Haramaya Institute of Technology, School of Graduate Studies

CHAPTER ONE

OPEN CHANNEL FLOW

1.1. Introduction

The aim of the chapter open channel flow is to present a review of the main principles of
hydraulics and to apply them in Irrigation Engineering. After the course the student should
understand and should be able to apply the principles of hydraulics in engineering problems and
should be able to make uniform and non-uniform flow computations.

1.1.1. Classification of Open Channel flows

Open channel flows versus pipe flow

The flow of water in a conduit may be either open channel flow or pipe flow. Open channel is a
conduit for flow which has a free surface, i.e. a boundary exposed to the atmosphere. The two
kinds of lows, i.e. open channel and pipe flow, are similar in many ways but differ in one
important aspect. Open channel flow must have a free surface, whereas pipe flow has none, since
the water must fill the whole conduit. A free surface is subject to atmospheric pressure. Pipe flow
being confined in closed conduit, exerts no direct atmospheric pressure but hydraulic pressure. In
the case of the flowing fluid in open channel, the motion is usually caused by gravity effects
and the pressure distribution within the fluid is generally hydrostatic 1

Figure 1.1 Comparison between pipe flow and open channel flow.
Questions:
• Where is the HGL in case of the open channel flow?
• What is the influence of the change in cross–section of the pipe?
• Is a half–filled pipe flow open channel flow or pipe flow?

1. If the flow were curvilinear or if the slope of channel were large hydrostatic law of
pressure distribution will not hold true, read pp 30- 33 Ven Te Chow.

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The two kinds of flows are compared in Figure 1-1. Two piezometers tubes are installed on the
pipe at section 1 and 2. The water levels in the tubes are maintained by the pressure in the pipe at
elevations represented by the so–called hydraulic grade line. The pressure exerted by the water in
each section of the pipe is indicated in the corresponding tubes by the height (y) of the water
column above the centerline of the pipe. The total energy in the flow of the section with reference
to a datum line is the sum of the elevation z of the pipe center line, the peizometric height and the
velocity head (v2/2g), where v is the mean velocity of flow. The energy is represented in the figure
by what is called the energy grade line or a simply energy line. The loss of energy that result when
water flow from section 1 to section 2 is represented by hf.

A similar diagram for open channel flow is shown on the right side of Figure 1-1. For simplicity, it
is assumed that the flow is parallel and has a uniform velocity distribution and that the slope of
the channel is small. In this case, the water surface is the hydraulic grade line, and the depth of the
water corresponds to the peizometric height.

Despite the similarity between the two kinds of flow, it is much more difficult to solve
problems of flow in open channels than in pressure pipes.

Reasons:
• In open channels the position of the free surface is likely to change with respect to time
and space,
• Depth of flow (y), discharge (Q), and bottom slope (S) and slope of the free surface are
independent,
• Physical condition of open channels varies more widely than that of pipes,
• Cross section of open channel is widely variable and even might not be rigid,
• Selection of fiction coefficient is difficult and it varied with the position of the free surface,

Examples of Open Channel Flow:

Some examples of open channel flows include:

- storm sewer (partially field sewers),
- flow in rivers,
- flow in irrigation cannels,
- gutters along residential streets, etc.

Types of flows

Open channel flow can be classified into many types and described in various ways. The following
classification is made according to the change in flow depth with respect to time and space.

 dy dy 
 , 
 dt dx 

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Steady flow and unready flow: Time as the criterion

Flow in an open channel is said to be steady if the depth of flow does not change or if it can be
assumed to be constant during the time interval under consideration at a fixed point. In steady flow
the flow variables (velocity, pressure, density, flow path etc.) do not vary with time at a point in the
flow. In steady flow streamline is also the path followed by an individual water particle. The flow is
unsteady if the depth changes with time. In most open channel problems, it is necessary to study flow
behavior only under steady conditions. If, however, the change in flow condition with respect to time
is of major concern, the flow should be treated as unsteady. In floods and surges, for instance,
which are typical examples of unsteady flow, the stage of flow changes instantaneously as the wave
pass by, and the time element becomes vitally important in design of control structures. In unsteady
flow the flow variables (velocity, pressure, density, flow path etc.) vary with time at the spatial points
in the flow.

Examples of unsteady flow:

• Oscillatory sea waves,
• Dam break flood waves,
• Surges due to gate operation,
• Floods.
For any flow, the discharge Q at a channel section is expressed by
Q = VA 1-1
Where v is the mean velocity and A is the flow cross sectional area normal to the direction of
the flow, since the mean velocity is defined as the discharge divided by the cross-sectional area.

In most problems of steady flow, the discharge is constant throughout the reach of the channel under
consideration; in other words the flow is continuous. Thus, using equation 2-1
Q = V1 A1 = v2 A2 = - - - - 1-2
Where the subscripts designate different channel sections. This is the continuity equation for a
continuous steady flow.

Figure 1.2 Steady and unsteady flow

Equation 1.2 obviously invalid, however, where the discharge of a steady flow is non- uniform along
the channel, that is, where water runs in or out along the course of the flow. This type of flow is
called spatially varied or discontinuous flow. Examples are side channel spillways, roadside gutters,
the flow in uniform canal of constant slope receiving inflow or having outflow (e.g. main drainage
channels and feeding channels in irrigation systems).

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Uniform flow and varied flow: space as the criterion

Open channel flow is said to be uniform if the depth of flow is the same at every section of the channel.
A uniform flow may be steady or unsteady, depending on whether or not the depth changes with time.

Steady uniform flow is the fundamental type of flow treated in open channel hydraulics. The depth of
flow does not change during the time interval under consideration. The establishment of unsteady
uniform flow would require that the water surface fluctuate from time to time while remaining parallel
to the channel bottom. Obviously, this is a practically impossible condition. The term “uniform flow” is
therefore, used here after only to steady uniform flow.

Flow is varied if the depth of flow changes along the length of the channel. Varied flow may be either
steady or unsteady. Since unsteady uniform flow is rare, the term “unsteady flow” is used hereafter to
designate unsteady varied flow exclusively.

Varied flow may be further classified as either rapidly or gradually varied. The flow is rapidly varied if
the depth changes abruptly over a comparatively short distance; otherwise, it is gradually varied. A
rapidly varied flow is also known as a local phenomenon; examples are the hydraulic jump and the
hydraulic drop. For clarity, the classification of open-channel flow is summarized as:

Figure 1. 3 Classification of open channel flows

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Various types of open channel flows are sketched in Figure 1-4.

Figure 1. 4 various types of open channel flows

Real or ideal flow

Real flows are those with viscosity and frictional (viscous) effects. Ideal flow is hypothetical, ideal
flow assumes no friction, which means that the velocity is zero. There are no frictional effects
between moving fluid layers or between these layers and boundary walls; there is no energy
dissipation due to friction.

Incompressible or compressible flow

Incompressible flow assumes a constant density in time and space. Although liquids are slightly
compressible, it is assumed that they are incompressible. Compressible flows consider liquids
that undergo changes in their density due to changes in absolute pressure and/or temperature.

1. 2. Velocity and Pressure Distributions in Open Channel

Owing to the presence of free surface and to the friction along the channel wall, the velocities in
open channel are not uniformly distributed. The measured maximum velocity in ordinary channels
usually appear to occur below the free surface at a distance of 0.05 to 0.25 of the depth, the closer
the banks the deeper the maximum.

As a result of non-uniform distribution of velocities over the channel section, the velocity head of
an open channel flow is generally greater than the value computed according to the expression
V2/2g, where V is the mean velocity. In practice usually average velocity across the flow is taken
and correction coefficients are applied. A correction coefficient called Coriolis coefficient (energy
coefficient) α is used in computations when energy principle is used, i.e. the velocity head will be
expressed as αV2/2g. Experimental data indicate that the value of α varies from 1.03 to 1.36 for
fairly straight prismatic channels. Non-uniform distribution of velocity also affects computation of
momentum (mv = βQgV), where β is momentum coefficient or Boussinesq coefficient generally
1.01 <β<1.12 for straight prismatic channels. For channels of regular cross section and fairly
straight alignment the effect of non-uniform velocity on velocity head and momentum is small;

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especially in comparison with the uncertainty involved in the computation. Therefore, α

and β are assumed to be unity.

Figure 1. 5 Velocity and Pressure distribution in open channel flows.

a) Parallel flow- hydrostatic pressure distribution, b) Convex flow- centrifugal force acts
against gravity (upward) as a result resulting pressure is less than the otherwise hydrostatic
pressure of a parallel flow. c) Concave flow- centrifugal force pointing downward to
reinforce gravity

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1. 3. Basic Hydraulics Principles

1.3.1. Geometry of Open Channels

Open channels can be natural (rivers, streams, estuaries) or artificial (canals, flumes, chutes,
culverts, drops, open-flow tunnels). The channel geometry can be prismatic (constant So
and constant A) or non-prismatic. The geometry is defined by its cross- section and water
depth (y).

Some conventions for naming of canal geometric parameters are given underneath:

Figure 1. 6 Geometry of an open channel

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Figure 1. 7 Geometric elements of the most common channel sections

Main Principles
To any situation in hydraulics we can apply two out of three principles:

1-a Principle of conservation of matter (continuity)

1-b Principle of conservation of energy (in case all energy “losses” are known)

2-a Principle of conservation of matter (continuity)

2-b Momentum principle (in case all external forces are known)

1.3.2. Continuity Principle

In open channel flow the continuity principle for a constant discharge Q is:
− −
Q = V1 A1 = V2 A2 1-3

Where A is the cross sectional area at section 1 and 2; and V is the mean velocities at sections 1 and
2.

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If the mean velocity remains constant (V1 = V2) then the cross-sectional area A (A = Q/V) remains
constant. Then the open channel has a prismatic cross-section. This means for uniform flow a
constant water depth in all section. Uniform flow is a result from an exact balance between the force
of gravity and the frictional resistance.

1.3.3. Energy Principle

The energy equation and the momentum equation are used in addition to the continuity equation in
analyzing fluid-flow situations. They are both derived from Newton’s second law of motion. In this
section, the force components on a fluid particle in the direction of its motion are equated to the
product of mass of the particle and acceleration along the streamline. The equation is obtained in
differential form and requires the assumption of a frictionless fluid and steady flow. The equation
may then be integrated for particular assumptions regarding the relation between density and
pressure to obtain the energy equation.

Figure 1. 8 Force components o n a fluid particle in the direction of streamline.

In figure 1.8 let S be a streamline in steady flow, and consider the forces acting on a fluid
particle in the direction S of the streamline. The element has a prismatic cross-sectional
area A and length s – a frictionless fluid is assumed in order to eliminate all shear in the
fluid (i.e. ideal fluid is assumed instead of real fluid). On the upstream end the element the
force is PA, in which P is the pressure intensity at the center of the face. The force on the
downstream end of the element is:-

 dP 
P  s  A
 ds 
and acts in the negative direction. Any forces acting on the sides of the element are normal
to the streamline and do not enter the equation. The only other force acting is due to gravity
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and is AS, acting vertically downward. The component in the S-direction is: -AS cos
. By substituting into Fs = mas.

 dP  
PA   P   S  A  A  S cos   A S a s
 ds  g

After dividing throughout by the weight of the element  AS and simplifying.

1 dP a
 cos   S  0
 ds g

Z is the increase in elevation for a displacement S along the stream line and from Figure
1.8.
Z d
 cos   Z
S dS
The acceleration as is dv/dt. To keep this expression simple, the assumption of steady flow
is introduced, so that V is a function of S only along a streamline. Writing,

dV ds dV
aS  . V
ds dt ds
ds
as the velocity along the streamline is . The equation becomes.
dt
1 dP dz V dV
  0
 ds ds g ds
By multiplying the above equation trough by g and with the additional assumption that the
fluid is incompressible (i.e. assuming a constant density in time and space) and
integrating with respect to S.

p V2
 gz   cons tan t 1-4
 2
This is Energy equation (Bernoulli’s Equation) for steady flow of a frictionless,
incompressible fluid along a streamline. It states that energy per unit mass of a flowing fluid
is constant; the dimensions for this equation are L2/T2, i.e. energy per unit mass.

Potential energy = mgz  gz is potential energy per unit mass.

Kinetic Energy =(1/2 mV2)  V2/2 is kinetic energy per unit mass.
Work/Energy = F.S = ( P  A)  S
We can represent he unit mass as: unit mass =   A S
PA s P
Therefore, Pressure Energy per unit mass = 
As  

By dividing equation 1-4 throughout by g we get on expression for energy per unit weight,
or more simply, in unit of meters. This expression is particularly convenient form to apply to
situations with free liquid surface, i.e. open channel flows.
p V2
Z    C 1-5
 2g
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For open channel section with steady flow and straight and parallel streamlines, there is no
centripetal acceleration, i.e. where the hydrostatic pressure distribution holds true, the
p
pressure head lies in the water surface.

p
  d cos  - For channel with large slope

and

p
 y - For channel with small slope

Substituting for channel of large slope, the total energy may be written as
V2
Z  d cos    C
2g

In general, every streamline passing through a channel section will have a different velocity
head, owing to the non-uniform velocity distribution in actual flow. Only in an ideal parallel
flow of uniform velocity distribution can the velocity head be truly identical for all points on
the cross-section. In the case of gradually varied flow, however, it may be assumed, for
practical purposes, that the velocity heads for all points on the channel section are equal,
and energy coefficient (Coriolis Coefficient) may be used to correct for the overall effect of
the non-uniform velocity distribution. Thus, the total energy, equation at a channel section
takes the form
v2
Z y   C
2g
According to this equation (the principle of conservation of energy), the total energy head at
upstream section 1 should be equal to the total energy head at downstream section 2 plus
the loss of energy hf between the two section; or
2 2
v v
Z 1  y1   1  Z 2  y 2   2  h f
2g 2g
This equation applies to parallel or gradually varied flow. Consider now a prismatic channel.
The line representing the elevation of the total head of flow is the energy line. The slope of
the line is known as the energy gradient, denoted by Sf. The slope of the water surface is
denoted by Sw and the slope of the channel bottom by So = tan . In uniform flow, Sf = Sw =
So = tan .

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Figure 1. 9 Energy in gradually varied open channel flow

Specific Energy and Critical Depth

The “Specific energy” is the average energy per unit weight of water with respect to the
p
channel bottom. The piezometric head related to the bottom is  Z  y (with Z = 0) which is

the water depth. Therefore, the specific energy is the sum of the water-depth (y) and the
velocity head, if the streamlines are straight and parallel.
V2
ES  y  
2g
For a given section and constant discharge (Q), the specific energy is a function of water-
depth only, since V 
Q.
A
Q2
 Es  y 
2 g y 2 B S2
When the depth of flow is plotted against the specific energy for a given channel section
and discharge, a specific-energy curve is obtained (figure 1.10).

This curve has to limbs AC and BC. The limb AC approaches the horizontal axis
asymptotically towards the right. The limb BC approaches the line OD as it extends upward
and to the right. Line OD is a line that passes through the origin and has an angle of
inclination equal to 45o.

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Figure 1. 10 Specific Energy Curve

At any point P on this curve, the ordinate represents the depth, and the abscissa represents
the specific energy. Which is equal to the sum of the pressure head y and the velocity head
V 2 2g.

The curve shows that for a certain discharge Q two flow regimes are possible, viz. slow and
deep flow or a fast and shallow flow, i.e. for a given specific energy, there are two possible
depths, for instance, the low stage y1 and the high stage y2. The low stage is called the
alternate depth of the high stage, and vice versa. At pint C, the specific energy is minimum.
It can be proved that this condition of minimum specific energy corresponds to the critical
state of flow. Thus, at the critical state the two alternate depths apparently become one,
which is known as the critical depth (YC). When the depth of flow is greater than the critical
depth, the velocity of flow is less than the critical velocity for the given discharge, and,
hence, the flow is sub critical. When the depth of flow is less than critical depth the flow is
supercritical. Hence, Y1 is the depth of a supercritical flow, and Y2 is the depth of a sub
critical flow.
If the discharge changes, the specific energy will be changed accordingly. The two curves
A’B’ and A”B” (Figure 1.10) represent positions of the specific energy curve when the
discharge is less and greater, respectively than the discharge used for the construction of
the curve AB.
The critical state of Flow
The critical state of flow is defined as the state of flow at which the specific energy is a
minimum for a given discharge or it is the condition for which the Froude number (Fr) is
equal to unity.
V2
ES  y 
2g
For Q 
V
A
Q2
ES  y 
2g A2
Differentiating with respect to y and noting that Q is a constant

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d ES Q 2 dA
 1
dy g A 3 dy
The differential water area dA near the free surface (figure 1.10) is equal to BS dy .
dA A . So the above equation becomes.
Now  B and the hydraulic depth D 
dy S BS
dE S Q 2 Bs Q2
 1  1 
dy gA 3 gA 2 D
But V  .
Q
A
dE S V 2 A2 V2
Substituting into the above equation,  1  1   E S min imum
dy gA 2 D gD
dE
At the critical state of flow the specific energy is a minimum, or  0 . The above
dy
v2 D
equation, therefore, gives 
2g 2

This is the criterion for critical flow, which states that at critical state of flow, the velocity
head is equal to half the hydraulic depth. The above equation may also be written
V
 1, which means Fr = 1; this is the definition of critical flow given previously.
gD

1.3.4 Momentum Principle

The momentum equation is developed from Newton’s second law of motion by summing up
the resultant force on a free body of fluid on one side of the equation and by developing the
other side of the equation into an equivalent expression in terms of rates of inflow and
outflow of momentum.

According to Newton's second law of motion the change of momentum (d (mv)) per unit
time, is equal to the resultant of all external forces acting on a body (body of water flow in a
channel in our case).
d ( mv )
F 
dt
The momentum passing a section A per unit time (t = 1sec):

mv = * (A. V) V
Where, A*V represent the volume passing per unit time. Hence,
mv = QV
Or including the momentum coefficient (Boussinesq coefficient)
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mv =  *  * Q * v
Q2
mv =  *  *
A
Within the control volume defined in the figure there is an unknown energy loss and/or force
acting on the flow between section 1 and 2; the result is a change in the linear momentum
of the flow. In many cases, this change in momentum is accompanied by a change in depth
of flow. The application of Newton's second law, in a one-dimensional flow to the control
volume, i.e. equating the sum of all external forces (F) to the rate of change of momentum
( Q V) for any two cross-sections 1 and 2 gives:
F  Q (V2  V )1
Or including the momentum coefficient
F  Q  2V2  1V 
Consider a channel section of mild slope and analyzes the forces acting.

Thus, F = Q (2v2 – 1v2) implies

F = F1 –F2 + W sin  - Ff = Q(2 v2 - 1v1)
F1 and F2 are the resultant pressure forces acting on the two sections and W is the weight
of the water between the two sections. Ff is the total friction force acting along the surface
of the body. The slope is mild and assumed sin   So = 0
 W sin  = 0
and for a flow with parallel flow lines the pressure is assumed to be hydrostatic.

The force F1 is gAy+, where A is the cross- sectional area and y+ the depth of the center of
gravity of the area A (the depth of centroid of the cross sectional area measured below the
surface of flow). For rectangular section of small slope
F = g by (½y) (y+ = ½ y)
(Remark for canals with large slope F = g bdcos  ½ dcos  = ½ g bd 2 cos2)
Therefore, substituting
W sin  = 0
F1 = g A1y1+
F2 = gA2y2+
F1 – F2 + W sin - Ff = Q (2v2 -  1v1)

 g A1y1+ - g A2 y2+ - Ff = Q (2v2 - 1 v1)

  2 1 
 - Ff = g A2y2+ - g A1y1+ + Q2   

 2 A1 
A
 Q 2    Q2 
 - Ff = g  A2 y 2      A1 y1   1 
 
 A2 g   gA1 

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Ff    Q2    Q2 
  A1 y1  1    A2 y 2   2 
g  gA1   gA2 
The term between brackets is called the momentum function (M) or in general
Q2
M = A y+ + 
gA
Ff
 = M1 – M2
g
For a given discharge Q, channel shape and coefficient , the function M depends only on
the water depth y. Plotting M against y gives a similar figure as for the specific energy Es
against depth y. This curve is called specific force curve. In the figure two regions can be
determined, namely sub- and supercritical flows. For every M > Mmin two water –depths
exist, which are called the initial and sequent depths. Together they are the conjugate
depths.
In applying the momentum principle to a short horizontal reach of a prismatic canal, the
external forces of friction and the weight effect of water can be ignored. Thus, with  = 0
and Ff = 0 the equation becomes:
M1  M 2

A1 y1+ + 
Q2 = A y + + Q2
2 2 
gA1 gA2
Q 2  Q 2 
The momentum function M = y+A + consists of two terms. The second term  
 gA
gA  
is the momentum of the flow passing through the channel section per unit time per unit
weight of water, and the first term (Ay+) is the force per unit weight of water. Since both
terms are essentially force per unit weight of water, their sum may be called the specific
force. Accordingly, it may be expressed as F1 = F2.
Thus, in analogy with the concept of specific energy for a given value M, the M - y curve
predicts two possible depths of flow – conjugate depths of a hydraulic jump.
Q2
For a rectangular cross section y+ = ½ y. Assuming,  = 1 results in M = ½ Ay +
gA
The function per unit width (b = 1) reads
q2
M = ½ y2 +
gy
The function has one extreme for:
dM q2
 y  0 q  is disch arg e per unit width
dy gy 2
q2
 y3 
g
1
 q2 3 q2
y = yc =   =
 g 3
  g
2
d M q2
 1  2
dy 2 gy 3

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d 2M 2q 2 2g
for y = yc   1 1 3
dy 2  q2  g
g  
 g 
The minimum value of the specific momentum function can be found under the
assumptions of parallel flow and uniform velocity distribution by taking the first derivative of
M with respect to y and setting the resulting expression equal to zero or

dM
 
Q 2 dA

d y A
0
 
dy gA 2 dy dy

Q 2 dA
 A 0
gA 2 dy
Bs( dy ) 2
Where d (y+A) = [A (y++dy) + ]  y  A  Ady and where it is assumed that (dy) = 0
2

2
Q A
Then substituting dA/dy = Bs, v = , and D 
A T
2
V D
We get  which is the same criterion developed for the minimum value of specific
2g 2
force (momentum) occurs at minimum specific energy or critical depth.
The given number 3 is positive, so for momentum value for y = yc. It has to be noted that
the given relation for yc is only applicable for open rectangular (prismatic) channels.
For other cross sections the impulse momentum equation should be used
P    Q2    Q2 
  A1 y1  1 2    A2 y 2  2 2 
g  A g   A g 

P
 M1  M 2
g
With these equation it is possible to compute one unknown among the four variables (F, Q,
A1 ,A2) for a given channel shape and 1 =2 = 1; (y+ is also a function of channel shape
and water level).
The impulse momentum principle also follows from Newton’s second law. The flow may be
compressible or incompressible, real (with friction) or ideal (frictionless), steady or unsteady
moreover, the equation is not only valid along a streamline. The advantage of the impulse
momentum principle is that only the conditions at the end sections of the control volume
govern the analysis. It has a special advantage for application to problems involving high
internal energy changes, such as the problem of the hydraulic jump. If the energy equation
is applied to such problems, the unknown internal energy loss represented by hf is
indeterminate, and the omission of this term would result in a considerable error. If instead
the momentum equation is applied to these problems, since it deals only with external
forces, the effects of the internal forces will be entirely out of consideration and need not be
evaluated. The term for frictional losses due to external forces, on the other hand, is
unimportant in such problems and can safely be omitted, because the phenomenon takes
place in a short reach of the channel and the effect due to external forces is negligible
compared with the internal losses.

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1.4. FLOW COMPUTATION FORMULAS

1.4.1. Critical flow

As stated before, the critical state of flow through a channel is characterized by several
important conditions.

1) The specific energy is a minimum for a given discharge,

dE s dE s Q 2 .Bs
0  1 0
dy dy gA 3
dE s V 2 .Bs V 2
 1  1 0
dy gA gD
Q 2 Bs V 2
 1
gA 3 gD

This dim ensionless number is the square of Froude number Fr 2

V 2 Q 2 Bs
Fr 2   
gD gA 3

2) The discharge is a maximum for a given specific energy,

3) The specific force is a minimum for a given discharge,
1  Q2
d( Ay  )
dM 2 gA
 0
dy dy
4) The velocity head is equal to half the hydraulic depth in a channel of small slope,
V2 D

2g 2
5) The Froude number is equal to unity,

Q 2 Bs V 2
 1
g .A 3 gD

6) The velocity of flow in a channel of small slope with uniform velocity distribution is
equal to the celerity of small gravity waves, C, in shallow water caused by local
disturbance.
Ac
C = gD  g
Bc
Discussions on critical stage of flow have referred mainly to a particular section of a
channel, known as the critical section. If the critical state of flow exists throughout the
entire length of the channel or over a reach of the channel, the flow in the channel is
critical flow. The slope of a channel that sustains a given discharge at a uniform and
critical depth is called the critical slope (Sc). A slope of the channel less than the critical
slope will cause a slower flow of sub critical state for the given discharge, as will be shown
later, and hence, is called a mild or sub critical slope. A slope greater than the critical

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slope will result in a faster flow of supercritical state, and is called a steep or supercritical
slope.

A flow at or near the critical state is unstable. This is because minor changes in specific
energy at or close to critical state will cause a major change in depth. This fact can also be
recognized in the specific energy curve. It can be observed also that, when the flow is near
the critical state, the water surface appears unstable and wavy. Such phenomena are
generally caused by the minor changes in energy due to variations in channel roughness,
cross-section, slope or deposits of sediment or debris. In the design of channel, if the depth
is found at or near the critical depth for a greater length of the channel, the shape or slope
of the channel should be altered, if practicable, in order to secure greater stability.

The section factor for critical flow computation

Take the criterion for a critical state of flow
V2 D

2g 2
Substituting V = Q/A gives
Q2 D
2

2 gA 2
Q2 Q
  A2 D   A D
g g
But Z = A D is defined in section 1.3 as the section factor for critical flow computation

Q
 Z  (When  is assumed to be unity)
g

The above equation states that the section factor Z for a channel section at a critical state
of flow is equal to the discharge divided by the square root of g. Since the section factor Z
is a function of the depth, the equation indicates that there is only one possible critical
depth for maintaining the given discharge in a channel and similarly that, when the depth is
fixed, there can be only one discharge that maintains a critical flow and makes the depth
critical in the given channel section.
The above equation is a very useful tool for the computation and analysis of critical flow in
an open channel. When the discharge is given, the equation gives the critical section factor
Zc and, hence the critical depth yc. On the other hand, when the depth and, hence the
section factor are given, the critical discharge can be computed by the following form.
Q = Z g
Computation of critical flow involves the determination of critical depth and velocity (yc & vc)
when the discharge and the channel section are known. The methods illustrated by
examples are given below.

Example
For a trapezoidal channel with base width b = 6.0 m and side slope m = 2, calculate the
critical depth of flow if Q = 17 m3/s.

Solution
The criterion for critical state of flow is the basis for the computation of critical flow viz.

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V2 D A
 , where D 
2g 2 Bs
The hydraulic depth (D) and water area of the trapezoidal section are expressed in terms of
the depth y as
A = (b+ my) y = (6 +2 y)y
Bs = b + 2my = 6 + 4y
A ( 3  y )y Q 17 17
 D  and V   
Bs 3  2y A ( 6  2 y )y 2( 3  y ) y
V2 D
Substituting the above relations in  gives
2g 2
17 / ( 6  2 y ) y 2 
( 3  y )y
g 3  2y

Simplifying,
7.4 (3+ 2y) = [(3+y) y]3
By trial and error, the critical depth is approximately,
yc = 0.84 m
and the corresponding critical velocity is
17
Vc =  2 .6 m / s
[ 6  2( 0.84 )] 0.84

1.4.2. Uniform flow

Uniform flow in open channels has the following main characteristics

a. the depth, water area, velocity, and discharge at every section of the channel are
constant;
b. the energy line, water surface, and channel bottom are all parallel; i.e. their slopes are all
equal Sf = Sw = So

Uniform flow is considered to be steady only, since unsteady uniform flow is practically
nonexistent. In natural streams, even steady uniform flow is rare, for rivers and streams in
natural states scarcely ever experience a strict uniform flow condition. Despite this
deviation from the truth, the uniform flow condition is frequently assumed in the
computation of flow in natural streams. The results obtained from this assumption are
understood to be approximate and general, but they offer a relatively simple and
satisfactory solution to many practical problems.

Establishment of uniform flow

When flow occurs in an open channel, the water encounters resistance as it flows
downstream.
This resistance is generally counteracted by the components of gravity forces acting on the
body of the water in the direction of motion. A uniform flow will be developed if the
resistance is balanced by the gravity forces, i.e., the head loss due to turbulent flow is
exactly balanced by the reduction in potential energy due to the uniform decrease in the
elevation of the channel. The magnitude of the resistance, when other physical factors of
the channel are kept unchanged, depends on the velocity of flow.
If the water enters the channel slowly, the velocity and hence the resistance are small and
the resistance is outbalanced by the gravity forces, resulting in an accelerating flow in the
upstream reach. The velocity and the resistance will gradually increase until a balance
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between resistance and gravity force is reached. At this moment and afterwards the flow
become uniform. The upstream reach that is required for the establishment of uniform flow
is known as the transitory zone. In this zone the flow is accelerating and varied. If the

channel is shorter than the transitory length required by the given conditions, uniform flow
couldn't be attained. Towards the end of the channel the resistance may again be
exceeded by the gravity forces and the flow may become varied. In general, uniform flow
can occur only in very long, straight, prismatic channels where a terminal velocity of flow
can be achieved. The depth of uniform flow is called the normal depth.

Computation of Uniform flow

For computational purposes, the average velocity of a uniform flow can be computed
approximately by one of a number of semi-empirical uniform flow equations. All of these
equations have the form
V = CRx Sy
Where V= average velocity; R= hydraulic radius; S = channel longitudinal slope; C =
resistance coefficient; X and y coefficients.
The two popular equations are the Chezy equation, developed in 1769, and the Manning
equation, developed in 1889.
The Chezy equation can be derived from the definition of uniform flow with an assumption
regarding the form of the flow resistance coefficient, with reference to the figure below, the
definition of uniform flow requires that the forces resisting flow exactly equal the forces
causing motion. The force causing motion is
F = W sin =  A L sin 
Where: W = weight of fluid within control volume
γ = fluid specific weight
L = control volume length
 = Longitudinal slope angle of a channel.

Figure 2. 11 Forces on a column of flowing water

If  is small, which is usually the case, then sin   S0. Thus

F = AL So = gAL S0
For a reach of length L with a wetted perimeter p, the force of resistance is
Ff =  * P * L
Equating F = Ff ;   * P * L = g AL So
A
   g S o  g R S 0
P
 is shear stress along the perimeter. If we let shear velocity V* = gRS 0 the above
equation implies.
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 =  V*2

V* is known as shear velocity.

From experiments it is shown that the force per unit area of the channel perimeter resisting
motion. Ff, is proportional to the square of the average velocity or
Ff  V2
Therefore, for a reach of length L with a wetted perimeter P, the force of resistance can
also be written as
Ff = KLPV2
Where K = constant of proportionality. Setting the force casing motion equal to the force
resisting motion, i.e. F = Ff.
   1/ 2 A
 gALS o  KLPV 2
  ALS o  KLPV 2
 V    S0
K  P

 
1/ 2
1/ 2
V    RS o  V    RS
k k
Where the subscript associated with s has been dropped.

1/ 2
For convenience define, C =  
k

1/ 2
The resistance coefficient, C, defined as   is commonly known as the Chezy C and in
k
practice is determined by either measurement or estimate. The coefficient of resistance
defined by the above equation is found to vary with bed and flow characteristics.

Substituting this gives the famous Chezy Formula

V = C RS
Where V is the mean velocity is m/s, R is the hydraulic radius in m, S is the slope of energy
line (m/m), and C is a factor of flow resistance, called Chezy’s C.
The Manning equation is the result of a curve fitting process and thus is completely
empirical in nature. In application of the Manning equation, it is essential that the system of
units being used be identified and that the appropriate coefficient be used. In the SI system
of units, the Manning equation is
V = 1/n R2/3 S
Where n = Manning resistance coefficient.
Since the Chezy and Manning equations describe the same phenomena, the coefficients C
and n must be related setting VChezy = VManning yields.
1
R 6
C
n

Calculation of Normal Depth and Velocity

From the previous section:
The Manning equation gives V = 1/n R2/3 S1/2
The Chezy equation gives V = C RS  CR
1/ 2 1/ 2
S

and by law of conservation of mass these equations, when multiplied by the flow area,
yields an equation for uniform flow rate, or
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Manning Q = 1/n AR2/3S1/2

Chezy Q = C AR1/2 S1/2

In Manning equation, the parameter 1/n AR 2/3 and in the Chezy equation the parameters
CAR1/2 are called the conveyance of a channel section. It is a measure of the carrying
capacity of a channel section; since it is directly proportional to Q.
Manning K = 1/n AR2/3 =
Q
S1/ 2
Chezy K = CAR1/2 =
Q
S1/ 2
The above two equations are used to compute the conveyance when the geometry of the
water area and the resistance factor or roughness coefficient are given. Since Manning

formula is used extensively, most of the following discussions and computations will be
based on Manning’s equation.
Conveyance of a channel section increases with in increase in hydraulic Radius R or with
decrease in the wetted perimeter.
K  R  1/P Q = 1/n AR2/3 S1/2
Q = 1/n K S1/2
From a hydraulic viewpoint, therefore, the channel section having the least wetted
perimeter for a given area has a maximum conveyance; such a section is known as the
best hydraulic section.
In Manning’s equation the parameter AR2/3 is termed as the section factor for uniform flow
computation. It is an important element in the computation of uniform flow. From Manning’s
equation
nQ
AR2/3 =
S
The right side of the equation contains the values of n, Q, and S; but the left side depends
only on the geometry of the water area. Therefore, it shows that, for a given condition of n,
Q, and S, there is only one possible depth for maintaining uniform flow, provided that the
value of AR2/3 always increases with increase in depth, which is true in most cases. This
depth is the normal depth. When n and S are known at a channel section, from the
equation there can be only one discharge for maintaining a uniform flow through the
section, provided that AR2/3 always increases with increase of depth. This discharge is the
normal discharge.
When the discharge, slope, and roughness are known, this equation gives the section
factor AR2/3 and hence, the normal depth yn. On the other land, when n, s and yn, and
hence the section factor are given, the normal discharge Q can be computed from
Q = 1/nAR2/3 S1/2
This essentially is the product of the wetted area and the velocity defined by the Manning
formula.
In general, the most difficult and tedious normal flow calculation occurs when Q, the shape
of the channel, bottom slope and n are known and yn must be estimated. In such cases, an
explicit solution is not possible and problem must be solved by

o Trial and error (Algebric method)

o Numerical method (using computer)
o Design chart (using graph)

In order to simplify the computation, dimensionless curves showing the relation between
depth and section factor AR2/3 have been prepared for rectangular, trapezoidal, and circular
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channel sections. This self-explanatory curves will help to determine the depth for a given
section factor AR2/3, and the vice versa (Refer V. T. Chow).
In the case of a closed conduit having a gradually closing top, the value of AR2/3 will first
increase with depth and then decrease with depth when the full depth is approached,
because a maximum value of AR2/3 usually occurs in such a condition at a depth slightly
less than the full depth. Consequently, it is possible to have two depths for the same AR2/3.

Example: Given a trapezoidal channel with a bottom width of 3m, side slope 1.5, a
longitudinal slope of 0.0016 and estimated Manning’s n of 0.13, find the normal depth of
flow for a discharge of 7.1m3/s.
Solution:
nQ 0.13 * 7.1
AR 2 / 3    23.075
S 0.0016

A  b  my  y  3  1.5 y  y
P  b  2y 1  m2  3  2 y 3.25  3  3.6 y

R 
3  1.5 y  y
3  3 .6 y
Then the following table is constructed by assuming values of y and computing
corresponding values of AR2/3 that matches the value computed from the problem
statement, and then the corrected value of yn has been determined;
Trial y (m) A (m2 ) P (m) R (m) AR2/3
2.50 16.88 12.01 1.40 21.16
2.55 17.40 12.19 1.43 22.06
2.60 17.94 12.37 1.45 22.98
2.61 18.00 12.39 1.45 23.08
2.70 19.04 12.73 1.49 24.08
Therefore, the normal depth of flow yn = 2.61 m.
The primary difficulty in using either the Manning or Chezy equation in practice is
accurately estimating an appropriate value of the resistance coefficient. In general, it is
expected that n and c should depend on the Reynolds number of the flow (Reynolds
number reflect the effect of viscosity in relation to inertia), the boundary roughness, and the
shape of the channel cross-section.

1.5. GRADUALLY VARIED FLOW (GVF)

In uniform flows the cross section through which water flow remains constant. Also, the velocity
remains the same, in magnitude and direction. In varied flow, the cross-section changes in the
flow direction, the water depth changes along the length of the channel.
Varied flow may be either steady or unsteady. Since unsteady uniform flow is rare, the term
"unsteady flow” is used for unsteady varied flow exclusively. Varied flow may be further
classified as either rapidly or gradually varied.

The flow is rapidly varied if the depth changes abruptly over a comparatively short distance;
otherwise, it is gradually varied. A rapidly varied flow is also known as local phenomenon
examples are the hydraulic jump and the hydraulic drop. Gradually varied flow is a steady flow,
whose depth varies gradually along the channel.

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1.5.1. General Equation for Gradually varied flow

In G.V.F. the velocity varies along the channel and consequently the bed slope, water surface slope
and energy slope will differ from each other. Regions of high curvature are excluded in the analysis
of flow.
Two basic assumptions involved in gradually varying flow analysis are:

1. The pressure distribution at any section is hydrostatic. This follows from the definition
of the flow to have a gradually varied water surface. As gradual changes in water
surface curvature give rise to negligible normal accelerations, the departure from the
hydrostatic pressure distribution is negligible. The exclusion of region of high curvature
from the analysis of G.V.F., as indicated earlier, is only to meet this requirement.

2. The resistance to flow at any depth is assumed to be given by the corresponding uniform
flow equations such as Manning’s formula, with the condition that the bed slope is
replaced by the energy slope. Thus, if a G.V.F., the depth of flow at any section is y and the
energy slope Sf is given by
2 2
n V
Sf = 4 (i)
R 3
Where R is the hydraulic radius at depth of y.

Differential Equation of G.V.F.

Consider the total energy H of a G.V.F. in a channel of small bed slope and  =1.0

Figure 1. 12 Elementary length of channel carrying non-uniform flow

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1.5.2. Classification of GV Flow Profile

In a given channel yo and yc are the two fixed depths if Q, n, and So are fixed.
Also there are three possible relations between yo and yc.
i) yo > yc ii) yo < yc
iii) yo = yc

Further, there are two cases when yo cannot be defined explicitly, i.e. when
a) the channel bed is horizontal ( So = 0 ) and
b) the channel has an adverse slope ( So is negative)

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Figure 1. 13 Possible Gradually Flow Profile

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Figure 1. 14 Mild Slope GVF Profiles

r

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Steep Slope (S - Profile) [yc > yo]

Figure 1. 15 Steep Slope GVF Profile

When supercritical streams discharge into a pond of large depth – S1 profile

• When flow transition takes place from mild to steeper slope – S2 profile
• Flow through under-sluice on steeper slope – S3 profile

Critical Slope (C - Profile) [yc = yo] – These profiles are expected to occur rarely in
nature and they are highly unstable.

Figure 2. 16 Critical Slope GVF Profile

Examples:
• If the flow is taken place from critical slope to mild slope OR when the water enters in to
a pool from critical slope – C1 profile
• Below under-sluice during hydraulic jump – C3 profile

Horizontal Slope (H - Profile) [Only yc but yo does not exist]

Figure 2.17 Horizontal Slope GVF Profile

Examples:
• Flow near a free over-fall – H2 profile
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• Short length of horizontal channel may be expected particularly in stilling basins below
spillways etc. – H3 profile

Adverse Slope (A - Profile) [Only yc but yo does not exist]

Figure 1.18 Adverse Slope GVF Profile

Some Features of Flow Profile

Figure (i): M1 Profile (Back water curves) upstream of a dam /weir/control structures

Figure (ii): M2 Profile at sudden drop in the bed of the channel

Figure (iii): M3 Profile when the flow leading from a sluice gate to a mild slope

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Figure (iv): S1 Profile when the flow from steep slope is terminated by a deep pool created by an
obstruction

Figure (v): S2 Profile at the entrance region of a steep channel leading from a reservoir

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Figure (vi): S3 Profile flow from sluice gate with a steep slope on its downstream

Figure (vii): S3 Profile when a flow exists from a steeper slope to a less steep slope

Figure (viii): H2 and H3 Profiles

Figure (ix): A2 profile

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