FITNET BASIC TRAINING PACKAGE

F. Gutiérrez-Solana (UC)
S. Cicero (UC)
J.A. Álvarez (UC)
R. Lacalle (UC)
F. Gutiérrez-Solana (UC)
J.A. Álvarez (UC)
F. GUTIÉRREZ-SOLANA S. Cicero (UC)
W P 6: TRAINING & EDUCATION S. CICERO
J.A. ALVAREZ
R. LACALLE
 © FITNET consortium
AUTHORS: F. Gutiérrez-Solana (UC)
S. Cicero (UC)
J.A. Álvarez (UC)
R. Lacalle (UC)

F. GUTIÉRREZ-SOLANA
W P 6: TRAINING & EDUCATION S. CICERO
J.A. ALVAREZ
R. LACALLE
 G1RT-CT-2001-05071

CONTENTS

I. TRAINING PACKAGE ON FRACTURE 5

A- BASIC CONCEPTS 6
B- INTRODUCTION TO ASSESSMENT PROCEDURES FOR CRACKED COMPONENTS 40
C- PROCEDURE APPLICATION (FITNET) 63
D- EXAMPLES 139

II. TRAINING PACKAGE ON FATIGUE 183

A- BASIC CONCEPTS 184
B- INTRODUCTION TO FATIGUE ASSESSMENT PROCEDURES 253
C- PROCEDURE APPLICATION (FITNET) 266
D- EXAMPLES 316

F. GUTIÉRREZ-SOLANA
W P 6: TRAINING & EDUCATION S. CICERO
J.A. ALVAREZ
R. LACALLE
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CONTENTS

III. TRAINING PACKAGE ON CREEP 337

A- BASIC CONCEPTS 338
B- INTRODUCTION TO ASSESSMENT PROCEDURES FOR CRACKED COMPONENTS
AT HIGH TEMPERATURES 374
C- PROCEDURE APPLICATION (FITNET) 388
D- EXAMPLES 426

IV. TRAINING PACKAGE ON ENVIRONMENT EFFECTS 471

A- BASIC CONCEPTS 472
B- INTRODUCTION TO ASSESSMENT PROCEDURES FOR CRACKED COMPONENTS 487
C- PROCEDURE APPLICATION (FITNET) 495
D- EXAMPLES 521

F. GUTIÉRREZ-SOLANA
W P 6: TRAINING & EDUCATION S. CICERO
J.A. ALVAREZ
R. LACALLE
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I. TRAINING PACKAGE ON FRACTURE

F. GUTIÉRREZ-SOLANA
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A. BASIC CONCEPTS

F. GUTIÉRREZ-SOLANA
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FRACTURE BEHAVIOUR
INTRODUCTION
The final fracture of structural components is associated with the presence of
macro or microstructural defects that affect the stress state due to the loading
conditions.
Fracture occurs when this state reaches at local level a critical condition.
Material
component + and defects + loading Vs. Toughness
Geometry

Stress state (local) Vs. Critical local

condition to
fracture

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FRACTURE BEHAVIOUR
INTRODUCTION
Processing

Crack (defect): produced by Cracking

processes

Operation
damage
Material
component + and defects + loading Vs. Toughness
Geometry

Vs. Critical local

Stress state (local)
condition to
fracture

Fracture analysis FRACTURE MECHANICS

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FRACTURE BEHAVIOUR
INTRODUCTION
a
Fracture Mechanics
Crack
growth
σ a0

Critical
t
a σC loading
FRACTURE
evolution
classic
σdesign. Safety design
σuse
use

a
Crack growth
(t)
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FRACTURE BEHAVIOUR
INTRODUCTION
Fracture Modes
F
F: Loading forces

a: crack advance n

a
n: crack plane normal
a ┴ n

F┴ n
F // n F // a F┴ a

MODE I MODE II MODE III

Tensile Shear Torsion
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FRACTURE BEHAVIOUR

Stress concentration factor, Kt

FRACTURE CRITERIA
Stress state in a crack front
Stress concentration

Stress concentration factor, Kt

Stress

Stress concentration factor, Kt

X – X´

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STRESSES
FRACTURE BEHAVIOUR Plane solution
a ⎡ θ⎛ θ 3θ⎞ ⎤
FRACTURE CRITERIA σx = σ
2r
⎢cos ⎜⎝ 1 − sen sen ⎟⎠ ⎥
⎣ 2 2 2 ⎦
a I
σ ijI = σ f (θ )
Local stress and strain states σy = σ
a ⎡ θ⎛ θ 3θ ⎞ ⎤ 2 r ij
⎢cos ⎜⎝ 1 + sen sen ⎟⎠ ⎥
2r ⎣ 2 2 2 ⎦
in a crack front (Irwin) a ⎡ θ θ 3θ ⎤
τ xy = σ ⎢ cos sen cos ⎥
2r ⎣ 2 2 2 ⎦
σ Semiinfinite plate,
uniform stress (MODE I)
Plane stress (PSS) Plane strain (PSN)
σz = 0 σz = ν (σx + σy)

τ xy σy
DISPLACEMENTS
σx
σ ar ⎡ θ 3θ ⎤
Y
r
σz u =
2E 2
(1 + ν) ⎢(2κ − 1) cos − cos ⎥
⎣ 2 2 ⎦
θ
X
σ ar ⎡ θ 3θ ⎤
a
v=
2E 2
(1+ ν ) ⎢(2κ + 1) sen − sen ⎥
⎣ 2 2⎦
Ζ
3−ν
(PSS) κ=
1+ ν (PSN)
κ = 3 − 4ν

ν
σ w= −
E ∫ (σ x )
+ σ y dz

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FRACTURE BEHAVIOUR
FRACTURE CRITERIA
Stress state in a crack front. Stress Intensity Factor

a I 1
σ
σ =σ
I
f ij (θ) = σ πa f ijI (θ)
ij
2r 2πr
σy
τ xy
1
σx σ Iij = K I f ijI (θ)
Y
r
σz 2πr Position
θ
X
Stress Intensity Factor
a
Ζ
K I = σ πa

σ KI defines the stress state in the crack front

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FRACTURE BEHAVIOUR
FRACTURE CRITERIA
Stress state in a crack front ≡ Stress Intensity Factor
For any component
(geometry + defects)

a
σ σ K I = fσ πa or fσ πg(a)

f: geometric factor

For other modes K II = f II τ πg(a)

analogously ...

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FRACTURE BEHAVIOUR
FRACTURE CRITERIA
Stress fracture criterion
If σ↑ ⇒ KI ↑ ⇒ σij (local) ↑
If σij (local) = σij (critical) Local fracture criterion

KI = KIC Sress fracture criterion

• If fracture critical conditions (KIC) only depend on material

KIc (Fracture Toughness)

Stress Fracture Criterion KI = KIc
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FRACTURE BEHAVIOUR
FRACTURE CRITERIA
Stress fracture criterion
KI = KIc
σc (ao) σ
σ
ao
Fracture occurs with
σ c (ao) σc (a)
ao σ c (4ao) =
2
4ao σ
strain
Another observation:
The compliance of the component increases with the length of the defects.

Compliance: Indicates the length of the defects.

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FRACTURE BEHAVIOUR
FRACTURE CRITERIA
Energetic fracture criterion (Griffith)
Comparison between the energy that is released in crack extension and the energy
that is necesary to generate new surfaces because of that extension.

d(U) dEγ Crack grows

≥ (Fracture)
da da
unitary d(U) dEγ
thickness ≥ = 2γ
Bda Bda
γ: surface energy of the material
(Energy per unit of generated surface)

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FRACTURE BEHAVIOUR
FRACTURE CRITERIA
Energetic fracture criterion (Griffith)
As a geometry f (σ, a, E ) ≥ 2 γ
function
Semiinfinite πσ 2 a
G= ≥ Gc
plate E
G: Energy release rate
G = Gc Fracture criterion
Gc: Fracture Toughness

Where: K I2 α =1 (Plane stress)

α = (1 − υ 2 ) (Plane strain)
G=α
E

Gc= 2γ in very brittle materials

>> 2γ in materials with plasticity before fracture
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FRACTURE BEHAVIOUR
FRACTURE TOUGHNESS
Fracture Toughness Characterisation
A) Standardised specimens

B) Fatigue precracked specimens : a

(a as initial crack length)
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FRACTURE BEHAVIOUR
FRACTURE TOUGHNESS
Fracture Toughness Characterisation

C) Mechanical Testing PQ (Load on Fracture initiation)

⇓
KQ = f (PQ, a, geometry)
Pmax

⎛ P ⎞
Pmax
Pmax
KQ = ⎜ Q ⎟⋅ f ⎛ a ⎞ for CTs
⎜⎜ 1 ⎟⎟ ⎜⎝ W ⎟⎠
⎝ B⋅ W2 ⎠

• a measured on fracture surface

KQ = KIc (toughness), if some normalised
conditions are fulfilled
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FRACTURE BEHAVIOUR Fatigue crack

profile
FRACTURE TOUGHNESS
Fracture Toughness Characterisation a

4
Load (kN)

Fracture
mechanisms

UCQ-123
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
COD (mm)

50 μm

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FRACTURE BEHAVIOUR
Fracture at 45º with respect to the
Rotura formando 45° con el plano
FRACTURE TOUGHNESS original crackdeplane
original fisura

Thickness effect 45°

c
K cI TensiónSTRESS
PLANE plana
crack Z
σX σY Fisura Z
Effect of

PLANE STRESS
TENSION PLANA σZ = 0
+ Plastic
Zone
Deformación plana
PLANE STRAIN
Rotura
Fracture en planoplane
in crack de fisura
Labios a 45° en extremos
K Ic

Bmin Espesor(B)
Thickness (B)

⎡ K Ic2 ⎤ σX σZ σY
B min (P.Strain ) = 2.5 ⎢ 2 ⎥
⎣ σY ⎦ PLANE STRAIN PLANA
DEFORMACION

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FRACTURE BEHAVIOUR
FRACTURE TOUGHNESS
a
Effect of temperature STATIC TEST
IMPACT
and loading rate INCREASING
LOADING RATE

TOUGHNESS
TEMPERATURE

b c

K Ic K Ic

TOUGHNESS
K Id

STATIC
DYNAMIC

TEMPERATURE LOADING RATE

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FRACTURE BEHAVIOUR
MATERIAL TOUGHNESS
Environment (temperature)
Value It depends on microstructure and external variables (degradation)
Loading rate

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FRACTURE BEHAVIOUR
FRACTURE TOUGHNESS
Impact Toughness: Charpy Test
ductile
E Absorbed Energy (E)

% Ductile fracture

% Lateral expansion
Scale
brittle
Initial position
pointer
Hummer
T T
Final position
specimen

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FRACTURE BEHAVIOUR
FRACTURE TOUGHNESS
Impact Toughness: Examples of
the effect of different variables

Influence of Irradiation

300
Longitudinal
250 Transversal

200

E (J)
150

100
Influence of
50
microstructural
Influence of Carbon Content 0 orientation
-200 -150 -100 -50 0 50
T (ºC)

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FRACTURE BEHAVIOUR
PLASTICITY ON FRACTURE
Linear
Plasticity in a crack front KI ⎛θ⎞ ⎡ ⎛θ⎞ ⎛ θ ⎞⎤ elastic
σy = ⋅ cos⎜ ⎟ ⋅ ⎢1 + sen⎜ ⎟ ⋅ cos⎜ 3 ⎟⎥ solution
2πr ⎝2⎠ ⎣ ⎝2⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠⎦ (LEFM)
KI
For θ = 0 (crack plane): σy =
2πr
1st plastic zone model
If σy  σY plastic zone: σy = σY
1 K I2 (problem: there is no
rY = ⋅ 2
2π σ Y stress equilibrium)
2nd plastic zone model (Irwin correction)
1 K I2 (stress redistribution)
rP = ⋅ 2
π σY (approximate solution)
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FRACTURE BEHAVIOUR
PLASTICITY ON FRACTURE
Plastic Zones on Plane Stress and Plane Strain
Perfilzone
Plastic de la
zona plástica
profile
y

z Deform ación plana

Plane strain
Fisura rp
x crack

Crack
Fisura Tensión
Plane stressplana

Plane Stress. Yield stress for σy = σY Plane Strain. Yield stress for σy ≅ 3σY
1 K I2 1 K I2
rP = ⋅ 2 rP = ⋅ 2
π σY 9π σ Y
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FRACTURE BEHAVIOUR
PLASTICITY ON FRACTURE
Corrections on Linear Elastic Fracture Mechanics (LEFM)
If the plastic zone is small and it is constrained:

Plastic rP << a, defect

Zone rP << B, thickness
rP << (W-a), residual ligament
K I = K I (a ef ) = K I (a + Δa P )
Effective defect = Real defect + ΔaP
Fisura rp ΔaP: plastic correction to crack length
Crack
1 K 2I n = 6 Plane Strain
Δa P = f (rP ) = ⋅
nπ σ 2Y n = 2 Plane Stress
An iterative calculation is required to obtain KI
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FRACTURE BEHAVIOUR
PLASTICITY ON FRACTURE
Elastic-Plastic Fracture Mechanics (EPFM)
If plastic zone has important dimensions:
Parameters and fracture criteria change because of
Frente original
Original crack
local condition changes
de la fisura
a front - Physical parameters and criteria
CTOD = CTODc
- Energetic parameters and criteria

CTOD J-Integral
J = JIc
(equivalent to G in linear elastic conditions)
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FRACTURE BEHAVIOUR
PLASTICITY ON FRACTURE
Elastic-Plastic Fracture Mechanics (EPFM)

The non linear energy release rate , J, can be written as a path-independent line
integral. Considering an arbitrary counter-clockwise path (Γ) arround the tip of
the crack, the J integral is given by:

Arbitrary contour around the tip of the crack

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FRACTURE BEHAVIOUR
PLASTICITY ON FRACTURE
Elastic-Plastic Fracture Mechanics (EPFM)

J can also be seen as a Stress Intensity Parameter for Elastic-Plastic problems as

long as the variation of stress and strain ahead of the crack tip can be expressed
as:

Where k1 and k2 are proportionally constants and n is the strain hardening

component.

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FRACTURE BEHAVIOUR
PLASTICITY ON FRACTURE
Elastic-Plastic Fracture Mechanics (EPFM)

Many materials with high toughness do not

fail catastrophically at a particular value of J
or CTOD. In contrast, these materials exhibit
a rising R curve, where J and CTOD increase
with crack growth.
The figure illustrates a typical J resistance
curve for a ductile material.

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FRACTURE BEHAVIOUR
PLASTICITY ON FRACTURE
Elastic-Plastic Fracture Mechanics (EPFM)

JR, Japp CRACK DRIVING FORCE DIAGRAM

Local conditions in the component

Japp(P2,ao) Japp(P1,ao) Japp(P,a) = Je(P,a) + Jp(P,a)
Characterises the local state
P1< P2 = Pcrit JR
Critical conditions in the material
JR(Δa)
Characterises the strength of the material to
cracking
ao a

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FRACTURE BEHAVIOUR
FRACTURE MICROMECHANISMS
Brittle Fracture: Cleavage

It occurs on metallic material with brittle behaviour

• favoured by low temperatures and high loading rates
• favoured in materials with high σY

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FRACTURE BEHAVIOUR
FRACTURE MICROMECHANISMS
Ductile Fracture: Void nucleation and coalescence

Fibrous Shear
appearance

Metallic materials with plastic behaviour

•
• favored by T ↑, σY ↓, σ ↓
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FRACTURE BEHAVIOUR
FRACTURE MICROMECHANISMS
Ductile Fracture: Void nucleation and coalescence

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FRACTURE BEHAVIOUR
FRACTURE MICROMECHANISMS
Intergranular fractures

→ Because of the environment or grain boundary segragations

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BIBLIOGRAPHY / REFERENCES

• Anderson T.L, “Fracture Mechanics. Fundamentals and Applications”, 2nd

Edition, CRC Press, Boca Raton (1995)
• Broeck D., “Elementary Engineering Fracture Mechanics”, Martinus Nijhoff
Pub., La Haya, 1982.
• Broeck, D., “The Practical Use of Fracture Mechanics”, Kluwer Academic
Publisher, Dordrecht, Teh Netherlands, 1989
• Kanninen, M.F. and Popelar, C.H., “Advanced Fracture Mechanics”, Oxford
University Press, New York, 1985.
• Thomason, P.F.,”Ductile Fracture of Metals”, Pergamon Press, Oxford, UK,
1990

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B. INTRODUCTION TO ASSESSMENT
PROCEDURES FOR CRACKED
COMPONENTS

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ASSESSMENT PROCEDURES FOR CRACKED COMPONENTS

INTRODUCTION
HOW ARE INTEGRITY, SECURITY OR CRITICAL CONDITIONS ANALYSED IN A CRACKED
STRUCTURE?

FRACTURE MECHANICS
Critical conditions
Local conditions in the component ≥ Critical conditions in the material PLASTICITY
LEFM: Critical conditions
KI ≥ KIC
Plastic collapse of the component
LEFM with local plastic correction:
Plastification of the residual ligament
KI (a+ry) ≥ KIC
EPFM:
JI(a) ≥ JR(a)
∂JI(a)/∂a ≥ ∂JR(a)/∂a

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ASSESSMENT PROCEDURES FOR CRACKED COMPONENTS

INTRODUCTION
HOW ARE INTEGRITY, SECURITY OR CRITICAL CONDITIONS ANALYSED IN A CRACKED
STRUCTURE?

In brittle materials or when conditions In other cases, when plasticity is present

produce brittle behaviour: (with different extension):
LEFM EPFM - PLASTICITY

BRITTLE BRITTLE
MATERIAL MATERIAL MORE DUCTILE ABSOLUTELY ABSOLUTELY
MATERIAL IN DUCTILE MATERIAL DUCTILE MATERIAL
PLANE STRAIN PLANE STRESS
PLANE STRESS OR WITH EXTENDED WITH TOTAL
LEFM PLANE STRAIN PLASTIFICATION PLASTIFICATION

EPFM
PLASTIC
COLLAPSE
FRACTURE BEHAVIOUR

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ASSESSMENT PROCEDURES FOR CRACKED COMPONENTS

SOLUTIONS
APPLICATION OF ELASTIC-PLASTIC CRITERIA COVERING LIMITED PLASTICITY CONDITIONS

Local conditions in the component

Japp(P,a) = Je(P,a) + Jp(P,a)
Characterises the local state

Critical conditions in the material

JR(Δa)
Characterises the strength of the material to
cracking

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ASSESSMENT PROCEDURES FOR CRACKED COMPONENTS

SOLUTIONS
APPLICATION OF ELASTIC-PLASTIC CRITERIONS WHICH COVERS LIMITED PLASTICITY
CONDITIONS

Produces the Crack Driving Force

Diagrams (CDFD)
CDFD have limitations:
-They do not take into account plastic collapse
- They need succcessive application:
LEFM + Plasticity

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ASSESSMENT PROCEDURES FOR CRACKED COMPONENTS

SOLUTIONS
HOW CAN WE SOLVE THE GLOBAL PROBLEM: FRACTURE + PLASTIC COLLAPSE ?

It starts with a solution for the effective stress intensity factor that considers the
effect of the local yielding in the crack front.
Dugdale and Barenblatt proposed a model for limited plasticity (strip yield model).
They supposed that a crack with a length of 2a and plastic zones of length ρ ahead the
real crack tips, works as if its length was 2a+2ρ, being the crack tips, ρ, under a stress
being equal to the yield stress.

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SOLUTIONS
HOW CAN WE SOLVE THE GLOBAL PROBLEM: FRACTURE + PLASTIC COLLAPSE ?

The model is applied to a through thickness crack in an infinite plate and

approaches the elastic-plastic behaviour superimposing two elastic solutions:
- a through thickness crack under remote tension
- a through thickness crack with closure stresses at the tip
The solution appears applying the Principle or Superposition

σ σ

KI = 0 Kσ Kclosure
σYS σYS

2a+2ρ 2a+2ρ 2a+2ρ

σ σ

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SOLUTIONS
HOW CAN WE SOLVE THE GLOBAL PROBLEM: FRACTURE + PLASTIC COLLAPSE ?

Stresses are finite in the strip yield zone, so there cannot be a singularity at the crack
tip. Therefore, the leading term in the crack tip field that varies with 1/r 1/2 must be
zero.
The plastic zone length, ρ, must be chosen such that the stress intensity factors from
the remote tension and closure stress cancel one another.
KI = Kσ + Kclosure = 0
After some operations, the following can be obtained:
Kclosure = -2 · σYS·[(a+ρ) / π]1/2 · cos-1(a/(a+ρ))

Kσ = σ · ( π · (a+ ρ) )1/2

From which we can obtain: ρ = π2·σ2·a / 8·σYS2 = π/8 · (KI/σYS)2

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SOLUTIONS
HOW CAN WE SOLVE THE GLOBAL PROBLEM: FRACTURE + PLASTIC COLLAPSE ?

Finally, we can obtain the effective stress intensity factor, KIeff, considering an effective
crack length (aeff = a+ ρ) in the LEFM expression for KI (KIeff = σ·( π·aeff)1/2):

KIeff = σ · (π · a · sec(π·σ / 2·σYS))1/2

This equation tends to overestimate Keff.

The actual aeff is somewhat less than a+ ρ because the strip yield zone is rally loaded to σys.
Buderkin and Stone obtained a more realistic estimate of Keff for the strip yield model:

KIeff = σYS · (π · a)1/2 · [ 8/π2 ·ln sec(π·σ / 2·σYS)]

1/2

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SOLUTIONS
HOW CAN WE SOLVE THE GLOBAL PROBLEM: FRACTURE + PLASTIC COLLAPSE ?

- Relative stress intensity factors (with respect to the effective value) are taken:

KI / KIeff = [σ·(π·a)1/2 / σYS·(π·a)1/2]·[ 8/π2· ln sec(π·σ / 2·σYS)]-1/2 = Kr*

- And taking (σ/σYS) = Lr as the value of the relative stress with respect to the one
that causes plastic collapse, the result is:

- This is the equation of a Krline in the space Lr, Kr* and eliminates the square root
term that contains the half length of the through crack. Therefore, the geometry
dependence of the strip yield model is removed.

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SOLUTIONS
HOW CAN WE SOLVE THE GLOBAL PROBLEM: FRACTURE + PLASTIC COLLAPSE ?

UNSAFE

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SOLUTIONS
HOW CAN WE SOLVE THE GLOBAL PROBLEM: FRACTURE + PLASTIC COLLAPSE ?

In the Lr, Kr space, and with those variables, critical conditions are established:
1. Fracture: Kef = Kcmat
or: KI/Kef = KI/Kcmat
The critical condition in a structure is defined by the Krline
Kr,structure = KI/Kcmat ≤ KI/Kef = Krline
2. Plasticity: σ = σc
Kr,structure = KI/Kcmat > 0
Lr, structure = 1
Krline (Lr =1) 0
So, the Failure Assessment Diagram (FAD) is defined.

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SOLUTIONS
HOW CAN WE SOLVE THE GLOBAL PROBLEM: FRACTURE + PLASTIC COLLAPSE ?

The FAD is plotted in the space Kr, Lr.

The axes (Lr and Kr) and the line Krline
(Lr) define the zone where the structure Fracture
is safe and the zone where critical Krline
conditions are reached (the reasons can
be brittle fracture, fracture with some
plasticity or plastic collapse).
Acceptable

As a more general representation that encloses EPFM variables (which

includes LEFM):
Collapse

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DESCRIPTION
WHAT IS A STRUCTURAL INTEGRITY ASSESSMENT PROCEDURE?

It is a set of techniques which are used to demonstrate the fitness for service of
structural components to transmit loads. They are applicable to:
- Design of new structures in order to guarantee their integrity during their life.
- Assess the integrity of in-service structures in control and supervision plans.
Therefore, these procedures provide considerable economic advantages because
they optimise the design process and inspection and reparation conditions
during the in-service period.

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DESCRIPTION
HOW MANY PROCEDURES EXIST?
WHICH ONE MUST WE USE?

ˆ Based on FAD
R6
PD6493
...... Compatible: SINTAP
ˆ Based on CDFD
GE-EPRI
ETM

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CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO THE METHODOLOGY USED
PROCEDURES ARE MAINLY GROUPED DEPENDING ON THE METHODOLOGY USED : FAD OR CDFD

METHODOLOGY
• Simultaneous assessment • Independent assessment
Fracture Fracture
Plastic collapse Plastic collapse
• Diagram • Diagram
Failure Assessment Diagram Crack Driving Force Diagram
It does not compare applied vs. It compares applied vs. resistant
resistant • Easy to understand it physically
• Difficulties to understand it physically • More complex evaluation
• Easy evaluation

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CONTENT

Procedures must define: Also, in relation to the structure:

• Methodological aspects • Definition of loading conditions

General aspects Stresses

Material limitations Library of solutions
Methodology for structural analysis Deliberations about the stress field
Critical conditions • Definition of the material resistant properties

Fracture mechanics variables Mechanical properties

Security factors and Risk assessment Fracture toughness
•Cases to which they can be applied •Definition of the crack state
Fracture mode Crack characteristics
Joints Defect evolution and redefinition

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ALTERNATIVE APPROACHES: LEAK-BEFORE-BREAK

LEAK-BEFORE-BREAK CONCEPT:

There are several options by which it may be

possible to demonstrate the safety of a
structure containing flaws when an initial
analysis has failed to show that adequate
margins exist.
For pressurised components one of these
options is to make a leak-before-break case
by demonstrating that a flaw will grow in
such a way as to cause, in the first instance, a THE LEAK-BEFORE-BREAK DIAGRAM
stable detectable leak of the pressure
boundary rather than a sudden, disruptive
break.
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ALTERNATIVE APPROACHES: CRACK ARREST

KI, KIR Material

toughness

CRACK ARREST CONCEPT: KI

ARREST

KIC
When the energy available for an KIA
KIa
incremental extension of a propagating
crack falls below the material resistance, CRACK SIZE

the crack arrests ao

Crack arrest with a falling driving force
curve. The apparent arrest toughness, Kia, is
slighty below the true material resistance,
KIA, due to excess kinetic energy.

CRACK ARREST CONDITIONS (separately or in combination):

1) the crack front enters a region of increased toughness
2) the stress intensity factor reduces as a result of propagation

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ALTERNATIVE FRACTURE TOUGHNESS ESTIMATION: MASTER CURVE

- LOW TEMPERATURES Cleavage failure (brittle failure)

Low Fracture Toughness and low
scattering
Many triggering particles

- TRANSITION REGION Fracture toughness increases

rapidly with temperature
Great scattering
Few triggering particles
TRANSITION REGION
- HIGH TEMPERATURES Ductile failure
(ferritic steels)
High Fracture Toughness and low scattering
Microvoids

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ALTERNATIVE FRACTURE TOUGHNESS ESTIMATION: MASTER CURVE

The Master Curve hypothesis suggests that the distribution of toughness follows a
3 parameter Weibull distribution, where two of them are fixed a priori. Moreover,
the mean fracture thoughness versus temperature (KJC:T) curve will have the same
shape for all ferritic steels. The only difference between steels is the position of
the curve on the temperature axis.

KJC = 30 + 70 e (0.019(T-To))

To = Reference Temperature
[KJC(T0) = 100 MPa·m1/2]

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ALTERNATIVE FRACTURE TOUGHNESS ESTIMATION: MASTER CURVE

The “Master Curve Approach” is based on correlation between a specific Charpy

transition temperature (T27J) and the Reference Temperature (To)

T27J = 27J Charpy Transition Temperature (ºC)

T0 correlates withT27J

Kmat = 20 + {11 + 77 e (0,019(T-T27J –3ºC)) }

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BIBLIOGRAPHY / REFERENCES

• Anderson T.L, “Fracture Mechanics. Fundamentals and Applications”, 2nd

Edition, CRC Press, Boca Raton (1995).
• Broeck D., Elementary Engineering Fracture Mechanics, Martinus Nijhoff
Pub., La Haya, 1982.
• “SINTAP: Structural Integrity Assessment Procedures for European
Industry”, Brite-Euram Project No. BE95-1426, Contract No. BRPR-CT95-
0024, Final Report, September 1999.

•Engineering Fracture Mechanics, Volume 67, Issue 6, 1 December 2000.

• Dugdale, D.S., “Yielding of steel sheets containing slits”. J. Mech.Phys.

Solids 1960: 8; 100-8.

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C. PROCEDURE APPLICATION
(FITNET)

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• INTRODUCTION
• INPUTS
• ANALYSIS – FAD AND CDF ROUTES
• ANALYSIS OPTIONS
• GUIDANCE ON OPTION SELECTION
• SPECIAL OPTIONS

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INTRODUCTION

INTRODUCTION:
The FITNET Fracture Module is based on fracture mechanics principles and is
applicable to the assessment of metallic structures (with or without welds)
containing actual or postulated flaws.
The purpose of the analysis in this Module is to determine the significance, in
terms of fracture and plastic collapse, of flaws postulated or present in metallic
structures and components.
The procedure is based on the principle that failure is deemed to occur when the
applied driving force acting to extend a crack (the crack driving force) exceeds
the material's ability to resist the extension of that crack. This material 'property'
is called the material's fracture toughness or fracture resistance.

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INTRODUCTION

The procedure can be applied during the design, fabrication or quality control
as well as operational stages of the lifetime of a structure. Certainly, the
procedure is also applicable for the Failure Analysis cases of the failed
components.

a) FITNET at Design Phase

The method can be used for assessing hypothetical planar discontinuities at
the design phase in order to specify the material properties needed, maximum
applicable design stresses, inspection procedures, acceptance criteria and
inspection intervals.

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b) FITNET at Fabrication and Quality Control Phase

The method can be used for fitness-for-purpose assessment during the fabrication
phase. However, this procedure shall not be used to justify shoddy workmanship
and any flaws occurring should be considered on a case by case basis with respect
to fabrication standards.
If non-conforming discontinuities are detected, which cannot be shown to be
acceptable to the present procedure, the normal response shall be:
(i) correcting the fault in the fabrication process causing the discontinuities and
(ii) repairing or replacing the faulty product.

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c) Operational or In-Service Phase

The method can be used to decide whether continued use of a structure or
component is possible and safe despite detected discontinuities or modified
operational conditions.
If during in-service inspection discontinuities are found which have been induced
by load fluctuations and/or environmental effects, these effects must be
considered using suitable methods which may not be described in the present
section (See sections 7, 8 and 9 in FITNET procedure).
The current procedure may be used to show that it is safe to continue operation
until a repair can be carried out in a controlled manner. Further applications of the
method described are the provision of a rationale for modifying potentially
harmful practices and the justification of prolonged service life (life extension).

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INTRODUCTION

In order to cover previous described cases, the fracture analysis of the

component containing a crack or crack-like flaw is expected to be controlled by
the following three parameters:
1) the fracture resistance of the material,
2) the component and crack geometry, and
3) the applied load including secondary loads such as residual
stresses.

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If, as is usually the case, two of these parameters are known the third can be
determined by using the relationships of fracture mechanics.

FRACTURE
RESISTANCE

APPLIED CRACK
LOAD GEOMETRY

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INTRODUCTION

The flowchart illustrates the

determination of critical crack
size, critical load and required
minimum fracture resistance of
the material using FITNET
Fracture Module

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INTRODUCTION

Concerning cracks, the decisions that can be reached using this module are:
a) For design of a new component, structural significance of a postulated crack
can be analysed. The dimensions of this crack shall be chosen such that it will
probably be detected in quality control or in-service inspections.
If a crack of this size is demonstrated not to grow to a critical size over the
projected lifetime of the component then no critical situation should be
expected for the smaller undetected cracks.
Alternatively, a critical crack size can be determined in order to specify
requirements on NDI in quality control and in-service inspections.

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INTRODUCTION

Concerning cracks, the decisions that can be reached using this module are:

b) If a crack is detected in-service, a decision can be made as to decide whether

or not it is critical for the applied loading case. If necessary, the applied load can
be reduced in order to avoid the critical state.

If the analysis is combined with a fatigue crack extension analysis (Fatigue

Module, Section 7, Route 4) the residual lifetime of the component can be
predicted and based on this non-destructive inspection (NDI) intervals can be
specified which ensure a safe further service for a limited time.

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An in-service inspection interval can be specified based on the residual lifetime

that an assumed initial crack given by the NDE detection limit under service
conditions requires to extend to its critical size.

In this case the present module will be part of a fatigue crack extension analysis
(Fatigue Module, Section 7).

Finally, a minimum required fracture resistance of the material can be specified

based on the critical crack size or the NDE detection limit under service
conditions to avoid failure during the projected lifetime of the component.

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INPUTS

INPUTS
STRUCTURAL DATA AND CHARACTERISATION OF FLAWS
It is important to determine the detail and accuracy of the relevant aspects of the
structural data. These include geometric details and tolerances, misalignments,
details of welds, un-fused lands, and details of flaws and their locations, especially
when associated with weld zones.
Although the procedure is aimed at establishing the integrity of a structure in the
presence of planar flaws, the existence of non - planar (volumetric) flaws may also
be of importance.

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STRUCTURAL DATA AND CHARACTERISATION OF FLAWS (cont.)

Defects treated as cracks must be characterised according to the rules given in
the procedure, taking account of the local geometry of the structure and the
proximity of any other flaw.
When determining the flaw tolerance of a structure, or determining or extending
life, all possible locations of flaw should be assessed to ensure that the most
critical region is covered. In the other cases, the actual location of the flaw must
be assessed as realistically as possible.

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INPUTS

LOADS AND STRESSES ON THE STRUCTURE

Stresses need to be evaluated for all conceivable loading conditions, including
non-operational situations, where relevant. Residual stresses due to welding, and
thermal stresses arising from temperature differences or gradients must also be
considered, as must fit-up stresses, and misalignment stresses. Guidance on these
and other aspects and a compendium of weld residual stress profiles are given in
the procedure.

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INPUTS

MATERIAL’S TENSILE PROPERTIES

Tensile data may come in a number of forms as follows:
(a) As specified in the design, or on the test certificates supplied with the
material. One or more of the yield or proof stress, (ultimate) tensile stress and
elongation may be available. These are unlikely to include data at temperatures
other than ambient.
(b) As measured on samples of the material of interest. These data are likely to
be specially collected, and where possible should include full stress strain curves,
obtained on relevant materials, including weld metal, at relevant temperatures.

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MATERIAL’S TENSILE PROPERTIES (cont.)

The quality and type of tensile data available determines the option of the analysis
to be followed. Treatment of the tensile data is described in the procedure. In all
cases, where scatter in the material’s tensile properties exist, the minimum value
should be used to calculate Lr consistent with the option of analysis, while best
estimates should be used to calculate f(Lr) and Lrmax . Similarly, for mismatched
cases, realistic values should be used to calculate the Mismatch Ratio, M and
minimum values used for calculating Lr.

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INPUTS

MATERIAL’S FRACTURE PROPERTIES

All standard and advanced options of analysis require the material’s fracture
properties to be in the form of fracture toughness data. In some circumstances
these may be as specified, or from test certificates supplied with the material,
but in most cases they will be from specially conducted tests.
The fracture data should relate to the material product form, microstructure
(parent material, weld or heat affected zone) and temperatures of interest.
The fracture toughness data can come in different forms, depending on material
type and temperature, and the test procedure adopted. Depending upon the
extent and form of these data, they can be treated in different ways.

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INPUTS

MATERIAL’S FRACTURE PROPERTIES (cont.)

Characteristic values of the fracture toughness, Kmat, Jmat, or δmat, must be chosen
by the user for the analysis. For assessing against the initiation of cracking a
single value of fracture toughness is required, while for assessing in terms of
ductile tearing, characteristic values will be a function of crack growth (Δa). The
value chosen depends upon the confidence option or reliability required of the
result. Appropriate procedures for determining characteristic values of toughness
are given in the procedure.

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MATERIAL’S FRACTURE PROPERTIES (cont.)

Where it is not possible to obtain fracture toughness data, the analyst may use the
default option for initiation where the characteristic value is based upon
correlations with the material’s Charpy impact data. Because this is a correlation,
it is designed to provide a conservative estimate of fracture toughness.
The determination of fracture toughness from Charpy impact data is given in the
Default Procedure (see Section 6.4.1. in FITNET procedure)

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ANALYSIS: FAD AND CDF ROUTES

ANALYSIS: FAD AND CDF ROUTES

Two alternative approaches are proposed in the Fracture Module:

1) The Failure Assessment Diagram (FAD) approach

2) The Crack Driving Force Diagram (CDFD) Approach

A brief description of the alternative approaches follows.

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ANALYSIS: FAD AND CDF ROUTES

THE FAD APPROACH

The failure assessment diagram, FAD, is a plot of the failure envelope of the
cracked structure, defined in terms of two parameters, Kr, and Lr. These
parameters can be defined in several ways, as follows: -
Kr :- The ratio of the applied linear elastic stress intensity factor, KI, to the materials
fracture toughness, Kmat
Lr:- The ratio of the applied stress to the stress to cause plastic yielding of the cracked
structure.

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THE FAD APPROACH (cont.)

The failure envelope is called the Failure Assessment Line and for the basic and
standard options of the procedure is dependent only on the material's tensile
properties, through the equation:

K r = f (Lr )
It incorporates a cut-off at Lr = Lrmax, which defines the plastic collapse limit of
the structure. f(Lr) functions are provided in the procedure (see Section 6 in
FITNET procedure).

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THE FAD APPROACH (cont.)
To use the FAD approach, it is necessary to plot an assessment point, or a set of
assessment points, of co-ordinates (Lr-Kr), calculated under the loading conditions
applicable (given by the loads, crack size, material properties). These points are then
compared with the Failure Assessment Line. Figure on the left gives an example for a
structure analysed using fracture initiation levels of analysis, and Figure on the right
gives an example for a structure that may fail by ductile tearing.

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ANALYSIS: FAD AND CDF ROUTES

THE FAD APPROACH (cont.)

Used this way, the Failure Assessment Line defines the envelope for achievement
of a limiting condition for the loading of the cracked structure, and assessment
points lying on or within this envelope indicate that the structure, as assessed, is
acceptable against this limiting condition. A point which lies outside this
envelope indicates that the structure as assessed has failed to meet this limiting
condition.
Margins and factors can be determined by comparing the assessed condition with
the limiting condition.

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ANALYSIS: FAD AND CDF ROUTES
THE CDF APPROACH
The CDF approach requires calculation of the crack driving force on the
cracked structure as a function of Lr. The crack driving force may be calculated
in units of J or in units of crack opening displacement. Both are derived from
the same basic parameters used in the FAD approach, the linear elastic stress
intensity factor, Kr and Lr. In their simplest forms J is given by:

J = J e [ f (Lr )]
-2

where: J e = K e2 / E '

and E’ is Young's modulus. E for plane stress,

and E/(1-ν2) for plane strain.
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THE CDF APPROACH (cont.)

To use the CDF approach, for the basic option of
analysis, the CDF is plotted as a function of Lr to
values of Lr ≤ Lr max, and a horizontal line is
drawn at the value of CDF equivalent to the
material's fracture toughness. The point where
this line intersects the CDF curve defines the
limiting condition Lr(B). A vertical line is then
drawn at a value of Lr given by the loading
condition being assessed.

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THE CDF APPROACH (cont.)

To use the CDF approach for the higher option of
analysis required for ductile tearing, it is necessary
to plot a CDF curve as a function of crack size at the
load to be assessed.
The material's resistance curve is then plotted, as a
function of crack size originating from the crack size
being assessed. The limiting condition is defined
when these two curves meet at one point only
(tangent). The figure gives an example of this type
of plot.
As for the FAD approach, margins and factors can be assessed, by comparing the
assessed condition with the limiting condition.
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ANALYSIS OPTIONS
There are a number of different options of analysis available to the user, each
being dependent on the quality and detail of the material's property data
available.
The user should be aware that the higher the option of analysis, the higher is the
quality required of the input data, and the more complex are the analysis
routines. Conversely, the lower the option of analysis the more conservative the
result, but the lowest option which gives an acceptable result implies satisfactory
results at higher options.

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The option of analysis is characterised mainly by the detail of the material's

tensile data used. There are three standardised options and three advanced
options, including the special case of a leak before break analysis for pressurised
systems. The different standardised options produce different expressions for
f(Lr) which define the FAD or CDF to be used in the analysis.
A subdivision of the option arises from the details of fracture toughness data
used. There are two options for this, one characterising the initiation of fracture
(whether by ductile or brittle mechanisms), the other characterising crack growth
by ductile tearing. The value of fracture toughness to be used in the FITNET
procedure is termed the characteristic value.

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Next table gives guidance on the

selection of analysis option from
tensile data

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And this table

6.4.1
gives guidance
on the selection
6.3
of analysis
option from
toughness data

6.4.2

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The OPTION 1, is the minimum recommended option. This requires measures

of the material's yield or proof strengths and its tensile strength, and a value of
fracture toughness, Kmat, obtained from at least three fracture toughness test
results which characterise the initiation of brittle fracture or the initiation of
ductile tearing.

For situations where data of this quality can not be obtained, there is a BASIC
OPTION of analysis, which can be based on only the material's yield or proof
strength and its Charpy data. The basic option uses correlations, and as such is
very conservative. It should only be used where there is no alternative.

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In weldments where the difference in yield or proof strength between weld and
parent material is smaller than 10%, the homogeneous procedure can be used for
both under-matching and overmatching; in these cases the lower of the base or
weld metal tensile properties shall be used.
For higher options of mismatch, and for Lr > 0.75, the option of using an OPTION
2 analysis, MISMATCH OPTION, can reduce conservatism. This method requires
knowledge of the yield or proof strengths and tensile strengths of both the base
and weld metals, and also an estimate of the mismatch yield limit load.
It is however, possible to use the procedures for homogeneous materials even
when mismatch is greater than 10%; and provided that the lower of the yield or
proof stress of the parent material or weld metal is used, the analysis will be
conservative.

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The equations used to generate f(Lr) for OPTION 1 and 2 are based upon
conservative estimates of the effects of the materials tensile properties for
situations when complete stress strain curves are not known.
More accurate and less conservative results can be obtained by using the
complete stress strain curve, and this approach is given in OPTION 3 as the SS
(Stress-Strain) option. In this case every detail of the stress strain curve can be
properly represented and where weldment mismatch effects are important these
can also be allowed for.

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The fracture mechanics approach given here (Options up to 3), which is intended
to result in a conservative outcome for the assessment, assumes that the section
containing the flaw has a high level of constraint. In some instances, especially
where the section is thin, or where the loading is predominantly tensile, this
assumption can be over-conservative. In such cases it may be possible to reduce
the conservatism by taking account of the lower constraint. OPTION 4
(Constraint) allows it.

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THE BASIC PROCEDURE

OPTION 1: HOMOGENEOUS MATERIAL - INITIATION OF CRACKING
Applicability
Only the simplest form of material properties data are required for this option of
analysis. The tensile properties needed are yield or proof strength and ultimate
tensile strength, and the characteristic value of the fracture toughness must be
based upon data from at least three fracture toughness test results.

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OPTION 1: HOMOGENEOUS MATERIAL - INITIATION OF CRACKING

Procedure
1. Establish Yield or Proof Strength and Tensile Strength
Mean values of these define the equation for f(Lr) for both the FAD and CDF
approaches and minimum values define Lr for the loading on the structure. It is
important to determine whether or not the material displays, or can be expected to
display, a lower yield plateau or Luder’s strain.
2. Determine f(Lr)
The function f(Lr) must be calculated for all values of Lr ≤ Lr max. The Procedure
provides formulation for different cases of stress-strain curves (see Section 6.3.2.2).

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OPTION 1: HOMOGENEOUS MATERIAL - INITIATION OF CRACKING

3. Determine the Characteristic Value of the Material’s Fracture Toughness
It is recommended that the characteristic value for fracture toughness is obtained
from an analysis of as many test results as possible, taking appropriate account of
the scatter in the data, and the reliability required on the result.
Where there is a large scatter in the data, the most representative values will be
obtained for large data sets, but values can be obtained from as little as three
results. Recommended methods for analysing the data are given in the Procedure
(see Section 6.3.2.2).

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OPTION 1: HOMOGENEOUS MATERIAL - INITIATION OF CRACKING

Where the fracture mechanism is brittle the method uses maximum likelihood
(MML) statistics.
For between 3 and 9 test results there are three stages in the statistical analysis,
plus a correction for the number of specimens in the data set. This imposes a
penalty on the use of small data sets, to make allowance for possible poor
representation of the sample.
For 10 or more test results, only two stages need be performed. However, if it is
known that the material is inhomogeneous, e.g, if it is taken from a weld or heat
affected zone, it is advisable to perform the third stage for indicative purposes.
The choice of characteristic value can then be made with more confidence.

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OPTION 1: HOMOGENEOUS MATERIAL - INITIATION OF CRACKING

Use of the MML method implies acceptance of the weakest link model for brittle
fracture. This also implies crack size dependence. The characteristic value should
be chosen with this in mind. Guidance and the equation for crack size adjustment
is given in the Procedure (see Section 5.4.5.1.2).
Where the fracture mechanism is by ductile tearing, the data must relate to the
onset of ductile tearing as described in the testing standards. The characteristic
values may be obtained from the minimum of three test results or from a
statistical analysis where more than three test results are available.

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OPTION 1: HOMOGENEOUS MATERIAL - INITIATION OF CRACKING

4. Characterise The Crack
This is determined by the shape and size of the defect, or defects, and the
geometry of the structure (see Annex E).
5. Determine Loads and Stresses
All potential forms of loading must be considered, including thermal loading and
residual stresses due to welding, and test, fault and accidental loads. These must
be classified into primary and secondary stresses.
For the purposes of this procedure, secondary stresses cannot affect the failure of
the structure under plastic collapse conditions, and all other stresses must be
classed as primary.
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OPTION 1: HOMOGENEOUS MATERIAL - INITIATION OF CRACKING

Plasticity effects due to primary stresses are evaluated automatically by means of
the expression f(Lr). However, further allowance has to be made for plasticity
effects due to secondary stresses, and due to the combination of primary and
secondary stresses. These are incorporated by means of a parameter defined as ρ
and which is dependent on both Lr and the stress intensity factor due to the
secondary stress. Guidance for stress characterisation and the calculation of ρ is
given in the Procedure (see 5.3.1.12).

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OPTION 1: HOMOGENEOUS MATERIAL - INITIATION OF CRACKING

6. Analysis
1,2
Step 6 in the procedure has the following sub-
steps, depending on the approach chosen: 1,0 6.a.1
(a) FAD Approach 0,8

6.a.1. Plot the FAD, using mean tensile properties Kr 0,6

and the appropriate expressions for f(Lr), where

the FAD is a plot of Kr = f(Lr) on Lr and Kr axes. 0,4

6.a.2. Calculate Lr for the loading on the structure 0,2 6.a.2

at the crack size of interest, using minimum 0,0
values of tensile properties, taking into account 0,0 0,2 0,4 0,6
Lr
0,8 1,0 1,2

only primary loads.

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OPTION 1: HOMOGENEOUS MATERIAL -

INITIATION OF CRACKING 1,2

6.a.3. Calculate Kr for the loading on the 1,0

structure at the crack size of interest. In the 0,8 6.a.3

6.a.4
calculation of Kr, all primary and secondary
Kr 0,6
loads need to be included, plus an allowance
for plasticity effects due to secondary stresses 0,4

by means of the parameter ρ. 0,2

6.a.4. With co-ordinates {Lr,Kr} plot the 0,0

0,0 0,2 0,4 0,6 0,8 1,0 1,2
Assessment Point on the FAD. Lr

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OPTION 1: HOMOGENEOUS MATERIAL - INITIATION OF CRACKING

1,2
6.a.5. If the assessment point lies within the
assessment line the analysis has shown that 1,0 go to step 8

the structure is acceptable in terms of the 0,8

limiting conditions imposed by the analysis
Kr 0,6 go to step 7
option pursued. Go to Step 7 of the procedure. go to step 8
If the assessment point lies on or outside the 0,4

assessment line, the structure is not acceptable 0,2

in terms of the limiting conditions imposed.
Go to step 8 of the procedure. 0,0
0,0 0,2 0,4 0,6 0,8 1,0 1,2
Lr

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OPTION 1: HOMOGENEOUS MATERIAL - INITIATION OF CRACKING
(b) CDF Analysis using J
6.b.1. Calculate Je as a function of the applied
loads on the structure at the crack size of interest J 6.b.1
6.b.2
where Je = K2/E´, taking into account all primary
and secondary loads. At this stage it is also
necessary to calculate the allowance for plasticity J(Lr)
due to the secondary stresses, ρ.
6.b.2. Plot the CDF (J) using mean tensile
properties and the appropriate expression for f(Lr)
where the CDF(J) is a plot of J = Je[f(Lr)-ρ]-2 on Lr Lr
and J axes for values of Lr ≤ Lr max. Draw a vertical
Lrmax
line at Lr = Lr max.
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OPTION 1: HOMOGENEOUS MATERIAL - INITIATION OF CRACKING

6.b.3. Identify the point on the CDF (J) curve J

where J = Jmat.
6.b.3
6.b.4. Calculate Lr for the loading on the Jmat
structure at the crack size of interest using J(Lr)
minimum values of tensile properties, and
draw a vertical line at this value to intersect the Jstr
CDF (J) curve at Jstr.
6.b.4
Lr
Lr Lrmax

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OPTION 1: HOMOGENEOUS MATERIAL - INITIATION OF CRACKING

6.b.5. If Jstr is less than Jmat, and Lr for the J

structure is less than Lr max, the analysis has
Jmat go to step 8
shown that the structure is acceptable in Jmat
terms of the limiting conditions imposed by J(Lr)
the analysis option pursued. Go to step 7.
Jstr
If either Jstr is greater than Jmat, or Lr for the go to step 7
go to step 8
structure is greater than Lr max , the structure
is not acceptable in terms of the limiting Lr
conditions. Go to step 8 in procedure. Lr Lrmax Lr

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OPTION 1: HOMOGENEOUS MATERIAL - INITIATION OF CRACKING
(c) CDF Approach using δ
6.c.1. Calculate δe as a function of the applied δ 6.c.1
loads on the structure at the crack size of interest, 6.c.2
where δe=K2/E´·Re, taking into account all
primary and secondary loads. At this stage it is
also necessary to calculate the allowance for δ(Lr)
plasticity due to the secondary stresses, ρ.
6.c.2. Plot the CDF (δ) using mean tensile
properties and the appropriate expression for Lr
(step 2 Section I.4.2.2) where the CDF (δ) is a Lr
plot of δ = δe[f(Lr)-ρ]-2 on Lr and δ axes for
values of Lr ≤ Lr max . Draw a vertical line at Lr = Lrmax
Lr max .
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OPTION 1: HOMOGENEOUS MATERIAL - INITIATION OF CRACKING

6.c.3. Identify the point on the CDF (δ) δ

curve where δ = δmat. 6.c.3
δmat
6.c.4. Calculate Lr for the loading on the
δ(Lr)
structure at the crack size of interest
using minimum values of tensile
δstr
properties and draw a vertical line at this
value to intersect the CDF (δ) curve at
δstr. 6.c.4
Lr
Lr Lrmax

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OPTION 1: HOMOGENEOUS MATERIAL - INITIATION OF CRACKING

6.c.5. If δstr is less than δmat, and Lr for the δ Japp (P2)
structure is less than Lr max, the analysis has
shown that the structure is acceptable in δmat go to step 8

terms of the limiting conditions imposed by δmat

the analysis option pursued. Go to step 7 in δ(Lr)
the procedure.
δstr
If either δstr is greater than δmat, or Lr for the go to step 7
go to step 8

structure is greater than Lr max, the structure Lr

is not acceptable in terms of the limiting
conditions. Go to step 8. Lr Lrmax Lr

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OPTION 1: HOMOGENEOUS MATERIAL - INITIATION OF CRACKING
7. Assess Result
The result must be assessed in terms of the reliability required taking into account
the uncertainties in the input data. If the result is acceptable the analysis can be
concluded and reported as appropriate.
8. Unacceptable result
If the result is unacceptable, it may be possible to proceed to a higher option of
analysis. The Procedure gives guidelines to determine how best to proceed (see
6.3.2).
For a FAD analysis, the guidelines are based upon the ratio Kr/Lr defined under the
loading conditions of the analysis.
For a CDF analysis, the guidelines are based upon the value of Lr obtained when
defining a limiting load for the structure.
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OPTION 1: HOMOGENEOUS MATERIAL - INITIATION OF CRACKING

(a) If Kr/Lr > 1.1 or Lr(L) < 0.8, the result will be relatively insensitive to
refinements in the tensile data. In this case, the result can be made acceptable
only if Kr can be reduced. This may be done either by reducing the value of KI
by using a more accurate method of calculation, or by accepting a higher value
of Kmat.
For materials failing by a brittle fracture mechanism Kmat may be raised by
increasing the number of test results used in the MML analysis, which may
necessitate the testing of more specimens.
For materials failing by ductile tearing, Kmat may be increased by performing a
ductile tearing analysis which takes account of the increase in fracture
toughness due to ductile tearing.
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OPTION 1: HOMOGENEOUS MATERIAL - INITIATION OF CRACKING
(b) If Kr/Lr < 0.4 or Lr(L) > 1.2, the result will be relatively insensitive to
refinements in the fracture toughness data.
In this case, the result can only be made acceptable by refining the tensile data, thus
changing the form of f(Lr) and reducing the values of Lr calculated for the loading
on the structure.
For situations of weld mismatch, where only yield and ultimate tensile data are
known, employment of OPTION 2 may give more acceptable results.
For situations where the full stress strain curve is known, employment of the more
accurate OPTION 3 analysis may provide the necessary improvements.
The analysis should be repeated, modifying steps 1 and 2 and details of step 6, as
required.
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ANALYSIS OPTIONS

OPTION 1: HOMOGENEOUS MATERIAL - INITIATION OF CRACKING

If 1.1 > Kr/Lr > 0.4 or 1.2 > Lr(L) > 0.8, the result can be affected by
refinements in either or both fracture toughness data and tensile data (and/or
refinements in KI), following the guidelines given in steps 8(a) and 8(b) above.
The result may also be influenced by constraint, especially where 1.1 > Kr/Lr >
0.4 or 1.2 > Lr(L) > 0.8. An advanced method (OPTION 4), giving guidelines
on how to allow for constraint effects is described in detail in the procedure
that also provides for a further advanced option for situations where a
numerical J-integral is preferred (OPTION 5).

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ANALYSIS OPTIONS

OPTION 1: HOMOGENEOUS
MATERIAL - INITIATION
OF CRACKING
A summary of FAD regions for
consideration of potential
refinement of data or analysis
option is shown in the figure.

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ANALYSIS OPTIONS

OPTION 1: HOMOGENEOUS MATERIAL - INITIATION OF CRACKING

In certain circumstances, especially where data are extensive and very well
documented, it may be possible to perform a full probability analysis.
Suggestions for performing a probability analysis based upon the FAD approach
are given in FITNET (see Section 11.10).
If none of these avenues can be followed, the integrity of the flawed structure
cannot be demonstrated and appropriate action should be taken.

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ANALYSIS OPTIONS

THE MISMATCH PROCEDURE

OPTION 2 ANALYSIS - WELD TO BASE METAL YIELD STRENGTH
MISMATCH GREATER THAN 10%
Applicability
In the case of weldments where the differences in yield strengths between the
base material and the weld metal is greater than 10 %, the joint may behave as a
heterogeneous bi-metallic joint. In such cases, use of minimum values of yield
strength in the joint to define Lr may be over-conservative.
The mismatch option provides a method for reducing the conservatism by
allowing for separate contributions of the base material (denoted B) and the weld
material (denoted W).

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ANALYSIS OPTIONS

OPTION 2 ANALYSIS - WELD TO

BASE METAL YIELD STRENGTH
MISMATCH GREATER THAN 10%

The mis-match ratio is defined by

the relation between yield or proof
stress in weld material and yield or
proof stress in base material

Definition of mis-match ratio M

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ANALYSIS OPTIONS

OPTION 2 ANALYSIS - WELD TO BASE METAL YIELD STRENGTH

MISMATCH GREATER THAN 10%
This option can only be used where there is available an estimate of the yield
limit load under the mismatch conditions. This is dependent on the geometry of
the joint and the flaw location within the joint. Solutions for some common
geometries are given in the Procedure (see Annex B).
It should be recognised that weld tensile properties may vary through the
thickness of a component and may be dependent on specimen orientation. The
range of weld metal microstructures sampled can often lead to a high degree of
scatter. The use of the lowest tensile properties irrespective of orientation and
position is necessary to provide a conservative result.

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ANALYSIS OPTIONS

OPTION 2 ANALYSIS - WELD TO BASE METAL YIELD STRENGTH

MISMATCH GREATER THAN 10%
Three combinations of stress strain behaviour are possible.
• Both base and weld metal exhibit continuous yielding behaviour
• Both base and weld metal exhibit a lower yield plateau
• One of the materials exhibits a lower yield plateau and the other has a
continuous stress strain curve.
The Option 2 analysis is performed using FADs and CDFs derived using values
of Lr and f(Lr) for an equivalent material with tensile properties derived under the
mismatch conditions (see 6.3.3).

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ANALYSIS OPTIONS

OPTION 2 ANALYSIS - WELD TO BASE METAL YIELD STRENGTH

MISMATCH GREATER THAN 10%
In general, for all combinations of yield behaviour, this requires calculation of the
mismatch ratio, M, a mismatch limit load, FeM, a value for Lr max under the
mismatch conditions, a value for N under the mismatch conditions and similar
values for µ or λ, all of which are defined in the procedure (see Section 6.3.3).
Advice for calculating the mismatch limit load is given and this also contains
solutions for some typical geometries (see Annex B).
Note that the mismatch limit load depends not only upon the mismatch ratio but
also on the location of the flaw within the weldment.

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ANALYSIS OPTIONS

FE BASED PROCEDURE
OPTION 3, KNOWN STRESS-STRAIN CURVES
Applicability
This option of analysis can be used where the full stress strain curves are known.
Where there is scatter in the data, a composite curve should be used to describe
the best estimate for the calculation of f(Lr) otherwise the lowest of all available
stress strain curves should be used.
In situations where there is a mismatch in the weld and base material proof or
yield strengths in excess of 10 % the mismatch option may be employed. This is
based upon the concept of an equivalent mismatch material and requires an
estimate of the yield limit load under the mismatch conditions.

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ANALYSIS OPTIONS
ANALYSIS OPTION 4 (J-INTEGRAL ANALYSIS)
In some situations estimates of the J-integral may be
available from a numerical stress analysis of the cracked J Japp (P2)
body. In these cases an analysis may be performed using Japp (P3) Japp (P2)
this value of the J-integral directly. If such an analysis
JR(Δa)
provides enough information to make plots of J as a
function of load, or as a function of crack size, these
values of J may be used to construct a CDF J diagram
failure
from which an initiation or a tearing analysis may be
performed. As this method requires numerical methods a
a0
such as finite elements, further detail of this approach is
not covered in this procedure.
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ANALYSIS OPTIONS

CONSTRAINT ANALYSIS
OPTION 5: ALLOWING FOR REDUCED AMOUNTS OF CONSTRAINT
Associated with assessment procedures for analysis options 1 to 3, are reserve
factors which indicate a proximity to a limiting condition. The limiting
condition incorporates an element of conservatism so that, in general, the
reserves in the structure are underestimated.
A particular conservatism implicit in the procedure arises from the value of Kmat
being derived from deeply cracked bend or compact tension specimens
recommended in the testing standards. These are designed to ensure plain strain
conditions and/or high hydrostatic stresses near the crack tip to provide a
minimum value, and then, a conservative estimate of the material's resistance to
fracture which is relatively independent of geometry.
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ANALYSIS OPTIONS
OPTION 5: ALLOWING FOR REDUCED AMOUNTS OF CONSTRAINT
However, there is considerable experience that the material's resistance to
fracture increases when the loading is predominantly tensile, and when the
crack depths are shallow. These situations lead to lower hydrostatic stresses at
the crack tip, referred to as lower constraint.
In order to claim benefit for a situation where the constraint is reduced over that
in the test specimen, it is necessary to perform additional calculations and to
have more information on fracture toughness properties.
Benefits are usually greatest for shallow cracks subject to tensile loads, but
guidance on the cases where greatest benefit can be obtained is contained in the
procedure. The methodology for determining the constraint benefit is also
described in detail in the FITNET procedure (see Section 6.4.3).
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ANALYSIS OPTIONS

OPTION 5: ALLOWING FOR REDUCED AMOUNTS OF CONSTRAINT

When the FAD route is followed, two alternative procedures set out in Sections
6.4.3.3.1 and 6.4.3.3.2 can be used. The first involves a modification to the FAD
but retains the definition of Kr. The second retains the FAD of Section 6.3.2 but
modifies the definition of Kr. Guidance on how to perform these steps is
contained in Section 6.4.3.3.4 along with guidance on assessing the significance
of the results. This latter guidance, in Section 6.4.3.3.4.6, may be useful in
deciding which of the two procedures to follow.
With the CDF approach, a modified toughness procedure is used. The procedure
follows the steps in Section 6.3.2.3 apart from steps detailed in Section 6.4.3.3.3.

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GUIDANCE ON OPTION SELECTION
GUIDANCE ON OPTION SELECTION
Introduction
FITNET Procedure sets out a step-by-step procedure for assessing the integrity of
structures containing defects.
To assist the user, the section provides guidance on selection of the various routes in
the procedure. Additionally, the potential decisions necessary at the various options
are briefly summarised and guidance on the benefits of consulting advice contained
in the appropriate section is given.
Note, however, that the guidance on selection of routes is not meant to be
prescriptive or to obviate the need for a sensitivity study, which may involve
comparison of these alternative routes.
The recommendations given below refer in many cases to specific regions of the
Failure Assessment Diagram (similar situations can be obtained in CDF analysis).
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GUIDANCE ON OPTION SELECTION

Selection of Failure Assessment Diagram

•The BASIC OPTION curve is the easiest to apply and requires only the yield
stress to be known;
•OPTION 1 is applicable to homogeneous materials and requires a knowledge of
the ultimate strength as well as the yield strength;
•OPTION 2 is a specific mis-match assessment option and requires knowledge of
yield stress and ultimate tensile stress of base metal and weld metal.
•OPTION 3 requires additional information on the material stress-strain
properties and can be applied to homogeneous materials or those cases where
weld strength mis-match is an issue;

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GUIDANCE ON OPTION SELECTION

Selection of Failure Assessment

Diagram
•OPTION 4 requires results of
detailed elastic-plastic analysis of
the defective component while
OPTION 5 invokes constraint
treatment.

Simplified Structure of the Fracture Assessment Procedure

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GUIDANCE ON OPTION SELECTION

To assist in deciding whether or not to choose one of the more complex Options,
the following information may be noted.
•At low values of load, typically Lr ≤ 0.8, the shape of the failure assessment
curve is dominated by small-scale yielding corrections and all four Options are
likely to produce similar curves. There is, therefore, likely to be little benefit in
going to a higher Option for Lr ≤ 0.8.
Note, however, that the relevant range of Lr values should include not only those
at the load and crack size being assessed but also those at any limiting conditions
used to derive margins or factors.
•For materials, which exhibit significant strain hardening beyond yield, such as
austenitic stainless steels, Option 3 curves are close to Option 1.

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GUIDANCE ON OPTION SELECTION

• For materials with a Lüders strain, there is conservatism in the Option 1 and 3
curves for Lr > 1 for geometries not loaded in simple tension, i.e. where there is
significant bending in the plane of the defect. Going to Option 4 may reduce this
conservatism.
• For surface defects, significant conservatism can arise from the use of a local,
rather than a global, limit load. Such conservatism can be quantified by detailed
analysis leading to a Option 4 curve. In principle the Option 4 curve can be
based on either the local or global limit load, but whichever is chosen must be
used in the calculation of Lr. It is preferable to use the global limit load as
otherwise the cut-off at Lr max may be imposed at loads which correspond to only
small plastic strains.

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GUIDANCE ON OPTION SELECTION

Selection of Analysis Methods: Initiation and Tearing

The use of initiation fracture toughness values is the usual approach. The
following guidance is given for those cases where it may be appropriate to
invoke ductile tearing.
• Greatest benefit arises from the use of ductile tearing for materials with a steep
JR fracture resistance (J-Δa) curve, i.e.. where toughness for small amounts of
ductile tearing is significantly greater than the initiation toughness.
• Greatest benefit occurs when the component and defect dimensions, such as
crack size, section thickness and remaining ligament, are much greater than the
amount of ductile tearing being considered. This latter amount is usually about 1-
2 mm as this is typically the limit of valid data collected on test specimens of
standard size.
• When moving to a tearing analysis, care must be taken to account for any
interactions between tearing and other modes of crack growth.
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GUIDANCE ON OPTION SELECTION

SPECIAL OPTIONS
The FITNET Procedure presents methodologies for the assessment of specific
common technical problems:
•Basic Level of analysis, Option 0 (see Section 6.4.1)
•Ductile tearing analysis (see Section 6.4.2)
•Allowance for constraint effects (see Section 6.4.3)

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SPECIAL OPTIONS
Also, the Procedure provides alternative and specific assessments for fracture:
•Leak before break (see Section 11.2)
•Crack arrest (see Section 11.3)
•Load history effect (see Section 11.4)
•Evaluation under Mode I, II and III loads (see Section 11.5)
•Master Curve (see Section 11.6)
•Probability and Reliability (see Section 11.7)

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D. EXAMPLES

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VALIDATION EXAMPLE
Planar Wide Plates
•Introduction
•Geometry and Imput Data
•Materials
•Toughness
•Formulation and Calculus
•Diagrams
•Results
•Analysis
•Bibliography/References

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INTRODUCTION

•Description: 7 wide plates with different Y/T ratio

•Defect: Semi-elliptical Finite Surface Crack
•Different Quality in Tensile Data
•Different Toughness Data: Charpy and CTOD
•Different Crack Sizes (Nominal and Real Values)
•Calculation of Critical Stress for a given Crack
•Total: 63 calculations
•Experimental Values Available. Evaluation of Reserve Factors

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GEOMETRY AND INPUT DATA

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MATERIALS

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TOUGHNESS

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FORMULATION AND CALCULUS

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DIAGRAMS

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DIAGRAMS

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DIAGRAMS

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DIAGRAMS

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RESULTS

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ANALYSIS

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BIBLIOGRAPHY / REFERENCES

• Ruiz Ocejo J. and Gutiérrez-Solana F., “SINTAP Validation Report”, June 1999

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CASE STUDY EXAMPLE

Hip Implant

• Introduction: The Case Study

• Geometry
• Material Properties
• Objectives
• Failure Analysis
• Summary

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INTRODUCTION: THE CASE STUDY

Fatigue propagation

Hip implant
Microvoids of the
fracture surface

Base material (Ti-Al-V)

Fatigue initation at
the Ti coating where
some notches were
observed Irregular Ti
coating
Coating (hidroxiapatite)

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GEOMETRY

Crack front at
critical condition
Crack propagation by fatigue

Maximum load

Scheme of the
a = 6.5 mm D = 10 mm
working contitions
Schema of the fracture surface

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MATERIAL PROPERTIES

KIC = 110 MPa·m 1/2

σY = 895 MPa
σu = 1000 MPa
E = 114 GPa
da/dN = 3.54 10-14*(ΔK)4.19
when ΔK is given in MPam0.5 and
da/dN in m/cycles

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OBJECTIVES:

- FAILURE ANALYSIS
- NUMBER OF CYCLES BEFORE FAILURE CONSIDERING AN
INITIAL DEFFECT OF O.1 mm.

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FAILURE ANALYSIS:

DETERMINATION OF THE LOAD SUPPORTED AS A

FUNCTION OF THE FRACTURE PARAMETERS:

stress state = compression + pure bend

σ T,max = σF - σC
where:

σF = 32·M/π·D3
σC = 4·P/ π·D2

Failure
section

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FAILURE ANALYSIS:

Many studies have been developed in order to know the peak forces that appear in a hip implant
when the patient is walking. A value of 2.5 BW (Body Weight) seems to be reasonable.
Three different steps are distinguished during the process that starts with the operation and
finishes with the failure of the hip implant:

•Crack nucleation: It is considered very short, because there are defects at t = 0

•Quick propagation: We are going to consider that the patient has a “normal” activity. We will
supose that he/she walks 2 hours per day with 1 step per second (0.5 cycles/second). Peak forces are
2.5 BW.
•“Slow” propagation: After the propagation of the second step, the patient starts to suffer pain.
Therefore, he/she reduces his/her activity (1 hour/day) and uses crutches. Peak forces are now 1.0
BW. Failure occurs in this step, so if we want to obtain the load that produces it, no dynamic effect
has to be considered.
The whole process takes 9 months.

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FAILURE ANALYSIS:
-The stress intensity factor, which characterises the stress state in the crack front, is defined by the
expression:
KI = σ·YF(a/D)·(π·a)1/2
Crack Crack front at
where: propagation by critical
fatigue condition

σ : normal stress applied to the section

Crack front a : crack size (a = 6.5 mm)
D : section diameter (D = 10 mm)
YF = geometric factor. In this case, this acquires a value of:

YF (a/D) = g·(0.953 + 0.199·(1 - sin (ψ))4) = 1.41

g = 0.5857·(tan ψ) / ψ)0.5 / cos ψ (API 579)
ψ = π·a/4·R

YF (a/D) = 1.04 - 3.64·(a/D) + 16.86· (a/D)2 -32.59·(a/D)3 + 28.41·(a/D)4 = 1.92

(API 579) a = 6.5 mm D = 10 mm
Schema of the fracture surface

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FAILURE ANALYSIS:
- CLASSIC LEFM.
Some simplifications have been established for this analysis in order to make the calculations easier and
more accesible. These include:
- Working with the piece in projection
- Analysis of the stress intensity factor as if the element were working in pure bend
- Fracture toughness of the material according to reference value

KI = KIC

σ· Y(a/D)·(π·0.0065)1/2 = 110 σ = 401 MPa σ = 546 MPa

σ = 32·M/π·D3 - 4·P/ π·D2 P = 1.17 kN P = 1.66 kN

However, these simplifications do not justify the high value resulting from load P (1.66 kN / 1.17 kN) at the
moment of fracture, with reference to the average weight of a person (0.75 kN).

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FAILURE ANALYSIS:

- LIMIT LOAD SOLUTION.

A second hypothesis of fracture has been considered: the generalised plastification of the remaining
ligament in the cracked section. Therefore a FAD will be used. Considering the yield stress 895 MPa,
it is obtained that the limit load is 0.56 kN for a straight front crack and 0.89 kN for a semicircular crack,
much closer to the average weight of a person and in any case much lower than the critical size of the fracture
hypothesis.
P
35 ·P
ΣMload = ΣMstress
AT ANY POINT
σy
σy
ΣFload = ΣFstress

x
WE CAN OBTAIN P AND x.
P = 0.566 kN (straight front crack)
P = 0.895 kN (semicircular crack)

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FAILURE ANALYSIS:

FAD:

Default level: P = 0,566 kN P = 0.895 kN

Level 1: P = 0,582 kN P = 0.915 kN

1) Loading critical conditions according

to normal weight (real situation: 0.735
kN).
2) Final failure due to plastic collapse of
residual ligament.
3) Good agreement with fractographic
analisys and common sense.

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FAILURE ANALYSIS:
DETERMINATION OF THE CRACK GROWTH TIME UNTIL CRITICAL SIZE IS REACHED:

-The fatigue crack growth time is adjusted to a Paris law, which has been taken from the bibliography and is given by
equation:
da/dN = 3.54 10-14*(ΔK)4.19 (1)
when ΔK is given in MPam0.5 and da/dN in m/cycle

- The load cycle to which the element is subjected varies from 0, support from the other leg or repose, up to 631.5 MPa,
corresponding to the weight of 0.735 kN and peak forces of 2.5 BW. Thus the ΔKI will have a value, depending on a, given by

ΔKI = YF(a/D) ·631.5 ·(π·a)1/2 (2)

-Taking as the initial crack length ao = 0.1 mm, introducing expression (2) in (1) and integrating this, the number of cycles
required for the crack to reach the critical size of 6.5 mm is obtained. The number is between 145.738 cycles (straight front
crack) and 539.088 (semicircular crack).

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FAILURE ANALYSIS:
DETERMINATION OF THE CRACK GROWTH TIME UNTIL CRITICAL SIZE IS REACHED:

a (mm) a med (mm) Y (straight) Y (f.semic.) ΔN (straight) ΔN (semic.) N (straight) N (semic.)

0,1 - 0,5 0,30 0,945 0,660 108999 490750 108999 490750
0,5 - 1 0,75 0,849 0,644 18829 59855 127828 550605
1 - 1,5 1,25 0,792 0,635 7961 20040 135789 570645
1,5 - 2 1,75 0,771 0,635 4294 9709 140083 580354
2 - 2,5 2,25 0,776 0,643 2449 5377 142533 585731
2,5 - 3 2,75 0,799 0,661 1420 3139 143953 588870
3 - 3,5 3,25 0,836 0,689 824 1857 144777 590727
3,5 - 4 3,75 0,889 0,728 471 1089 145248 591816
4 - 4,5 4,25 0,963 0,781 259 623 145507 592438
4,5 - 5 4,75 1,069 0,852 133 343 145640 592781
5 - 5,5 5,25 1,218 0,945 62 180 145702 592961
5,5 - 6 5,75 1,431 1,071 26 88 145728 593049
6 - 6,5 6,25 1,729 1,242 10 40 145738 593088
BW = 2.5 N TOTAL

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FAILURE ANALYSIS:
DETERMINATION OF THE CRACK GROWTH TIME UNTIL CRITICAL SIZE IS REACHED:

a (mm) a med (mm) Y (straight) Y (f.semic.) ΔN (straight) Δ N (semic.) N (straight) N (semic.)

0,1 - 0,5 0,30 0,945 0,660 5067464 22815433 5067464 22815433
0,5 - 1 0,75 0,849 0,644 667745 2122708 5735208 24938140
1 - 1,5 1,25 0,792 0,635 291380 733428 6026589 25671568
1,5 - 2 1,75 0,771 0,635 158425 358205 6185014 26029773
2 - 2,5 2,25 0,776 0,643 90659 199035 6275672 26228808
2,5 - 3 2,75 0,799 0,661 52641 116360 6328313 26345168
3 - 3,5 3,25 0,836 0,689 30590 68903 6358903 26414071
3,5 - 4 3,75 0,889 0,728 17494 40417 6376397 26454488
4 - 4,5 4,25 0,963 0,781 9609 23124 6386006 26477612
4,5 - 5 4,75 1,069 0,852 4930 12740 6390936 26490352
5 - 5,5 5,25 1,218 0,945 2305 6673 6393241 26497025
5,5 - 6 5,75 1,431 1,071 970 3275 6394211 26500299
6 - 6,5 6,25 1,729 1,242 369 1478 6394580 26501777
BW = 1.0 N TOTAL

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FAILURE ANALYSIS:
DETERMINATION OF THE CRACK GROWTH TIME UNTIL CRITICAL SIZE IS REACHED.
INTERPRETATION OF RESULTS:

According with the conditions proposed for

straight front semicircular front
“normal” life (2.5 BW), the cycles obtained
represent between 1.3 and 4.6 months of 700000

quick propagation before failure, 600000

depending on the crack front shape.

Number of cycles, N
500000
However, the propagation under these
conditions finished a few thousands of 400000

cycles before, when the patient starts to feel 300000

pain and, then, a new stage starts under
new loading conditions (1.0 BW). The 200000

Figure shows that wherever the quick 100000

propagation finishes, it takes around
0
140000 cycles in case the crack front is 0,00 1,00 2,00 3,00 4,00 5,00 6,00 7,00
straight or 500000 cycles in case the crack crack length (mm)
front is semicircular.

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FAILURE ANALYSIS:

DETERMINATION OF THE CRACK GROWTH TIME UNTIL CRITICAL SIZE IS REACHED.

INTERPRETATION OF RESULTS:
Considering that there is no nucleation time due to the notch effect and adding a quick propagation step
of 1.3 months (equivalent to near 140.000 cycles) for a straight front crack and 4.6 months (equivalent to
near 500.000 cycles) for a semicircular crack, the duration of the final stage (BW=1.0) can be obtained.
This is 7.7 months for a straight front and 4.4 months for a semicircular front. This is equivalent to
415.800 and 237.600 cycles respectively. If we start to count the cycles from the end to the beginning of
the process, we obtain that such numbers are the amount of cycles that are necessary for a growth from
1.5 mm to 6.5 mm (straight) or from 2.0 mm to 6.5 mm (semicircular). As a summary, a fatigue process
can be suggested as follows:
-No crack nucleation, as initial notches of 0.1 mm have been detected.
-STAGE 1: Propagation with dynamic effects, from 0.1 mm to a value between 1.5 and 2.0 mm. Taking
mean values, this would take about 3 months (between 1.3 and 4.6).
-STAGE 2: Propagation without dynamic effects. This takes the rest of the implant life (an average of 6
months).

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SUMMARY:

Incubation Quick propagation Propagation

without dynamic
effect

STRAIGHT 0 months 1.3 months/ 7.7 months/

FRONT CRACK 1.5 mm 6.5 mm

SEMICIRCULAR 0 months 4.5 months/ 4.5 months/

CRACK 2.0 mm 6.5 mm

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CASE STUDY EXAMPLE

Forklift

• Introduction: The Case Study

• Geometry
• Material Properties
• Failure Analysis
• Conclusions
• Bibliography

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INTRODUCTION: THE CASE STUDY

A fork of a forklift broke in a brittle manner

during transportation of an aluminium block
of a weight of less than 3.5 tonnes, while the
load carrying capacity the load was designed
for is 3.5 tonnes.
The failure happened at a temperature of
10ºC
The aim of the present investigation is to
figure out whether failure had to be expected
for nominal loading and material conditions
or if any other reason such as overloading or
deficient material properties were the reason
of failure.

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GEOMETRY

The dimensions of the relevant cross section where fracture occurred are shown in the
figure.

Failure analysis revealed that failure occurred at the bottom hole originating from small
edge cracks at the front face at either side of the hole. The crack lengths at surface were 3
and 10 mm respectively.

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MATERIAL PROPERTIES
The engineering stress-strain curve of the
material is shown in the figure. Five tests
where carried out but only the lowest curve
was used for the analysis. The true stress-
strain curve are determined by:

The fracture toughness was determined in

terms of the CTOD according to the BS
7448. The result was δc =0.02 mm,
corresponding to Kmat =49.7 MPam1/2.

Charpy tests were performed as well. The

results were:

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FAILURE ANALYSIS (I)

The loading type was predominantly bending, which would have allowed for the
application of a simple analytical model for determining the bending stress.
However, in order to consider also the membrane stress component, a finite
element analysis was carried out, which gave the stress profile shown in the figure.

Based on this information σb =209 MPa and σm=2 MPa were determined. These
values refer to one half of the nominal applied force of 35 KN, which the fork lift
was designed for.
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FAILURE ANALYSIS (II)

The two edge cracks are substituted by one through crack whose dimensions
include the hole diameter as demonstrated in the figure. For simplicity the crack is
assumed to be of constant length 2c over the wall thickness.

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FAILURE ANALYSIS (III)

FAD analysis require the obtainment of parameters Lr and Kr. Here is the SINTAP
formulation for the case studied:

Lr= F/FY = σ ref /σY

Kr= KI/KC

fAm=1 and fAb=1 for point A and fBm=1 and fBb=−1 for point B

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FAILURE ANALYSIS (IV)

Default, Basic and Advanced level can be performed.

DEFAULT level formulation:

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FAILURE ANALYSIS (V)

BASIC level formulation:

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FAILURE ANALYSIS (VI)

ADVANCED level formulation:

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FAILURE ANALYSIS (VII)

As the final result the critical crack size was determined to be
• 2c = 10.35 mm (default level analysis)
• 2c = 33.2 mm (basic level analysis)
• 2c = 35.6 mm (advanced level analysis).
Compared to the real overall surface dimension of the
edge cracks at failure of 45.5 mm the predictions were
conservative by
• 77.28% (default level analysis)
• 27.03% (basic level analysis)
• 21.75% (advanced level analysis)

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CONCLUSIONS

In conclusion, it can be stated that the failure occurred as the

consequence of inadequate design and not of inadmissible
handling such as overloading. The failure could have been
avoided by applying fracture mechanics in the design stage.
The SINTAP algorithm was shown to be an easy but suitable
tool for this purpose

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BIBLIOGRAPHY

Gubeljak, N., Zerbst, U., Predan, J., and Oblak, M., “Application of the
european SINTAP procedure to the failure analysis of a broken forklift”,
Engineering Failure Analysis, Vol. 11, pp. 33-47, 2004

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II. TRAINING PACKAGE ON FATIGUE

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A. BASIC CONCEPTS

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FATIGUE
FATIGUE DEFINITION

- Engineering : type of failure in materials that implies initiation and

propagation of cracks in components subjected to cyclic loading that,
generally, do not exceed the yield stress of the material.

- Science : behaviour of a material subjected to cyclic loads that implies plastic

deformations, crack nucleation and propagation and failure.

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FATIGUE
FATIGUE IMPORTANCE

- Basic idea: Monotonous loads do not produce fatigue damage. Loads must
be variable
- Examples: from 19th century (bridges in UK) to now (ships, planes,..)
many registered accidents.
- Design: Fatigue design of structures and components supported by procedures,
Eurocode, ASME, API,..

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FATIGUE
FATIGUE ASSESSMENT
Focusing the problem

• Fatigue life assessment can be performed in two ways:

I. Estimation of the total life of the component, including incubation
period.
II. Life determination through the propagation, supposing the
presence of existing conditions (cracks and a stress intensity factor
amplitude or variation) over the threshold ones.

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FATIGUE
FATIGUE ASSESSMENT
Focusing the problem

I. Estimation of Total Life is the classical way (Wöhler, Basquin, Goodman).

¾Based on experimental and statistical studies, life can be determined from the
knowledge of the applied stresses or the existent strains. The design parameter
is the endurance
¾This approach distinguishes LCF (Low Cycling Fatigue) from HCF (High
Cycling Fatigue). Also processes with no constant stresses can be assessed
(Miner).
II. Life determination based on crack propagation rate appears after the FM
Paris works

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FATIGUE FATIGUE ASSESSMENT

Survey of Approaches for Fatigue Assessment I II

Cross Structural El.-plastic

Component Elastic Short Long
Section Notch Notch Stress
Notch Stress Crack Crack
and Strain

Cyclic
Cyclic Cyclic Cyclic Cyclic
Cyclic Cyclic Stress
Net Section Structural Local Local Stress
Load J-Integral Intensity
Stress Stress Stress and Strain
Factor

ΔF Δσ Δσ Δσ Δε da / dn da / dn

N N N N N ΔJ ΔK

Experimental Long Crack

Investigation Structural Stress Local Stress Local Stress/ Short Crack Growth Approach
S-N-Approach Approach Approach Strain Approach Growth Approach

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FATIGUE
CYCLIC LOADS
Definition and variables

- Evolution of the stresses during a constant cyclic loading process

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FATIGUE
CYCLIC LOADS
Definition and variables

- Parameters characterising the fatigue process:

•Stress amplitude: Δσ = σ max − σ min
1
•Mean stress: σ m = {σ max + σ min }
2
•Stress Ratio: σ min
R=
σ max
•Frecuency: Measured in Hz (s-1)
- Generally, it only influences crack growth when it
is accompanied by combined environmental effects
(humidity, high temperatures, aggresive environments,…)

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FATIGUE
CYCLIC LOADS
Definition and variables
•Shape of the stress function: Is it adjustable to a sine function,
square,…
- its influence on the crack growth is small, except when
there is some environmental effect.

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FATIGUE
REASONS
Cracks form due to cyclic plastic deformation.
In defect free material cracks form at slip bands,
at intrusions and extrusions. Extrusion

Plastic deformation starts in grains where slip

planes are favorably oriented in the direction of Intrusion
alternating shear stresses.

Pair of
Extrusion-
Intrusion

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FATIGUE
The effect is enforced by stress raisers
(inclusions of Zirconium oxide in S690Q)

Broken Inclusion Broken Interface

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FATIGUE
The effect is enforced by stress raisers
(Microscopical notches or pores)

10μm 10μm
Pore in a spring steel Pore in nodular graphite iron
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FATIGUE
TOTAL LIFE ESTIMATION
Based on S-N Curves

•Stress amplitude σ a vs Number of cycles before failure (Nf)

If σ a < σ e (fatigue limit or

endurance), life is considered
infinite
ƒ σ e aprox. 0.35- 0.50 σu
in steels and bronzes.
ƒ Infinite life Nf = 107 cycles

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FATIGUE
TOTAL LIFE EVALUATION
Stress approach I

Basquin 1910 (σm= 0; σmax = -σmin; R = -1)

Δσ
= σ a = σ ' f ( 2 N f ) −b
2

-Logarithmic relation between σ a and 2Nf

- σ’f is, approximately, the tensile strength (σn)
- b varies between 0.05 y 0.12 σu in steels and
bronzes

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FATIGUE
TOTAL LIFE EVALUATION
Stress approach II

The whole life of a component has two periods:

- Crack Initiation period
- Crack Propagation period

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FATIGUE
TOTAL LIFE EVALUATION
Stress approach III (σm≠ 0)
On previous considerations σ m= 0. :
How can we design when σ m is not equal to 0?
⎧⎪ σ m ⎫⎪
Corrections: Soderberg σa = σa σ m =0 ⎨1 − ⎬
⎪⎩ σ y ⎪⎭

⎧ σm ⎫
Goodman σa = σa σ m =0 ⎨1 − ⎬
⎩ σ TS ⎭

⎧⎪ ⎛ σ ⎞ 2 ⎫⎪
σa = σa ⎨1 − ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎬
m
Gerber σ m =0
⎪⎩ ⎝ σ TS ⎠ ⎪⎭
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FATIGUE
TOTAL LIFE EVALUATION
Stress approach IV Amplitude

On previous considerations σ ais constant

If σ a is not constant, define the damage due to each cyclic block.

ni
di = Damage
Nfi

ni
∑ N fi
=1 Accumulated damage at life time
i (Miner´s rule)

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FATIGUE
TOTAL LIFE EVALUATION
Strain approach I

The previous stress approach is useful with conditions which imply elastic
strains (high Nf). This focus is known as High Cycling Fatigue (HCF).
In practice, there are some conditions in which fatigue is associated with
high strains (high temperatures, stress concentration). Therefore, the
number of cycles before failure is low.
This new focus, based on strains, is known as Low Cycling Fatigue (LCF)

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FATIGUE
APPROXIMATION TO TOTAL LIFE
Strain approach II

Coffin-Manson 1955
Δεp
= εf ' (2N f ) c
2

Δεp/2 :Strain amplitude

ε’f: tensile strain factor (aprox. εf)
c: fatigue coefficient (between 0.5 and 0.7)

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FATIGUE
TOTAL LIFE EVALUATION
General approach: HCF/LCF
In a general case:
Δε Δεe Δεp
= +
2 2 2

Δσ
HCF = σ 'f (2N f ) b
2

Δεe Δσ σ a
if 2
= =
2E E

Δεe σ 'f
= (2N f ) b
2 E

Δε σ 'f
HCF/LCF = (2N f ) b + εf' (2N f ) c
2 E
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FATIGUE
FATIGUE CRACK GROWTH
LEFM APPROACH

•In 1963 LEFM concepts were applied for first time to crack growth by
Paris, Gómez and Anderson.
•For a given cyclic loading, ΔK is defined as Kmáx- Kmín, which can be
obtained from Δσ and the geometry of the cracked element, including
crack extension.
•Paris, Gómez and Anderson established that crack propagation (Δa in N
cycles) depends on ΔK :
Δa da
→ = C (ΔK ) m (Paris Law)
ΔN dN

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FATIGUE
FATIGUE CRACK GROWTH
Δa da
LEFM APPROACH → = C (ΔK ) m
ΔN dN
•Thus, the representation (da/dN) vs. Log (ΔK) must be a straight line with a
slope equal to m.
•The relation between crack growth rate and ΔK defines three regions for the
fatigue behaviour:
–A: Slow growth (near the threshold) → Region I or Regime A
–B: Growth at a medium rate (Paris regime) → Region II or Regime B
–C: Growth at a high rate (near to fracture) → Region III or Regime C

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FATIGUE
FATIGUE CRACK GROWTH
Three states

State I (Regime A)
ΔK th

State II (Regime B)
da
= C (ΔK ) m
dN II

State III (Regime C)

near failure, where
Kc is achieved ΔKth

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FATIGUE
FATIGUE CHARACTERISATION
Obtaining the Paris law
Methodology: Based on the LEFM, the crack propagation rate is determined
as a function of ΔK.
1. Selection of specimen (FM type as CT, SENB,...)
2. Loading application system (Constant amplitude.)
3. Follow Crack propagation as a function of time or N.
4. Obtain crack propagation rate in zone II (mean value).
5. Determine the threshold, ΔΚth
6. Represent da/dN-logΔK and adjust with Paris parameters
Standard: ASTM E-647

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FATIGUE
FATIGUE CHARACTERISATION
Obtaining the Paris law

•Example: Obtaining da/dN and Paris law

1. Selection of the specimens in (FM type, such as CT,SENB,...)
2. Loading application system (Constant amplitude)

ΔP ⎛ a ⎞
ΔK = f⎜ ⎟
B W ⎝W ⎠

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FATIGUE
FATIGUE CHARACTERISATION
Obtaining the Paris law

•Example: Obtaining da/dN and Paris law

3. Determining crack propagation as a function of
time or N cycles: by optical microscope or any other method

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FATIGUE
FATIGUE CHARACTERISATION
Obtaining the Paris law

•Example: Obtaining da/dN and Paris law

4. Obtaining crack propagation rate law in zone II (Paris law).
5. Threshold determination, ΔΚth (i.e ASTM E647,…)

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FATIGUE
FATIGUE CHARACTERISATION
Obtaining the Paris law

•Example: Determination of da/dNII, m and C on AISI4130 steels

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FATIGUE
FATIGUE CHARACTERISATION
Variables affecting (da/dN)II:
•Environmental effects
–Corrosion – fatigue
–Temperature
•Loading effects
–Stress ratio R = σmin/σmax
–Variable amplitude. (Miner´s rule).
–Frequency
•Limitations : LEFM
–Short cracks
–Thickness
–Plastic zone extension

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FATIGUE
FATIGUE CRACK GROWTH
Three regimes
A B C
Regime Slow growth Paris zone Quick growth

Fracture Mode II (Shear) Striations (mode I) Cleavages,

Microscopy Brittle facets Beach Marks Microvoids
(failure)
Influence of High Low High
microestructure
R effect High Low High

Environment effect High * Low

Plastic zone ry < dg (grain size) ry > dg ry >> dg

*It depends on environment, frequency and material SCC,CF.

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FATIGUE
FATIGUE CRACK GROWTH
Regime A (I)
-Threshold concept, ΔKth:

– When ΔK is equal or lower to ΔKth, crack popagation rate is

extremely slow and so, it is considered that crack doesn´t propagate
or that it propagates at non-detectable rates.

– Practical definition: When crack propagation rate is less than

10 –8 mm/cycle, it is considered that propagation has stopped and ΔK
is called ΔKth.

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FATIGUE
FATIGUE CRACK GROWTH
Regime A (II)

-This propagation rate is smaller than one interatomic distance per cycle.
How is it possible?
- It is considered that there is a large amount of cycles on which
there is no propagation. Crack grows one interatomic space in a
cycle and then it stabilises for some cycles.
- There are experimental difficulties to determine crack
propagation rates at these values.

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FATIGUE
FATIGUE CRACK GROWTH
Regime B (I)
- In regime B (Paris Zone) the number of cycles before failure can be
calculated using the Paris law:
da
= C (ΔK ) m
dN
ΔK is defined as a function of Δσ

ΔK =YΔσ πa Y is a geometric factor

m and C are characteristic parameters of the material and they are obtained
experimentally. For metallic materials, m varies between 2 and 4 and for ceramics
and polymers it can reach values up to 100.

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FATIGUE
FATIGUE CRACK GROWTH Long
Crack
Regime B (II)

- Therefore, the Paris law can be written in this way:

Cyclic

( )
Stress
da m Intensity
= C YΔσ πa Factor
dN
da / dN
- If Y is constant, both sides of the expression can be integrated:
af Nf
da
∫a = CY m (Δσ ) π m 2 ∫ dN
m
m ΔK
2
a0 0

Long Crack
If Y depends on crack length, it is necessary to solve the Growth Approach
problem numerically.
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FATIGUE
FATIGUE CRACK GROWTH
Regime B (III)

If m > 2:

2 ⎡ 1 1 ⎤
Nf = ⎢ ( m−2) / 2 − (m−2 )/ 2 ⎥
(m − 2)CY m (Δσ )m π m / 2 ⎢⎣ a0 af ⎥⎦

If m = 2:
1 af
Nf = Ln
CY (Δσ ) π
2 2
a0

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FATIGUE
FATIGUE CRACK GROWTH
Regime B (IV)
Determining Y:
- Search in handbooks (Tada,
Rooke&Cartwright,
Murakami)
- Perform (FE-) calculations

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FATIGUE
FATIGUE CRACK GROWTH
Regime B (V)

-If Δσ is not a constant value, the methods that are used to determine the
number of cycles before failure are based on the application of Miner Rule
(traditional method), considering the foreseen crack propagation rate law
by Paris and following these steps :
- Reduce the load spectrum to blocks with constant amplitude (blocki)
- Estimate the foreseen Nf for each block (Nfi)
- Apply Miner´s rule
- Previous plastification history of the material must be taken into
account

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FATIGUE
FATIGUE CRACK GROWTH
Regime B (VI)

- In order to solve the problem of life estimation (Nf), it is necessary to obtain

the initial crack length, a0, and the final crack length, af (usually called critical
crack length).

How can we determine the initial crack length?

- There are various techniques, from visual inspection to ultrasonics or X rays.

If no crack is detected with these methods, it is considered that crack length is
equal to the resolution of inspection equipments.

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FATIGUE
FATIGUE CRACK GROWTH
Regime B (VII)

How can we calculate the expected final crack length?

- Cracks grow until fracture occurs. Then, at failure:

K max = K c
- In other terms:

1 K c2
From Yσ max πa f = K c we can estimate af in this way: af =
π Y 2 σ max
2

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FATIGUE
FATIGUE CRACK GROWTH
Regime B (VIII)
- Based on the previous analysis, a very important idea appears :
Even when cracks are detected in a component or structure, it is not
necessary to replace it!
- We must assess the remaining life. The component can be used if it is
periodically inspected.

Then assessment concepts as

- Admissible crack - Admissible damage

- Inspection period - Life time

should be considered
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FATIGUE
FATIGUE CRACK GROWTH
Regime C

The failure of a structure or component after a fatigue process can be

produced in two different ways:

– For high ΔK, crack propagation rate increases a lot until sudden fracture
occurs when fracture toughness is reached
Ex: Brittle failure conditions at low temperatures

– Plastification and failure of the remaining section

Ex: Plastic collapse ductile conditions

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FATIGUE
FRACTOGRAPHIC ASPECTS
Regime B

- When a crack propagates because of a

fatigue process, it produces marks which
are known as striations or beach
marks. These marks are usually the main
proof of a failure caused by fatigue.

- Striations are the marks that crack

propagation produces on the failure
surface in various cycles.

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FATIGUE
FRACTOGRAPHIC ASPECTS
Regime B

EXAMPLE:

Fatigue striations on the fracture

surface of a 2024-T3Al alloy.

In some materials, each line is

identified with the propagation Δa
per cycle.

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FATIGUE
FRACTOGRAPHIC ASPECTS
Regime C

Striations disappear in the final failure

section and the following can appear:
1. Cleavage micromechanisms and
tearing if fracture is brittle

or
2. Microvoids if fracture occurs
because of the plastification process of
the remaining section (ductile failure).

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FATIGUE
CRACK PROPAGATION MECHANISMS
Regimes A and B

Propagation models:

a) Plastic field extends inside a

grain or occupies only a few grains
(ry<d). Propagation through sliding
planes. (Regime A)

b) Plastic zone with a considerable

size (ry>d). Propagation occurs
through a straight line (Regime B)

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FATIGUE
CRACK PROPAGATION MECHANISMS

Regime A: Threshold zone: ry<d.

Propagation modes:
Propagation through sliding planes. Fracture Mode II (Shear)

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FATIGUE
CRACK PROPAGATION MECHANISMS
Regime B: State II Paris Law: ry>d .
Propagation modes:
There are many sliding planes implied, so crack propagates through the
intersection between them . Fracture Mode I (tension).
Sometimes striations are observed.

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FATIGUE
CRACK PROPAGATION MECHANISMS
Regime B: State II Paris Law: ry>d .
Physical models of crack propagation :
1 . Sliding irreversibility

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FATIGUE
CRACK PROPAGATION MECHANISMS
Regime B: State II Paris Law: ry>d .
Physical models of crack propagation at Paris zone:
1 . Sliding irreversibility

Laird Model
(1967)

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FATIGUE
CRACK PROPAGATION MECHANISMS
Regime B: State II Paris Law: ry>d .
Physical models of crack propagation at Paris zone:
2. Environmental effects

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FATIGUE
CRACK PROPAGATION MECHANISMS
Regime B. State II Paris Law

A model for the Paris law based on CTOD (δt)

da (ΔK )
2

da/dN = (Δa)1 cycle≈≈Δδ t = β ' '

dN σ yE
Important: This implies m = 2 in the Paris law
Advantages of models based on CTOD:
1. Physical justification
2. Application to multiaxial fatigue.

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FATIGUE
FATIGUE DESIGN
Safe-life
• Philosophy: Elements without cracks
• Steps:
– Load spectrum determination.
– Life estimation for the material through laboratory tests (from an initial
crack size).
– Application of a safety factor.
– When estimated life finishes, the component is replaced, even though it
could continue in service for a considerable time under safety
conditions.
– Periodic inspection
– Ex: pressure vessels.
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FATIGUE
FATIGUE DESIGN
Fail-safe

• Philosophy: Cracks acceptable until they reach a critical size.

• Periodic inspections: Inspection period design in order to detect cracks
before they reach their critical size.
• Steps:
– The component is replaced when its estimated life finishes: Detectable
crack smaller than critical are allowed.
– Ex: aeronautical industry.

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FATIGUE
FATIGUE DESIGN
Leak before break
– Application to pipelines and pressure vessels
– Material and geometry selection in such a way that crack becames a
through thickness crack before the component fails.

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FATIGUE ΔKJ= EΔJeff [MPa /m]

SHORT CRACK GROWTH -2
10
10.0 100.0

S460N
Short cracks can grow only under high short,
stresses -3
10 semi-circular
surface cracks
Plastic zones are no longer much smaller Δε = 0.4%
Δε = 0.6%
than the crack size -4
10
Δε = 1.0%
Δε = 2.0%
The concepts of the Linear Elastic Fracture

da/dn [mm/cyc]
Mechanics are usually not applicable
-5

Replace ΔK by ΔJ
10

scatter band of
da
= C·(ΔJ eff )m
long crack
-6
10
growth data
dN
-7
10
0.0 0.1 1.0 10.0 100.0

ΔJeff [N/mm]

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FATIGUE
SHORT CRACK GROWTH
Short crack’s closure behaviour σ
differs from long crack behaviour.
Approximation formulas:
⎧⎪σmax ⋅ ( A0 + A1 ⋅ R + A2 ⋅ R2 + A3 ⋅ R3 ) for R > 0
σop = ⎨
⎪⎩σmax ⋅ ( A0 + A1 ⋅ R) for R ≤ 0
⎛π σ ⎞ εgage
A0 = 0.535⋅ cos⎜ ⋅ max ⎟ + amitt
⎝ 2 σF ⎠ σop
σO
A1 = 0.344⋅ +a
σF mitt
A3 = 2⋅ A0 + A1 −1
A2 = 1− A0 − A1 − A3 εop
1
σY = (σ0.2
'
+σUTS )
2

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FATIGUE grain boundary crack slip band

SHORT CRACK GROWTH σ

Short crack growth is influenced by idealised

idealised
the microstructure mikrostructure
microstructure
Principles can be studied using
Tanaka’s model
σ

a d c mechanical
model

σF2
σF1 stress-
progression

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FATIGUE
da CTOD
= ( 0.63· - 5.7·10-5 )1.5
SHORT CRACK GROWTH dN mm

Example of da σF
short crack
growth through dn
[MPa]
inhomogeneous
microstructure
calculated
applying
[ ]
mm
cyc

Tanaka’s model

c ra c k le n g th [μ m ]
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FATIGUE
SHORT CRACK GROWTH

[log]
Microstructural influence

Δσ th / Δσ 0
dominates near the endurance endurance limit
crack growth
limit. 1.0
Continuum mechanics based
Δσth π(a+a*) ⋅F(a+a*,G) =ΔKth ΔK ⎫
concepts need adjustment. ⎬ = ΔKth
0.5 Δσth πa ⋅ F(a,G)⎭
This leads to the introduction

stress amplitude
crack arrest
of an intrinsic crack length a*.
The crack length dependend 0.2 2
endurance limit is often shown 1
in a Kitagawa plot.
0.1 a*

0.01 0.1 1.0 10 [log]

crack length a /a *
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semi-circular
FATIGUE surface crack
Short
SHORT CRACK GROWTH Crack

Short cracks are usually semi-

circular surface cracks
There are approximation Cyclic
formulas to calculate J. J-Integral

For
1
σ⎛ σ ⎞ n' Δσ
ε = +⎜ ⎟
E ⎝ K'⎠

holds
a
σ2 1.02
J ≈ (1.24 ⋅ + ⋅σ ⋅ ε p ) ⋅ a
E n'

(σ max - σ cl ) 2 1.02 σ max - σ cl

ΔJ eff = {1.24· + ·(σ max - σ cl )[(ε max - ε cl ) - ]}·a
E n , E Short Crack
Growth Approach

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FATIGUE
CRACK INITIATION LIFE ESTIMATION
(without crack growth calculation)
σ σ σ
Transition curve
ε

ε n
Metallic materials
stabilised
show cyclic Hysteresis
hardening or Stabilisation
softening. ε a = const., R ε = − 1 σ − Decrease at εa = constant
ε
cyclic softening

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FATIGUE
CRACK INITIATION LIFE ESTIMATION
σ
Until a stabilization stabilised
is reached: σ
cyclic σ − ε − curve

The stabilized cyclic

stress-strain-curve ε static σ − ε − curve
can be used like
usual static stress-
strain curves.
ε
However, amplitudes
are calculated.

stabilised
Hystereses

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FATIGUE stabilised cyclic σ − ε − curves

Stress-life-curve
ε a ( σ a ) = ε a,e + ε a,p ( σ a )
CRACK σa σa
σa / E σ a (N )
INITIATION
b
LIFE σ a,1 σa = σf ′ ⋅ (2N)
σ a,1
ESTIMATION
1/ n ′
σ ⎛σ ⎞
ε a = ε a,e + ε a,p = a + ⎜ a ⎟
E ⎝ k′ ⎠
Stress- and strain-
life curves give the N
ε a,p1 ε a,e N1
number of cycles ε a,p1 ε a,p
ε a,1 εa
at the particular Compatibility among
amplitudes.
ε a,p ( σ a ) , σ a (N ) and ε a,p (N )
Equations
according to Strain-life-curve
N1
Coffin, Manson, σf ′ b c
ε a (N ) = ε a,e (N ) + ε a,p (N ) ε a = ⋅ (2N) + ε f ′ ⋅ (2N)
Morrow, Basquin. E
N σ a (N ) / E
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FATIGUE
CRACK INITIATION LIFE ESTIMATION
Tensile mean stresses decrease, compressive increase fatigue life. Often used
approximation formulas are proposed by:
Goodman σ a = σ a σ m= 0
{1- σm σUTS }
Haigh-Diagram
Gerber σa = σa σ {1- (σ 2
σ TS ) }
Stress amplitude σa

m= 0
m
σa
N1
Smith et al. σa σ = (σ a + σm )×ea ×E
m= 0
N2
N3
σm3
σm2 = 0
σm1

N1 N2 N3 σm3 σm2 = 0 σm1

Cycles N Mean stress σm

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FATIGUE
CRACK INITIATION LIFE ESTIMATION σ
Under variable amplitude 7
loading closed hysteresis loops
can be identified. cyclic σ − ε − curve 3
1
Doubling the cyclic σ−ε-curve
describes the loop branches.
The σ−ε−path of a branch kinks 5
into a higher order path branch
0
ε
when both meet each other
(Material Memory).
2
Counting closed loops is named
Rainflow Counting.
The damage of individual cycles
is summed according to Miner’s 4
rule. 6
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FATIGUE
LOCAL STRAIN APPROACH elastic
S σe K t ⋅ S
εe = = plastic
E E
For notched El.-plastic
( )
2
Notch Stress σ ⋅ ε = Kt ⋅ S E
components the σ−ε and Strain S
path is calculated at Neuber
the critical locations
(notch roots). The Cyclic 0 ε
elastic stress Local Stress
and Strain
σ, ε
concentration factor Kt
must be known. σ
Δε
plast. zone
Notch stresses and
strains can be
approximated using N 0 ε
Neuber’s rule. S
Local Strain
Approach

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FATIGUE
S - N APPROACH
Component
Cross
Characteristic data Sa [log] Sa
Section
N = const. R = -1
SD50,Ro depending on: experimental
INPUT S fRo(R) material, S - N - curves
ND R=0
fabrication,
k k
failure criterion S sR
sR D50,R
Cyclic SD50,Ro ⋅ f Ro (R)
R = const.
Net Section
Stress ND N [log] 0 Sm

Δσ

Load Sequence Histogram of Damage Calculation Variable Amplitude

S(t) Net Section Stress Miner - Rule Fatigue Life
Sa [log]
Sa Sa [log]
N
Sa1 R = const.
Sa1
Sa1
Counting N1
Algorithm SD50,R
Sa1 for
Miner - Rule
0
S-N- 1 H [log] ND N [log] N1 N [log]

Approach
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FATIGUE
LOCAL STRESS APPROACH
σe = K t ⋅ S Component and Material
Elastic
L
Characteristic data σe,a [log] σe,a
Notch Stress σeD50,−1 N = const.
depending on: R = -1
σe c, χ *
INPUT f −1 (R ) material,
σe,D50,−1 ⋅ f −1 (R) R=0
ND fabrication,
failure criterion k
k sR
σe,D50,R
sR σe,D50,−1
R = const.
Cyclic c, χ* taken from FE-calc. σem
ND N [log] 0
Local rest from experiment and experience
Stress

Load Sequence Load Histogram Damage Calculation Variable Amplitude

D s e (N ) ¹ D s (N ) L(t) Miner - Rule Fatigue Life
La L a [log] L a [log]
or
oder σe,a
σe,a
La1 R = const.
La1
La1
Counting N1
N Algorithm LD50,R
La1 for
Miner - Rule
0
1 H [log] ND N [log] N1 N [log]
Local Stress Approach

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BIBLIOGRAPHY / REFERENCES

• Suresh S., “Fatigue of Materials”, Cambridge Solid State Science Series,

Cambridge (1991).
• Anderson T.L., “Fracture Mechanics. Fundamentals and Applications”, 2nd
Edition, CRC Press, Boca Raton (1995).

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B. INTRODUCTION TO FATIGUE
ASSESSMENT PROCEDURES

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FATIGUE ASSESSMENT PROCEDURES

INTRODUCTION

Fatigue assessments involve comparison of the actions which the

component or structure will be required to sustain during its design life
with its resistance to fatigue.
Obviously, the resistance must be sufficient to resist the actions
without failure occurring. The form and source of the resistance data
depend on the type of assessment being performed.

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FATIGUE ASSESSMENT PROCEDURES

INTRODUCTION

There are two main methods for assessing the fatigue life of structures
or components:
• S-N curves
• The fracture mechanics approach, whereby fatigue crack growth data
are used in conjunction with the stress intensity factor variation due
to the spectrum of applied loading to calculate the progress of a
known flaw.
The first is intended for application at the design stage and the second
one is not generally used for design but for assessing known or
assumed flaws. Thus, it would be applicable in an assessment of
residual fatigue life.

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FATIGUE ASSESSMENT PROCEDURES

DESIGN OF NEW STRUCTURES OR COMPONENTS

Fatigue resistance data for design are usually expressed in terms of S-N
curves, relating nominal applied cyclic stress range S and the corresponding
number of cycles N needed to cause failure.
The simplest situation is one in which the designer would ensure that the
number of applied load fluctuations, n, in the design life that resulted in
stress range S did not exceed N.
In the more general case there is a spectrum of applied loads and the
cumulative damage due to individual load cycles need to be determined. The
usual method is to apply Miner´s rule.

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FATIGUE ASSESSMENT PROCEDURES

DESIGN OF NEW STRUCTURES OR COMPONENTS

This involves:
• identification of the loading history
• conversion from loads to stresses
• extraction of recognisable stress cycles from the stress spectrum (cycle
counting) to provide input to Miner´s rule

Miner´s rule for estimating fatigue lives under variable amplitude loading and analysis of fatigue loading for cumulative damage calculations

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FATIGUE ASSESSMENT PROCEDURES

DESIGN OF NEW STRUCTURES OR COMPONENTS
The S-N curves used in fatigue design depend on the procedure being used.
The most common approach is to use S-N curves obtained from fatigue tests.
Example: welded structures
S-N curves from fatigue tests on specimens containing the weld detail of
interest are used. The design curve is usually some statistical lower bound to
published experimental data (i.e, mean – 2·standard deviations of logN).

Since S-N curves refer to particular weld

details, there is no need for the user to
attempt to quantify the local stress
concentration effect of the weld detail
itself.

Examples of design S-N curves for welded joints (from IIW recommendarions)

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FATIGUE ASSESSMENT PROCEDURES

REMAINING LIFE OF EXISTING STRUCTURES

Three approaches can be distinguished for the fatigue assessment of existing

structures which have experienced some service:
• Fatigue design assessment
• Fatigue design reviews
• Fracture mechanics approach
The approach used will depend on the circumstances:
• Whether or not the structure was designed for fatigue loading
• The time in service
• What measures will be taken to assess its current condition with
respect to potential fatigue damage already introduced during previous
service.

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FATIGUE ASSESSMENT PROCEDURES

REMAINING LIFE OF EXISTING STRUCTURES
FATIGUE DESIGN ASSESSMENT

This method follows the procedure outlined previously for original design.
If the structure was designed for fatigue loading, the same action can be
assumed after any modification to allow for changes such as reduced
severity of the stress history from reinforcement or a change in operating
conditions. If repairs are introduced, a safety factor could be introduced.
Miner´s rule is used to calculate the fatigue damage introduced before and
after the time of the assessment, on the basis that:

⎛ n⎞ ⎛ n⎞
⎜∑ ⎟ + ⎜∑ ⎟ ∠ 1
⎝ N ⎠ before ⎝ N ⎠ after

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FATIGUE ASSESSMENT PROCEDURES

REMAINING LIFE OF EXISTING STRUCTURES
FATIGUE DESIGN REVIEW

Its aim is to improve the accuracy of the original design process to

provide a better estimate of the proportions of fatigue life used and
remaining at the time of assessment.
When assessing an existing structure, there may be scope for improving
the accuracy of some of the assumptions made during the original
design process.
Then the Miner´s rule should be applied.

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FATIGUE ASSESSMENT PROCEDURES

REMAINING LIFE OF EXISTING STRUCTURES
FRACTURE MECHANICS APPROACH

This method addresses circumstances in which it has been found (or it

must be assumed) that flaws have been introduced during the service
life endured so far.
The fracture mechanics assessment uses the same actions as those
determined for design calculations. However, fatigue resistance is
represented by fatigue crack growth rate data for the material under
consideration, expressed in terms of the fracture mechanics stress
intensity factor parameter ΔK:
ΔK = Y·S·(π·a)1/2
Y = Y(geometry, loading)

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FATIGUE ASSESSMENT PROCEDURES

REMAINING LIFE OF EXISTING STRUCTURES
FRACTURE MECHANICS APPROACH

A relationship between ΔK and crack growth rate is established through

different equations. One of the most widely used is the Paris law:

da
= C ⋅ (ΔK )
n

dN
For a flaw size a0 and a critical fatigue crack size of af, the remining life
N under stress range S is obtained by integrating the Paris law:
af
da
∫ n
= C·N
a0 Y·S· π·a
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FATIGUE ASSESSMENT PROCEDURES

REMAINING LIFE OF EXISTING STRUCTURES
FRACTURE MECHANICS APPROACH

For variable amplitude loading the integration will be performed

for each individual cycle or block of equal stress cycles, to give:

a1 a2
da da
∫ n
+∫
n
+ ... = C·N
a0 Y·S1 · π·a a1 Y·S · π·a
2

ai
da
∑∫ n
= C·N
i a i-1 Y·Si · π·a

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BIBLIOGRAPHY / REFERENCES

• Maddox S.J., “Review of fatigue assessment procedures for welded aluminium

structures”, International Journal of Fatigue, December 2003, pages 1359-1378

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C. PROCEDURE APPLICATION
(FITNET)

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FITNET
EUROPEAN FITNESS FOR SERVICE NETWORK

• INTRODUCTION
• INPUTS
• ASSESSMENT ROUTES
• SPECIAL OPTIONS

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FITNET
EUROPEAN FITNESS FOR SERVICE NETWORK
INTRODUCTION
INTRODUCTION
The FITNET fatigue module provides a series of assessment procedures or routes for
evaluating the effect of cyclic or fluctuating loads. Two basic scenarios are foreseen:
a) There is no pre-existing flaw or defect, and the goal of the analysis is to determine
the accumulation of fatigue damage at a critical location (fatigue damage analysis).
In this case the basic approach is to determine the fluctuating stress range at the
location in question and to relate this to appropriate fatigue life curves. Three
different routes are proposed (Routes 1, 2 and 3), depending on the complexity of the
loading.
b) A real or postulated defect or flaw is present, and the goal of the analysis is to
determine the growth of that flaw to a certain critical size. Two different routes are
considered: The case of planar flaw in Route 4 and the case of non planar defects in
Route 5.
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FITNET
EUROPEAN FITNESS FOR SERVICE NETWORK
INTRODUCTION

Both option a) and b) can Option a) Option b)

be applied to either welded
or non-welded structures.
The overall scheme is
shown in the figure.

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FITNET
Option b)
EUROPEAN
Option a)
FITNESS FOR
SERVICE
NETWORK
INTRODUCTION

The scope and

background to the
five assessment
routes are briefly
described in the
following, while this
figure shows the
basic steps used in
applying these.

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FITNET
EUROPEAN FITNESS FOR SERVICE NETWORK
INPUTS

INPUTS: Description of variable loads

To assess fatigue risk it must be known the stress variation versus time.
In practice, the more commonly applied methods in design allow the use of the
stress range distribution (histogram) versus the number of cycles.

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FITNET
EUROPEAN FITNESS FOR SERVICE NETWORK
INPUTS

INPUTS: Partial Safety Factors

Depending on the level of safety built into the fatigue resistance data being used
in the assessment, the confidence with which the fatigue actions can be estimated
and possibly the consequences of fatigue failure, partial safety factors may need
to be introduced. Those applied to the fatigue actions are termed γF while those
applied to the resistance data are termed γM .
INPUTS: Fatigue Actions
Fatigue assessments are carried out using the design spectrum (histogram) of the
fatigue actions in terms of stress ranges Δσi,s,d , which correspond to the stresses
of the characteristic spectrum (histogram) Δσi,s,k multiplied by the partial safety
factor γF for fatigue actions.
For constant amplitude loading, the characteristic and design spectra are reduced
to only one stress level, Δσs,d=Δσs,k·γF
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FITNET
EUROPEAN FITNESS FOR SERVICE NETWORK
INPUTS

INPUTS: Cumulative Fatigue Assessment

A cumulative fatigue assessment is applied in situations where it is considered that
fatigue crack initiation and growth can be tolerated without the risk of failure during
the required lifetime. The fatigue resistance is usually derived from constant or
variable amplitude tests. The fatigue resistance data given in the Procedure are based
on published results from constant amplitude tests.

The fatigue resistance data must be expressed in terms of the same stress (Nominal,
Hot spot, Notch) or strain as that controlled or determined during the generation of
those data.

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FITNET
EUROPEAN FITNESS FOR SERVICE NETWORK
INPUTS

INPUTS: Cumulative Fatigue Assessment (cont.)

The fatigue resistance data are based on the number of cycles N to failure. The data
are represented in S-N curves (see Section 5).

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FITNET
EUROPEAN FITNESS FOR SERVICE NETWORK
INPUTS

INPUTS: Cumulative Fatigue Assessment (cont.)

The fatigue resistance is defined by the mean curve (50% probability of survival) and
the Log (C) standard deviation.

The conventional fatigue resistance data can be given as characteristic values, ΔσR,k
or ΔτR,k, which are assumed to have a survival probability of at least 95%, calculated
from a mean value of a two-sided 75% confidence level.

In practice these characteristic values may be reduced further by dividing them by a

partial safety factor γM to give the design resistance values, ΔσR,d and , ΔτR,d used in
the fatigue assessment. The design resistance S-N curve may be modified further
according to the needs of the damage calculation procedure.

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FITNET
EUROPEAN FITNESS FOR SERVICE NETWORK
INPUTS

INPUTS: Cumulative Fatigue Assessment (cont.)

For constant amplitude loading, the characteristic stress range , ΔσR,k at the required
number of stress cycles is firstly determined. Secondly, the fatigue design criterion is
checked:

For variable amplitude loading, the fatigue damage due to the applied load spectrum
is assessed using a linear cumulative damage summation rule. Thus in a fatigue
damage assessment has to be shown that:

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FITNET
EUROPEAN FITNESS FOR SERVICE NETWORK
INPUTS

INPUTS: Cumulative Fatigue Assessment (cont.)

The order of the sequence of the blocks has no
effect on the results of this calculation. Note that
it will rarely be valid to assume that applied
stresses lower than the constant amplitude fatigue
limits are non-damaging. In practice the fatigue
damage induced by higher stresses in the
spectrum will have the effect of gradually
lowering the effective fatigue limit. As a result,
stresses below the original fatigue limit become
increasingly damaging as the fatigue life
progresses. To allow for this it is common to
assume that the design S-N curve from which i Generic S-N curve for welded joints used in cumulative damage
calculations
values are obtained the form shown in the figure.
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FITNET
EUROPEAN FITNESS FOR SERVICE NETWORK
INPUTS

INPUTS: Fatigue Limit Assessment

A fatigue limit assessment is one that is applied to cases where no significant
fatigue crack growth can be tolerated, for example because there is a risk of
failure from a small crack or a very high number of stress cycles, typically greater
than 109 cycles, are to be endured.

The fatigue limit resistance is defined by the stress range, ΔσL,R, below which the
lifetime is considered to be infinite from an engineering point of view. Again,
characteristic values ,ΔσL,R,k, are reduced to design values ΔσL,R,d=ΔσL,R,k/γM.

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FITNET
EUROPEAN FITNESS FOR SERVICE NETWORK
INPUTS

INPUTS: Fatigue Limit Assessment (cont.)

When the fatigue limit assessment is applied for constant amplitude loading, the
design verification criterion is:

ΔσM,s,d < ΔσL,R,d

where ΔσM,s,d is the maximum applied stress range and ΔσL,R,d is the design
acceptable fatigue limit stress range.

For variable amplitude loading, if the maximum design stress range ΔσM,s,d of the
load spectrum is lower than the design fatigue limit ΔσL,R,d of the design fatigue
resistance S-N curve, or if it is lower than the design cut-off limit Δσcut,R,d in cases
where no fatigue limit is given, the life of the assessed detail can be assumed to
be infinite and no further damage calculation is necessary.

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FITNET
EUROPEAN FITNESS FOR SERVICE NETWORK
INPUTS

INPUTS: Environmental Issues

The fatigue resistance data given here refer to non-corrosive environments (air)
and for structures with normal protection against atmospheric corrosion. For free
atmospheric corrosion, in particular sea environment, the SN curve to be applied
can be derived from the standard curve applying the following conditions:
• the curve has no fatigue limit nor cut-off and no change of slope
• the life time is divided by 2
Concerning service temperature, unless stated otherwise the fatigue resistance
data refer to temperatures lower than 100°C; a fatigue reduction factor has to be
considered beyond this temperature level.
If the effect of environment cannot be excluded, then the assessment should be
made using the creep or corrosion modules (see sections 8 and 9 respectively).

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FITNET
EUROPEAN FITNESS FOR SERVICE NETWORK
INPUTS

INPUTS: Exemption for Fatigue Assessment

The Procedure provides criteria to determine when fatigue assessment is not
required (see Section 7.2.3)

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EUROPEAN FITNESS FOR SERVICE NETWORK
FATIGUE ASSESSMENT ROUTES

ROUTE 1 – Fatigue Damage Assessment Using Nominal Stresses

This route considers nominal elastic stress values for the location of interest
and the fatigue life Nf is determined from a set of S-N curves classified
according to different classes or levels of fatigue resistance i.e. the effects of
local geometric, weld or microstructural details and, if relevant, residual stress
are accounted for in the S-N curve itself.
It is based on currently used procedures (e.g. IIW guidelines for welded joints).
The linear cumulative damage law is used to deal with variable load spectra
is based on Miner rules.

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FITNET
EUROPEAN FITNESS FOR SERVICE NETWORK
ASSESSMENT ROUTES
ROUTE 1- Fatigue Damage
Assessment Using Nominal
Stresses
WELDED COMPONENTS

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FITNET
EUROPEAN FITNESS FOR SERVICE NETWORK
ASSESSMENT ROUTES

ROUTE 1- Fatigue Damage Assessment Using Nominal Stresses

WELDED COMPONENTS

Step 1 No postulated or detected defect is present in the structure

The route 1 assumed that no defect is postulated or is detected by NDE in the
structure or component which is assessed in fatigue. Annexe D in the Procedure
is providing guideline on NDE detection.

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FITNET
EUROPEAN FITNESS FOR SERVICE NETWORK
ASSESSMENT ROUTES

ROUTE 1- Fatigue Damage Assessment Using Nominal Stresses

Step 2 Service condition

Nominal stress range SN. Guide on this is given in the Procedure (see Section 7.3)

Step 3 Environmental issues (see 7.2.2)

Step 4 Thresholds for fatigue assessment (see 7.2.3)

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EUROPEAN FITNESS FOR SERVICE NETWORK
ASSESSMENT ROUTES

ROUTE 1- Fatigue Damage Assessment Using Nominal Stresses

Step 5 Fatigue Resistance Data Specification
Separate S-N curves are provided for consideration of normal and shear stresses:

Fatigue resistance S-N curves for m=3, normal stress (steel) Fatigue resistance S-N curves for shear stress (steel)

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FITNET
EUROPEAN FITNESS FOR SERVICE NETWORK
ASSESSMENT ROUTES
ROUTE 1- Fatigue Damage Assessment Using Nominal Stresses
Step 6 Validity area of R ratios
For stress ratios R<0.5 a fatigue enhancement factor f(R) may be considered by
multiplying the fatigue class of classified details by f(R). Values of f(R) are given
in the Procedure (see Section 7.3.1.1.6).

Step 7 Thickness reduction factor effects

The influence of the plate thickness on fatigue strength should be taken into
account in cases where cracks start from the weld toe on plates thicker than 25 mm
and lower than 5 mm (see Section 7.3.1.1.7)

Step 8 Fatigue assessment using S-N Curves (see 7.3.1.1.8)

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FITNET
EUROPEAN FITNESS FOR SERVICE NETWORK
ASSESSMENT ROUTES

ROUTE 1- Fatigue Damage

Assessment Using Nominal
Stresses
NON-WELDED COMPONENTS

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FITNET
EUROPEAN FITNESS FOR SERVICE NETWORK
ASSESSMENT ROUTES
ROUTE 1- Fatigue Damage Assessment Using Nominal Stresses
The conventional approach starts from the knowledge of the fatigue resistance of
the base material submitted to fatigue cycles.
This approach leads to modify this « intrinsic » endurance or reliability limit, σD,
by taking into account of influencing parameters such as :
• the geometrical discontinuities of the components (notch effect, Step 4, see
7.3.1.2.4.1)
• its size (step 5, scale effect, see 7.3.1.2.4.2)
• the surface roughness (step 6, surface effect, see 7.3.1.2.4.3)
• the mean stress σm (step 7, mean stress effect, see 7.3.1.2.5)
Finally, the permissible nominal stress σa , is derived and compared to the actual
(nominal) stress, σe applied to the component.
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FATIGUE ASSESSMENT ROUTES

ROUTE 2 – Fatigue damage assessment using structural or notch stresses

This route considers that the appropriate structural stress in a critical area of a
component could be calculated by FEA or by formula. In some case it could also
be measured by following specific methods. Two approaches are possible:
a)calculate the structural stress and apply with appropriate class S-N curves
b)calculate a notch stress via stress concentration factors such as Kt or Kf. and
apply with appropriate S-N curves
The Palmgren-Miner linear cumulative damage rule is used to deal with variable
loads.

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ASSESSMENT ROUTES

ROUTE 2- Fatigue Damage Assessment Using Structural or Notch Stresses

WELD COMPONENTS

Stepwise flowchart for Route 2. Weld components.

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EUROPEAN FITNESS FOR SERVICE NETWORK
ASSESSMENT ROUTES

ROUTE 2- Fatigue Damage Assessment Using Structural or Notch Stresses

WELD COMPONENTS
Step 1: No postulated or detected flaw is present in the structure
The route 2 assumed that no defect is postulated or is detected by NDE in the
structure or component which is assessed in fatigue. The fatigue assessment
is based on fatigue linear damage analysis. FITNET procedure provides
guideline on NDE detection (see Annex D).

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ASSESSMENT ROUTES

ROUTE 2- Fatigue Damage Assessment Using Structural or Notch Stresses

Step 2: Service condition
Fatigue resistance will be calculated in route 2 by using Hot spot stress range SHS or
Notch Stress range (∆σnotch) calculation.
The structural hot spot stress
and effective notch stress are
defined versus the nominal
stress by means of two stress
coefficient factors: structural
hot spot stress SCFHS and
notch effect SCFNS. The
procedure provides guidance
for the calculation of these
coefficients in 7.3.2.1.2. Hot spot and notch stress in a welded joint.

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FITNET
EUROPEAN FITNESS FOR SERVICE NETWORK
ASSESSMENT ROUTES

ROUTE 2- Fatigue Damage Assessment Using Structural or Notch Stresses

Step 3 Environmental issues (see Section 7.2.2)

Step 4 Thresholds for fatigue assessment (see Section 7.2.3)
Step 5 Fatigue Data Specifications (see Section 7.3.2.1.5)
Step 6 Fatigue assessment using S-N Curves (see 7.3.2.1.6)

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FITNET
EUROPEAN FITNESS FOR SERVICE NETWORK
ASSESSMENT ROUTES
ROUTE 2- Fatigue Damage Assessment
Using Structural or Notch Stresses
NON-WELDED COMPONENTS

Stepwise flowchart for Route 2. Non-welded components.

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FITNET
EUROPEAN FITNESS FOR SERVICE NETWORK
ASSESSMENT ROUTES

ROUTE 2- Fatigue Damage Assessment Using Structural or Notch Stresses

NON-WELDED COMPONENTS
Step 1: No Postulated or detected defect is present in the component or structure
The Route 2 assumes that no detect is postulated or is detected by NDE in the
component which is assessed in fatigue.
Step 2: Service condition
FITNET FFS provides guidance for the definition of Service Condition in non-
welded components (see 7.3.2.2.2).
Step 3 Environmental issues, corrosion and high temperatures.
The procedure provides temperature limits for applying the fatigue module (see
Section 7.3.2.2.3).
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EUROPEAN FITNESS FOR SERVICE NETWORK
ASSESSMENT ROUTES

ROUTE 2- Fatigue Damage Assessment Using Structural or Notch Stresses

Step 4 Thresholds for fatigue assessment (see Section 7.2.3)
Step 5: Fatigue resistance data specification
The constant amplitude resistance curves in terms of amplitudes of local
elastic stresses, σa, are given as specified in the figure (see 7.3.2.2.5)

Step 6: Fatigue Assessment (see Section 7.3.2.2.6)

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FATIGUE ASSESSMENT ROUTES

ROUTE 3 - Fatigue damage assessment using local stress-strain approach stresses

This route is mainly directed at non-welded applications and foresees direct

calculation of strains at a critical location using an appropriate elastic or elasto-
plastic description of the material behaviour.
The fatigue life is then determined from a strain range vs. cycles to initiation
curve or relation such as the Manson-Coffin law.
It is also noted that the analysis can be taken further by considering subsequent
crack growth using fracture mechanics (route 4).
The summation of life consumption is performed cycle-by-cycle, allowing for
non-linear damage accumulation effects if necessary.

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EUROPEAN FITNESS FOR SERVICE NETWORK
ASSESSMENT ROUTES

ROUTE 3 - Fatigue damage assessment using local stress-strain approach stresses

Stepwise flowchart for Route 3

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FITNET
EUROPEAN FITNESS FOR SERVICE NETWORK
ASSESSMENT ROUTES
ROUTE 3 - Fatigue damage assessment using local stress-strain approach stresses
Step 1 No postulated or no detected defect is present in the component or
structure
The route 3 assumes that no defect is postulated or is detected by NDE in the
structure or component which is assessed in fatigue.
Step 2 - Service Condition
The approach concerns the fatigue life assessment of a component with a high local
stress concentration such as a groove or a notch, where the local surface roughness
at the bottom of such features cannot be measured. For medium local stress
concentrations such as shaft shoulders and grooves with medium to large radii (for
which the local surface roughness can be measured) Route 1 can be applied. These
analyses can be performed cycle-by-cycle, allowing for non-linear damage
accumulation effects if necessary. For further details, see 7.3.3.2.
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FITNET
EUROPEAN FITNESS FOR SERVICE NETWORK
ASSESSMENT ROUTES

ROUTE 3 - Fatigue damage assessment using local stress-strain approach stresses

Step 3 Environmental issues (see 7.2.2)
Step 4 Thresholds for fatigue assessment (see 7.2.3)
Step 5 Fatigue resistance data for elasto-plastic loading
•Material elastoplastic behaviour, Neuber-rule (see Section 7.3.3.5.1)
Step 6 Cumulative Fatigue life calculation
The Procedure provides guidance for this
purpose.
The figure provides a scheme of such
calculations.
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FITNET
EUROPEAN FITNESS FOR SERVICE NETWORK
FATIGUE ASSESSMENT ROUTES

ROUTE 4 – Fatigue crack growth assessment

This route addresses the assessment of detected or postulated planar flaws that
can be considered as macrocracks. The initial flaw position, size and orientation
can be determined in two ways: either based on the reported or detected size
from non-destructive inspection results or from a postulated flaw, based on
consideration of service experience, the manufacturing process, resolution limits
of a non destructive technique, from the threshold stress intensity factor etc.
The basic approach foreseen for calculating fatigue crack growth is via the
standard Paris law. A more sophisticated approach is also provided, based on
the Forman-Mettu equation (see Reference 7.4 in the Procedure).

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 FITNET
EUROPEAN FITNESS FOR SERVICE NETWORK
ASSESSMENT ROUTES

ROUTE 4 – Fatigue crack growth assessment

The procedure is based on a fracture mechanics analysis, which assumes that
a flaw may be idealized as a sharp tipped crack which propagates in
accordance with the law relating the crack growth rate, da/dN, and the
range of stress intensity factor, ∆K, for the material containing the flaw.

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 FITNET
EUROPEAN FITNESS FOR SERVICE NETWORK
ASSESSMENT ROUTES

ROUTE 4 – Fatigue crack

growth assessment
The basic steps of the
procedure are shown in the
flowchart in the figure:

Stepwise flowchart for Route 4

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FITNET
EUROPEAN FITNESS FOR SERVICE NETWORK
ASSESSMENT ROUTES

ROUTE 4 – Fatigue crack growth assessment

Step 1: Detected or Postulated Planar Flaw.
The defect type, position and size should be identified.
Step 2: Establish Service Conditions and Cause of Cracking.
The service life to date and the desired future service life should be defined. The
cause of the cracking should be established to ensure that the fatigue crack
growth procedure is applicable.

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FITNET
EUROPEAN FITNESS FOR SERVICE NETWORK
ASSESSMENT ROUTES
ROUTE 4 – Fatigue crack growth assessment
Step 3: Exclude Environmental or Creep Effects
If the flaw is characterised as surface breaking, the effects of the environment shall
be considered on the fracture and fatigue properties. This requires it to be
demonstrated that the environment in question does not influence these properties
or that any effects are accounted for in the materials data used in the analysis.
If the temperature during operating in the vicinity of the flaw exceeds 0.4Tm, where
Tm is melting point of the material in ºK, time-dependent effects may need to be
considered and the user is referred to the creep module (Section 8).
Step 4: Collect Materials Data and Perform Stress Analysis.
The materials relevant to the assessed feature including, in the case of
weldments, the weld metal and heat-affected zone structures, shall be defined.
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FITNET
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ASSESSMENT ROUTES
ROUTE 4 – Fatigue crack growth assessment
Step 5: Pre-Checks Stability of the Flaw for the Maximum Foreseen Load (see
7.3.4.5)
Step 6: Calculate Crack Growth
The crack size at the end of the assessed period of operation is calculated by
integrating the appropriate fatigue crack growth expression. This involves three
sub-steps, which are repeated for pre-set cyclic increments:
•update the stress intensity factor as a function of the current flaw dimensions;
•compute the increment in crack size from the crack growth rate law;
•check its stability at fault or overload load levels using the fracture procedure.
The Procedure describes these for the Paris Law and Forman-Mettu
approaches.(see Section 7.3.4.6)
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FITNET
EUROPEAN FITNESS FOR SERVICE NETWORK
FATIGUE ASSESSMENT ROUTES

ROUTE 4 – Fatigue crack growth assessment

Paris Equation:
The relevant equation is as follows:
da
= A.ΔK m
dN
where A and m are constants which depend on the material and the applied
conditions, including environment and cyclic frequency.

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FITNET
EUROPEAN FITNESS FOR SERVICE NETWORK
FATIGUE ASSESSMENT ROUTES
ROUTE 4 – Fatigue crack growth assessment
Forman-Mettu Approach:
This method follows a similar cycle-by-cycle integration method as discussed
above using the sigmoidal crack growth rate relationship::
ΔK th p
(1 - )
da Δ K
= C [((1 - f )/(1 - R))·ΔK ]
n

dN K
(1 - max ) q
Kc
where N is the number of applied fatigue cycles, a is the crack length, and C, n,
p, and q are empirically derived constants. For further information see Section
7.3.4.6.2.

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FITNET
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FATIGUE ASSESSMENT ROUTES

ROUTE 5 – Non-planar flaw assessment

Non-planar flaws can be assessed in the same way as planar flaws using route 4.
Since they are not crack-like, this will be conservative. However, it may be the
only option if it is necessary to quantify the growth of the flaw under fatigue
loading and to ensure the margin against unstable fracture at a specific crack size.
Otherwise, Route 1 using S-N curves for welded joints can be applied directly, in
cases for which the equivalent fatigue strength are established for the non-planar
flaw under consideration. At present, this approach is only available for assessing
slag inclusions or porosity in steel or aluminium alloy butt welds

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FITNET
EUROPEAN FITNESS FOR SERVICE NETWORK
ASSESSMENT ROUTES

ROUTE 5 – Non-planar flaw assessment

Stepwise flowchart for Route 5

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FITNET
EUROPEAN FITNESS FOR SERVICE NETWORK
ASSESSMENT ROUTES

ROUTE 5 – Non-planar flaw assessment

Step 1 Postulated or detected non planar defect is present in the component or
structure
The route 5 assumed that a non planar defect is postulated or is detected by NDE
in the structure or component which is assessed in fatigue.
Step 2 Service condition
Fatigue resistance will be calculated in route 5 by using nominal stress range SN
or Hot spot stress range calculation as defined in routes 1 and 2.
Step 3 Environmental issues (see 7.2.2)

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ASSESSMENT ROUTES

ROUTE 5 – Non-planar flaw assessment

Step 4 Types of imperfections
A -Imperfect shape : Undercut
B- Volumetric discontinuities
- Gas pores and cavities of any shape
- Solid inclusions such as isolated slag, slag lines, flux,
oxides and metallic inclusions
C- Planar discontinuities
If a volumetric discontinuity is surface breaking or near the surface, or there is any
doubt about the type of an embedded discontinuity, it shall be assessed like a planar
discontinuity.
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ASSESSMENT ROUTES

ROUTE 5 – Non-planar flaw assessment

Step 5 Effects and assessment of imperfections
At geometrical imperfections, two effects affecting fatigue resistance can be
distinguished:
1- Nominal stress and Local notch effect (Route 1)
2- Crack like imperfection (Route 4)

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FITNET
EUROPEAN FITNESS FOR SERVICE NETWORK
SPECIAL OPTIONS

SPECIAL OPTIONS
FITNET Procedure provides guidance for the analysis of common industrial
fatigue problems, such us the following:
•Dang Van criterion (see 7.5.1)
•Multi axial analysis (see 7.5.2)
•Rolling contact fatigue (see 7.5.3)
•Fatigue- creep (see 7.5.4)
•Fatigue- corrosion (see 7.5.5)
•Growth of Short crack (see 7.5.6)

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D. EXAMPLES

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WORKED EXAMPLE I
Infinite Plate under fatigue

• Introduction and Objectives

• Data
• Analysis

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INTRODUCTION AND OBJECTIVES

One structural component of big dimensions is subjected to variable loading

conditions everyday: 200 MPa during 12 hours and 20 MPa the rest of the day.
During the maximum loading conditions other variable stresses appear, with a
variation of 30 MPa (because of vibrations with a frequency 50 Hz).
Some NDT are performed, with equipment whose sensitivity is 0.2 mm and no
cracks are detected.
Considering the component as an infinite plate:
a) Determine the crack length which is necessary to crack propagation because of
vibrations
b) Critical crack length for final failure
c) Life time for the component
d) Evolution of the crack length with time in order to determine inspection
periods
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DATA

Material properties:

KIC = 100 MPa·m1/2

ΔKth (or ΔK0) = 3 MPa·m1/2 if R = Pmin/Pmax = 0.1

ΔKth = 1.5 MPa·m1/2 if R = Pmin/Pmax = 0.85

Paris Law: da
= 1·10 8 ·(ΔK ) 2
dN
da/dN in m/cycle when ΔK in MPa·m1/2

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ANALYSIS

Working conditions are plotted in the next figure:

σ (MPa)
215
20 0
185

20

12 h 24 h t (h)

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ANALYSIS

The component geometry can be simplified as:

σ

2a

2W

The equipment sensitivity is 0.2 mm and no crack has been detected.

So, in the worst possible situation 2a = 0.2 mm.

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ANALYSIS

State I: VIBRATIONS
σ (MPa)
215
200
185

12 h 24 h t (h )

R = Pmax/Pmin = 0.8 ΔKth = 1.5 MPa·m1/2

ΔK = Δσ·(π·a)1/2 = 30·(π·0.0001)1/2 = 0.53 MPa·m1/2 < ΔKth Existing cracks
don´t propagate

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ANALYSIS

State II: MAIN LOADING CONDITIONS

σ (MPa)

200

20

12 h 24 h t (h )

As R = 0.10 ΔKth = 3.0 MPa·m1/2

ΔK = Δσ·(π·a)1/2 = 180·(π·0.0001)1/2 = 3.19 MPa·m1/2 > ΔKth Existing cracks
could propagate
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ANALYSIS

As existing cracks could propagate, it is necessary to determine the crack

length for crack propagation because of vibrations:

ΔK th = 1.5MPa·m1/2 = 30· π·av → a v = 0.80 mm

For shorter cracks propagation is only due to main loading variation (Δσ =180 MPa,
f = 1/86400 Hz)
The critical crack length determined at failure is:

K I max = σ max · π·ac = 215· π·a f = 100MPa·m1/2

a f = 68 mm
For crack length over 0.80 mm propagation is due to both main loading variation and
vibrations (Δσ = 30 MPa, f = 5 Hz)
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ANALYSIS
LIFE TIME:
The time necessary to initiate the effects of vibrations to cause crack propagation
is determined through the Paris law:
1 af 1 0.0008
N= 2 2
·Ln = −8 2
· Ln = 2042 cycles
C·Y ·( Δσ) ·π a 0 1·10 ·(180) ·π 0.0001
2042 cycles is equivalent to 2042 days or 5.59 years

Once this crack length is reached, propagation is due to vibrations (mainly):

a0 = 0.8 mm af = 68 mm
1 af 1 68
N= 2 2
·Ln = −8 2
· Ln = 157126 cycles
C·Y ·( Δσ) ·π a 0 1·10 ·(30) ·π 0.8
157126 cycles is equivalent to 0.73 days
The same day that cracks achive length to propagate due to vibration
amplitude, the component fails. SO, LIFE TIME IS 5.59 YEARS.
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ANALYSIS

The evolution of semicrack length with time is (question d)):

It is reasonable to define
periodical inspections to check if
a(mm) really cracks propagate over the
68
detectable value of 0.2 mm in
total length (i.e. every two years)

inspection in 2 years.
No
cracks detected?

0 ,8 Yes
0,1
Evaluate remanent life
5,59 year s
and take decisions

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 G1RT-CT-2001-05071

WORKED EXAMPLE II
Fatigue test

• Introduction and data

• Objectives
• Analysis

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INTRODUCTION AND DATA

A fatigue test on a seven wire strand was performed. The maximum applied stress is
0.8·σu and the amplitude is 390 MPa.
The strand is one meter long and the diameter of the wires is 5 mm.
The test finished with three broken wires, the central one and two external (which
were together), after 320.000 fatigue cycles (f = 8 Hz).
The SEM observation of the failure surfaces gave the following information about
crack lengths:
- Central wire: 0.25 mm (depth) elliptical crack from non propagated
initial defect.
- External wire A: 1.32 mm from a non differentiated initial defect.
- External wire B: 1.20 mm proceeding from a 0.30 mm in depth initial
defect.
From a previous tension test, the mechanical behaviour of the strand was obtained:
• E = 195 GPa
• Failure Load = 256.2 kN Strain for Failure Load = 4.7 % (gauge base 500 mm)

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OBJECTIVES

From the testing results and the behaviour of the material, determine:

a) The failure sequence of the wires as well as their form of failure and the
fracture toughness of the material.
b) Fatigue behaviour of the material considering a Paris exponent of 2.4 and the
depth of the initial defect of wire A.
a

Consider for the wire geometry that KI = 2.12·σ·a 0.5

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ANALYSIS
The area of each wire is:
Aw = π·r2 = π·2.52 =19.635 mm2

Therefore, the area of the strand is

A = 7·Aw = 7·19.635 = 137.44 mm2

The failure load is 256.2 kN, so the failure stress can be calculated:
σf = 256200/137.44 =1864 MPa

The maximum and minimum stresses are:

σmax = 0.8·σf = 0.8·1864 = 1491.2 MPa
σmin = 0.8·σf – 390 = 1491.2 – 390 = 1101.2 MPa

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ANALYSIS
Under these conditions, the first failure occurs in the external wire A because it
has the bigger propagated defect. After that, the external wire B breaks and
finally, the central one.

The external wire A breaks because of a fracture failure as a consequence of a

fatigue process. Then:

KI = 2.12·σ·ac0.5 = 2.12·1491.2·(0.00132)0.5 = 114.9 MPa·m1/2

KIC = 114.9 MPa·m ½

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ANALYSIS
The external wire B also fails because of fracture, but with a smaller defect
because the decrease of the section once the external wire A is broken. The new
supported σmax is:

σmax = 7/6 · 1491.2 = 1739.7 MPa

This stress is smaller than the failure strength of the strand (1864 MPa).
Therefore, failure happens as a consequence of sudden fracture or plastic
collapse. This later as the applied stress (1739.7 MPa) is close to yield stress
(even non considering a possible strain hardening effect, then σymax= σu = 1864
MPa)

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ANALYSIS
We can calculate the stress intensity factor:
KI = 2.12·σ·ac 0.5 = 2.12·1739.7·(0.0012)0.5 KI = 127.76 MPa·m ½

This value is bigger than KIC and it justifies the sudden failure of the external
wire B. Now, there are only five wires in the section of the strand, so:

σmax = 6/5 · 1739.7 = 2087.6 MPa

This stress is bigger than the failure stress of the cord (1864 MPa). Therefore, it
is possible to affirm that the latest is the maximum stress in the strand, and the
central wire fails because of tension. In effect, the necessary stress for fracture to
occur would be:

114.9 = 2.12·σ·0.00025 0.5 σ = 3428 MPa

Such a value is not reached at any time.
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ANALYSIS

Let´s now determine the fatigue properties of the material. We know that the
central wire had a defect of 0.25 mm which did not produce crack propagation
under Δσ = 390 MPa. So:

ΔKth > 2.12·Δσ·a0.5 = 2.12·390·0.000250.5 = 13.07 MPa·m1/2

We also know that an initial defect of 0.3 mm propagates in the external wire B and
that the unknown initial defect of wire A should be higher than 0.3 because it
reached a bigger final crack. So:

ΔKth < 2.12·Δσ·a0.5 = 2.12·390·0.00030.5 = 14.32 MPa·m1/2

From both expressions the threshold SIF is limited from the following values:
13.07 < ΔKth < 14.32 MPa·m1/2

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ANALYSIS
The Paris law is:
da
= C·( ΔK ) 2.4 = C ·(2.12·Δσ· a ) 2.4 where C has to be defined
dN

We know: Δσ = 390 MPa

da
So: = C·( ΔK ) 2.4 = C ·(2.12·390· a ) 2.4
dN

da
1.2
= C·(2.12·390) 2.4 ·dN
a
a i = 0.3 mm
ai
−0.2
− af
−0.2
= C·2.008·106 ·N a f = 1.2 mm conditions at wire B
N = 320000 cycles

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ANALYSIS

0.0003−0.2 − 0.0012 −0.2 −12

C= = 1.909·10
2.008·106 ·320000
Therefore, the Paris law is:

da
= 1.909·106 ·( ΔK ) 2.4
dN

To calculate the initial defect in the external wire A, we will integrate the Paris
law:
C = 1.909·10 12
−0.2 −0.2
ai − af = C·2.008·106 ·N a f = 1.32 mm
N = 320000 cycles
−0.2
ai − 0.00132 −0.2 = C·2.008·106 ·N = 1.22665 ai = 0.3223 mm

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III. TRAINING PACKAGE ON CREEP

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A. BASIC CONCEPTS

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OVERVIEW: MATERIAL RESPONSE

SLOW CREEP
It is the variation in time of the strain in a material which is subjected to constant
load.
The more general response of materials is
shown in the figure: remaining deformation

The microstructural mechanisms are described

in the next pages depending on the temperature
at which they happen in relation with the unloading

melting point, Tm.

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OVERVIEW: MATERIAL RESPONSE

CREEP AT LOW TEMPERATURES: T/Tm < 0.5

In this case, the viscoelastic component of the strain predominates, and it has a
small magnitude (εv < 0.1). In metallic materials, this process has importance for
high stresses whereas in other materials (i.e, polymers) lower stresses are enough.
The stress condition for this process to be important is unified for all kind of
materials through the relation:

εv=A· log ( 1+νt )

where ν varies from 1010 to 1013 s-1 and A=A(σ,T, material)

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OVERVIEW: MATERIAL RESPONSE

CREEP AT LOW TEMPERATURES: T/Tm < 0.5

The figure shows the behaviour of this kind of creep. It is explained from the
movement of dislocations because of the applied stress and assisted by the thermal
agitation. Dislocation go to more a more stable positions from where it is more
difficult to move them and, because of that, the strain rate becomes lower.

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OVERVIEW: MATERIAL RESPONSE

CREEP AT HIGH TEMPERATURES: T/Tm > 0.5

failure

This kind of creep has a predominant viscoplastic

component in the strain and it has a big magnitude (εv constant load
can be even bigger than 100%). In metals an polymers, constant true
stress

these strains appear from very low stresses (σ/G = 10-3

to 10-4) and limitations because of them are more
decisive than strength limitations in service.
The figure shows the behaviour of a metallic material
through ε-t curves and for different values of σ at a
given temperature, T.

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INTRODUCTION: DEFECT-FREE STRUCTURES

CREEP AT HIGH TEMPERATURES: T/Tm > 0.5

failure

Three stages can be distinguished: constant load

constant true
stress

-Stage I: Primary creep with decreasing strain rate.

-Stage II: Secondary creep with constant strain rate.
-Stage II: Tertiary creep with increasing strain rate.

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INTRODUCTION: DEFECT-FREE STRUCTURES

CREEP AT HIGH TEMPERATURES: T/Tm > 0.5

The behaviour at stages I and II can be described by relations such as Andrade´s
equation:

ε v = ε 0 + β·t n + K·t βtn corresponds to transitory creep (n takes

values from 1/4 to 2/3) and Kt corresponds
where to stationary creep. When t increases, the
ε 0 = ε e0 + ε 0p relation βtn/Kt decreases.
-Q
N
N is typically higher than 3
K = Cσ ·e kT

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INTRODUCTION: DEFECT-FREE STRUCTURES

CREEP AT HIGH TEMPERATURES: T/Tm > 0.5

The deformation increases with time so the section of the structure decreases
and, under constant load conditions, there is an increase of stresses that produces
the acceleration of the deformations, which is characteristic of stage III.
There are some methods that allows to extrapolate the behaviour of a material
under some given conditions to other conditions of σ or T. The most extended
method is determined by the Larson-Miller equation:
T·(log t R + C) = m
where C depends on the material and m depends on the stress. This correlation
can be used to the rupture time tR or to any other time when some given
conditions are achieved, provided the microstructural mechanisms are similar.

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INTRODUCTION: DEFECT-FREE STRUCTURES
CREEP AT HIGH TEMPERATURES: T/Tm > 0.5
The microstructural mechanisms that produces creep at high temperatures and
that are associated with viscoplastic strains are:
-Dislocation movement assisted by vacancies diffusion or interstitial diffusion. It appears
for 10-4 <σ/G<10-2. These mechanisms justify the stationary creep as the equilibrium state
between the strain hardening rate and the thermal recovery due to the reordenation and
disappearance of dislocations.
-Creep due to vacancies and interstitial diffusion assisted by stress (σ/G<10-4). The stress
generates a flow of vacancies from the grain boundaries in tension to those in compression
and a flow of atoms in the opposite direction. It generates the enlargement of the grains
and, then, strains.
-Grain boundary slips, which are necessary for the maintenance of the grains continuity,
which justify the appearance of intergranular microvoids.
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INTRODUCTION: STRUCTURES WITH DEFECTS
This chapter focuses on the concepts for predicting and characterising
crack growth in structural materials at elevated temperatures:

-Components and structures that operate at high temperatures (relative to the

melting point of the material) may fail through slow, stable extension of a
macroscopic crack.
- Traditional approaches to design in the creep regime are applied only when creep
and material damage are uniformly distributed.
- Time-dependent fracture mechanics approaches are required when creep failure
is controlled by a dominant crack in the structure.

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INTRODUCTION: STRUCTURES WITH DEFECTS

Creep failure occurs because of either widespread or localised creep damage:

WIDESPREAD DAMAGE: When the component is subjected to uniform stresses

and temperatures, creep rupture can occur. This is mainly observed in thin section
components.

LOCALISED CREEP DAMAGE: Components subjected to nonuniform stresses

and temperatures. It is quite likely that failure occurs because of creep crack
propagation. This is mainly observed in large structures.

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INTRODUCTION: STRUCTURES WITH DEFECTS
It is possible to distingish two different creep behaviours:
CREEP-DUCTILE MATERIALS: These materials can develop considerable crack
growth before failure. This growth is accompanied by creep strain at the crack front.
Damage is usually in the form of grain boundary cavitation which is initiated at
second phase particles or defects on the grain boundaries. Their nucleation and
growth ends with their coalescence and, then the crack appears and grows.
Examples: Stainless steels, Cr-Mo steels, Cr-Mo-V steels,...

CREEP-BRITTLE MATERIALS: The main difference between these materials and

creep-ductile materials is that creep crack growth is accompanied by small-scale
creep deformation and by crack growth rates that are comparable to the rate at which
creep deformation spreads in the cracked component.
Examples: Titanium and aluminium alloys, nickel-base superalloys, ceramic materials...

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INTRODUCTION: STRUCTURES WITH DEFECTS
Four stages can appear in the behaviour of a pre-existing defect when it is subjected to
load at high temperatures:
1) INITIATION: a period during which no growth occurs (Δa ≤ 0.2 mm)
2) CRACK GROWTH: The crack extends in a stable manner as a result of creep
processes
3a) FRACTURE: The crack may grow to a size at which short-term fracture (ductile
or brittle) occurs
3b) CREEP RUPTURE: Failure may occur due to accumulation of creep damage in
the ligament ahead of the crack (or elsewhere in the structure)

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INTRODUCTION: STRUCTURES WITH DEFECTS
Schematic behaviour of failure due to crack growth at elevated temperature
Lifetime = lower{(ti + tg), tCD}
tCD : time for creep rupture

Short-Term failure
EXAMPLE:
Experimental crack
growth in 2_CrMo weld
at 565 ºC

tCD
(ti) (tg)

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KEY DEFINITIONS
•STEADY CYCLE STATE: It is defined as the condition in which repeated cycles
of loading give rise to repeated cycles of stress and a constant increment of strain,
which may be zero, per cycle.
•DWELL PERIOD: It is a part of the steady cycle during which the structure
experiences continuous operation at temperatures in the creep range with only slight
changes in loads and temperatures.
•SHAKEDOWN: The component is in strict shakedown if the behaviour is elastic at
all points in the structure at all instants of time during operation in the steady cyclic
state.

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CREEP BEHAVIOUR
PARAMETERS USED TO DESCRIBE THE DEFECT BEHAVIOUR

K: Linear Elastic Stress Intensity Factor

J: J Integral value, useful under elastic-plastic conditions
σref : Reference stress
C* : Crack Tip Parameter
C(t): Non steady crack parameter

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PARAMETERS USED TO DESCRIBE THE DEFECT BEHAVIOUR

-The initial response of the body is elastic-plastic, and the crack-tip stress field
is proportional to K if the scale of plasticity is small compared with crack size.
If the plastic zone is not small, the J-integral characterises the instantaneous
crack tip stresses and strains.
-With increasing time, creep deformation causes the relaxation of the stresses
in the immediate vicinity of the crack tip, resulting in the formation of the
creep zone, which continually increases in size with time. Because the
parameters K and J are independent of time, they are not able to uniquely
characterise the crack-tip stresses and strains within the creep zone.

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PARAMETERS USED TO DESCRIBE THE DEFECT BEHAVIOUR

- The parameters C* and C(t) have been developed to describe the evolution of
time-dependent creep strains in the crack-tip region.
- For a body undergoing creep, the uniaxial stress-strain-time response for a
material that exhibits elastic, primary, secondary and tertiary creep is given by:
dσ
dε dt
= + A1 ·ε - p ·σ n1 ·(1+ p ) + A·σ n + A3 ·σ n3 ·(ε - A·σ n ·t ) p3
dt E
A, A1, A3, p, p3, n, n1 and n3 are the creep regression constants derived from creep deformation data.

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STRESS INTENSITY FACTOR

As K describes elastic behaviour, it is not generally relevant to the behaviour of

defects at high temperature, except for:

- Very brittle materials which exhibit little creep deformation prior to failure
- At very short times when stresses have had little time to redistribute from the
elastic field to the steady state creep field

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REFERENCE STRESS (I)

Following initial elastic (or elastic-plastic) behaviour on loading, structures at high

temperature can exhibit various stages of response:

- Stage I : a period of stress redistribution in which stresses become more uniform. This
usually involves a reducing displacement rate because of both the stress
redistribution and primary creep. Primary creep dominates at short times after
application of the load.
- Stage II : a steady state period when stresses are essentially constant. The displacement rate
is also constant for steady state creep.

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CREEP BEHAVIOUR
REFERENCE STRESS (II)

- Stage III: as local damage develops,

further stress redistribution may occur.
This involves an increasing displacement
rate because of both the stress
redistribution and tertiary creep.
Microscopic failure mechanisms, such as
grain boundary cavitation, nucleate at this
final stage of creep.

STRUCTURAL BEHAVIOUR

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CREEP BEHAVIOUR
REFERENCE STRESS (III)
- The steady state generates reasonably uniform stress fields which can be described
by a single value of stress called the reference stress, σref.
- Limit load solutions also tend to produce uniform stresses, so that the limit load (FL)
can be used to define σref.

σref = F σy/ FL(σy)

F - applied load
FL - limit load solution for yield stress

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REFERENCE STRESS (IV)
F
Example: Centre cracked plate under tension
(t, thickness)
2a
FL = 2Wtσy(1- a/W)
σref = Fσy/ FL= F/ (2Wt(1- a/W))
2W

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REFERENCE STRESS (V)
The reference stress can be used for various purposes:
1) Plastic Collapse: σref ≤ σy is equivalent to F ≤ FL
2) Creep Rupture: the time for creep rupture tcd can be estimated as
tcd ≈ tr(σref)
tr(σ) is the time-to-rupture in a standard specimen at stress σ for a
given temperature
Even in cracked components, the time to failure can be governed by creep rupture if crack growth
rates are low in creep ductile materials

3) Estimating crack tip parameters: J or C*

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C* PARAMETER (I)
C* is the creep analogue of J in post-yield fracture.
Hoff´s analogy states that if there exists a nonlinear elastic body that obeys the relationship
εij=f(σij) and a viscous body that is characterised by dεij/dt = f(σij), where f is the same for
both, then both bodies develop identical stress distributions when the same load is applied.
It can be applied to steady state creep because the creep rate is a function only of the
applied stress.
The C* integral is defined by replacing strains with strain rates, and displacements with
displacement rates in the J contour integral:

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CREEP BEHAVIOUR
C* PARAMETER (I)
C* is the creep analogue of J in post-yield fracture.
Hoff´s analogy implies that C* integral is path-independent, because J is path-independent.

Just as the J integral characterises the crack tip fields in an elastic or elastic-plastic
material, the C* integral uniquely defines crack tip conditions in a viscous material.

Thus, the time-dependent crack growth rate in a viscous material should depend only on
C*.
Experimental studies have shown that creep crack growth rates correlate very well with
C*, provided steady state creep is the dominant deformation mechanism in the specimen.

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C* PARAMETER (II)

It characterises stress and strain-rate fields in steady state creep

σij = (C*/D·In·r) 1/(n+1)
for dε/dt = D·σn
It can be calculated from creep displacement rates, (dΔ/dt)c, in standard test
specimens
C* = [n/(n+1)]·[η·F·(dΔ/dt)c]/[B·(W-a)]
for CT specimens . η = 2 + 0.522·(1-a/W)
It generally characterises creep crack growth rates, da/dt:
da/dt = A·C*q where A is a correlation constant depending on material
q ≈ n / (n+1)

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C* PARAMETER (III)

Typical creep crack growth data

da/dt = A·C* q

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C* PARAMETER (IV)
ESTIMATING C*

1) By analogy with J: Characteristic length

C* = σo·(dε/dt)o·c·h1·(P/Po)n+1
(dε/dt) = (dε/dt)o·(σ/σo) n
h1 = f (n, geometry, a/W, loading type)
2) For more general creep laws, aproximately:
C* = σref·(dε/dt)ref·R´
(dε/dt)ref = creep strain rate at stress σref
R´= length ≈ K2/σ2ref
Reference stress estimate validated by comparision with numerical solutions and experimental data.

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C* PARAMETER (V)
REALISTIC CREEP LAWS

- Having written C* in terms of the strain rate at a reference stress, it is no longer

necessary to retain a simple power law. The formula enables:

• Creep laws including primary, secondary and tertiary parts to be used

• Raw creep data to be used directly if an equation fitting the data is not avalaible

• Allowance to be made for creep strain accumulation under rising stress as the crack
grows, via strain hardening rules.

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CREEP BEHAVIOUR
NON-STEADY CREEP PARAMETER

C(t) = K2/(n+1)Et t→0

C(t) = C* t→∞

- The transition between these extremes may be described in terms of

tT = K2/(n+1)EC*
or
tred = K2/EC*
- The reference stress estimate of C* means
εc(σref,tred) = σref/E
i.e. the steady state is reached when the creep strain equals the elastic strain (at the
reference stress)

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CREEP BEHAVIOUR
INCUBATION CALCULATIONS (I)

There are various routes for assessing when a crack starts to grow:

1) For steady state creep via data, tI, correlated with C*: ti = constant·(C*) -m
m ≈ n/(n+1)
and C* calculated by various means.
2) With primary or transient creep via critical COD, δi. Then calculate a critical strain for
initiation:
εic = (δi/R´)n/(n+1) – σref/E
(or 0 if less than zero)
Then εc(σref,ti) = εic defines ti

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CREEP BEHAVIOUR
INCUBATION CALCULATIONS (II)

3) In the absence of initiation data from cracked specimens, an estimated value may
obtained be made using rupture data:

3.1. tI = 0.0025·(σref·tr(σref)/K2)0.85
for tr, tI in h, σref in MPa, K in MPa·m1/2
(from BS7910)

3.2 using the σd method

(from A16)

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CREEP BEHAVIOUR
CRACK GROWTH CALCULATIONS

- These are generally performed using an estimate of C* and crack growth data in the
form:

da/dt = A·C*q
- In the absence of crack growth data, an estimate can be made using
- Ductility data, εf*
da/dt = 3·C*0.85/εf
- Creep rupture data, tr (σ)
da/dt = (K2/σref·tr(σref))0.85
- With all methods, Δa = (da/dt)·Δt and calculations of K,σref, C* and hence da/dt are
updated as the crack extends to a + Δa.

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CREEP BEHAVIOUR
CRACK GROWTH CALCULATIONS

- ASTM E 1457 (for collecting creep crack growth data only)

- BS 7910 (formely BS PD 6539)
- R5 (British Energy)
- A16
- API 579
Sample flow charts for structural assessment have been produced.

R.A. Ainsworth F. GUTIÉRREZ-SOLANA

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 G1RT-CT-2001-05071

BIBLIOGRAPHY / REFERENCES

• Didactic material supplied by R.A. Ainsworth

• ASM Handbook, Volume 19, “Fatigue and Fracture” Tenth Edition, ASM
International, The Materials Information Society
• Anderson T.L, “Fracture Mechanics. Fundamentals and Applications”, 2nd
Edition, CRC Press, Boca Raton (1995)

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B. INTRODUCTION TO ASSESSMENT
PROCEDURES FOR CRACKED
COMPONENTS AT HIGH
TEMPERATURES

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ASSESSMENT PROCEDURES FOR CRACKED

COMPONENTS AT HIGH TEMPERATURES
INTRODUCTION

The early approaches to high temperature life assessment show methodologies that
were based on defect-free assessment codes, i.e. ASME Code Case N-47 and the
French RCC-MR, which have many similarities and are based on lifetime
assessment of un-cracked structures.
More recent methods make life assessment based on the presence of defects in the
components.
The more advanced codes dealing with defects over the range of creep and creep-
fatigue interaction in initiation and growth defects are the British Energy R5, the
French A16 and BS7910 which have clear similarities in terms of methodology.

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ASSESSMENT PROCEDURES FOR CRACKED

COMPONENTS AT HIGH TEMPERATURES
INTRODUCTION

The available procedures are implemented in a series of well-defined steps, often

shown as flow charts. The individual steps can refer to
- a component before it enters service, containing either a postulated
defect or one discovered during inspection.
- a defect, which has been discovered after a component has been in
service for a period of time.
The flow charts contain variations and choices available to the user in accordance
with their level of expertise and the level of information available on the
component under consideration.

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ASSESSMENT PROCEDURES FOR CRACKED

COMPONENTS AT HIGH TEMPERATURES
GENERAL STRUCTURE

Some typical steps in an assessment are listed here:

1) Establish the cause of cracking
2) Define previous plant history, future operational requirements and relevant stresses
3) Characterise defects
4) Establish material properties
5) Check the fatigue component
6) Perform defect assessment
7) Define Fatigue Crack Propagation Rates
8) Creep Crack Propagation Rate
9) Incubation Period
10) Assessment to Include Creep-Fatigue Loading
11) Others

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ASSESSMENT PROCEDURES FOR CRACKED

COMPONENTS AT HIGH TEMPERATURES
GENERAL STRUCTURE

6) PERFORM DEFECT ASSESSMENT:

6.1) Determine margin against fast fracture assuming an initial defect or a measured defect
dimension using various levels of FAD.
6.2) Evaluate ΔKth and fatigue crack propagation rates.
6.3) Determine the creep rupture life of the component, using initial defect dimensions.
6.4) Evaluate crack propagation rates and estimate the amount of creep crack growth at
intervals
6.5) Check the steady creep conditions applied at the crack tip; if not, revise crack growth
estimates
6.6) Determine crack dimensions at the end of each interval.

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ASSESSMENT PROCEDURES FOR CRACKED

COMPONENTS AT HIGH TEMPERATURES
GENERAL STRUCTURE

6) PERFORM DEFECT ASSESSMENT:

6.7) Repeat calculation against fast fracture at the end of each interval.
6.8) If the end of life margin is satisfactory, no remedial action is needed.
6.9) If the end of life margin against fast fracture is unsatisfactory, the intermediate
calculations can be used to establish the time at which this margin ceases to be
acceptable and to define when a remedial action is necessary.

Step 0 Step 1 Step 2 Final Step

a0 a1 = a0 + Δa a2 = a1 + Δa af = af-1 + Δa
Margin 0 (M0) M1 M2 Mfinal > Mmin ?

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ASSESSMENT PROCEDURES FOR CRACKED

COMPONENTS AT HIGH TEMPERATURES
GENERAL STRUCTURE

7) DEFINE FATIGUE CRACK PROPAGATION RATES:

The fatigue crack propagation rate is generally defined by the Paris equation:

⎛ da ⎞
⎟ = C ⋅ (ΔK )
m
⎜
⎝ dN ⎠ f
C, m: material constants

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ASSESSMENT PROCEDURES FOR CRACKED

COMPONENTS AT HIGH TEMPERATURES
GENERAL STRUCTURE

8) CREEP CRACK PROPAGATION RATE:

Creep crack propagation rate is usually defined in the form:

⎛ da ⎞
⎜ ⎟ = A⋅ C( )
* q

⎝ dt ⎠ c
A, q: constants.
0.003
for ⎛⎜ ⎞⎟ in m/h
da
Where the creep ductility of the material is known: A=
εf ⎝ dt ⎠ c

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ASSESSMENT PROCEDURES FOR CRACKED

COMPONENTS AT HIGH TEMPERATURES
GENERAL STRUCTURE

8) CREEP CRACK PROPAGATION RATE:

Where the creep ductility of the material is not known, crack propagation rates can be
obtained from:

( )
0.85
⎛ da ⎞ ⎛ Ka ⎞
p 2

⎜ ⎟ = 0.005 ⋅ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ dt ⎠ c ⎜ σ ref ⋅ t R (ref ) ⎟
⎝ ⎠
K ap : SIF at maximum depth for a crack of diminsions a and l.
tR(σref): time to rupture at the reference stress.

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ASSESSMENT PROCEDURES FOR CRACKED

COMPONENTS AT HIGH TEMPERATURES
GENERAL STRUCTURE

8) CREEP CRACK PROPAGATION RATE:

The driving force C* is calculated from:
2
• ⎛K p ⎞
C = σ 0 ⋅ ε ref ⋅ ⎜
* ⎟
⎜σ ⎟
⎝ ref ⎠
•
ε ref : creep strain rate from uniaxial deformation data at σref

The formulation covers primary creep

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ASSESSMENT PROCEDURES FOR CRACKED

COMPONENTS AT HIGH TEMPERATURES
GENERAL STRUCTURE

9) INCUBATION PERIOD:
Where incubation time data are available from test specimens, the incubation time for
the component can be correlated with C* provided both specimen and component are
in the secondary stage of creep. Then, the incubation time tI can be deduced from:
n
*
C specimen
n +1
ti ,component = ti , specimen *
C component

Where data are not available for the material used in the component, procedures
provide equations to estimate tI.

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ASSESSMENT PROCEDURES FOR CRACKED

COMPONENTS AT HIGH TEMPERATURES
GENERAL STRUCTURE

10) ASSESSMENT TO INCLUDE CREEP-FATIGUE LOADING:

In most cases, linear summarition of the time dependent creep and the time
independent fatigue portions of crack growth adequately describes high temperature
failure under cyclic loading:

da ⎛ da ⎞ ⎛ da ⎞
=⎜ ⎟ ⎜+ ⎟ =
⎛ da ⎞
⎜ ⎟ ⋅
1
+
⎛ da ⎞
⎜ ⎟
dN ⎝ dN ⎠ c ⎝ dN ⎠ f ⎝ dt ⎠ 3600 ⋅ f ⎝ dN ⎠ f
= A ⋅ C * q
⋅ ( )
1
3600 ⋅ f
+ C ⋅ (ΔK )
m

f: frecuency

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ASSESSMENT PROCEDURES FOR CRACKED

COMPONENTS AT HIGH TEMPERATURES
SENSITIVITY ANALYSIS

Assuming the final defect size gives an acceptable end-of-life safety margin, a
sensitivity analysis is recomended. Different procedures (BS7910, R5, R6...)
describe the principles.
The sensitivity analysis considers the effects of different assumptions, such as
stress levels, material properties, defect sizes, etc.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY / REFERENCES

• Taylor N., Kocak M., Webster S., Janosch J.J., Ainsworth R.A. and Koers R.,
“Final Report for Work Package 2, State-of-the-Art and Strategy”,
FITNET/Technical Report/JRC-IE (NSU/NT/200308.024), September 2003
• Dogan B., “High temperature defect assessment procedures”, Inernational
Journal of Pressure Vessels and Piping 80 (2003) 149-156
• Dean D.W., Ainsworth R.A. and Booth S.E., “Development and use of the R5
procedures for the assessment of defects in high temperature plant”,
International Journal of Pressure Vessels and Piping 78 (2001), p.963-976.
• British Energy, “R5, Assessment Procedure for the High Temperature Response
of Structures”. Issue 3, Gloucester: British Energy; June 2003

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C. PROCEDURE APPLICATION
(FITNET)

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• INTRODUCTION
• ANALYSIS STEPS
• MATERIALS DATA
• BASIC CALCULATIONS
• ASSESSMENT CALCULATIONS
• ASSESS SIGNIFICANCE OF RESULTS

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INTRODUCTION

Overall Procedure
In this section, a step-by-step procedure is set out for assessing a component
containing a known or postulated defect under creep-fatigue loading. Flowcharts for
the procedure are given in next pages.
Continuum damage accumulation and crack growth are addressed.
The cases of insignificant creep and insignificant fatigue are included as special
cases.
The procedure may be applied to a component that has not yet seen operation at
creep temperatures, or one that has already operated at high temperature. In the latter
case, advice is given additionally on the effect of the time at which the defect is
assumed to form.

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INTRODUCTION

Flowchart for Overall

Creep Assessment
Procedure

(see next two pages)

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INTRODUCTION

Defect Assessment
Flowchart for Insignificant
Fatigue

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 (see Section 8.7.1)

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INTRODUCTION

Defect Assessment
Flowchart for Significant
Fatigue

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ANALYSIS STEPS

STEP 1. Establish Cause of Cracking and Characterise Initial Defect (see Section 8.3)
STEP 2. Define Service Conditions (see Section 8.4)
STEP 3. Collect Materials Data (see Section 8.5)
STEP 4. Perform Basic Calculations (see Section 8.6)
STEP 5. Check Stability under Time-Independent Loads
STEP 6. Check Significance of Creep and Fatigue (see Section 8.7)
STEP 7. Calculate Rupture Life based on the Initial Defect Size (see Section 8.8.1)
STEP 8. Calculate Initiation Time (see Section 8.8.2)
STEP 9. Calculate Crack Size after Growth (see Section 8.8.3)

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ANALYSIS STEPS

STEP 10. Re-Calculate Rupture Life after Crack Growth

STEP 11. Check Stability under Time-Independent Loads after Crack Growth
STEP 12. Assess Significance of Results (see Section 8.9)
STEP 13. Report Results (see Section 8.9.3)

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ESTABLISH CAUSE OF CRACKING (STEP 1)

STEP 1- Establish Cause of Cracking

Before performing calculations, an investigation should be carried out to
determine the most likely cause of cracking.
When a defect has been discovered in a component that has been in service, the
conservative assumption for the calculation of continuum damage is that the
crack initiated early in life. This should be assumed unless there is evidence to the
contrary.
Significant creep damage, away from the crack tip, probably indicates that there
has been local over-heating or over-stressing. In these circumstances, all crack
growth calculations should take account of the material in its damaged state.
For further information see Section 8.3.
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DEFINE SERVICE CONDITIONS (STEP 2)

STEP 2- Define Service Conditions

The Procedure is applicable to components which operate for long periods at
steady or steady cyclic conditions of load (stress), or displacement, and
temperature. Each loading and temperature must be defined for the locations of
interest. In making an assessment, it is conservative to assume that all the loading
is load-controlled and ignore stress relaxation; it may also be assumed that
infrequent short-term overloads will not modify the crack tip conditions
significantly.
For further information see Section 8.4.

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COLLECT MATERIALS DATA (STEP 3)

STEP 3- Collect Materials Data

Next pages outline the material properties data required to follow the steps in the
procedure. Some of these properties may be inter-related and it is necessary to use
consistent material properties data in different steps of the procedure. This is of
particular importance when material properties data are obtained from a number
of different source references.
Creep Rupture Data
Creep rupture data are required to calculate the rupture life of the remaining
ligament and to estimate the current continuum damage level in the ligament as
the defect grows.

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COLLECT MATERIALS DATA (STEP 3)
STEP 3- Collect Materials Data (cont.)
Creep Deformation Data
Creep deformation data are required for steady loadings to estimate the creep
crack incubation time and subsequent creep crack growth rates using reference
stress techniques.
For cases with steady primary load or large elastic follow-up, forward creep data
collected under constant load conditions are appropriate.
For essentially strain-controlled conditions, in the absence of follow-up, stress
relaxation data may be more appropriate than forward creep data.
Reliable constitutive equations are needed to provide a smooth transition between
these extremes.
For creep-fatigue loadings, a description is required of the creep deformation of
the material in the relevant cyclic condition in order to estimate creep crack
growth rates during the dwell periods.
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COLLECT MATERIALS DATA (STEP 3)

STEP 3- Collect Materials Data (cont.)

Creep Deformation Data (cont.)
Creep deformation data may also be required to calculate the time for failure by
continuum damage using a ductility exhaustion approach or to estimate creep
damage at the surface for use in a creep-fatigue crack growth law. Often a simple
power law expression •
εc
• = (σ / σ 0 ) n
ε0

is used to describe creep strain rate.

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COLLECT MATERIALS DATA (STEP 3)

STEP 3- Collect Materials Data (cont.)

Creep Ductility Data
Creep ductility data may be required to calculate the time for failure by continuum
damage using a ductility exhaustion approach or to estimate creep damage at the
surface. In addition, creep ductility data may be used to estimate creep crack growth
rates for situations in which explicit crack growth data are not available.

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COLLECT MATERIALS DATA (STEP 3)
STEP 3- Collect Materials Data (cont.)
Creep Crack Initiation/Incubation Data
For situations where fatigue is insignificant, it may be possible to take account of
an incubation period prior to crack extension. Creep crack incubation data may be
expressed in terms of a critical crack tip opening displacement, δi, or for
widespread creep conditions, by a relationship of the form:
ti (C * ) = γ
β

where ti is the incubation time and β and γ are material constants.

In situations where explicit incubation data are not available, it is possible to
estimate the incubation time for widespread creep conditions using approximate
expressions given later.
In addition, two alternative approaches for predicting incubation times are given in
the procedure (see Section 8.10).
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COLLECT MATERIALS DATA (STEP 3)
STEP 3- Collect Materials Data (cont.)
Creep Crack Growth Data
Creep crack growth data are required to calculate crack growth under steady
loading conditions or to estimate the crack extension during dwell periods for
creep-fatigue conditions. Creep crack growth data are generally presented as a
simple relationship of the form:
da q
= A·C *
dt
where A and q are material constants. The procedure gives some typical values of
these constants for a number of materials (see Annex N).

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COLLECT MATERIALS DATA (STEP 3)

STEP 3- Collect Materials Data (cont.)

Cyclic Crack Growth Data
Method I
The cyclic component of creep-fatigue crack growth required for a Method I
crack growth rate law is described by
(da / dN ) f = CΔK effl
where C and l are material and temperature dependent constants. ΔKeff is the
stress intensity factor range for which the crack is judged to be open.
In situations where cyclic crack growth data have been obtained from tests with
significant plasticity, it is preferable to evaluate from experimental estimates of
ΔJ . However, it will be pessimistic to use data which have been correlated with
elastically calculated values.
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COLLECT MATERIALS DATA (STEP 3)
STEP 3- Collect Materials Data (cont.)
Cyclic Crack Growth Data (cont)
Method II
The cyclic component of creep-fatigue crack growth required for a Method II
crack growth rate law is described by a high strain fatigue crack growth law of
the form
(da / dN ) f = B' a
Q
amin ≤a ≤ rp
where amin = 0.2 mm is the crack depth below which the crack growth rate is
assumed to be constant, B´ and Q depend on material, strain range and
environment and can be determined experimentally. _
These laws apply for a total surface strain range Δ ε t , while the defect is
embedded in the cyclic plastic zone of size rp at the surface of the component.
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COLLECT MATERIALS DATA (STEP 3)

STEP 3- Collect Materials Data (cont.)

Other Data
In addition to the creep data described previously, it may be necessary to have
other data to perform an assessment:
•Elastic and Physical Constants (see Section 8.5.7.1)
•Stress-strain Data (see Section 8.5.7.2)
•Fracture Toughness Data (see Section 8.5.7.3)

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BASIC CALCULATIONS (STEPS 4 AND 5)

STEPS 4-5- Basic Calculations

Stress Intensity Factors
The linear elastic stress intensity factor, K, depends on the loading and the crack
size and may vary with position around a crack front.
For cyclic loading, it is necessary to evaluate the stress intensity factor range and
the ratio of minimum to maximum stress intensity factor, R.
The value of R should be calculated from a shakedown analysis rather than a
simple elastic analysis. This is because creep during a cycle tends to lead to a
cyclic stress state which gives a lower value of R than the initial elastic response.
The shakedown analysis only affects the value of R and not the total stress
intensity factor range, as the residual stress is independent of position in the
cycle.

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BASIC CALCULATIONS (STEPS 4 AND 5)

STEPS 4-5- Basic Calculations

Reference Stress
For creep crack growth evaluation, it is necessary to evaluate the reference stress
at the start of the dwell. The reference stress for simple primary loading is
determined by the methods of limit analysis and is defined by:
(
σ refp = Pσ y / PL σ y , a )
In cases where cyclic loading is present the load P is evaluated from the stress,
produced by the shakedown analysis, at the time in the cycle corresponding to
the creep dwell. It should be noted that this is not necessarily at the peak stress
in the cycle.
PL is the value of P corresponding to plastic collapse assuming a yield stress .
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BASIC CALCULATIONS (STEPS 4 AND 5)

STEPS 4-5- Basic Calculations

C* Parameter
For steady state creep, the crack tip stress and strain rate fields (and hence
creep crack growth rates) may be characterised by the C* parameter.
It may be evaluated by finite element analysis but a reference stress based
estimate of is often used. This is

•
* p
ref
•
[
C = σ ε c σ refp (a ), εc R ' ]
Here, εc is the creep strain rate at the current reference stress and creep strain,
εc, accumulated under the reference stress history up to time t.
The characteristic length, R′ is defined by: R' = ( K p / σ refp ) 2
where Kp is the stress intensity factor due to primary load only.
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BASIC CALCULATIONS (STEPS 4 AND 5)

STEPS 4-5- Basic Calculations (cont.)

Redistribution Time, tred
This calculation is only required when cyclic loading is insignificant.
Time is required for stress redistribution due to creep from the initial elastic state
at the start of a creep dwell.
The requirement for the stress redistribution to be complete and widespread creep
conditions to be established may be expressed in terms of a redistribution time,
tred. This may be expressed conveniently in terms of the reference stress for cases
of primary load only as
εc [σ refp (a ), t red ] = σ refp (a ) / E
p
where ε c [σ ref (a), t ] is the accumulated creep strain at the reference stress for time,
t, and crack length, a, from uniaxial creep data.
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BASIC CALCULATIONS (STEPS 4 AND 5)

STEPS 4-5- Basic Calculations (cont.)

C(t) Parameter
For times less than the redistribution time, it may be necessary to calculate the
transient crack tip parameter C(t). An interpolation formula for C(t) during the
transition between initial elastic loading and steady state secondary creep is
C (t ) (1 + εc / εe )1 /(1-q)
* =
C (1 + εc / εe )1/(1-q)-1
where εc is the accumulated creep strain at time t, εe is the elastic strain and q is
the exponent in the creep crack growth law with q~n/(n+1)
where n is the exponent in the equation obtained from the creep deformation
data. For times in excess of the redistribution time, C(t) approaches C*
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CHECK SIGNIFICANCE OF CREEP AND FATIGUE (STEP 6)

STEPS 6- Check Significance of Creep and Fatigue

In many cases the complexity of a creep-fatigue crack growth assessment can be
avoided by performing simple calculations to demonstrate the insignificance of
creep and/or fatigue. In the event of both creep and fatigue being shown to be
significant, simple tests can also be used to demonstrate insignificant creep-
fatigue interactions, and thus remove the onerous requirement to generate
material fatigue data incorporating the effects of creep holds.
The test for insignificant creep applies when both Method I and Method II data of
Sections 8.5.6.1 and 8.5.6.2 are used.
The tests for insignificant fatigue and creep-fatigue interaction only apply to
Method I.

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CHECK SIGNIFICANCE OF CREEP AND FATIGUE (STEP 6)

STEPS 6- Check Significance of Creep and Fatigue (cont.)

Insignificant Creep
The significance of creep strains should be determined for the assessed loading
and temperature history. Creep may be significant for some types of loading
history but not for others.
The effects of creep may be neglected if the sum of the ratios of the hold time t to
the maximum allowable time tm , at the reference temperature, Tref, for the total
number of cycles is less than one:
N

∑[ t / t (T )] < 1
m ref
j =1

For further information see Section 8.7.1

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CHECK SIGNIFICANCE OF CREEP AND FATIGUE (STEP 6)

STEPS 6- Check Significance of Creep and Fatigue (cont.)

Insignificant Fatigue
It should first be determined whether or not creep behaviour is unperturbed by
cyclic behaviour. This test should be performed both for the overall structural
response and for stresses local to the crack tip.
Since Step 4 of the procedure of Section 8.2 requires that the crack depth is such
that the compliance of the structure is not significantly affected, the test for the
overall structural response may be demonstrated by showing that the elastic stress
range does not exceed the sum of the steady state creep stress and the stress to
cause yield at the other extreme of the cycle. For further information the
Procedure refers to the R5 Procedure.

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CHECK SIGNIFICANCE OF CREEP AND FATIGUE (STEP 6)
STEPS 6- Check Significance of Creep and Fatigue (cont.)
Insignificant Fatigue (cont.)
The test for stresses local to the crack tip may be made by demonstrating that, for
the most severe fatigue cycle, the cyclic plastic zone at the crack tip is small.
Under cyclic loading, the allowable elastic stress range is 2σy in the absence of
cyclic hardening or softening, and the cyclic plastic zone size at the crack tip,
rpcrack=β(ΔK/2σy)2, where β is typically 1/2π in plane stress and 1/6π in plane
strain.
More generally, the cyclic plastic zone size at the crack tip should be calculated
using the cyclic yield or 0.2% offset stress. This cyclic plastic zone size should be
shown to be much less than the crack size or any other dimension characteristic of
the structure, such as section thickness or remaining ligament ahead of the crack.
For further information see Section 8.7.2.
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CHECK SIGNIFICANCE OF CREEP AND FATIGUE (STEP 6)

STEPS 6- Check Significance of Creep and Fatigue (cont.)

Insignificant Creep-Fatigue Interactions
When both creep and cyclic loading are shown to be significant, the significance
of creep-fatigue interaction should be determined. In general, the effect of creep
damage on fatigue crack growth rates has little influence on the total crack
growth per cycle provided the latter includes an explicit calculation of creep crack
growth. Hence, creep-fatigue interaction is insignificant and material data that
allow for interactions, which lead to enhanced fatigue crack growth rates, are not
required. It is adequate, therefore, in Step 9 of Section 8.2 to sum creep crack
growth with continuous cycle fatigue crack growth estimates.
Two exceptions to this general rule are provided in Section 8.7.3.

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ASSESSMENT CALCULATIONS (STEPS 7 TO 11)
STEP 7- Calculate Rupture Life, tCD
Both stress-based and ductility-based approaches may be used for assessing creep
damage.
For loadings which are predominantly constant and primary, the stress is well
known and it is appropriate to use stress/time-to-rupture relationships for
assessment.
For damage due to cyclic relaxation, the strain accumulated is limited in each cycle
and ductility methods are appropriate. For predominately primary loading the time,
tCD, for creep damage to propagate through a structure and lead to failure is taken as
[ ]
tCD = t r σ refp (a )

where tr(σ) is the rupture time at stress, σ, from conventional stress/time-to-rupture

data and the reference stress is calculated for the primary loads only for the current
crack size, a.
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ASSESSMENT CALCULATIONS (STEPS 7 TO 11)

STEP 7- Calculate Rupture Life, tCD (cont.)

Prior to crack growth the rupture time is calculated for the initial defect size, a0 . If
tCD is less than the remaining assessment time then remedial action must be taken.
For combined and cyclic loading, it may be necessary to evaluate tCD from a
ductility exhaustion approach; further details are given in Section 8.10.

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ASSESSMENT CALCULATIONS (STEPS 7 TO 11)

STEP 8- Calculate Crack Incubation Time, ti

The method for representing incubation data depends on observed specimen response.
For steady state creep conditions with an essentially constant displacement rate, the
incubation time in test specimens is correlated with experimental estimates of the
crack tip parameter by:
t i (C * ) = γ
β

More generally, incubation times can be related to measurements of a critical crack

opening displacement, δi, which can then be used to calculate a critical reference
strain as p
[ ]
εc σ ref (a0 ), ti = [δi / R ' (a0 )]
n / ( n +1) p
- σ ref (a0 ) / E
If fatigue is significant it is conservative to set the incubation time to zero.
However, a creep-fatigue crack incubation time (or cycles) may be calculated
using the FAD or sigma-d approaches outlined in the Procedure (Section 8.10).
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ASSESSMENT CALCULATIONS (STEPS 7 TO 11)

STEP 9- Calculate Crack Size After Growth, ag

The extent to which crack growth calculations are required depends on the
relative magnitudes of the service life to date, t0, the desired future service life, ts
and the incubation time, ti; this may be summarised as follows
• If t0+ts<ti, the crack will not incubate and ag=a0.
• If the crack incubates during the assessment time, then it is necessary to
calculate the crack size, ag, after growth in time t0+ts-ti.
• If the crack has incubated prior to the assessment, then it is necessary to
calculate the crack size, ag, after growth in time ts.

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STEP 9- Calculate Crack Size After Growth, ag (cont.)

The time required for the crack to propagate by an amount Δag is denoted tg. For
the load controlled case and the attainment of steady state creep conditions this is
obtained from creep crack growth data.
The creep crack extension per cycle, (da/dN)c , is evaluated as follows:
th
da
=∫ A(C * ) dt
q
th hold time at high temperature
dN c 0
To allow for the increased amplitude of the crack tip fields at short times, it is
assumed that for times less than the redistribution time (t<tred), equation for crack
propagation may be generalised to
•
a = A[C (t )]
q

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ASSESSMENT CALCULATIONS (STEPS 7 TO 11)

STEP 9- Calculate Crack Size After Growth, ag (cont.)

For situations where ti+tg>tred, the effects of the redistribution period can be
allowed for by using the crack growth rates previously seen multiplied by a
factor of 2 for t<tred, i.e.
•
a = 2 A(C * )
q
for ti ≤t <tred
•
a = A(C * )
q
for t ≥ tred
If the total time for the assessment does not exceed tred, then this simplified
treatment of transient creep is not adequate and it is necessary to use the
parameter C(t) explicitly in estimating creep crack growth.
The creep crack extension per cycle, (da/dN)c, including transient effects is then
t q
evaluated over the dwell period, th, as: da h

= A[C (t )] dt
dN c ∫ 0

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ASSESS SIGNIFICANCE OF RESULTS (STEP 12)

STEP 12- Assess Significance Of Results

Application of the assessment procedures will lead to one of the following results:
i) The final defect size leads to an acceptable end-of-life safety margin. In this case, a
sensitivity analysis should be carried out to ensure that the safety margin is not overly
sensitive to variations in the input parameters of the assessment.
ii) Failure or excessive crack growth is indicated within the required service life. In
these circumstances, the assessment may be revisited with a view to reducing the
assumed pessimisms. In the event that acceptable end-of-life safety margins still
cannot be demonstrated, remedial action should be taken.
These scenarios are both discussed in further detail in the Procedure (see Section 8.9).

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REPORT RESULTS (STEP 13)

STEP 13- Report Results

When reporting the results of a structural integrity assessment, the information
listed below should be presented.
1.LOADING CONDITIONS
2.MATERIAL PROPERTIES
3. DEFINITION OF FLAW.
4. REFERENCE STRESS
5. STRESS INTENSITY FACTOR SOLUTION
6. SIGNIFICANCE OF CREEP AND FATIGUE.
7. TIME INDEPENDENT ASSESSMENT
8. CYCLE DEPENDENT ASSESSMENT
9. TIME DEPENDENT ASSESSMENT
10. SENSITIVITY ANALYSIS
11. REPORTING

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ADDITIONAL INFORMATION

ADDITIONAL INFORMATION
FITNET Procedure provides methodologies for the analysis of specific
industrial/technical problems:
• Treatment of Defects in Weldments (see Section 8.10.1)
• Treatment of Secondary Loading (see Section 8.10.2)
• Failure Assessment Diagram Methods (see Section 8.10.3)
- TDFAD Approach (see 8.10.3.2.1)
- Two Criteria Diagram (see 8.10.3.2.2)
• Probabilistic Approach to Lifetime Assessment in Creep Regime (see
Section 8.10.4)
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D. EXAMPLES

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WORKED EXAMPLE I
Flat Plate Under Constant Load

• Introduction and objectives

• Data
• Analysis
•Bibliography/References

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INTRODUCTION AND OBJECTIVES

During a visual inspection of a C-Mn flat plate of width

100mm, a single edge notch of depth 20 mm is detected.

The plate operates at 380 ºC under constant tension, P,

corresponding to a nominal stress P/Bw = 100 MPa and the
defect is assumed to have been present from the start of high
temperature operation.

The objective is to assess the response of the component to the

described conditions.

W = 100 mm
A = 20 mm

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DATA

- Geometry:
W = 100 mm
a = 20 mm

- Material properties (I):

Young´s Modulus = 185000 MPa
Some tests have been performed in order to obtain data to
develop the assessment. The results are given in the next
pages:

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DATA
- Material properties (II):

Uniaxial stress/time to rupture data

Creep strain/time data
Log10tr = 10.68 + 153.2·(-1.26 +2.62x –2.06x2 +0.72x3 -0.094x4)
x = log10σ C´ A´= 0.526
⎧ σ ⎫
ε c (σ, t ) = A´⎨ ⎬ B´= 23.0
⎩σ R + B´ ⎭ C´=6.9

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DATA
- Material properties (III):

da/dt = 0.006·(C*)0.85 ((da/dt) in mh-1, C* in MPa·mh-1)

Incubation COD (mm) = 0.06

- Limit load for the geometry of the example:

PL= 1.155σyBw{1-a/w-1.232(a/w)2+(a/w)3}

- Stress Intensity Factor: K = σ (πa ) 0.5 F(a / w)

⎛a⎞
0 .5 0.752 + 2 .02·⎜ ⎟ + 0.37·( 1 − sin Θ)
3

⎧ tan Θ ⎫ ⎝ w⎠
F =⎨ ⎬
⎩ Θ ⎭ cos Θ
πa
Θ=
2w
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ANALYSIS

• BASIC STRESS ANALYSIS:

The reference stress is calculated according to the limit load for this
geometry:

σref = (P/PL)σy = 0.866(P/Bw) / {1-a/w-1.232(a/w)2+(a/w)3} =114 MPa

a/w = 0.2
σ = P/Bw = 100 MPa

And the stress intensity factor is:

KI = F(a/w)·σ(πa)0.5 = 34.3 MPa·m0.5

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ANALYSIS

• RUPTURE LIFE: tCD = tr [σpref(a)] = 2.17·106 h

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ANALYSIS
• INCUBATION TIME:
The creep strain that produces the critical crack opening displacement is:
εc = 0.5(δi/R´)n/n+1 = 0.5(0.06/90)n/n+1 = 0.001
R´= (K2/σref)2 m = 90 mm

A value of n is not available and hence

n/(n+1) is set equal to the exponent q
in the crack growth law (q = 0.85), as
suggested in Section A2.6 of the R5
procedure.
As depicted in the figure, ti = 20000 h
It may be noted that the elastic strain at the reference stress is σref/E = 0.0006, which
is less than the creep strain at incubation. Thus, the incubation time exceeds the
redistribution time and the conservative expression used for εc is valid.

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ANALYSIS
• CRACK SIZE AFTER GROWTH (I):
o
C = σ ref ·ε cref ·R´
*

The reference stress and the length parameter R´ have already been
calculated. From the figure on the previous page, the creep strain rate at
the incubation time is:
o
ε cref = 3·10 −8 h −1

Thus:
C* = 3·10-7 MPa m h -1
at the incubation time

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ANALYSIS
• CRACK SIZE AFTER GROWTH (II):

The corresponding crack growth rate growth rate using the crack growth
law is
da/dt = 0.006·(3·10-7)0.85 = 1.8·10-5 mm h-1

By assuming that the crack growth and creep strain rates are constant for a
short time, Δt, the crack size and accumulated creep strain can be updated,
and new values for reference stress and creep strain rate can be obtained.
The value of C* can then be obtained with R´ evaluated for the new crack
size, leading to a new value for da/dt.

The process is explained in the next three pages.

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ANALYSIS
• CRACK SIZE AFTER GROWTH (III):

The crack growth process is divided into different steps with a crack length
increment. For the initial crack length on each step, the reference stress and
the stress intensity factor are calculated. Then, we can obtain the figure εc-t
from the formulas:
C´
⎧ σ ref ⎫
ε c (σ ref , t ) = A´⎨ ⎬
⎩σ R + B´ ⎭
Log10tr = 10.68 + 153.2·(-1.26 +2.62x –2.06x2 +0.72x3 -0.094x4)
x = log10σ

It is possible to consider different σR in the second formula and then, to

obtain its tr. Therefore, σref, σR and t are known and εc can be obtained from
the first formula. Finally, it is possible to plot the εc-t figure for the different
σref.

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ANALYSIS
• CRACK SIZE AFTER GROWTH (IV):
So, for each step, the pocess is:
1) σref and K
2) εc-t figure
3) R´= (K2/σref)2
4) εc = 0.5(δi/R´)n/n+1 (creep strain that produces the critical crack
opening displacement)
5) ti
o from the εc-t figure
6) ε cref
7) C*

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ANALYSIS
• CRACK SIZE AFTER GROWTH (V):
8) da/dt
9) Δt for each Δa
This process is easily developed with computer programs. The crack size
as a function of time is shown in the next figure:

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ANALYSIS
• RECALCULATE RUPTURE LIFE AFTER GROWTH

As the reference stress is calculated at each stage of the crack growth

calculations, it is straightforward to recalculate tCD from equation:

tCD (ag) = Min{tr [σref (a(t))]+t} for t ≤ ti + tg

Even when the crack has grown to a depth of 35 mm, the reference stress is
only 160 MPa and this corresponds to a remaining life of 650000 hours. It is
clear from the timescale in the previous figure that in this example creep
crack growth rather than creep rupture is the dominant failure mechanism.

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ANALYSIS
• ASSESS SIGNIFICANCE OF RESULTS

The following conclusions can be drawn for this example:

- The remaining creep rupture life was found to be high at all stages of the
assessment, showing that creep crack growth, rather than creep rupture, is the
dominant failure mechanism.

- Widespread creep conditions are achieved prior to the incubation time.

- An incubation time of ti = 20000 h is predicted.

- The crack is predicted to grow by 15 mm over 380000 h.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY / REFERENCES

•British Energy, “R5, Assessment Procedure for the High Temperature Response
of Structures”. Issue 3, Volume 4/5, Appendix 8 Worked Examples, Example 1.
Gloucester: British Energy; June 2003

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WORKED EXAMPLE II
Cyclindrical Pipe Under Cyclic Loading

• Introduction
• Data
• Analysis
•Bibliography/References

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INTRODUCTION

This example studies a cylindrical pipe with an

internal, part-penetrating, fully circumferential defect
under cyclic loading.

The idealised structural geometry is shown in the

figure. It comprises a homogeneous Type 316 Stainless
Steel pipe of internal radius, Ri = 300 mm and wall
thickness, w = 100 mm. A defect is assumed to be
present at the start of high temperature operation so
that the life to date is taken as zero. The defect is
assumed to be fully circumferential on the inside of the
pipe with the initial depth, a0, taken as 3 mm.

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DATA
The pipe is subjected to repeated cyclic loading from an initially unstressed
shutdown condition at ambient temperature (20°C) to an operating condition at
600°C , comprising an internal pressure of 16 MPa together with through wall
axial and hoop thermal bending stresses of 200 MPa. The bending stresses are
such that tensile stresses arise on the inside surface of the pipe as shown in the
figure. 500 equal cycles, with 3000 hour dwells at operating conditions, are
assumed to occur during the desired future service life of 1.5·106 hour.

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DATA
Creep strain data are described by the following parametric expression proposed
by White (see references):

ε = εp [1-exp(-rtμ)] + (dε/dt)t r = 2.42 10-2

μ = 0.64
With the maximum primary strain, εp, given by A´= 1.632 1035
P = 9.292 104
εp = A´σm(Ф)exp[-P/(Ф+273)] α = 16.32
γ = 0.02044
where m(Ф) = α – γΦ and the secondary creep strain rate is given by
B = 1.065 10-5

(dε/dt)s = Bσnexp[P/(Ф+273)] Q = 1.97 104

n=4
Where Ф is the temperature and σ the reference stress.

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DATA
The creep strain rate may be obtained by differentiating the equation for the creep
strain with respect to time as:

dε/dt = εprμtμ-1exp(-rtμ) + (dε/dt)

However, as μ < 1, the creep strain rate given by the above analytical expression
becomes infinite at time zero. For short times and low strains ( <10-4), the creep
strain rate is approximated by dividing the strain of 10-4 by the time to reach this
strain (obtained from the equation for ε).

The values of the coefficients A and q of the creep crack growth rate law (m/h) are:
A = 0.0197 and q = 0.89
The values of the coefficients C and l of the cyclic crack growth rate law (m/cycle)
are:
C = 2.0 10-9 and l = 3
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ANALYSIS

• BASIC STRESS ANALYSIS:

For cyclic loading, the following are required:

- A shakedown analysis
- The depth of the cyclic plastic zone on the surface of the defective section.
- The elastic follow-up factor.
- The stress intensity factors, Kmin and Kmax and the associated R ratio, which
permit the effective stress intensity factor range, ΔKeff, to be calculated.
- The reference stress for the creep dwell.

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ANALYSIS

• SHAKEDOWN ANALYSIS (I):

Uncracked body elastic stresses are required as the starting point for the analysis.
In this example, the pressure stresses are given by de Lamé thick cylinder
equations with the thermal stresses taken as through wall bending stresses of
equal magnitude in the hoop and axial directions (see the figure). The initial total
operating elastic stresses are then the sum of the pressure and thermal
contributions.
In order to determine whether the structure is operating within shakedown it is
necessary to generate a residual stress field. For this example, it is convenient to
select a residual stress field which is a factor, α, times the thermal stress field (i.e.
axial and hoop bending stresses of 200α MPa). The shakedown stress field,σ*s, is
then obtained by adding the residual stress field, ρ*, to the elastically calculated
stress field, σ*el. Thus:
σ*s = σ*el + ρ*

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ANALYSIS
• SHAKEDOWN ANALYSIS (II):

Shakedown stress fields are thereby determined for the cold (non-creep) and hot
(creep) extremes of the loading cycle, denoted (σs)nc and (σs)c for shutdown and
operating conditions, respectively.
For the structure to attain strict shakedown, the shakedown stress fields at the
cold and hot extremes of the loading cycle must satisfy the following criteria:

(σs)nc ≤ (KsSy)nc
(σs)c ≤ (KsSy)c

where Sy is the minimum 0.2% proof stress and (σs)nc and (σs)c are the shakedown
equivalent stresses at shutdown and operating conditions respectively. The
shakedown factor Ks is an experimentally derived factor which can be applied to
Sy to give a level, KsSy, which is the largest semi-stress range for which the
material has stable cyclic stress-strain behaviour.

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ANALYSIS

• SHAKEDOWN ANALYSIS (III):

The variation of Ks with temperature for Type 316 steel is given in the next figure:

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ANALYSIS

• SHAKEDOWN ANALYSIS (IV):

For the current example, which involves shutdown at 20°C, values of (Ks)nc= 0.752
and (Sy)nc= 245 MPa are assumed for the Type 316 Stainless Steel, leading to a
shakedown criterion at shutdown of:

(σs)nc ≤ 184.2 MPa

For operation at 600°C, assumed values of (Ks)c=1.15 and (Sy)c=109.6 MPa give a
shakedown criterion at operation of:

(σs)c ≤ 126.8 MPa

For this example, strict shakedown can be demonstrated for the pipe.

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ANALYSIS
• SHAKEDOWN ANALYSIS (V):
Creep relaxation during early loading cycles reduces the stress at the hot extreme
of the cycle until the cold extreme of the cycle reaches the limit of the shakedown
criterion at shutdown. This situation is achieved using a residual stress field
obtained by scaling the thermal stress field by α = -0.921. Resulting steady cyclic
stress profiles for the uncracked pipe are shown in the next figures for shutdown
and operating conditions, respectively:

Shutdown shakedown Operating shakedown

elastic stresses elastic stresses

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ANALYSIS
• SHAKEDOWN ANALYSIS (VI):
In order to take account of early cycles prior to attainment of the steady cyclic
state, it is also necessary to determine the initial stress state. For this example,
the initial stress state is obtained using a Neuber construction (see R5, Vol 2/3)
for the most highly stressed inside surface point. The initial elastic operating
stress profiles are shown in the figure and give an initial elastic equivalent stress
at the inner surface of 256.8 MPa.

This elastic equivalent stress has then

been used, together with isochronous
data for Type 316 Stainless Steel at
600°C, to estimate the initial
equivalent stress at the inner surface
as shown on the next page.
Initial operating elastic stresses

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ANALYSIS
• SHAKEDOWN ANALYSIS (VII):

Neuber construction for initial

stress at inner surface

This initial equivalent stress at the inner surface (141.8 MPa) has then been
used to infer an initial residual stress field, which when combined with the
initial elastic stresses, gives the correct value of inner surface equivalent
stress. The required initial residual stress field is obtained by scaling the
thermal stress field by α = - 0.583.
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ANALYSIS
• SHAKEDOWN ANALYSIS (VIII):
Resulting initial stress profiles are shown in the next figures for shutdown
and operating conditions, respectively.

Strict shakedown has been demonstrated for this example. There is therefore
no cyclic plastic deformation at the inner surface of the defective pipe
section and the cyclic plastic zone, rp, is set equal to zero.
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ANALYSIS

• STRESS INTENSITY FACTORS (I):

ΔKeff = Kmax – Kmin Kmax → operation

Kmin → shutdown
K = (Fmσm + Fbσb)·(πa)1/2 σm → membrane stress
σb → bending stress
Fm → membrane compliance function
Fb → bending compliance function
From the handbook of Tada, Paris and Irwin, (see references) and for Ri/w = 3:
Fm = 1.123 – 0.103·(a/w) + 2.030·(a/w)2 – 1.373·(a/w)3 + 0.790·(a/w)4 for 0 < a/w < 0.6
The corresponding bending compliance function has been derived using the
computer program R-Code:
Fb = 1.126 – 1.543·(a/w) + 2.613·(a/w)2 – 3.986·(a/w)3 + 2.123·(a/w)4 for 0 < a/w < 0.6

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ANALYSIS

• STRESS INTENSITY FACTORS (II):

The effective stress intensity factor range, ΔKeff, has been evaluated as a function
of crack depth from equations:
ΔKeff = q0ΔK ΔK = Kmax – Kmin
q0 = 1 R ≥ 0 R = K /K
min max
q0 = (1-0.5R)/(1-R) R<0

from both initial and shakedown

conditions using the compliance
functions given previously
together with the axial stresses
given in the next table.

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ANALYSIS
• STRESS INTENSITY FACTORS (III):
The effective stress intensity factor ranges (together with associated values of
Kmax) are shown as functions of crack depth in the figure for both the initial and
shakedown conditions. Note that for the current example R < 0 and hence q0 < 1
for both initial and shakedown conditions (for all crack depths).
For the period prior to the attainment of the steady cyclic state (i.e. t < tcyc), the
effective stress intensity factor range has been taken as the mean of the initial and
shakedown values.

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ANALYSIS
• REFERENCE STRESSES (I):
σref = (F/FL)σy
If proportional loading is assumed, the limit loads can be determined from:
FL/ML = F/M
The next table gives axial and hoop stresses appropriate to initial and shakedown
conditions and associated forces and moments (per unit thickness) evaluated
using:
F = σmw
M = (σbw2)/6

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ANALYSIS
• REFERENCE STRESSES (II):
Axial and hoop stresses have been evaluated for both steady cyclic and initial
conditions (based on Neuber) using the stress profiles shown in the next figures:

Operating shakedown
elastic stresses
Initial operating
stresses

In both cases, the axial and hoop stresses can be well represented by membrane
and bending stresses, σm and σb, respectively.

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ANALYSIS

• REFERENCE STRESSES (III):

The limit loads for axially dominated collapse have the form:
FaL = (2y-a)σy
MaL = {(w2/4) + (a2/4) – (at/2) – x2}σy
where w is the pipe wall thickness and y is the distance between the plastic
neutral axis and the mid-wall thickness. The value of y is found from the
equation FL/ML = F/M based on the values of F and M previously calculated and
the expressions involving y for FaL an MaL. The resulting quadratic equation can
then be easily solved.
,
For the hoop dominated collapse, the limit loads are:
FhL = 2yσy
MhL = {(w2/4) – y2}σy

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ANALYSIS

• REFERENCE STRESSES (IV):

The maximum of the axial and hoop reference stress is then chosen. For both the
initial and shakedown conditions, the reference stress is hoop dominated, and is
therefore independent of crack depth.

For initial conditions the reference stress is

=1
σ cyc
ref = 88.1 MPa

while for steady cyclic conditions

σ ref = 57.6 MPa

is obtained.

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ANALYSIS

• CALCULATE CRACK SIZE AFTER GROWTH (I):

For the prupose of this example, it is assumed that both creep and fatigue are
significant. The calculation of the incubation time is not considered in this
example, although a conservative incubation time of zero is often assumed when
creep and fatigue are significant.
Strict shakedown of the uncracked structure has been demonstrated for this
example and so a Method I crack growth calculation is appropriate. The creep
and fatigue crack growth contributions are separately calculated and added for
each cycle.
The creep crack growth rate law takes the form:

da/dt = 0.0197·(C*)0.89

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ANALYSIS

• CALCULATE CRACK SIZE AFTER GROWTH (II):

In general, the parameter C* is calculated by the reference stress approach.
It is also necessary to calculate a mean value of C* for use in calculating creep
crack growth occurring in the dwell periods prior to the attainment of the steady
state (t < tcyc).
cyc=1 o
(σ ref +σ ref ) cyc=1
(σ ref +σ ref )
C =
*
2 ·ε ·R´ where dε/dt is evaluated for
2

An estimate of tcyc can be expressed in terms of the reference stress for the first
cycle, σref (cyc=1) , and the reference stress under steady cyclic conditions, σref, as:

[(
ε c σ cyc
ref
=1
) ]
+ σ ref /2, t cyc = Z ⋅ σ cyc
ref
=1
(
− σ ref /E )
where Z is the elastic follow-up factor defined in Appendix A3 of the R5
procedure.
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ANALYSIS
• CALCULATE CRACK SIZE AFTER GROWTH (III):
For the current example, the stresses acting during the dwell periods after the
steady cyclic is reached are predominantly primary. Therefore, the small amount
of stress relaxation that could occur during the dwell has been neglected and load-
controlled loading has been assumed in calculating creep strain accumulation and
crack growth during the dwell.
The stress intensity factor used for the calculation of R´ is evaluated using the
stresses at the beginning of the dwell and is therefore equal to Kmax. Prior to
attainment of the steady cyclic state, a mean value of Kmax has been used in the
calculation of R´. This is given by: cyc=1
K max + K max
K max =
2
=1
where K cyc
max
and K max are the maximum stress intensity factors at the start of the
first cycle (using a Neuber construction) and the cycle in the steady cyclic state,
respectively.
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ANALYSIS
• CALCULATE CRACK SIZE AFTER GROWTH (IV):
The cyclic crack growth rate law takes the form:
(da/dN) = 2 10-9·(ΔKeff)3
The total crack growth per cycle is obtained by adding the cyclic and creep
contributions.
The crack extension over a desired future life of 1.5·106 hours is then calculated
iteratively using a computer program. The main features of the iterative
procedure are as follows:
i) Calculate creep crack growth for the dwell period in the first cycle. It should be
noted that this itself involves an iterative procedure in which the creep crack
growth and strain rates are assumed constant for a short time, Δt. The crack depth
and accumulated creep strain are then updated and new values of reference stress
and creep strain rate obtained assuming a strain hardening rule. The value of C*

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ANALYSIS
• CALCULATE CRACK SIZE AFTER GROWTH (V):
can then be obtained with R´ evaluated for the new crack depth, leading to a new
value of creep crack growth rate. For the current example, these calculations have
actually been implemented by incrementing crack depth.
ii) Calculate cyclic crack growth for the first cycle and increment crack depth.
iii) Repeat calculations for subsequent cycles.
For the current example, it is also necessary to determine tcyc, the time to
redistribute to the steady cyclic state. A value of elastic follow up of Z=3 is
arbitrarily assumed. With this assumption, the steady cyclic state is achieved after
1 cycle. Prior to attainment of the steady cyclic state, mean values of ΔKeff and C*
are used to calculate cyclic and creep components of crack growth as described
above. After steady cyclic state has been established, values of ΔKeff and C*
appropriate to steady state conditions are used in the crack growth calculations.

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ANALYSIS
• CALCULATE CRACK SIZE AFTER GROWTH (VI):
The results of these iterative calculations lead to the crack depth as a function of
time shown in the figure:

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BIBLIOGRAPHY / REFERENCES

•British Energy, “R5, Assessment Procedure for the High Temperature Response
of Structures”. Issue 3, Volume 4/5, Appendix 8 Worked Examples, Example 5.
Gloucester: British Energy; June 2003.
•White PS., “SIWG recommendation on constitutive equations for Type 316
(CDFR) stainless steel”, GEC Report FDRC/SIWG/SASG/P(88)/183, 1998.
•Tada H., Paris PC. and Irwin GR., “The Stress Analysis of Cracks Handbook”,
Third Edition, ASME, New York, 2000.

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IV. TRAINING PACKAGE ON

ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS

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A. BASIC CONCEPTS

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CORROSION BEHAVIOUR
ENVIRONMENTAL ASSISTED CRACKING PROCESSES

AGGRESSIVE ENVIRONMENT
MATERIAL
MECHANIC LOADS

LOADING RATE ENVIRONMENTAL ASSISTED CRACKING

Static or Quasi-Sstatic Stress corrosion cracking (SCC)
Dynamic Corrosion – Fatigue (CF)
ENVIRONMENT
Liquid or Gaseous Environments Presence of damaging simple chemical elements or
molecules
• Hydrogen Hydrogen assisted embrittlement
Hydrogen assisted cracking
• Oxygen Intergranular corrosion cracking
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CORROSION BEHAVIOUR
ENVIRONMENTAL ASSISTED CRACKING
Crack initiation processes
+
Propagation processes
FRACTURE

σ t initiation

t propag. t fracture

σSC
SC Strength

t
Safe Design: σ U σSC

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CORROSION BEHAVIOUR
ENVIRONMENTAL ASSISTED CRACKING

Anodic dissolution
Sliding

Repasivation
Increase in deffect sharpening

Catodic reaction
H+ + e- → ½ H2

Hydrogen embrittlement
-Adsorption
-Absorption
-Diffusion
-Local damage and failure
-Crack advance

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CORROSION BEHAVIOUR
ENVIRONMENTAL ASSISTED CRACKING
Life estimation (constant environment and stresses)

· Depends on initiation material surface state

(roughness) inclusions ...
(surface defects) processing ...
recovering ...
· Depends on propagation Local cracking mechanisms
(local fractures after restrained embrittlement)
(inherent mechanisms)

· If previous notches (stress concentration) or cracks exist t life ≡ t propagation

Design σ U σSCC σSCC is not only material dependent, it also depends in

processing (surface finishing) and design (notches, welds,…)
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CORROSION BEHAVIOUR
ENVIRONMENTAL ASSISTED CRACKING
⎡ da ⎤
Crack propagation rate; ⎢⎣ dt ⎥⎦ is a characteristic of the material (for a given
environment and local conditions).

Local mechanisms of material transport

and embrittlement

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CORROSION BEHAVIOUR
ENVIRONMENTAL ASSISTED CRACKING
Material behaviour

• It defines the crack propagation process

• Stress state
+
Crack presence

Application of Fracture Mechanics

Crack propagation rate as a function of the local stress state (KI), that establishes, together
with the environment, the cracking mechanisms
da
= f (K I , environment)
dt
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CORROSION BEHAVIOUR
ENVIRONMENTAL ASSISTED CRACKING
STRESS CORROSION

Crack propagation happens over some

FRACTURE
TIME
characteristic threshold conditions, defining KISCC
(da/dt = 0 for KI<KISCC, Stage I)
- at a quasi-constant rate (da/dt = cte for
CRACK
GROWTH KI>KISCC, Stage II)
INCUBATION
TIME (tinc)
- loading to final fracture at stage III (KI =KIC)

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CORROSION BEHAVIOUR
DESIGN CONDITIONS AND INTEGRITY MAINTENANCE

- Guarantee maximum defect size ( a0 U a Lim) a Lim observable

on reception
• Determine crack evolution
t ⎡ da⎤
acalc (t) = a Lim + ∫0 ⎢ ⎥ dt
⎣ dt⎦
Material behaviour
• Periodic and cyclic observations to guarantee
areal (t) U acalc (t)
when KI (acalc) U KIc / Fsafety
• Repair, substitute or leave when critical security conditions are
reached.
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CORROSION BEHAVIOUR
STRESS CORROSION
Example: Intergranular corrosion on stainless steels.
• Conditions: - Stress state greater than the threshold
- Aggressive environment [dissolved oxygen]
- Sensitized material

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CORROSION BEHAVIOUR
STRESS CORROSION
Example: Intergranular corrosion on stainless steels.

•Solution:
- Reduction of aggresive element
concentration (↓O2)

- Adequate material election

- Not susceptible to be sensitized

% C ↓ to avoid chromium carbides

formation at sensitive temperatures and
then the IG loss of chromium

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CORROSION BEHAVIOUR
ENVIRONMENTAL ASSISTED CRACKING

CORROSION - FATIGUE

Fatigue conditions
+
Aggressive environment

produce corrosion fatigue

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CORROSION BEHAVIOUR
ENVIRONMENTAL ASSISTED CRACKING
CORROSION-FATIGUE
Similar behaviour than fatigue at inert environment
Threshold: ΔKICF

da
and crack propagation rate: = f (ΔK I )
dN
The behaviour depends on:
Æ Material (microstructure)
Æ Stress condition (local)
Æ Environment presence
+
Loading frequency
...
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CORROSION BEHAVIOUR
ENVIRONMENTAL ASSISTED CRACKING
Mechanisms on metallic materials

SCC ( metals) Crack advances generally by local fractures

Cleavages
or or tearing

Intergranular (IG) Transgranular (TG)

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BIBLIOGRAPHY / REFERENCES

• Fontana M.G., “Corrosion Engineering”, McGraw-Hill, 1986.

• Bradford S.A., “Self Study Guide to Corrosion Control”, CASTI, 2001.
• Jones DA., “Principles and Prevention of Corrosion”, Mc Millan, 1992.
• Schweitze PA., “Corrosion Engineering Handbook”, Dekker, New York, 1996.
• Scully, “The Fundamentals on Corrosion”, Pergamon Press, 1990.

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B. INTRODUCTION TO EAC
ASSESSMENT PROCEDURES

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Flaw in EAC should be treated with extreme caution. The following aspects
should be considered:

1. If a material remains in aggressive environment in service, the cracks may

growth by what is know subcritical crack growth if the applied K is
above the threshold KTH, the flaw will growth until the applied K exceed a
value for the KR curve, at which time unstable fracture will occur.

2. Long exposure to hydrogen or other damaging environment may produce

irreversible damage in the material. The apparent toughness could fall below
the KR curve in such cases.

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FITNET
EUROPEAN FITNESS FOR SERVICE NETWORK
ASSESSMENT OF CORROSION FATIGUE

ASSESSMENT OF ENVIRONMENTAL ASSISTED CRACKING

SCC assessment: σ and K based approaches
The growth law should be derived to fit the relevant data but often take the form:
da/dt = f(KI) if KI ≥ KISCC

Contrarily, no crack propagation occurs if KI < KISCC

The existence of a “maximum” effective initial defect (a0eff) due to the surface
finishing of the material or the design or fabrication conditions of the component,
is associated to the existence of some threshold conditions σscc to avoid crack
propagation due to SCC, related with the material and the geometrical conditions
including surface finishing or maximum defect.

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FITNET
EUROPEAN FITNESS FOR SERVICE NETWORK
ASSESSMENT OF CORROSION FATIGUE
ASSESSMENT OF ENVIRONMENTAL ASSISTED CRACKING
SCC assessment: σ and K based approaches (cont.)
The figure shows in a stress-crack depth (a) plot that
the condition of σscc as a threshold stress could be
linked to and effective crack like a0eff value, from
where a KI approach can be done. Once the crack
starts to grow (increasing a value), the local
conditions in the material defining the threshold
justify that lower stress values than σscc produce
crack propagation. Therefore, the limit to define non
growing conditions for existing cracks of any size a,
is the KI=KISCC line. For higher σ values than those
defined by this line, cracks will grow until fracture
(KI=KIC) or plastic collapse occur.
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FITNET
EUROPEAN FITNESS FOR SERVICE NETWORK
ASSESSMENT OF CORROSION FATIGUE
ASSESSMENT OF ENVIRONMENTAL ASSISTED CRACKING
SCC assessment: σ and K based approaches (cont.)
The following Figure shows in the same plot
the different regimes related to the stress
corrosion cracking in a particular
component:
•No crack growth area under the threshold
line (KI-KISCC);
•The sub-critical crack growth area over the
threshold line, limited by the fracture region
defined by the KI=KIC line and the plastic
collapse one defined by the σ =σLL line.

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FITNET
EUROPEAN FITNESS FOR SERVICE NETWORK
ASSESSMENT OF CORROSION FATIGUE
ASSESSMENT OF ENVIRONMENTAL ASSISTED CRACKING
SCC assessment: σ and K based approaches (cont.)
The two previous plots depend on the geometry of the component and the
geometry and position of the defects. Therefore, it would be better to define
an universal graphic assessment (valid for any component).
In such a case a KI based analysis, instead of a σ based one, should be
considered. Therefore, the same areas and conditions with regarding to
cracking can be represented in a FAD, Kr-Lr plot.

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FITNET
EUROPEAN FITNESS FOR SERVICE NETWORK
ASSESSMENT OF CORROSION FATIGUE
ASSESSMENT OF ENVIRONMENTAL ASSISTED CRACKING
SCC assessment: σ and K based approaches (cont.)

In the Figure, it can be observed that KI-KISCC is

a horizontal line. Above that line cracks will
propagate due to environmental assisted
cracking independently of the component
geometry and crack conditions.
Each particular case, identified by its a0eff defect
condition and the corresponding σscc value is
also plotted, but this value is only relevant for it,
not for other component.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY / REFERENCES

• British Energy, “R6, Assessment of the Integrity of Structures Containing Defects”.

Revision 4, Gloucester: British Energy; April 2001.
•API Recommended Practice 579, Fitness-for-Service, API Publishing Services, First
edition, January 2000

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C. PROCEDURE APPLICATION
(FITNET)

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FITNET
EUROPEAN FITNESS FOR SERVICE NETWORK

• INTRODUCTION
• ASSESSMENT OF SCC
• ASSESSMENT OF CORROSION FATIGUE
• STRESS CORROSION AND CORROSION FATIGUE ANALYSIS
• ASSESSMENT OF LOCAL THINNED AREAS

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EUROPEAN FITNESS FOR SERVICE NETWORK
INTRODUCTION

INTRODUCTION

The FITNET FSS Procedure provides guidelines on the appropriate steps to take
when a stress corrosion or a corrosion fatigue crack as well as local thin area
(LTA) has been detected in service and an assessment has to be one of the
implications for structural integrity. Such an evaluation should be made in the
context of the perceived consequences of failure using appropriate risk-based
management methodologies. Since this is plant/component specific it is beyond
the scope of this procedure.

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EUROPEAN FITNESS FOR SERVICE NETWORK
INTRODUCTION

Hence, this section deals primarily with the Fitness-for-Service assessments of

damage types due to ;
a) Environmental assisted cracking (EAC)
a1) Stress corrosion cracking,
a2) Corrosion fatigue and
b) Local Thinned Area (LTA)
in metallic components with or without welds.

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EUROPEAN FITNESS FOR SERVICE NETWORK
ASSESSMENT OF EAC
ASSESSMENT OF ENVIRONMENTAL ASSISTED CRACKING
Introduction
When assessing the integrity of structures with cracks or crack-like defects, it is
necessary to consider whether sub-critical crack growth is a potential factor. If
so, an estimate of the amount of tolerable growth during the design lifetime or
between in-service inspections is required.
Therefore, structural integrity evaluations have to take into account the
peculiarities of the damage processes when Environmental Assisted Cracking
(EAC) is likely to occur. The basic tool for the characterization of EAC
processes is the Fracture Mechanics, which has to be used with different criteria
depending on the problem being assessed.

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EUROPEAN FITNESS FOR SERVICE NETWORK
ASSESSMENT OF EAC

ASSESSMENT OF ENVIRONMENTAL
ASSISTED CRACKING
Introduction (cont.)
Three conditions are necessary in order
EAC to occur, either at global or local
level, as shown in the Figure: a
susceptible material associated to the
presence of an aggressive environment
and loading conditions over a
characteristic threshold level.

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EUROPEAN FITNESS FOR SERVICE NETWORK
ASSESSMENT OF EAC

ASSESSMENT OF ENVIRONMENTAL ASSISTED CRACKING

Introduction (cont.)
In this section, subcritical crack growth due to stress corrosion cracking and
corrosion fatigue (both of them EAC processes) is considered, with crack growth
rate prediction in service based principally on the application of fracture
mechanics in terms of either stress intensity factor (K) in the case of stress
corrosion cracking, or the range of stress intensity factor (∆K), in corrosion
fatigue.

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EUROPEAN FITNESS FOR SERVICE NETWORK
ASSESSMENT OF EAC
ASSESSMENT OF ENVIRONMENTAL ASSISTED CRACKING
Introduction (cont.)
Underlying that assumption is the
presumption that the flaws or cracks are of
a dimension that allows a description of
the mechanical driving force by linear
elastic fracture mechanics. In practice, for
some systems, a significant amount of life
may occur in the short crack regime. The
figure illustrates the transition in
mechanical driving force with flaw size
for a stress corrosion crack; similar
behaviour is observed for corrosion
Schematic diagram of the two parameter approach to stress
fatigue cracks. corrosion cracking

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EUROPEAN FITNESS FOR SERVICE NETWORK
ASSESSMENT OF EAC
ASSESSMENT OF ENVIRONMENTAL ASSISTED CRACKING
Introduction (cont.)
Different uncertainties (loads, environment,…), allied to expert judgment, feed
into the risk assessment when adopting a risk-based inspection methodology. In
FITNET, a procedural approach to evaluating the evolution of damage due to
environment assisted cracking is presented that includes:
• STEP 1- Characterise the nature of the crack
• STEP 2- Establish cause of cracking
• STEP 3- Define the material characteristics
• STEP 4- Establish data for stress-corrosion cracking assessment
• STEP 5- Undertake structural integrity assessment

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EUROPEAN FITNESS FOR SERVICE NETWORK
ASSESSMENT OF EAC
ASSESSMENT OF ENVIRONMENTAL ASSISTED CRACKING
STEP 1- Characterise the nature of the crack
Once a crack has been detected, a first step is to develop a complete physical
evaluation in terms of its shape and dimensions, with any uncertainty in size from
the particular detection method taken into account. This evaluation should include
an assessment of the crack location in relation to local stress concentrators, welds,
crevices (e.g. at fasteners, flanges), and also the details of the crack path and crack
orientation, if feasible. If more than one crack is present, the crack density and the
spacing between the cracks should be noted in view of possible future coalescence.

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EUROPEAN FITNESS FOR SERVICE NETWORK
ASSESSMENT OF EAC
ASSESSMENT OF ENVIRONMENTAL ASSISTED CRACKING
STEP 2- Establish cause of cracking
Identifying the cause of cracking in terms of the mechanistic process, i.e. stress
corrosion or corrosion fatigue, may be challenging unless service conditions allow
ready discrimination; for example, an absence of significant cyclic loading.
Characterising the crack as a stress corrosion crack may be possible from visible
observation, e.g. significant crack branching (although such branching would
preclude simple stress analysis and warrant removal of the crack).
Where cyclic loading is apparent, corrosion fatigue should be considered to be the
primary mechanism of crack growth. However, the loading frequency is a key factor
with the influence of the environment on crack propagation decreasing in
significance as the frequency increases and for many systems often being
insignificant at frequencies greater than about 10 Hz.
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EUROPEAN FITNESS FOR SERVICE NETWORK
ASSESSMENT OF EAC
ASSESSMENT OF ENVIRONMENTAL ASSISTED CRACKING
STEP 2- Establish cause of cracking (cont.)
The service conditions that need to be defined include the stress state and the
environmental conditions:
• Stresses (see 9.1.2.2.1.1)
• Service environment (see 9.1.2.2.1.2)
• Development of local environments (crevicing,
hideout/evaporation, deposits) (see 9.1.2.2.1.2.1)
• Excursions (see 9.1.2.2.1.2.2)
• Corrosion (or system) monitoring (see 9.1.2.2.1.2.3)
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EUROPEAN FITNESS FOR SERVICE NETWORK
ASSESSMENT OF EAC
ASSESSMENT OF ENVIRONMENTAL ASSISTED CRACKING
STEP 3- Define the material characteristics
The first step is to ensure that the material of relevance actually corresponds to
that specified at the design stage. In essence, this relates primarily to the quality
control aspects of fabrication and installation and means assessing the traceability
of the materials selection and welding process relative to the design specification.
In some cases, in-situ measurement such as hardness may be undertaken. There
are a number of factors that may subsequently affect the performance of the
material.
For further information see Section 9.1.2.3 of the Procedure and the Basic
Concepts on Environmental Effects provided on this Training Package.

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FITNET
EUROPEAN FITNESS FOR SERVICE NETWORK
ASSESSMENT OF EAC
ASSESSMENT OF ENVIRONMENTAL ASSISTED CRACKING
STEP 4- Establish data for stress-corrosion cracking assessment: KISCC determination
The concept of KISCC is not trivial and the value is sensitive to the environmental
conditions, temperature and loading characteristics. Accordingly, data obtained for
one condition should not be transposed to another.
Initiation and growth can occur in the domain for which linear elastic fracture
mechanics is inapplicable. The growth rate in the short crack domain and its
relation to the relevant mechanical driving force is poorly characterised in stress
corrosion cracking and needs further research.

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FITNET
EUROPEAN FITNESS FOR SERVICE NETWORK
ASSESSMENT OF EAC
ASSESSMENT OF ENVIRONMENTAL ASSISTED CRACKING
STEP 4- Establish data for stress-corrosion cracking assessment: KISCC determination

When the crack is of a length

commensurate with the application of
fracture mechanics, a threshold stress
intensity factor for stress corrosion
crack propagation, KISCC, is often
defined. For long cracks, the
behaviour is typically as represented
in the Figure.
Further information is provided in
Section 9.1.2.4.1
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EUROPEAN FITNESS FOR SERVICE NETWORK
ASSESSMENT OF EAC
ASSESSMENT OF ENVIRONMENTAL ASSISTED CRACKING
STEP 4- Establish data for stress-corrosion cracking assessment: Stress corrosion
crack growth determination
The crack velocity during stress corrosion testing of pre-cracked fracture mechanics
specimens can be measured using the procedures given in ISO 7539-6 and the crack
monitoring methods given in BS7910. It is most relevant to obtain crack growth rate
for the conditions of practical relevance and to fit the data with a growth law
appropriate to the data. For example:

da
= C (K I )n KISCC ≤ K ≤ KC
dt

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EUROPEAN FITNESS FOR SERVICE NETWORK
ASSESSMENT OF EAC

ASSESSMENT OF ENVIRONMENTAL ASSISTED CRACKING

STEP 4- Establish data for corrosion-fatigue assessment: ΔKth determination

The threshold value of the stress intensity factor range (∆Kth) in corrosion fatigue is
influenced by crack size and by the stress ratio. FITNET provides reference for
guidance on determination of ΔKth.
In the short crack regime, where LEFM becomes invalid, cracks can grow at ∆K
values seemingly below ∆Kth, because the latter is commonly determined from long
crack measurement.

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EUROPEAN FITNESS FOR SERVICE NETWORK
ASSESSMENT OF EAC

ASSESSMENT OF ENVIRONMENTAL ASSISTED CRACKING

STEP 4- Establish data for corrosion-fatigue assessment: ΔKth determination (cont.)

Also, in the long crack regime, increasing the stress ratio, R=σmin/σmax, will usually
reduce the threshold value because of diminished impact of crack closure. For that
reason a high R value for the threshold is a sensible conservative assumption.
In the same context as stress corrosion cracking, it is important to simulate sensibly
the service conditions in terms of the environment and loading conditions,
particularly, frequency and waveform.

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FITNET
EUROPEAN FITNESS FOR SERVICE NETWORK
ASSESSMENT OF EAC
ASSESSMENT OF ENVIRONMENTAL ASSISTED CRACKING
STEP 4- Establish data for corrosion-fatigue assessment: Crack growth
determination
The form of the crack growth rate curves cannot be generalised as they are system
specific. Some schematic examples for constant amplitude loading are shown in the
Figure.

Basic types of corrosion-fatigue

crack growth behaviour.

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EUROPEAN FITNESS FOR SERVICE NETWORK
ASSESSMENT OF EAC

ASSESSMENT OF ENVIRONMENTAL ASSISTED CRACKING

STEP 4- Corrosion fatigue crack growth data

The procedure provides recommended fatigue crack growth laws for steels in marine
environment, as well as recommended fatigue crack growth thresholds for assessing
welded joints (see 9.1.2.4.3.3)

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EUROPEAN FITNESS FOR SERVICE NETWORK
ASSESSMENT OF CORROSION FATIGUE
ASSESSMENT OF ENVIRONMENTAL ASSISTED CRACKING
STEP 5: Undertake structural integrity assessment

This Figure shows the cracking related

areas in the universal FAD plot.
The global FAD representation could be
used to define areas related to different
cracking micro-mechanisms (IG, TG by
cleavage or tearing…) if the constitutive
equation to differentiate them is known.

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FITNET
EUROPEAN FITNESS FOR SERVICE NETWORK
ASSESSMENT OF CORROSION FATIGUE
ASSESSMENT OF ENVIRONMENTAL ASSISTED CRACKING
STEP 5: Undertake structural integrity assessment
STEP 5a- Perform a fracture assessment for the initial crack size, based on the measured
detected value or upon a maximum value reflecting the uncertainty in detection.
STEP 5b- If effective remedial measures are not possible and/or slow subcritical crack
growth can be tolerated, then apply sections 9.1.2.1 9.1.2.3 to fully characterise the
nature of the crack and the service conditions driving it.
STEP 5c- Compute the stress at the flaw, including any dynamic components, based on
anticipated future operating conditions.
STEP 5d- Determine the evolution of the crack size based on the previous flaw size, or
value and crack growth laws.
STEP 5e- Determine the time or number of stress cycles for the current crack size (a0,
c0) to reach the limiting flaw size in relation to the FAD or LBB criteria.
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FITNET
EUROPEAN FITNESS FOR SERVICE NETWORK
ASSESSMENT OF CORROSION FATIGUE
ASSESSMENT OF ENVIRONMENTAL ASSISTED CRACKING
STEP 5: Undertake structural Start EAC
procedure No
KI < KISCC?
Yes

integrity assessment Determine operating

conditions and loading
Calculate critical
conditions
flaw size
The methodology is
Establish cause of
summarised in the cracking
Determine crack
growth rate

following flowchart: Determine flaw

dimensions Calculate time to
failure

Determine material
tensile, growth rate,
Determine
toughness properties inspection interval

Determine stress Flaw size Yes

distribution at flaw tolerable?
location
For further information see No
Flaw not Flaw tolerable till

Section 9.1.2.5 in the Procedure. Determine stress

intensity factor KI
tolerable, Take
remedial action
next inspection
interval

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FITNET
EUROPEAN FITNESS FOR SERVICE NETWORK
ASSESSMENT OF LOCAL THINNED AREAS
ASSESSMENT OF LOCAL THINNED AREAS
(LTA)
The methods specified in FITNET FFS
procedure may be used to assess Local Thinned
Area (LTA) flaws in pipes and pressure vessels
that have been designed to a recognized design
code.
The guidance does not cover every situation that
requires a fitness for purpose assessment and
further methods may be required.
A flowchart of the procedure is shown in the
figure:

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EUROPEAN FITNESS FOR SERVICE NETWORK
ASSESSMENT OF LOCAL THINNED AREAS

ASSESSMENT OF LOCAL THINNED AREAS (LTA)

The steps, as defined by the procedure, are the following:

STEP 1- Establish cause of wall thinning (corrosion, erosion, grinding damage…)
STEP 2- Define service condition
STEP 3- Collect material properties
STEP 4- Analysis

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EUROPEAN FITNESS FOR SERVICE NETWORK
ASSESSMENT OF LOCAL THINNED AREAS

ASSESSMENT OF LOCAL THINNED AREAS (LTA)

The procedure defines the type of defects to which the procedure can be applied
and provides formulation for the assessment of specific geometries and loading
conditions:
• Cylindrical body (Section 9.2.5.3)
• Sphere and vessel end (Section 9.2.5.4)
• Elbow (Section 9.2.5.5)
• Nozzles (Section 9.2.5.6)
The procedure provides guidance on the rules in order to take into account the
interaction among adjacent LTA flaws (Section 9.2.5.7)

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D. EXAMPLES

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WORKED EXAMPLE I
Cracked ship hull

• Introduction and objectives

• Data
• Analysis

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INTRODUCTION AND OBJECTIVES

During a visual inspection of a ship hull, semi-elliptical surface cracks of 5 mm depth
were observed. The working conditions cause a tensile state characterised by a stress of
110 MPa when the ship is unloaded and 350 MPa when the ship is loaded.
Knowing that in the marine environment, crack propagation can be provoked by stress
corrosion cracking, and that in this steel this process takes place at a crack growth rate of
1.2.10-7 mm/s when the threshold of 20 MPa.m-1/2 is passed:
a) Represent in a FAD the state of the security conditions as a function of time. The ship
is under unloaded condition for 3 months and under loaded condition for 7 months.
b) Evaluate whether the critical conditions in the hull are produced by leak before break
or brittle fracture in a plate of 20 mm in thickness.
c) Determine the total life of the component.
Hypotesis:
The cracks grow maintaining a constant relationship a/2c of 0.3 // General yielding is not considered

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DATA

Material properties:
σY = 450 MPa
KIC = 120 MPa·m1/2 KIscc = 20 MPa·m1/2

SCC conditions:
da/dt = 1.2·10-7 mm/s
KISCC = 20 MPa·m1/2

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ANALYSIS

1.21
KI = ·σ πa
Q

σ
Unloaded ship: σ = 110 MPa = 0.24 in figure 1, Q = 1.6
σy
σ
Loaded ship: σ = 350 MPa = 0.77 in figure 1, Q = 1.5
σy

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a) ANALYSIS
1,21 1
0 - 3 months: KI = .110. π.0,005 = 11.53 MPa.m 2 < K Iscc
1,6

K r = 0.1
No Propagation
L r = 0.24
(1)

Lr

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ANALYSIS

3 – 10 months: 1.21 1
KI = ·350· π·0.005 = 37.90 MPa·m 2
1.5

K r = 0.31
3 months Propagation
Sr = 0.77

o 1
7
Δa = a .t = 1.2·10 ·7·30·24·3600 = 2.17 mm af = 7.17 mm K If = 47.1 MPa.m 2

K r = 0.39
10 months
(2) L r = 0.77

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ANALYSIS

1,21 1
10 - 13 months: KI = .110. π.0,00717 = 14,30 MPa.m 2 < K Issc
1,6

K r = 0.119
No Propagation
L r = 0.24
(3) LEAK

Lr

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ANALYSIS

In order to have propagation while the ship is unloaded, a minimum aul is

needed:
1,21 1
KI = .110. π.a ul = 20 MPa.m 2
1,6

a ul = 13 mm

Then, for a<aul crack propagation is

only produced during loading periods LEAK

Lr

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13 - 20 months: ANALYSIS
af = 7.17 + 2.17 = 9.34 mm
(4)
23 – 30 months:
af = 9.34 + 2.17 = 11.51 mm
(5)
33 – 40 moths:
af = 11.51 + 2.17 = 13.68 mm
1
K I = 65.15 MPa·m 2 LEAK

K r = 0.54
(6)
Sr = 0.77
Lr
From this moment, both loaded and unloaded conditions promote crack
propagation cracking at the same time.
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ANALYSIS
b)
The FAL is reached when: Kr = 0.85; then, KI = 0.85·120 = 102 MPa·m1/2
1.21
102 = ·350· π·a c ⇒ ac = 0.034 m = 3.4 mm > 20 mm (thickness)
1.5
then leak before break will happen

Leak aleak = 20 mm
In theory, after leak, another propagation occurs until critical length is reached
K I = σ· π·c = 350· π·cc = 0.85·K IC = 102 ⇒ cc = 0.027 m = 27 mm
But for aleak=20 mm, c = 33.3 mm, which is bigger than 27 mm. Therefore,
once leak happens, the component fails.

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ANALYSIS

c)
Knowing that Δa is 2.17 mm with the ship loaded and 0,93 mm with the ship unloaded:

Unloaded ship: 40-43 → af = 14,61 mm

Loaded ship: 43-50 → af = 16,78 mm
Unloaded ship: 50-53 → af = 17,71 mm
Loaded ship: 53-60 → af = 19,88 mm
Unloaded ship: 60-63 → af = 20,81 mm ⇒ LEAK AND FAILURE

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WORKED EXAMPLE II
Plate under neutronic irradiation

• Introduction
• Objectives
•Analysis

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INTRODUCTION
This case is an example of how the environment can change the
mechanical properties of the material.
A metallic plate of big dimensions has cracks of 2a = 20 mm. The working
conditions causes a tensile state characterised by a stress of 50, 150, 250 or
350 MPa. Because of an irradiation process, the mechanical properties of
the material change with time in this manner:

T (years) 0 5 10 15 20

σy (MPa) 500 510 540 565 585

KIC (MPa· m1/2) 150 135 120 100 85

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OBJECTIVES

a) Represent in a FAD the state of the security conditions as a function of time

(years 0, 10 and 20)
b) Which one is more critical?
c) Determine the period of time during which the safety factor is greater than 1.2.
FAD
1.2
Fracture
1

0.8

Kr
0.6
Acceptable
0.4

0.2

Colapse
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2
Lr

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ANALYSIS

The stress intensity factor for a big plate is:

K I = σ π·a

The crack geometry is 2·a = 20 mm, so:

K I = σ π·0.01 = 0.177·σ

Using the expresions Kr(Kr=KI/KIC ) and Lr (Lr=σ/σY) for the different working
conditions, we can obtain for the years 0, 10 and 20:

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ANALYSIS

Year 0 Year 10 Year 20

Working Working Working

Kr Lr Kr Lr Kr Lr
conditions conditions conditions

50 MPa 0.06 0.1 50 MPa 0.073 0.092 0.104 0.085

50 MPa

150 MPa 0.18 0.3 150 MPa 0.221 0.277 150 MPa 0.312 0.25

250 MPa 0.30 0.5 250 MPa 0.368 0.463 250 MPa 0.520 0.42

350 MPa 0.42 0.7 350 MPa 0.516 0.648 350 MPa 0.728 0.59

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ANALYSIS

It can be seen in the figure that the critical condition is reached in the year
20 when working conditions cause a tensile stress of 350 MPa. In this
situation we have the lower safety factor.

1.2

Kr
1
Year 0
Year 10
0.8 Year 20
Kr

0.6

0.4

0.2

0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2
Lr

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ANALYSIS
In the 20th year the safety factor can be obtained from the figure as:
OB
S.F = = 1.2
OA
Therefore, the safety factor is greater than 1.2 during the first twenty years.
1.2

1 Kr
B Year 0

0.8
* Year 10
Year 20
A
Kr

0.6

0.4

0.2

0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2
Lr

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