Role of digestive enzymes

A,digestive,enzyme is,an enzyme,that,breaks,down,polymeric macromolecules into
their smaller building blocks, in order to facilitate their absorption by the body.
Digestive enzymes are found in the digestive tracts of animals (including humans)
and in the traps of carnivorous plants, where they aid in the digestion of food, as
well as inside cells, especially in their lysosomes, where they function to maintain
cellular survival. Digestive enzymes of diverse specificities and are found in
the saliva secreted by the salivary glands, in the secretions of cells lining the
stomach, in the pancreatic juice secreted by pancreatic exocrine cells, and in the
secretions of cells lining the small and large intestines.
Digestive enzymes are classified based on their target substrates:

 Proteases and peptidases split proteins into small peptides and amino acids.

 Lipases split fat into three fatty acids and a glycerol molecule.
 Amylases split carbohydrates such as starch and sugars into simple
sugars such as glucose.
 Nucleases split nucleic acids into nucleotides.
In the human digestive system, the main sites of digestion are the oral cavity,
the stomach, and the small intestine. Digestive enzymes are secreted by
different exocrine glands including:

 Salivary glands
 Secretory cells in the stomach
 Secretory cells in the pancreas
 Secretory glands in the small intestine
Mouth:
Complex food substances that are taken by animals and humans must be broken
down into simple, soluble, and diffusible substances before they can be absorbed.
In the oral cavity, salivary glands secrete an array of enzymes and substances that
aid in digestion and also disinfection. They include the following.
 Lingual lipase: Lipid digestion initiates in the mouth. Lingual lipase starts
the digestion of the lipids/fats.
 Salivary amylase: Carbohydrate digestion also initiates in the mouth.
Amylase, produced by the salivary glands, breaks complex carbohydrates to
smaller chains, or even simple sugars. It is sometimes referred to as ptyalin.
 Lysozyme: Considering that food contains more than just essential nutrients,
e.g. bacteria or viruses, the lysozome offers a limited and non-specific, yet
beneficial antiseptic function in digestion.
 Haptocorrin (also known as R-factor): Helps with the absorption of vitamin
B12. After Vitamin B12 is released from its original carrier protein in the
stomach, it gets bound to haptocorrin.
Stomach:
The enzymes that are secreted in the stomach are called gastric enzymes. The
stomach plays a major role in digestion, both in a mechanical sense by mixing and
crushing the food, and also in an enzymatic sense, by digesting it. The following
are enzymes, hormones or compounds produced by the stomach and their
respective function:

 Pepsin is the main gastric enzyme: It is produced by the stomach cells

called "chief cells" in its inactive form pepsinogen, which is a zymogen.
Pepsinogen is then activated by the stomach acid into its active form, pepsin.
Pepsin breaks down the protein in the food into smaller particles, such
as peptide fragments and amino acids. Protein digestion, therefore, first starts in
the stomach, unlike carbohydrate and lipids, which start their digestion in the
mouth.
 Hydrochloric acid (HCl): This is in essence positively charged hydrogen
atoms (H+), or in lay-terms stomach acid, and is produced by the cells of the
stomach called parietal cells. HCl mainly functions to denature the proteins
ingested, to destroy any bacteria or virus that remains in the food, and also to
activate pepsinogen into pepsin.
 Intrinsic factor (IF): Intrinsic factor is produced by the parietal cells of the
stomach. Vitamin B12 (Vit. B12) is an important vitamin that requires
assistance for absorption in terminal ileum. Initially in the
saliva, haptocorrin secreted by salivary glands binds Vit. B, creating a Vit. B12-
 Haptocorrin complex. The purpose of this complex is to protect Vitamin B12
from hydrochloric acid produced in the stomach. Once the stomach content
exits the stomach into the duodenum, haptocorrin is cleaved with pancreatic
enzymes, releasing the intact vitamin B12. Intrinsic factor (IF) produced by the
parietal cells then binds Vitamin B12, creating a Vit. B12-IF complex. This
complex is then absorbed at the terminal portion of the ileum.
 Mucin: The stomach has a priority to destroy the bacteria and viruses using
its highly acidic environment but also has a duty to protect its own lining from
its acid. The way that the stomach achieves this is by secreting mucin and
bicarbonate via its mucous cells, and also by having a rapid cell turn-over.
 Gastrin: This is an important hormone produced by the "G cells" of the
stomach. G cells produce gastrin in response to stomach stretching occurring
after food enters it, and also after stomach exposure to protein. Gastrin is
an endocrine hormone and therefore enters the bloodstream and eventually
returns to the stomach where it stimulates parietal cells to produce hydrochloric
acid (HCl) and Intrinsic factor (IF).
 Gastric lipase: Gastric lipase is an acidic lipase secreted by the gastric chief
cells in the fundic mucosa in the stomach. It has a pH optimum of 3–6. Gastric
lipase, together with lingual lipase comprise the two acidic lipases. These
lipases, unlike alkaline lipases (such as pancreatic lipase), do not require bile
acid or colipase for optimal enzymatic activity. Acidic lipases make up 30% of
lipid hydrolysis occurring during digestion in the human adult, with gastric
lipase contributing the most of the two acidic lipases. In neonates, acidic lipases
are much more important, providing up to 50% of total lipolytic activity of note
is the division of function between the cells covering the stomach. There are
four types of cells in the stomach:

 Parietal cells: Produce hydrochloric acid and intrinsic factor.

 Gastric chief cells: Produce pepsinogen. Chief cells are mainly found in
the body of stomach, which is the middle or superior anatomic portion of the
stomach.
 Mucous neck and pit cells: Produce mucin and bicarbonate to create a
"neutral zone" to protect the stomach lining from the acid or irritants in the
stomach chyme.
 G cells: Produce the hormone gastrin in response to distention of the
stomach mucosa or protein, and stimulate parietal cells production of their
secretion. G cells are located in the antrum of the stomach.

Pancreas:
Pancreas is both an endocrine and an exocrine gland, in that it functions to produce
endocrinic hormones released into the circulatory system (such as insulin,
and glucagon), to control glucose metabolism, and also to secrete
digestive/exocrinic pancreatic juice, which is secreted eventually via the pancreatic
duct into duodenum. Digestive or exocrine function of pancreas is as significant to
the maintenance of health as its endocrine function.
Two of the population of cells in the pancreatic parenchyma make up its digestive
enzymes:

 Ductal cells: Mainly responsible for production of bicarbonate (HCO3),

which acts to neutralize the acidity of the stomach chyme entering duodenum
through the pylorus. Ductal cells of the pancreas are stimulated by the
hormone secretin to produce their bicarbonate-rich secretions, in what is in
essence a bio-feedback mechanism.
 Acinar cells: Mainly responsible for production of the inactive pancreatic
enzymes (zymogens) that, once present in the small bowel, become activated
and perform their major digestive functions by breaking down proteins, fat, and
DNA/RNA. Acinar cells are stimulated by cholecystokinin (CCK), which is a
hormone/neurotransmitter produced by the intestinal cells (I cells) in the
duodenum. CCK stimulates production of the pancreatic zymogens.
Pancreatic juice, composed of the secretions of both ductal and acinar cells, is
made up of the following digestive enzymes.

 Trypsinogen: which is an inactive(zymogenic) protease that, once activated

in the duodenum into trypsin, breaks down proteins at the basic amino acids.
Trypsinogen is activated via the duodenal enzyme enterokinase into its active
form trypsin.
 Chymotrypsinogen: which is an inactive (zymogenic) protease that, once
activated by duodenal enterokinase, turns into chymotrypsin and breaks down
 proteins at their aromatic amino acids. Chymotrypsinogen can also be activated
by trypsin.
 Carboxypeptidase, which is a protease that takes off the terminal amino acid
group from a protein
 Several elastases that degrade the protein elastin and some other proteins.
 Pancreatic lipase that degrades triglycerides into fatty acids and glycerol.
 Sterol esterase
 Phospholipase
 Several nucleases that,degrade,nucleic,acids, like DNAase and RNAase
 Pancreatic amylase that breaks down starch and glycogen which are alpha-
linked glucose polymers. Humans lack the cellulases to digest the
carbohydrate cellulose which is a beta-linked glucose polymer.
Pancreas's exocrine function owes part of its immaculate function to bio-feedback
mechanisms controlling secretion of its juice. The following significant pancreatic
bio-feedback mechanisms are essential to the maintenance of pancreatic juice
balance/production.

 Secretin: a hormone produced by the duodenal "S cells" in response to the

stomach chyme containing high hydrogen atom concentration (high acidicity),
is released into the blood stream; upon return to the digestive tract, secretion
decreases gastric emptying, increases secretion of the pancreatic ductal cells, as
well as stimulating pancreatic acinar cells to release their zymogenic juice.
 Cholecystokinin (CCK): is a unique peptide released by the duodenal "I
cells" in response to chyme containing high fat or protein content. Unlike
secretin, which is an endocrine hormone, CCK actually works via stimulation
of a neuronal circuit, the end-result of which is stimulation of the acinar cells to
release their content. CCK also increases gallbladder contraction, resulting
in bile squeezed into the cystic duct, common bile duct and eventually the
duodenum. Bile of course helps absorption of the fat by emulsifying it,
increasing its absorptive surface. Bile is made by the liver, but is stored in the
gallbladder.
 Gastric inhibitory peptide (GIP): is produced by the mucosal duodenal
cells in response to chyme containing high amounts of carbohydrate, proteins,
and fatty acids. Main function of GIP is to decrease gastric emptying.
 Somatostatin: is a hormone produced by the mucosal cells of the duodenum
and also the "delta cells" of the pancreas. Somatostatin has a major inhibitory
effect, including on pancreatic production.
Small intestine:
The following enzymes/hormones are produced in the duodenum:

 Secretin: This is an endocrine hormone produced by the duodenal "S cells"

in response to the acidity of the gastric chyme.
 Cholecystokinin (CCK): is a unique peptide released by the duodenal "I
cells" in response to chyme containing high fat or protein content. Unlike
secretin, which is an endocrine hormone, CCK actually works via stimulation
of a neuronal circuit, the end-result of which is stimulation of the acinar cells to
release their content.[4] CCK also increases gallbladder contraction, causing
release of pre-stored bile into the cystic duct.
 Gastric inhibitory peptide (GIP): This peptide decreases gastric motility
and is produced by duodenal mucosal cells.
 Motilin: This substance increases gastro-intestinal motility via specialized
receptors called "motilin receptors".
 Somatostatin: This hormone is produced by duodenal mucosa and also by
the delta cells of the pancreas. Its main function is to inhibit a variety of
secretory mechanisms.
Throughout the lining of the small intestine there are numerous brush
border enzymes whose function is to further break down the chyme released from
the stomach into absorbable particles. These enzymes are absorbed whilst
peristalsis occurs. Some of these enzymes include:

 Erepsin: converts peptones and polypeptides into amino acids.

 Maltase: converts maltose into glucose.
 Lactase: This is a significant enzyme that converts lactose into glucose and
galactose. A majority of Middle-Eastern and Asian populations lack this
 enzyme. This enzyme also decreases with age. As such lactose intolerance is
often a common abdominal complaint in the Middle-Eastern, Asian, and older
populations, manifesting with bloating, abdominal pain, and osmotic diarrhea.
 Sucrase: converts sucrose into glucose and fructose.
 Other disaccharidases.

ABSORPTION OF DIGESTED PRODUCTS

Absorption is the process by which the end products of digestion pass through the
intestinal mucosa into the blood or lymph. It is carried out by passive, active or
facilitated transport mechanisms. Small amounts of monosaccharides like glucose,
amino acids and some electrolytes like chloride ions are generally absorbed by
simple diffusion. The passage of these substances into the blood depends upon the
concentration gradients. However, some substances like glucose and amino acids
are absorbed with the help of carrier proteins. This mechanism is called the
facilitated transport.

Transport of water depends upon the osmotic gradient. Active transport occurs
against the concentration gradient and hence requires energy. Various nutrients like
amino acids, monosaccharides like glucose, electrolytes like Na+ are absorbed into
the blood by this mechanism. Fatty acids and glycerol being insoluble, cannot be
absorbed into the blood. They are first incorporated into small droplets called
micelles which move into the intestinal mucosa. They are re-formed into very
small protein coated fat globules called the chylomicrons which are transported
into the lymph vessels (lacteals) in the villi. These lymph vessels ultimately release
the absorbed substances into the blood stream. Absorption of substances takes
place in different parts of the alimentary canal, like mouth, stomach, small intestine
and large intestine. However, maximum absorption occurs in the small intestine.

The Summary of Absorption in Different Parts of Digestive System

Mouth Stomach Small Intestine Large Intestine
Certain drugs Absorption of Principal organ for Absorption of
coming in contact water, simple absorption of water, some
with the mucosa of sugars, and alcohol nutrients. The minerals and drugs
mouth and lower etc. takes place. digestion is takes place.
side of the tongue completed here
are absorbed into and the final
the blood products of
capillaries lining digestion such as
them. glucose, fructose,
fatty acids,
glycerol and amino
acids are absorbed
through the
mucosa into the
blood stream and
lymph.

The absorbed substances finally reach the tissues which utilise them for their
activities. This process is called assimilation. The digestive wastes, solidified into
coherent faeces in the rectum initiate a neural reflex causing an urge or desire for
its removal. The egestion of faeces to the outside through the anal opening
(defaecation) is a voluntary process and is carried out by a mass peristaltic
movement.