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Chapter 21

Recreation and Urban Park Management

Rukiye Duygu ÇAY

1.INTRODUCTION
In recent years, with increasing recreation needs, public and private agencies are
becoming mandatory to provide opportunities for physical, mental and social activities
and meet the needs, in order to improve the quality of life.
The design approach of outdoor areas to meet the physical and social needs, visually
appropriate, and have high standards has begun to take place in nowadays. Urban
green spaces have a great importance to meet the needs of daily life within its
environment. The most prominent of these spaces are urban parks that contain many
recreational facilities and services together.
Parks are functional and aesthetic spaces, giving peace to the city. While
providing opportunities for Protection, utilization, health and education, they also
organize social life. Urban parks should be planned in terms of natural and cultural
features of the most exclusive places in cities. They should appeal to every age
groups, and have active and passive recreation opportunities and facilities.
The success of a park may occur in the establishment of a good management
structure. When creating the management structure, works to be done and personnel
that will implement them should be organized to scrupulously.
Having read this chapter, readers will have examined the term of ‘recreation’,
and the effects of recreation on city and citizens. They will also notice the physical
and social needs of every group of people, such as different age and gender groups,
disabled people, and leisure opportunities to meet them. Consequently, to fulfill the
requirements, an appropriate management structure has also been dwelled on.
2.RECREATION
The word ‘recreation’ is today's one of most commonly used phrases. Also many
people confuse the words recreation and leisure. Even though these two concepts are
closely related to one, they have different meanings. In this case, the first question
comes to mind what ‘recreation’ is. There are many definitions given to recreation.
Recreation can be defined as the evaluation of leisure which is freely chosen,
made on voluntary basis, active or passive participation (Karaküçük & Gürbüz, 2007;
Lu & Hu, 2005; Stebbins, 2005). Broadhurst (2001) defined recreation as participate
activities in leisure time. These activities may have physical, social or emotional
content.
Recreation consists of any activity persisted during leisure. It can be free or done
for fun (Neumeyer & Neumeyer, 1958). Recreation involves many leisure pursuits,
such as sports, arts, reading. Kraus and Curtis (1982) stressed that recreation comprise
of some experiences carried on free time, either for pleasure or to achieve certain
desirable physical, social or emotional outcomes. If it is supported by public or
voluntary agencies, it must be planned to achieve goals for participants and for the

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community.
Recreation can be defined as activities what people do during leisure time. Also
recreation has tended to be seen as another part of leisure. J. A. Patmore (1983) states
leisure, the period of the day which resumes after routine obligations as work or
chores and also it can be associated with activity.
Recreation must provide activities, programs and services that people can enjoy
in leisure time. In this respect, besides giving service to community recreation also
require administrative responsibilities. It must offer many opportunities to every
sector in society such as children, young and old, healthy and disabled, rich and poor
people. It should serve a wide range of goals and include benefits for the participants
and their families, community, and also for the large-scale as economy or
environment.
Recreation and leisure are considered as more important issue by the world today
than in the past. Kraus and Curtis (1982) defined leisure as nonobligated or
discretionary time, free of work and other essential tasks. It spread out to all
industrialized nations in the world. Variety of definitions matches leisure notions,
images and concepts. Generally it has been stated in terms of free time or activity
(Parr & Lashua, 2004). Some scholars related leisure to emancipatory action,
participatory democracy, and community development (Arai & Pedlar, 2003;
Hemingway, 1990; Stormann, 1993). However Ellis and Witt (1990) identified that
leisure may be impacted how recreation participants conceive and conduct services.
The word recreation expresses leisure activities, pleasure, relaxation and
satisfaction. Recreation programming and management should planned thoroughly to
meet people’s social, physical and emotional needs. Participants select the recreation
activity voluntarily for want of satisfaction, pleasure or getting social or emotional
values.
Leisure and needs change according to people’s life stage, preoccupations,
interests and activities at that stage. Needs assessment should let a wide range of
public involvement, so it is suggested that such an approach:
1. Assessment of people needs should provide an increase in individual and
community input and involvement in planning and decision making.
2. It should procure the planner with a better understanding of the community
and individuals within it.
3. It should ensure information as to the activities in which people are involved,
the activities in which they would like to be involved and how these can be planned
and provided for within an overall leisure delivery system.
4. It should provide supportive facts and ideas on which to base decisions in the
planning process (Torkildsen, 2005).
2.1.Recreation to meet physical needs
Design and management of public spaces is associated with encouraging physical
activity. Creating attractive streets, parks and outdoor spaces provide to increase
physical activity level (Ward Thompson, 2013).
Children, teenagers and adults have little opportunities in participating for
recreation activities such as trees for swinging, hills for climbing, rocks for leaping,
and pools for swimming. Many of what we term the conveniences of city life have
removed the need of physical exertion and, at the same time, the activities which are

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important for physical well-being. One of the major goal for municipal recreation is
restore some of this missing experience and provision of sports programs for all ages
is a primary responsibility (Guggenheimer, 1970).
Edginton and Williams (1978) stressed there are some differences in recreation
and park movement. Some physical activities are achieved thorough the presence of
physical resources, such as parks, sports arenas, courts or pools. From this point of
view, some special populations such as disabled, poor or people of different age
groups, must be considered at the planning stage.
2.2.Recreation to meet social needs
People need places and opportunities to socialize, such as meeting each other and
spent time together. Many people do not have opportunities for socializing near their
home or neighborhoods with each other. One of the goal of the municipality is to meet
this deficiency.
Appreciation of art can be gained through well-designed programs carried out in
parks and playgrounds. Self-expression through arts and crafts programs, the
satisfaction, the skills –that are learned- and the socialization are all desirable
(Guggenheimer, 1970).
2.3.Recreation to meet emotional needs
Some authorities suggested that recreation should be approved not as an activity,
but rather as the psychological or emotional outcome pf participation (Torkildsen,
2005).
Recreation refers an emotional situation within the body of an individual human
being that is derived from well-being or self-satisfaction. It can be diversified by
feelings of satisfaction, pleasure, mastery, success, and personal worth. Emotional
outcomes refer to aesthetic experiences, achievement of personal goals and positive
feedback from others. It is independent of activity, leisure or social acceptance (Gray
& Greben, 1974; Kraus & Curtis, 1982).
2.4.Providing Education with Recreation
Recreation programs offer many opportunities to encourage education. Pre-
school programs which are operated on playgrounds can prepare children for working
together, and can develop skills that will be needed in reading, arithmetic, and so
forth. Recreation leaders who are part of a sustained program, can use sports activities
to motivate reading and number ability, to improve leadership and confidence that will
increase learning capacity (Guggenheimer, 1970).
3.FACTORS INFLUENCE RECREATION PARTICIPATION
Many particular and often interrelated factors influence in participation. Some
factor, such as personality, user needs, socio-economic situation, physical and social
ability, cultural identity, personal goals and the other personal facts, could influence
recreational participation. There is a strong relationship between recreation and all
these factors.
3.1.Age and recreation participation
Age is an important factor on recreation participation. A person’s age and life –
cycle, such as marriage, parenthood and retirement affect opportunity and

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participation.
Recreation activities vary by people from child to elder. Torkildsen (2005) stated
that there is a rapid change for children in the space of a few years from toddler to
pre-school junior to adolescence- each calling for very different kinds of provision.
Also there has been a significant change in adults along with the aging. As people get
older recreation participation to activities decline sharply.
3.2.Gender and recreation participation
There are some similarities and differences between women and men in
participation in recreational activities. None the less, because of family commitments
and their children, women may not be able to participate outdoor activities.
Torkildsen (2005) stated that the similarities in participation rates between
women and men are more striking than the differences. There are many specific
differences in arts and sports, and inequalities both and within between the sexes.
In the study Leisure in the North West (Patmore & Rodgers, 1972), it was found
that gender makes little difference in participation rates for either full-day or half-day
trips and excursions, but that there is a marked contrast to the impact of gender on
sport and physical recreation. Also Sillitoe (1969) found similar results with this
findings which show that of all the sporting activities, only keep fit/yoga had a higher
participation rate among females (Torkildsen, 2005).
With a further aspect, in studies related to the differences of men and women it
has seen that women are mostly related with cultural activities, men are more
interested to hear sportive activities than women. Despite the differences, similarities
between women and men are also striking (Zuzarek, 1977).
3.3.Socio-economic factors influence in recreation participation
Recreation participation is also related to how people are paid for the activities.
Especially to increase the participation of people with low income, free or cheaper
opportunities should be created.
If lower-income groups are to be attracted in larger numbers in community
recreation, than greater social service approaches would need to be applied, such as,
cheaper administrations, positive discrimination towards those who are disadvantaged,
outreached programmes, the loaning of the equipment free of charge, taster courses at
minimal costs, community programming application, community bus services to
facilities (Torkildsen, 2005).
The money how much people spend on for recreation activities, equipment,
entrance fees, is dependent on the financial opportunities and lifestyle. On the other
hand, car ownership is effective in recreational activity diversity, with the decreasing
importance of the concept of distance.
Income level of users directly affects their preference of recreational activities.
An increased income increases participation in activities spending money, as well as
leads to preference of more passive recreational activities (Müderrisoğlu, 2002). Oğuz
(2000) stated that medium and low-income individuals do not have many alternatives
for leisure activities and recreational needs and therefore, the most convenient and
economical recreational way for them to interact with nature and spend their leisure is
to visit parks.

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4. MANAGING RECREATION ACTIVITIES IN URBAN PARKS

In recent years, urban park management has taken an importance role, especially
on urban open space issues and how it is influenced in society and the environment.
The changing roles and responsibilities include a greater emphasis on economic,
social and environmental commitments and sustainability. Green spaces provide not
only active and passive recreation, but also have a number of socio-economic (Hart,
2013; Wood, 2003), ecological (Wagner, 2003), economic (Arthur-Smith, 1999;
Kollin, 2003), environmental (Beard & Green, 1994; Nowak, Stevens, Sisinni, &
Luley, 2002), and human health (Bird, 2002; McKenna, 2003) benefits (Aldous,
2004).
Well thought of a program that use leisure time for physical and mental
development as well as for relaxation is important for people. Guggenheimer (1970)
implied that recreation programs should have one or more of the following goals:
1. Enhancing physical fitness,
2. Increasing social adjustment,
3. Providing opportunities for self-expression,
4. Providing diversion and relaxation,
5. Augmenting the curricula of the formal educational institutions,
6. Introduction to all citizens the cultural life of the city by using both major and
the neighborhood cultural institutions, and providing exhibitions of art and
performances of music, drama, and the dance in neighborhoods.
7. Improving the environment in which leisure time is spent by conserving, and
making avaible and accessible the ecology of the area; preserving the natural green
areas, the beaches, the marshlands, and the indigenous plant and animal life of the
region for the pleasure, enjoyment, and instruction of the residents of the city; and
helping to create in general an improved aesthetic environment in which leisure hours
can be enjoyed.
A well designed recreation program makes city more vibrant and attractive.
Attracting the commercial undertakes is an important goal to reinvigorate the
economy in the city.
The relationship between the quality of recreation program and the recreational
environment are reciprocal in a recreation context (Budruk & Manning, 2003).
According to Pigram and Jenkins (1999), the relationship between utilization and
environmental impacts of outdoor recreation depends on three factors: (1) the
qualifications and characteristics of the environment, (2) recreational use, (3)
management strategies. These factors also affect the relationship between the
resources and user’s experiences (Chan, Marafa, & Van Den Bosch, 2015).
Recreation and management is a big business that includes government agencies
and commercial undertakes. The government supported park and playground
programs are only pieces of the citywide recreation and leisure time complex, but they
interlock with each other. This complex provides job opportunities for many people,
directly through the operation of program and indirectly thorough the manufacturing
of need supplies and equipment (Guggenheimer, 1970).
Recreation and leisure time activities must meet the needs of all citizens, and
special programs and special ways must be found. Using activities that are unrelated
each other, may be enjoyable and provide diversity. They are important as “change of

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pace” activities, but they rarely result in change or forward motion in the lives of
people. Therefore, if the city’s recreation program is made up to a great extent of
uncoordinated and disassociated activities, the city might well be accused of wasting
scarce municipal funds. The recreation program which is supported by municipality
has some goals, such as sustaining of awakened interests, the developing of physical
and creative skills and abilities, and the improving of family and social adjustments.
Recreation which is designed merely to keep people off the streets or attract them to
parks are meeting very minimal goals (Guggenheimer, 1970).
4.1.Governance in recreation and parks
Recently recreation is an important concept that includes leisure facilities and
services. Recreation management is a complex and multifaceted task that must be
considered. Municipalities develop recreation and park programs through legislations.
Kraus and Curtis (1982) indicated that administrations of public recreation and
park departments are influenced by five key elements;
1. The legal mandate which impowers recreation and parks departments to
function and leads or limits under which they must operate;
2. The political framework of service in a given community;
3. The demands of citizens, both communitywide and as representatives of
different socio-economic, ethnic, or age groups;
4. The practical realities submit by human and material resources;
5. The philosophical, academic, and experiential background of the department
head.
Looking from a broader perspective, recreation and park management is also
influenced by national trends and views of appropriate goals for leisure service. In the
entire community, it must take into account the contributions made by other types of
leisure service providers, so that recreation programs supplement, rather than
duplicate, these voluntary, private or commercial opportunities (Kraus & Curtis,
1982).
Although public departments serve the whole society, nonpublic agencies
address to smaller groups. A therapeutic recreation agency has goals that will provide
the rehabilitation and reeducation or normalization process for its clients. A voluntary
organization has human-service or social goals, which may sponsored by particularly
in case of organizations (Kraus & Curtis, 1982).
4.2.Public Recreation and Park Agencies
Edginton and Williams (1978) suggested that there are essentially five types of
goals which are relating to health and physical fitness, achieving desirable social
outcomes, enriching culture and the arts, or protecting environment.
1. Output goals: These are the services or opportunities of recreation, such as
activities, facilities, programs.
2. Adaptation goals: These are related to an organization’s effort to relate or
adapt to changing environmental circumstances and challenges.
3. Management goals: These represent internal efforts within an organization to
use its resource most wisely, or make effective decisions in problem areas.
4. Motivation goals: These include goals designed to instill a high level of
motivation and personal satisfaction within staff members and the participants

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involved in program activities.

5. Positional goals: These include overall efforts to strengthen an organization’s
acceptance and support within the community, or to gain a higher level of resources or
participation.
Ralph Cryder, Director of the Los Angeles County Department of Parks and
Recreation, suggests that the policies of municipal or county recreation and park
departments should be classified in four major headings: people, planning, physical
resources, and balanced system.
1. Policies pertaining to people: People-related services include recreational
opportunities, accessibility, counselling and information, nondiscrimination and
recreation education.
Examples:
Make programs for special groups, such as handicapped, migrant workers,
prisoners and elderly.
2. Policies pertaining to planning: These include comprehensive planning
strategy, such as a interagency planning, or cooperative planning with
federal/state/local authorities.
Examples:
Involve people in planning and development of areas, activities and facilities.
Providing more facilities near residents or schools; giving priority to urban needs
3. Policies pertaining to physical resources and support: These include policies
to involve the provision of areas and facilities; preservation of historical and cultural
heritage; increased opportunity for the handicapped; environmental and interpretive
education; cooperative school-park programs; and increased user fees.
Examples:
Establishment and utilization of local parks and recreation areas for development
and programs, with 50/50 matching-funds arrangements.
Reclamation of land for park use, rights-of-way, water rights, other conventional
sources of property.
Development of cost/benefit ratio formulas for land use through computerized
technology.
4. Policies pertaining to a balanced system: These include federal/state
coordination, working with state and local agencies; investment opportunities with
private entrepreneurs; links to private foundations and trusts; consideration of
transportation and utilities.
Examples:
Examination of possible consolidation of services, utilizing concepts of regional
or metropolitan government.
Improving of public visibility and public-relations methods, to reach community
groups and private agencies groups (Kraus & Curtis, 1982).
4.3.Designing recreation programs
If an activity designed in a difficult-accessible location and have experiencing
difficulties in using, then it cannot be qualified as successful. One of the most
remarkable examples of this is the playground which is so imprisoned by a chain link
fence that it makes tenacity and a high intelligence quotient to find entrance. People
are keen sitting on benches outside a playground rather than attempting to find their

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way into an uninviting park area.

It is important to provide diversity in physical appearance, activities, facilities,
and utilizations of the park.
The activity area that program occurs should be attractive and esthetically
appealing. The environment in which people spend their leisure time should provide a
sense of pleasure and relaxation.
Maintenance is an important factor affecting the use of area, especially at outside
areas. Equipment should be designed with unbreakable and durable material and easy
maintenance can be done, especially assuming that one of the major problems is
vandalism in outdoors.
4.4.Public Relations
The purpose of the public relations program are to protect and ensure continuity
of park programs, and to introduce people to the park better. In this respect these
studies can be performed;
• Free brochures could be distributed about the park. Parts of the park and
employees can be introduced in this brochure. These sections may be individually or
several parts. To attract people's attention, current issues such as maintenance of
plants and solution of various problems can be included. These brochures must be
prepared by professional people because it will contain technical information.
• Large photos which include attractive parts of the park or activities can be
displayed to draw attention in specific areas. In addition to photos, information of
these areas or activities should also be entered.
• Photos and slideshows prepared about the park can be presented in the crowded
places of the city. Thus, the number of visitors would no longer limited to the
immediate vicinity of the park. The park comes to position that could serve to the
entire city.
• Ads can be placed on local newspapers, containing basic information about the
content of parks, the assignments of departments, where and when the activities take
place and information about the contact persons.
• Parks are always in the public eye. That's why the staff schedules should be
planned carefully and should be supervised regularly. Because the staff whom does
not fully comply his duties, will impact negatively on the image of the park in the
public eye.
• Tools and equipment are always seen clean, tidy and well-maintained, will
cause people to think positively about the park and management.
• New projects should be supported. So innovation and diversity will be
continuous, and the creation of new financial resources come into prominence.
• People can be encouraged to make donations by advertising and publicity. In
addition to this, participation in the volunteer programs it can be promoted.
4.5.Public Relations
The purpose of the public relations program are to protect and ensure continuity
of park programs, and to introduce people to the park better. In this respect these
studies can be performed;
•Free brochures could be distributed about the park. Parts of the park and
employees can be introduced in this brochure. These sections may be individually or

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several parts. To attract people's attention, current issues such as maintenance of

plants and solution of various problems can be included. These brochures must be
prepared by professional people because it will contain technical information.
•Large photos which include attractive parts of the park or activities can be
displayed to draw attention in specific areas. In addition to photos, information of
these areas or activities should also be entered.
•Photos and slideshows prepared about the park can be presented in the crowded
places of the city. Thus, the number of visitors would no longer limited to the
immediate vicinity of the park. The park comes to position that could serve to the
entire city.
•Ads can be placed on local newspapers, containing basic information about the
content of parks, the assignments of departments, where and when the activities take
place and information about the contact persons.
•Parks are always in the public eye. That's why the staff schedules should be
planned carefully and should be supervised regularly. Because the staff whom does
not fully comply his duties, will impact negatively on the image of the park in the
public eye.
•Tools and equipment are always seen clean, tidy and well-maintained, will
cause people to think positively about the park and management.
•New projects should be supported. So innovation and diversity will be
continuous, and the creation of new financial resources come into prominence.
•People can be encouraged to make donations by advertising and publicity. In
addition to this, participation in the volunteer programs it can be promoted.
4.6.Personnel Management
Personnel management is one of the primary factors in the success of the park's
management. In this regard the most important issue to be considered is to allocate
sufficient and qualified personnel in all parts of the park. Tools, equipment and
vehicles necessary for personnel, should be provided wholly.
All staff’s working hours should be scheduled by supervisors, and should be
performed monitoring continuously. Otherwise, this lack or improper functioning will
distort the overall structure of the park. Park will negatively affect in the number of
users. Park personnel structure generally can be divided into three classes as
management unit, logistics unit and application unit. Management unit involves
general manager, board members, directors and chiefs. Logistics unit includes
planners, finance manager, designer-landscape architect, personnel manager, and
public relations manager. In the application unit, employees whom work in the field of
operation of the program and planting-structural applications exist (Kraus & Curtis,
1982).
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