Food Chemistry 121 (2010) 112–118

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Food Chemistry
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/foodchem

Peeling, drying temperatures, and sulphite-treatment affect physicochemical

properties and nutritional quality of sweet potato flour
Maruf Ahmed, Mst. Sorifa Akter, Jong-Bang Eun *
Department of Food Science and Technology, Institute of Agricultural Science and Technology, Chonnam National University, Gwangju, South Korea

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The effects of peeling, drying temperature (55–65 °C) and pretreatment on the physicochemical proper-
Received 31 March 2009 ties and nutritional quality of sweet potato flour were investigated. The flours were prepared from peeled
Received in revised form 27 November 2009 and unpeeled sweet potatoes dipped in 0.5% sodium hydrogen sulphite (NaHSO3). There were significant
Accepted 3 December 2009
differences (p < 0.05) in DE values and browning index between flours from peeled and unpeeled sweet
potatoes without sulphite-treatment (PF and UF). On the other hand, flours from peeled and unpeeled
sweet potatoes with sulphite-treatment (PSF and USF) had higher L*, a*, and b* values, swelling capacity,
Keywords:
ascorbic acid, and total phenolics than PF and UF. However, USF and UF had higher b-carotene content
Sweet potato
Drying
than PSF and PF. b-Carotene and ascorbic acid contents decreased with increasing drying temperature
Peeled for all flours, whereas total phenolics increased for PSF and USF. Therefore, the best quality product
Unpeeled was obtained when samples were pretreated with sulphite before drying at any temperature.
Pretreatment Ó 2009 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction ation caused by the oxidase reaction of polyphenol groups by en-

zymes; the second is the non-enzymatic browning (at high
Sweet potatoes (Ipomoea batatas Lam) are highly nutritious veg- temperatures) that results when reducing sugars condense with
etables that are rich in calories and biologically active phytochemi- amino groups (Utomo, Cheman, Rahman, & Saad, 2005). Several
cals such as b-carotene, polyphenols, ascorbic acid and dietary methods have been developed to eliminate enzymatic discolour-
fibre (Van Hal, 2000). Sweet potatoes are highly perishable and dif- ation. Hoover and Miller (1973) used sodium acid pyrophosphate
ficult to store. In developing countries, there are many problems blanch treatment to eliminate browning. Olorunda and Kitson
related to storage and transport of the raw sweet potatoes. Dehy- (1977) eliminated discolouration in chips prepared from white
drated sweet potato can be used for various baked products such flesh potatoes by dipping them in sodium sulphite.
as pancakes, cakes, flat breads, cookies, fritters, or bread to partially Sweet potato roots can be processed into products, such as
replace wheat flour and as an alternative market outlet for farmers cookies, biscuits, muffins, noodles, breakfast foods and pies, with
selling the raw sweet potatoes (Van Hal, 2000). Dehydrated sweet longer shelf-life, and improved characteristics. Sweet potatoes
potato has commonly been obtained by hot-air drying, which al- can also be processed into flour, which is less bulky and more
lows rapid and massive processing, although it greatly affects the stable than the highly perishable fresh root. This flour can be
sensory and nutritional characteristics of the end product. To re- used as a thickener in soup, gravy, fabricated snacks, and bakery
duce the drying time and to retain the quality of fruits and vegeta- products. It can also serve as a substitute for cereal flours, espe-
bles, various pretreatment methods (chemical, thermal and cially for individuals diagnosed with celiac disease (Caperuto,
physical) have been investigated (Akyildiz, Aksay, Benli, Kiroglu, Amaya-Farfan, & Camargo, 2000). Sweet potato flour can also
& Fenercioglu, 2004; Dewanto, Wu, Adom, & Liu, 2002). be used to enhance food products through colour, flavour, natural
Sweet potatoes are cheaper than other crops as a starch source, sweetness, and supplemented nutrients. In product development,
yet this abundant resource is still not properly utilised. The prepa- the final quality of the product is highly dependent on the qual-
ration of sweet potato foods has several drawbacks. Discolouration ity of the raw ingredients used. If sweet potato flour is to be
is a major problem in the quality of the products and arises from incorporated into products, it must be high quality. Therefore,
two different sources. The first is the formation of brown discolour- the objective of the present investigation was to study the effects
of peeling, drying temperature, and pretreatment on the quality
* Corresponding author. Address: Department of Food Science and Technology,
parameters such as physicochemical properties, colour, nutrient
Chonnam National University, 77 Yongbong-ro Buk-gu, Gwangju 500-757, South retention, browning index, and granular characteristics of sweet
Korea. Tel.: +82 62 530 0255; fax: 82 62 530 2149. potato flour.
E-mail address: jbeun@jnu.ac.kr (J.-B. Eun).

0308-8146/$ - see front matter Ó 2009 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.foodchem.2009.12.015
 M. Ahmed et al. / Food Chemistry 121 (2010) 112–118 113

2. Materials and methods was extracted with 40 mL of distilled water and 10 mL of 10% tri-
chloroacetic acid solution in a beaker. The extract was filtered
2.1. Raw material through a Buchner funnel with Whatman No. 2 filter paper. After
the solution stood for 2 h at room temperature, its concentration
Sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas Lam cv. Sinhwangmi) was pur- was determined from absorbance readings at 420 nm (UV-1201,
chased from a local farm. Roots were washed with tap water to re- Shimadzu, Kyoto, Japan).
move dirt and soil, and after drying its surface, the washed sweet
potato was stored at 14 °C for 15 days without curing.
2.8. Water solubility index (WSI) and water absorption index (WAI)
2.2. Sample preparation and treatment
WSI and WAI were determined according to the method de-
scribed by Anderson (1982). Two and a half grams of sweet potato
Sweet potato roots were divided into two groups. In the first
flour and 30 mL of water were vigorously mixed in a 50-mL centri-
group, sweet potatoes were peeled with a hand peeler (Han Sung
fuge tube; the mixture was incubated in a water bath at 30 °C for
27 stainless Gwangju, Korea). Peeled samples were kept in tap
30 min and centrifuged at 2090g for 15 min. The supernatant
water to prevent enzymatic darkening. Peeled and unpeeled sam-
was collected in a pre-weighed Petri dish and the residue was
ples were then cut into slices (1 mm thickness) using a slicing ma-
weighed after oven-drying overnight at 105 °C. The amount of sol-
chine (HFS 350G, Fujee, Korea). For the second group, peeled and
ids in the dried supernatant as a percentage of the total dry solids
unpeeled slices were dipped in aqueous 0.5% (w/v) sodium hydro-
in the original 2.5 g sample was an indicator of water solubility in-
gen sulphite (NaHSO3) at room temperature for 2 min.
dex. WAI was calculated as the mass of the solid pellet remaining
after centrifugation divided by the mass of dry sample.
2.3. Preparation of sweet potato flour

The slices were dried using a convection drying oven (Dasol Sci- 2.9. Swelling capacity (SWC)
entific Co. Ltd., Seoul, Korea) at different temperatures 55, 60, and
65 °C for 7–8 h. The flour (moisture content 6–7%) was obtained by Swelling capacity was determined according to Lai and Cheng
milling the dried slices using a blender (FM-681C, Hanil, Gwangju, (2004) using the equation
Korea), and sieved through an 80-mesh (Chung gye sang gongsa, SWC = weight of sediment/[dry weight of sample  (1 ws%/
Seoul, Korea) screen to obtain sweet potato flour. 100)].

2.4. Proximate composition of sweet potato flour

2.10. Determination of total phenolics
Moisture, crude protein, fat, ash, and crude fibre content of
flours were determined by official methods (AOAC, 1998). The total Total phenolics in the sweet potato flours were determined
sugar content of the samples was determined using the phenol– with Folin–Ciocalteu reagent according to a slightly modified
sulphuric acid method (Dubois, Gilles, Hamilton, Rebers, & Smith, method described by Swain and Hills (1959). The sample (0.1 g)
1956). Total starch content was determined using Megazyme assay was extracted 3 times with 20 mL of 75% methanol and filtered
Kits (Megazyme Int., Wicklow, Ireland). Carbohydrate was ex- through Whatman No. 2 filter paper. Extracts were combined
pressed as the difference from moisture, protein, fat, and ash. and concentrated in a rotary vacuum evaporator (Rikakikai Co.
Ltd., Tokyo, Japan) at 40 °C; the volume was adjusted to 20 mL with
75% methanol. One millilitre of extract, 5 mL of distilled water and
2.5. Determination of b-carotene
2 mL of 10% Folin–Ciocalteau reagent were added into a Falcon
tube. After 3 min at room temperature, 2 mL of 7.5% Na2CO3 solu-
Total carotene content was determined using the modified
tion were added and the sample was diluted to 20 mL with dis-
method of Park (1987). Dehydrated sweet potato flour (0.5 g)
tilled water. Each sample was allowed to stand for 1 h at room
was extracted with a mixture of hexane and acetone (7:3,
temperature and absorbance measured at 760 nm (UV-1201, Shi-
25 mL). The extracts were filtered through a Buchner funnel with
madzu, Kyoto, Japan). Total phenolics were calculated on the basis
Whatman No. 1 filter paper. The residue was re-extracted until it
of standard curves of gallic acid, and expressed as mg gallic acid
became colourless. The filtrates were combined in a separatory
equivalents per 100 g of sample on a wet weight basis.
funnel and washed with 50 mL of distilled water. The water phase
was discarded and a pinch of Na2SO4 was added as desiccant. The
hexane phase was transferred to a volumetric flask. The concentra- 2.11. Determination of ascorbic acid content
tion of carotene in the solution was determined from the absor-
bance at 450 nm (UV-1201, Shimadzu, Kyoto, Japan). The b- Ascorbic acid was determined according to a slight modification
carotene content was determined from the standard curve for pre- of the method described by Doner and Hickts (1981). Sweet potato
pared b-carotene. flour (2 g) was mixed with 10 mL of 5% metaphosphoric acid solu-
tion, and extracted by vortexing at room temperature for 1 min.
2.6. Hunter colour values The mixture was centrifuged for 15 min at 2090g and the super-
natant was filtered using a 0.45-lm PVDF syringe filter; 20 lL of
The colour attributes (Hunter L*, a*, and b* values) were mea- this sample were injected onto the liquid chromatograph. Vitamin
sured with a spectrophotometer (CM-3500d, Minolta, Japan). Col- C was separated on an ODS C18 column (4.6  250 mm, YMC Inc.,
our change was calculated as DE = [(DL*)2 + (Da*)2 + (Db*)2]1/2 Kyoto, Japan) using a mobile phase of acetonitrile: 0.005 M KH2PO4
(60:40 v/v) (A) and 100% HPLC water (B) at a flow rate of
2.7. Browning index 1 mL min 1. A UV detector (Jasco UV-975, Kyoto, Japan) was used
and the detection wavelength was 254 nm. Vitamin C content
Browning index was determined using the method described by was calculated by comparing the peak area at 254 nm with those
Youn and Choi (1996). One gram of dehydrated sweet potato flour of standard solutions and expressed as milligrams per 100 g.
114 M. Ahmed et al. / Food Chemistry 121 (2010) 112–118

2.12. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) ged from 3.00 to 3.57 g/100 g. This observation was similar to
those of Van Hal (2000). Carbohydrate, total dietary fibre, and
Slices and flour granule morphology were examined by scan- starch content of sweet potato flour ranged from 83.89% to
ning electron microscopy. A sample was mounted on the alumin- 85.90%, 5.26% to 7.14% and 64.81% to 65.81%, respectively, which
ium specimen holder with double-sided tape. The specimen are consistent with Van Hal (2000). No differences were found in
holder was loaded in an Emitech K550 sputter coater (Emitech, the carbohydrate, total dietary fibre, and starch content of all sam-
Ashford, UK). The sample was coated with gold palladium, at thick- ples at different drying temperatures.
ness of about 15 nm and viewed under scanning electron micros-
copy (S-2400 Hitachi, Ibaraki, Japan) operated at an accelerating 3.2. Hunter colour values
voltage of 10 kV.
The Hunter colour parameters L*, a*, b*, and DT, have been
2.13. Statistical analysis widely used to describe colour changes during dehydration of fruit
and vegetable products. L*, a*, b*, and DT values of peeled and un-
All measurements were performed in triplicate for each sample. peeled sweet potato flours were measured following pretreatment
Data were analysed using statistical software (SPSS for Windows and different drying temperatures (Table 2). PF had higher L* val-
Version 14.0). Two-way ANOVA was carried out to determine the ues than UF. Usually peel is the brown and dull colour, so peel is
overall effect of treated, untreated and drying temperatures and the main factor that contributes to these differences. On the other
interaction (treated  untreated  drying temperatures) on each hand, PSF and USF had significantly higher lightness than PF and
of the assays. Individual effects and interactions between the fac- UF. This could be due to the retarding of enzymatic and non-enzy-
tors have been calculated. Significant differences between the matic reactions. Sulphite is a good colour preservative of fruits and
means were estimated using Duncan’s multiple range tests. Differ- vegetables, as it retards both enzymatic and non-enzymatic reac-
ences were considered significant at p < 0.05. tions (Yongjie & Meiping, 2005). Hunter L* values decreased with
increasing drying temperature for all flours. The decrease might
3. Results and discussion be due to changes in carotenoids, caramelisation, oxidation, or
phenol action (Michael & Wilson, 1997). Hunter a* and b* values
3.1. Proximate composition of sweet potato flour were higher in PSF and USF than in PF and UF. At different drying
temperatures, a*, and b* values were higher at 65°C than at 55°C
Proximate composition of peeled and unpeeled sweet potato for all flours except PSF. The changes in a* and b* values may be
flour prepared with sulphite pretreatment and different drying due to the influence of the peel on the colour of these products.
temperatures are shown in Table 1. Moisture, ash, (on dry basis), The flour colours can best be described by the change in DT values.
and fat contents of sweet potato flour ranged from 6.18% to PSF and USF had higher DT values than PF and UF. DT values de-
8.67%, 3.41% to 3.91%, and 0.59% to 1.29%, respectively, which were creased with increasing drying temperatures for all flours. Still,
similar to those reported by Van Hal (2000). Moisture contents of PSF was not significantly different at a higher drying temperature.
flours from peeled and unpeeled sweet potatoes without sulph- The lower DT values may be due to loss, oxidation or isomerization
ite-treatment (PF and UF) and from peeled and unpeeled sweet of carotenoids, caramelisation or enzyme action (Michael & Wil-
potatoes with sulphite-treatment (PSF and USF) were similar to son, 1997).
each other. USF and UF had higher ash content (on dry basis) than
PSF and PF. The higher values may be due to the higher solids in 3.3. Browning index
unpeeled samples compared to the peeled samples. There were
no significant differences in fat, ash (on dry basis), protein, and to- Table 3 shows the effects of pretreatment and different drying
tal sugar contents of all samples at different drying temperatures. temperatures on browning index of sweet potato flours. PSF had
Fat content decreased with increasing drying temperature for all lower browning index than PF. On the other hand, USF and UF val-
flours. This might be due to oxidation of fat content. The protein ues were not significantly different. The browning inhibition by
content in sweet potato flour is generally low, ranging from 1.0% sulphite is caused by the reaction between sulphite ions and qui-
to 8.5% (Van Hal, 2000). In this study, protein content ranged from nines, inhibition of PPO activity, and depletion of oxygen (Sapers,
3.28% to 3.69%. The total sugar content of sweet potato flour ran- Cook, Heidel, Martin, & Miller, 1997). All flours had higher brown-

Table 1
Effect of pretreatment and drying temperatures on proximate analysis of peeled and unpeeled sweet potato flours.

Parameter Drying temperature (°C)

55 60 65
PF1 PSF2 UF3 USF4 PF1 PSF2 UF3 USF4 PF1 PSF2 UF3 USF4
B b B ab B ab A a A b A c A a A ab A a B c A b A
Moisture (%) 8.67 7.99 7.69 7.01 6.98 7.47 6.45 7.17 6.18 7.77 6.82 7.14b
A
Ash (%) 3.45c A
3.59b A
3.91a A
3.61a A
3.64d A
3.53a A
3.77c A
3.57b A
3.41c A
3.53b A
3.59a A
3.55a
A
Protein (%) 3.48a A
3.61a A
3.51a A
3.51a A
3.59a A
3.69a A
3.32a A
3.28a A
3.47a A
3.60a A
3.41a A
3.50a
B
Fat (%) 1.27a B
0.87a B
1.29a A
0.95a AB
0.86a AB
0.74a AB
0.80a A
0.99a A
0.59a A
0.60a A
0.60a A
0.90b
A
Total sugar (g/100 g) 3.00a A
3.14a A
3.26a A
3.48a A
3.39a A
3.41a A
3.29a A
3.39a A
3.49a A
3.29a A
3.57a A
3.30a
A
Carbohydrate (%) 83.94a A
84.53a A
84.88a A
84.87a A
85.18d A
83.89a A
85.90bc A
84.30ab A
85.82c A
84.06a A
84.96b A
84.24ab
A
Total dietary fibre (%) 5.26a A
5.96b A
5.60ab A
6.95c A
5.95a A
6.97a A
6.54a A
7.14a AB
5.38a AB
6.45ab A
5.57ab A
6.57b
A
Starch content (%) 65.31a A
64.81a A
64.87a A
65.37a A
64.81a A
65.31a A
65.50a A
64.81a A
65.31a A
65.81a A
65.81a A
64.81a

Means followed by different lowercase letters in each row are significantly different among flour samples (p < 0.05).
Means followed by different uppercase letters in each row are significantly different among drying temperatures (p < 0.05).
All data, except ash expressed in wet weight basis.
1
PF: Flour from peeled sweet potatoes without sulphite-treatment.
2
PSF: Flour from peeled sulphite-treated sweet potatoes.
3
UF: Flour from unpeeled sweet potatoes without sulphite-treatment.
4
USF: Flour from unpeeled sulphite-treated sweet potatoes.
 M. Ahmed et al. / Food Chemistry 121 (2010) 112–118 115

Table 2
Effect of pretreatment and drying temperatures on Hunter colour values of peeled and unpeeled sweet potato flours.

Hunter colour values Drying temperature (°C)

55 60 65
PF1 PSF2 UF3 USF4 PF1 PSF2 UF3 USF4 PF1 PSF2 UF3 USF4
C c B d B a C b B c B d B a B b A a A d A a A
L* 85.84 88.16 82.58 84.44 84.91 88.09 82.80 83.53 82.51 87.56 80.68 82.83c
A
a* 2.42a C
3.18c B
2.48b A
2.75b A
2.37b A
2.83c A
2.26a B
2.91d B
2.88a B
2.92a C
2.94a C
3.07b
A
b* 25.49b A
26.72c B
23.23a A
23.25a A
25.68c A
26.70d A
22.12a A
23.31b A
25.95b A
26.48b C
24.09a A
24.27a
C
DT 89.57c AB
91.97d B
85.82a B
87.62b B
88.73c B
92.08d B
85.73a A
86.77b A
86.54b A
91.50c A
84.26a A
86.37b

Means followed by different lowercase letters in each row are significantly different among flour samples (p < 0.05).
Means followed by different uppercase letters in each row are significantly different among drying temperatures (p < 0.05).
1
PF: Flour from peeled sweet potatoes without sulphite-treatment.
2
PSF: Flour from peeled sulphite-treated sweet potatoes.
3
UF: Flour from unpeeled sweet potatoes without sulphite-treatment.
4
USF: Flour from unpeeled sulphite-treated sweet potatoes.

Table 3
Effect of pretreatment and drying temperatures on water absorption index, water solubility index, swelling capacity, and browning index of peeled and unpeeled sweet potato
flours.

Parameter Drying temperature (°C)

55 60 65
PF1 PSF2 UF3 USF4 PF1 PSF2 UF3 USF4 PF1 PSF2 UF3 USF4
A a B b A a AB b AB a A bc B b A c B a AB b AB a B
WAI 2.18 2.53 2.19 2.52 2.21 2.39 2.32 2.44 2.27 2.54 2.28 2.61c
A
WSI (%) 23.37b B
23.35b A
25.37c A
22.40a B
25.75c A
23.20a B
25.53c B
24.68b B
27.23b C
25.87ab C
27.17b B
25.06a
A
SWC 2.85a B
3.31b A
2.94a A
3.27b AB
2.99a A
3.12b AB
3.05ab A
3.24c B
3.13a B
3.36b B
3.14a B
3.49b
B
Browning index 0.38b A
0.34a C
0.43c B
0.42c C
0.38b B
0.33a B
0.42c B
0.40c A
0.31b B
0.29b A
0.24a A
0.23a

Means followed by different lowercase letters in each row are significantly different among flour samples (p < 0.05).
Means followed by different uppercase letters in each row are significantly different among drying temperatures (p < 0.05).
All data, expressed in wet weight basis.
1
PF: Flour from peeled sweet potatoes without sulphite-treatment.
2
PSF: Flour from peeled sulphite-treated sweet potatoes.
3
UF: Flour from unpeeled sweet potatoes without sulphite-treatment.
4
USF: Flour from unpeeled sulphite-treated sweet potatoes.

ing index at 55 °C and decreased with increasing drying tempera- PF and UF at different drying temperatures. PF and UF had lower
tures. Decrease in browning index may be explained by inactiva- WAI at 55 °C; WAI increased with increasing drying temperature.
tion of PPO. Elevated temperatures have been reported to On the other hand, PSF and USF had lower WAI at 60 °C compared
deactivate PPO (Akyildiz & Ocal, 2006). Moreover, the browning in- to that at 55 °C; WAI then increased with increasing drying tem-
dex of PF and UF highly correlated with the phenolic content com- perature. The variation in WAI could be due to differences in the
pared with that of PSF and USF (data not shown). Browning degree of engagement of hydroxyl groups to form hydrogen and
appears to be a complex process involving several factors including covalent bonds between starch chains. The increase in water
substrate levels, enzymatic activity, presence of ascorbic acid, and absorption index has always been associated with the loss of starch
other inhibitors or promoters influencing the browning reaction, in crystalline structure (Gunaratne & Hoover, 2002).
addition to tissue damage (Zhang, Tan, McKay, & Yan, 2005). PSF and USF had lower WSI than PF and UF. All samples had
lower WSI at 55 °C, except PSF; WSI was lower at 60 °C and in-
3.4. Water absorption index (WAI), Water solubility index (WSI), and creased with increasing drying temperature. According to Eliasson
Swelling capacity (SWC) and Gudmundsson (1996), the low solubility at low temperature
could be attributed to the semi-crystalline structure of the starch
Water absorption index, water solubility index, and swelling granules and the hydrogen bonds formed between hydrogen
capacity are shown in Table 3. PSF and USF had higher WAI than groups in the starch molecules. As the temperature increased, the

Table 4
Effect of pretreatment and drying temperatures on b-carotene, total phenolic, and ascorbic acid contents of peeled and unpeeled sweet potato flours.

Parameter (mg/100 g) Drying temperature (°C)

55 60 65
PF1 PSF2 UF3 USF4 PF1 PSF2 UF3 USF4 PF1 PSF2 UF3 USF4
C a B a C a B a C a B a C a B a B a A a B b A
b-carotene 3.43 3.47 3.57 3.79 3.43 3.47 3.57 3.79 2.68 2.73 2.95 2.95b
A
Total phenolic 4.19a A
4.70b C
6.13c A
6.50d A
4.59a B
5.72c B
5.43b C
7.74d A
4.03a A
4.81a A
4.23a B
7.22b
C
Ascorbic acid 19.06a B
22.70ab C
21.51ab B
24.41b A
16.11a AB
19.43c B
17.92b AB
21.24d A
14.84a A
18.15b A
15.74a A
19.34b

Means followed by different lowercase letters in each row are significantly different among flour samples (p < 0.05).
Means followed by different uppercase letters in each row are significantly different among drying temperatures (p < 0.05).
All data, expressed in wet weight basis.
1
PF: Flour from peeled sweet potatoes without sulphite-treatment.
2
PSF: Flour from peeled sulphite-treated sweet potatoes.
3
UF: Flour from unpeeled sweet potatoes without sulphite-treatment.
4
USF: Flour from unpeeled sulphite-treated sweet potatoes.
116 M. Ahmed et al. / Food Chemistry 121 (2010) 112–118

solubility increased due to the disruption of starch granules and 3.5. b-Carotene content
exposure of hydrophilic groups.
SWC was higher in PSF and USF than in PF and UF. Swelling The b-carotene content in sweet potato can vary depending
capacity of PF and UF was lower at 55 °C and increased with on cultivars, harvesting conditions, and maturity (Van Hal,
increasing drying temperature. On the other hand, PSF and USF 2000). b-Carotene contents of peeled and unpeeled sweet potato
had lower SWC at 60 °C than at 55 °C; SWC then increased with flour obtained following pretreatment and at different drying
increasing drying temperature. Low swelling capacity is caused temperatures are shown in Table 4. The b-carotene content in
by the presence of a large number of crystallites, which increase sweet potato flours ranged from 2.68 to 3.79 mg/100 g wet
granular stability, thereby reducing the extent of granular swelling. weight basis or 2.85 to 4.08 dry weight basis. This value was
When starch is gelatinized at a certain temperature, the molecular consistent with previous measurements of 0.5–45 mg/100 g dry
organisation is disrupted within the granules and the starch–water weight basis of b-carotene in field-grown sweet potatoes of se-
interactions increase, resulting in a substantial increase in the lected cultivars (Grabowski, Truong, & Daubert, 2007). However,
swelling (Eliasson & Gudmundsson, 1996; Gunaratne & Hoover, presently, the values of b-carotene for all flour samples were
2002). lower than those previously reported by Grabowski et al.

Fig. 1. Scanning electronic microstructure of sweet potato slices manufactured with pretreatment at different drying temperatures. a, b and c: Peeled and dried at 55, 60, and
65 °C; d, e, f: Peeled and dried at 55, 60, and 65 °C after treatment with NaHSO3 solution. g, h, i: Unpeeled and dried at 55, 60, and 65 °C respectively; j, k, l: Unpeeled and dried
at 55, 60, and 65 °C after treatment with NaHSO3 solution.
 M. Ahmed et al. / Food Chemistry 121 (2010) 112–118 117

(2007). This may be due to the use of different operating tal phenolic content than PF. Peels are known to be high in pheno-
conditions and variety of sweet potato. b-Carotene content is lic content (Mondy & Gosselin, 1988), thus the higher phenolic
highly variable in sweet potato flour due to cultivars or content of the UF was due to the skin of the sweet potatoes. On
processing method (Van Hal, 2000). b-Carotene contents of PSF, the other hand, PSF and USF had higher phenolic content than PF
PF, USF, and UF were not significantly different. For all and UF. One possible explanation for this difference is interference
flours, b-carotene content decreased with increasing drying of sulphur with the phenolic compounds during analysis (Akyildiz
temperatures. et al., 2004). Shahidi and Wanasundara (1992) proposed that the
major losses of phenolics during processing occur through the ac-
3.6. Total phenolic content tion of oxidative enzymes such as polyphenoloxidase and peroxi-
dases. Total phenolic content decreased at a higher drying
The total phenolic content of sweet potato flours ranged from temperature for PF and UF whereas it increased for PSF and USF.
4.03 to 7.74 mg/100 g wet weight basis or 4.29 to 8.33 mg/100 g In this case, total phenolic content could increase due to inactiva-
dry weight basis (Table 4). The phenolic contents of the flour were tion of polyphenol oxidase. However, total phenolic content of PSF
comparable to that of raw sweet potato flour (4.79–6.42 mg/100 g and PF were not significantly different at higher drying
dry weight basis) (Huang, Chang, & Shao, 2006). UF had higher to- temperature.

Fig. 2. Scanning electronic microstructure of sweet potato flours manufactured with pretreatment at different drying temperatures. a, b and c: Peeled flours dried at 55, 60,
and 65 °C; d, e, f: Peeled flours dried at 55, 60, and 65 °C after treatment with NaHSO3 solution. g, h, i: Unpeeled flours dried at 55, 60, and 65 °C respectively; j, k, l: Unpeeled
flours dried at 55, 60, and 65 °C after treatment with NaHSO3 solution.
118 M. Ahmed et al. / Food Chemistry 121 (2010) 112–118

3.7. Ascorbic acid content References

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