dawn for Spain. Such hopes and withheld from the inhabitants of the Philippines. The
expectations, however, failed to materialize. Despite the Philippines remained in the same colonial status that was
high qualities of the Republican leaders as politicians and established by the Constitution of 1837 for Spain’s
statesmen, the state of the nation as regards law and order dependencies in the Ultramar. As such she was to be
continued to deteriorate and Spain drew dangerously governed by special laws. The Spanish government,
close to the brink of anarchy and chaos. however, was authorized to extend to the Philippines,
with such modifications as it might deem proper and
At that critical moment, as on similar occasions in the convenient, the laws promulgated or would be
past, a soldier-politician rose to power. Early in 1874, promulgated for Spain herself.
General Manuel Pavia, in golpe de estado, seized the
reins of government.17 The Republic came under the Although the reign of Alfonso XII was, on the whole,
administration of a new set of officials chosen by General a peaceful one, free from the turbulent upheavals which
Pavia and acting under his sole control and supervision. characterized the preceding periods, it was not entirely
The Republic was thus transformed into a virtual military free from the conditions and influences which produced
dictatorship. most of the nation’s ills – heated party struggles and
rivalries, excessive partisan spirit and tendencies, and
Pavia’s military dictatorship, however, was of short greed for political power with all its attendant evils. A
duration. Towards the close of 1874, General Martinez noted Spanish writer of the age, José Ma. Pereda, summed
Campos, with the approval and support of several army up the views and feelings of many a thoughtful perceptive
officers, launched a pronunciamiento proclaiming Spaniard of his time as to what was wrong with the
Alfonso, son of the deposed Queen, Isabel, as King of Spanish people when he said: “We are an ungovernable
Spain. The proclamation was received favorably by the people.”18
nation. To many people, Martinez Campos’
pronunciamiento meant the return to Spain of Spain’s Alfonso XII died in 1885. As no heir had been born at
cherished and long established traditions. Alfonso, who the time of his death, Maria Cristina became Queen
had been living in exile, was brought back to Spain. Early Regent of Spain.19 Alfonso’s death, in view of many
in January 1875, he was officially installed as King under people at the time created a grave situation for Spain.
the regnal name, Alfonso XII. Two of the outstanding political leaders of the period,
Canóvas del Castillo, head of the liberal-conservative
Alfonso’s reign (1875-1885) is generally referred to as group, and Sagasta, chief of the liberal party, realizing the
the Era of Bourbon Restoration. From the standpoint of vital need of preserving the Bourbon dynasty in the
domestic peace and tranquility, it was a marked national interest, agreed to cooperate and maintain
improvement over those that preceded it. The recurrent national unity with a view to safeguarding the integrity of
Carlist wars, which for years disturbed the peace and the dynasty. The plan was for the two to alternate in the
tranquility of Spain, were finally brought to an end. administration of the nation’s affairs. This arrangement,
General Martinez Campos, who took a leading part in the which came to be known as “Rotativism,” was designed
restoration to the Bourbon dynasty, was mainly primarily to save Spain from the ruinous effects of bitter
responsible for the attainment of that result. He adopted political rivalries and conflicts.
and put into effect a policy of attraction and conciliation
toward the Carlist, as a result of which, many of the Between 1885 and 1896, in accordance with the terms
Carlist leaders gave due recognition to Alfonso as King of the pact, Canóvas del Castillo and Sagasta took turns in
and extended to him their allegiance and support. holding the position of prime minister of Spain. Shortly
after the proclamation of Maria Cristina as Queen Regent,
Another notable event of Alfonso’s reign was the Canóvas del Castillo tendered his resignation, supposedly
adoption of a new constitution for Spain – the to give the new sovereign freedom to choose a new prime
Constitution of 1876. The Constitution was the work of minister. The resignation was accepted and Sagasta was
the Constituent Cortes which was the called into being asked to form a new ministry. Sagasta’s ministry ruled
following the installation of Alfonso XII. The new Spain until July, 1890. It was succeeded, as expected, by a
constitution embodied many of the fundamental principles 18
Quotation from Segdwick, Henry D., Spain: A Short History. Little,
Brown and Company. Boston, 1925.
17 19
General Manuel Pavia y Lay had been governor and captain general A male child, Alfonso, was posthumously born on May 17, 1886. He
of the Philippines for a brief period (1854). later became Alfonso XIII.
11
new ministry headed by Canóvas del Castillo. The
Canóvas ministry remained in power until December,
1892. On the latter date Sagasta’s liberal party once more
took over the reins of government. It held office until
March 1895 when, as a result of the rise of grave
problems in the field of foreign affairs, Sagasta tendered
his resignation. Canóvas del Castillo once more took over
the responsibilities of office. He remained as head of the
government until his death in 1897.20

2
1

ALFONSO XII Picture 1: Official portrait of the young monarch who died at
age 28; Picture 2, Monument to Alfonso XII in Buen Retiro
Park, Madrid.

Born: November 28, 1857 Alfonso XII was the son of Queen Isabella II of
Birthplace: Madrid, Spain Spain, and allegedly, of her husband and King Consort,
Francis, Duke of Cádiz. Alfonso's biological paternity is
uncertain: the King Consort was a homosexual, and
Assumed the throne: 17 years old there is speculation that his biological father may have
Died: November 25, 1885 been Francisco Serrano (his mother's Prime Minister) or
Enrique Puig y Moltó (a captain of the guard), or even
Age: Short of 3 days before his 28th birthday an American dental student. These rumours were used
Location of death: Madrid, Spain as political propaganda against Alfonso by the Carlists it
Cause of death: Tuberculosis may or not be true, however this was the scandal that
Remains: Buried, El Escorial, Madrid, Spain prevailed Alfonso’s short reign.

When Queen Isabella and her husband were forced to

leave Spain by the Revolution of 1868, Alfonso
Gender: Male accompanied them to Paris. From there, he was sent to
Religion: Roman Catholic the Theresianum at Vienna to continue his studies. On 25
June 1870, he was recalled to Paris, where his mother
abdicated in his favour, in the presence of a number of
Spanish nobles who had tied their fortunes to that of the
exiled queen. He assumed the title of Alfonso XII, for
although no King of united Spain had borne the name
“Alfonso XI,” the Spanish monarchy was regarded as
continuous with the more ancient monarchy represented
by the 11 kings of Kingdom of Asturias, León and
Castile, also named Alfonso.
20
During the time that Sagasta and Canóvas del Castillo alternated in
the management of Spain’s affairs (1885-1897), in accordance with
terms of the “Rotativism” pact, the following held the governorship of
the Philippines: Emilio Terrero (1885-1888); Antonio Molto (acting)
1888; Federco Lobaton (acting) 1888; Valeriano Weyler (1888-1891);
Eulogio Despujol (1891-1893); Ramón Blanco (1893-1896); Camilo
Polavieja (1896-1897).
12