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Advances in Electrical and Computer Engineering Volume 14, Number 3, 2014

A New Method of Improving Transformer

Restricted Earth Fault Protection
Jelisaveta P. KRSTIVOJEVIC, Milenko B. DJURIĆ
University of Belgrade - Faculty of Electrical Engineering,
Bulevar kralja Aleksandra 73, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia
j.krstivojevic@etf.rs, mdjuric@etf.rs

1
Abstract—A new method of avoiding malfunctioning of the is the fact that the CTs characteristics and ratios for the
transformer restricted earth fault (REF) protection is phase and neutral CTs do not have to be the same. However,
presented. Application of the proposed method would eliminate if saturation of the CT is present during external faults or
unnecessary operation of REF protection in the cases of faults
during magnetizing inrush this relay is prone to unnecessary
outside protected zone of a transformer or a magnetizing
inrush accompanied by current transformer (CT) saturation. operation. Operation of this relay can be improved by using
On the basis of laboratory measurements and simulations the harmonic based methods [6], [7], directional supervision [6],
paper presents a detailed performance assessment of the [8], or adaptive restraint current method [9], [10].
proposed method which is based on digital phase comparator. This paper presents a new method founded on application
The obtained results show that the new method was stable and of directional function which is based on a digital phase
precise for all tested faults and that its application would allow
comparator [11], whose application could improve REF
making a clear and precise difference between an internal fault
and: (i) external fault or (ii) magnetizing inrush. The proposed protection. For the purpose of testing and verification of the
method would improve performance of REF protection and proposed method, a series of experiments and simulations
reduce probability of maloperation due to CT saturation. The has been carried out. In this way the signals suitable for
new method is robust and characterized by high speed of testing operation of the proposed algorithm have been
operation and high reliability and security. obtained.
It has been established in practice that a CT will not enter
Index Terms—power transformer, power system protection,
fault discrimination, digital phase comparator, current
saturation immediately upon a fault has occurred [12], [13].
transformer saturation. The new method can recognize external fault or magnetizing
inrush within the first semi-period and thus prevent
I. INTRODUCTION unnecessary operation of the protection. The new method is
stable and reliable since it makes use of the parameters
At present, one of the most frequently met methods of
calculated within time interval equal to one half of the signal
protection of power transformers against internal faults is
period. Also, the new algorithm is simple and offers
phase differential protection. In operation, in many cases it
significant improvements when applied in REF protection.
provides satisfactory level of reliability and safety.
However, phase differential protection is not sufficiently
II. DIRECTIONAL FUNCTION BASED ON DIGITAL PHASE
sensitive for detecting an internal phase-to-ground fault if
COMPARATOR
the fault is located near the neutral point of the transformer
or if the ground-fault current is limited [1]. In this paper the method of integration of the product of
The restricted earth fault (REF) protection is used as an two signals within one basic semi-period of the signals is
additional protection method in order to overcome the used as a digital comparator. This method has been
mentioned problem [2-5]. The REF relay operates for phase- proposed and applied in [11], [14], [15]. In order to speed up
to-ground faults of a grounded winding and also of the delta the rate of convergence of the process of calculation of the
winding if a grounding transformer is installed between the value of normalized integral, the method of its calculation
delta winding and the current transformers (CTs) [6]. has been modified.
At an external fault or magnetizing inrush in the case of Digital phase comparison of the two signals (is1) and (is2)
saturation of the current transformers a differential current is carried out by using formula:
may appear and cause unnecessary operation of the ground 2 t T 2
I s1 s 2  is1 (t )  is 2 (t )dt . (1)
differential protection. Historically, because of equipment T t
and technology limitations, only high-impedance REF relay
Expression (1) represented in discrete form becomes:
was available. This relay has certain level of immunity to
CT saturation during external faults. However, the use of 2m2
I s1 s 2   is1 ( n )  is 2 ( n ) , (2)
this relay requires that: number of turns ratios of the phase m n 1
and neutral CTs must be the same, saturation characteristics where: m – even number of samples within signal period;
of the CTs should be the same, and also CTs should have Is1-s2 – integral of the product of the two signals over one
closely similar and high knee-point voltage [6]. Today, half period; is1(n) – n-th sample of the signal is1; and is2(n) –
numerical low-impedance REF relays are widely used. A n-th sample of the signal is2.
very important advantage of low-impedance REF protection Fig. 1(a) shows waveforms of two harmonic signals in
phase, while Fig. 1(b) shows the case when they are phase

Digital Object Identifier 10.4316/AECE.2014.03005

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Advances in Electrical and Computer Engineering Volume 14, Number 3, 2014

shifted by 180o. In the first example integral Is1-s2 is positive.

When the signals are in counter phase, this integral Is1-s2 is
negative.
Sign of the integral of the product of two signals
calculated over one half period is dependent upon phase
shift between the signals. If the phase shift is in the range
 90    90 integral of the product of the two signals is
positive, whereas if it is in the range 90    270 this
integral is negative.
Numerical value of expression (2) is dependent upon both
mutual phase shift and rms values of the signals. The
integral has maximum value when the signals are in phase
or counter phase. When talking about value of the integral of
the product of two signals, one should bear in mind that it
can be equal to zero if the phase shift between the signals
being compared is 90o or -90o, or one of the signals is zero.
When currents is1 and is2 are harmonic, expression (2)
divided by the rms values of these currents gives cosine of
the angle which represents the mutual phase shift. For Figure 1. Waveforms of two harmonic signals and the integral of the
product of these signals over time interval T/2: (a) in phase and b) phase
calculation of rms values of currents is1 and is2 it is suitable shifted by 180o
to use some of the methods which calculate the rms signal
value over interval equal to half period of the signals. It has
been observed that the results obtained by applying the
expressions (3) and (4) are quite good. In favour of the
application of these expressions are the speed of response
and convergence of the indicators used for the phase
comparison.
2m2
I s1 _ ind   is1 (n )  is1 (n ) , (3)
m n 1
2m2
I s 2 _ ind  is 2 (n )  is 2 (n ) . (4)
m n 1
Index which will serve for the phase comparison
represents normalized value of expression (2), i.e.
I s1 s 2
Directional index  I s1 s 2 ( p.u.)  . (5) Figure 2 (a) Indicators of the rms signal values; and directional index when
I s1 _ ind  I s 2 _ ind the signals are (b) in phase and (c) in counter phase
Fig. 2 shows the indicators of rms values of the signals
CT could saturate due to decaying dc component, high
from Fig. 1 obtained by expressions (3) and (4) and
current magnitude, remanent flux or combinations thereof.
normalized values of the integral obtained by expression (5).
The neutral CT is often underrated what additionally may
complicate the problem [7].
III. THE NEW METHOD OF AVOIDING MALFUNCTIONING OF
Also malfunction of REF protection and unnecessary
REF PROTECTION
relay tripping may be caused by CT saturation during
Fig. 3 shows a typical scheme of the ground fault transformer energization. The waveshape, magnitude and
protection of an YNd-connected transformer. At a ground duration of the transformer magnetizing inrush current are
faults outside transformer (F1) and within transformer (F2) dependent on several factors, among them are the remanent
directions of the zero sequence currents through CT1 are the flux and initial phase of the voltage at the instant of switch-
same, but directions of the sums of the phase currents on [13],[16]. Magnetizing inrush current contains a high
through Fsum1 are opposite for the two mentioned faults.
Therefore, directional function can distinguish fault within a
transformer from faults outside the transformer. The same
applies for faults F3 and F4 at the delta-connected side.
If we observe differential REF protection, at a ground
fault outside transformer F1, at the side of wye-connected
transformer winding, sum of the phase currents through
filter Fsum1 is equal to the current through current
transformer CT1, i.e. the differential current is small. At an
external fault, in the case of saturation of the CT the
differential current may cause unnecessary relay tripping.
Figure 3. Ground fault protection of YNd-connected transformer

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Advances in Electrical and Computer Engineering Volume 14, Number 3, 2014

level of harmonics and a decaying dc component. Owing to - I0-G - rms indicator for (i0-G), and
a slowly decaying dc component, a CT may easily go into - IDI (pu) -directional index.
deep saturation. Step 3:
In order to improve operation of REF protection during  Checking whether the value of indicator (I0-G) is greater
external faults or transformer energization accompanied by than the threshold value. The next step is undertaken if
CT saturation, different directional supervision methods, the following condition is fulfilled:
combined with a blockade due to the presence of higher I 0-G  I TH . (8)
harmonics, are being in use [6], [8]. Security against Otherwise go to step 1.
unnecessary operation during transformer energization is  Condition (8) provides security as regards saturation of
provided by monitoring level of the second harmonic of the CT caused by external faults not involving contact with
current in the transformer neutral and if it is above a pre- the ground, i. e. phase-to-phase and three-phase faults.
adjusted value, the REF element is disabled. However, the
 It is known that current will flow through the
methods based on the second harmonic blocking have an
transformer neutral in the case of a ground fault,
undesired property in that they introduce a delay in
therefore it is suitable to introduce a condition ensuring
operation of the protection, thus the protected element could
operation of REF protection only if current in the
be exposed to a fault for an unnecessarily long time. Also, in
neutral conductor exceeds a threshold value.
some transformer winding faults, level of the second
 The threshold value is selected to be higher than the
harmonic may be high [17],[18], therefore in these cases the
zero current due to the load, CT mismatch, or any other
relay would be unnecessarily blocked. It has been noted that
imbalance.
inrush currents of new generation transformers, having cores
Step 4:
made of low-loss amorphous materials, contain considerably
 Checking value of the directional index.
lower levels of the second harmonic, although inrush current
amplitude could be quite high [18]. It is possible that during  For a ground fault F2 (Fig. 3) within a transformer,
transformer switch-on, the relay will not be blocked owing currents are mutually phase shifted by 180o, thus value
to a lower level of the second harmonic, and due to a high of directional index is equal to -1 pu. For ground fault
level inrush current a CT would enter deep saturation F1 outside the protected zone, currents i0-sum and i0-G are
causing REF protection to operate unnecessarily. in phase, thus value of directional index is equal to
The method to be presented serves for avoiding 1 pu.
unnecessary operation of REF relays. In all tests carried out  Fig. 4 shows one example of the tripping characteristic.
on the basis of laboratory measurements and performed The operation area can be, as required, reduced or
simulations, it was shown that the proposed method was enlarged by choosing the value of directional index
robust and suitable for application in cases of CT saturation. threshold (IDI_TH). Directional index is equal to the
The method is based on application of directional index cosine of the angle (φ) which represents the phase shift
calculated over one half period of the signal. From the point between currents i0-sum and i0-G. Also, Fig. 4 shows one
of view of safety and reliability it is suitable to use example of internal fault.
parameters calculated by using values taken from a data  Value of IDI_TH should be chosen so that there will be no
window whose length is one half of the signal period. In this undesired tripping due to heavily saturated CT.
way the influence of small or short disturbances on accuracy  In this step the tested algorithm value of IDI is compared
of the calculation is reduced. The new method does not with the threshold value IDI_TH and if the condition:
make use of higher harmonics blockade which results in a I DI  I DI _ TH (9)
high speed of making trip decision. is satisfied, it is considered that the present ground fault
The information provided to the algorithm are sampled is within the protected zone.
values of the phase currents and the ground currents. The Step 5:
new algorithm does not require amplitude conformity of the  If conditions (8) and (9) are met, it is possible that an
sum of phase currents and neutral current. internal ground fault is present and the logical output is
The method of the proposed algorithm for a transformer formed, otherwise the algorithm returns to the start.
high voltage winding is as follows:
Step 1:
 A/D conversion of the signals with a preassigned
sampling rate.
Step 2:
 Operation of the algorithm for one winding REF unit
requires calculation of the following indicators.
 First, sum of the phase currents and neutral current are
given by expressions:
i0  sum ( k )  i A ( k )  iB ( k )  iC ( k ) , (6)
i0 G ( k )  iG ( k ) . (7)
 Then, on the basis of expressions (3) - (5), calculation
of the following indicators is carried out: Figure 4. Tripping characteristic
- I0-sum - rms indicator for (i0-sum),

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Advances in Electrical and Computer Engineering Volume 14, Number 3, 2014

The algorithm steps are described for the high voltage performed by using data acquisition systems NI USB-
winding. Tripping decision is formed in the same way for 6008 and NI USB-6009.
the low voltage transformer winding. The complete flow - By applying the recorded signal samples, operation of
chart of the algorithm is shown in Fig. 5. the algorithm has been tested. The algorithm testing by
the laboratory recorded signals is presented though
cases 1, 2, and 4.
B. Simulations
Signals for testing the algorithm for ground faults inside
or outside protected zone of a three-phase YNd-connected
transformer have been generated by simulations.
Test procedures:
- A series of simulations has been carried out by using
the model corresponding to the equivalent scheme of
Fig. 3.
- Signals at secondaries CT have been generated by
PSCAD/EMTDC programing package.
- The obtained signals have been used for testing the
algorithm. The results of these tests are presented
through case 3.
C. The test cases and results
In all examples to be presented, calculated value of the
directional index is compared with the threshold value
I DI _ TH  0,707 . If condition (9) is satisfied, phase shift
Figure 5. Flow chart of the algorithm (φ) is within the following limits:
 
(i0  sum ,i0  G )   , 135    225 . In this case it is
considered that the present ground fault is within the
IV. TESTING THE ALGORITHM AND THE RESULTS
protected zone.
Performance of the algorithm has been tested by using The test cases are as follows. The first two examples
signals obtained by laboratory measurements and by the present the results obtained for the cases when a phase-to-
performed simulations. ground fault was outside and inside the protected zone of the
A. Experimental measurements transformer. Both examples are presented by two figures.
Fig. 7 and Fig. 9 show measured values of the currents of
Test studies have been carried out by using a custom-built
CT in the transformer neutral and calculated sums of the
transformer in the laboratory. The custom-built three-phase
phase currents. Fig. 8 and Fig. 10 show indices of the rms
transformer has been equipped by taps placed in the 25%,
values for the HV and LV windings, directional index
50% and 75% of high voltage winding so that internal faults
(eq.(5)), and tripping decision. Sampling frequency was
could be generated. Transformer has three-limb core and
1,2 kHz. Input DAQ NI USB 6008 was fed by the following
YNyn connected windings.
adapted signals recorded at the LV side of the transformer:
Test procedures:
1) current of phase a (CTA1), 2) current of phase b (CTB1), 3)
- A series of laboratory measurements has been carried
current of phase c (CTC1); at the HV side: 4) current of
out with the aim of obtaining signals suitable for testing
phase A (CTA2), 5) current of phase B (CTB2), 6) current of
the algorithm. Fig. 6 shows the circuit diagram used for
phase C (CTC2) and adapted currents of the neutral
these measurements.
conductors: 7) CT1 and 8) CT2
- Recording and sampling of the currents have been

Figure 6. Circuit diagram for the experimental laboratory measurements

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Advances in Electrical and Computer Engineering Volume 14, Number 3, 2014

Case 1: Ground fault outside transformer’s protected

zone.
A fault occurred at the instant corresponding to 5552
sample (Fig. 7 and Fig. 8). During measurements, CTs have
accurately reproduce currents to the secondary. It can be
noted that all indicators converge monotonously and that
convergence time of directional index towards a value
approximately equal to 1 pu is only a couple of sampling
periods (1-2 ms). As expected, in this case the condition for Figure 10(a). Internal fault: Directional indicators and trip decision for HV
relay operation is not fulfilled. side

Figure 7. External fault: Experimental results –currents i0_sum and i0_G for
HV and LV side Figure 10(b). Internal fault: Directional indicators and trip decision for LV
side

Case 3: Ground fault outside protected zone accompanied

by saturated neutral CT.
In this simulation the sampling frequency was selected to
be 2 kHz. From the figures which follow it can be noted that
due to CT saturation a zero differential current arises, i.e.
difference between the sum of phase currents and the current
of the transformer neutral becomes significant (Fig. 12).
Figure 8(a). External fault: Directional indicators and trip decision for
Differential type of REF relay could unnecessarily trip in the
HV side case of such external fault. Also, it can be noted that value
of the directional index throughout the first period of the
signal is close to 1 pu and that minimum value of this index
over the interval shown in Fig. 13 is 0.72 pu. All obtained
index values are outside the operation area and in this case a
relay based on the method presented in this paper would not
operate.

Figure 8(b). External fault: Directional indicators and trip decision for
LV side

Case 2: Ground fault at 50% of the winding of phase A. Figure 11. External fault: Simulation results – currents i0_sum and i0_G
A fault occurred at instant corresponding to 5175 sample.
During measurements, CTs did not go to saturation. It can
be noted that all indicators monotonously converge and that
directional index reaches value 0.98 pu after five sampling
periods, i.e. it enters the operation area within first 5 ms
after a fault has occurred. As expected, in this case the
condition for operation is fulfilled and the relay would trip. Figure 12. External fault: Simulation results – zero sequence differential
current

Figure 9. Internal fault: Experimental results - currents i0_sum and i0_G for
HV and LV side
Figure 13. External fault: Directional indicators and trip decision

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Advances in Electrical and Computer Engineering Volume 14, Number 3, 2014

Case 4: Magnetizing inrush accompanied by saturated

current transformer of phase A.
A three-phase transformer 5.8kV/220V, YNyn coupled, is
switched-on to voltage 3x220 V at the low voltage side with
open primary winding terminals. At the low voltage side in
phase A two different CTs are connected in series, one of
them has all the time been reproducing faithfully primary
current to the secondary, while the other has entered
saturation (Fig. 14). The sampling frequency was selected to Figure 17(a). Inrush: directional indicators and trip decision
be 5kHz. From the secondary, the following adapted signals
are fed to input DAQ NI USB 6009: 1) current of phase A,
2) current of phase A of the saturated CT, 3) current of
phase B, 4) current of phase C, and 5) current of the
transformer neutral.

Figure 17(b). Inrush accompanied with phase CT saturation: directional

indicators and trip decision
Figure 14. Inrush: Experimental results – phase A current with and without
CT saturation In all presented cases the algorithm made a clear
difference between an external and an internal ground fault
Fig. 15 shows measured currents of the transformer or magnetizing inrush. By the laboratory recorded signals it
neutral of CT and calculated sums of the phase currents in has been shown that in the regimes not accompanied by CT
the case when CT of phase A did not go to saturation and in saturation the algorithm is capable of recognizing the states:
the case when it did go to saturation. Then, from Fig. 16 it external fault, internal fault or magnetizing inrush within a
can be noted when CT entered saturation, a zero differential couple of the sampling periods. Then, by the laboratory
current appeared which may cause unnecessary operation of recorded signals and signals generated by simulation, the
the differential REF relay. From Fig. 17(a) it can be noted algorithm was tested in these regimes when saturation has
that without CT saturation, directional index reaches values occurred. The tested cases showed that the algorithm was
close to 1 pu within 5 ms. The case of CT saturation is suitable for application under these conditions and that it
accompanied by a significant value of differential current could recognize the regime within 5ms.
and the index would have positive values during first 20ms
after the switch-on (Fig. 17(b)). All values of the index V. IMPROVEMENT OF THE PRESENTED ALGORITHM
shown in the figure are outside the relay operation area,
The results presented in the preceding section show that
therefore the relay would not unnecessarily trip.
application of the proposed algorithm could improve REF
protection by avoiding its unnecessary operation caused by
CT saturation. In this section, a method will be proposed to
improve additionally the proposed algorithm with the aim of
increasing its sensitivity.
From Fig. 17(b) it can be noted that value of directional
index oscillates in the cases of magnetizing inrush
accompanied by CT saturation. In order to improve
sensitivity of the algorithm despite oscillations of the
directional index, a method of averaging values of the
directional index within certain time interval is proposed.
Figure 15. Inrush: Experimental results – currents i0_sum and i0_G (without The averaging process is aimed at reducing oscillations of
and with CT saturation) the directional index. Having in mind that directional index
for magnetizing inrush accompanied by CT saturation is
predominantly positive, the averaging would eliminate or
considerably reduce parts where the index takes negative
values.
In section 3 it has been explained that the operation area
along the tripping characteristic was defined by means of the
threshold value of directional index. The threshold value of
Figure 16. Inrush: Experimental results – zero sequence differential current
directional index should be selected so that no unnecessary
operations are caused by CT saturation. Averaging would
facilitate selection of a desired tripping characteristic, while
extension of the operation area would increase the
sensitivity without affecting the safety of relay operation.

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Advances in Electrical and Computer Engineering Volume 14, Number 3, 2014

If the last n values of index IDI are used to define vector: external fault or magnetizing inrush.
I DI (1) I DI (2) I DI (3)  I DI (n  1) I DI (n) , then the Taking into account that within a couple of sampling
averaged value is obtained by: periods the algorithm makes distinction between an internal
1 n fault and an external fault or magnetizing inrush, it has been
I DI  avg (k )   I DI (i ) , (10) shown that from the point of view of the speed of response,
n i 1
reliability and safety, it is most convenient to perform
where n=m/2 if averaging is performed over one half of the averaging over half period of the signal. By using this
period, or n=m if averaging is performed over one full improved method, it is possible to make trip decision at one
period. half of the signal period. Also sensitivity of the method has
Fig. 18 shows operation of the algorithm when directional been improved by averaging.
indexes from cases 1-5 are averaged over one half of the
signal period. Also, the figure shows the averaged VI. CONCLUSION
directional index value for simulated internal fault
The presented algorithm is a new solution for realization
accompanied by CT saturation. Models for simulation of
of power transformer earth fault protection. By using
internal transformer faults can be found in the literature
directional index, the algorithm determines whether a
[19-22]. For the purpose of simulation of internal faults in
ground fault is present within the protected zone of the
this paper PSCAD/EMTDC model has been used, as in [23].
transformer. Application of this algorithm would result in
The faults and transformer switch-on occurred at instant
avoiding maloperations of REF protection due to CT
corresponding to 0,04 s. It can be noted that the difference is
saturation.
obvious between an internal fault, with and without CT
On the basis of the experimental results and simulations,
saturation, and:
it has been shown that the new method is stable and precise
1) external fault,
for all tested disturbances. It is shown that in the regimes
2) external fault accompanied by CT saturation,
accompanied by CT saturation, within 5ms upon a fault
3) magnetizing inrush, and
inception or magnetizing inrush started, a clear distinction is
4) magnetizing inrush accompanied by CT saturation.
made by the algorithm between an internal fault and: (i) an
external fault or (ii) magnetization inrush.
Tests of the algorithm show that its application could
improve the performance of ground fault protection of
power transformers. An advantage of this method is that for
the purpose of phase comparison it makes use of data from
one half of the signal period. This improves the reliability
and safety of the relay operation. The additional averaging
of the variable, serving for making the trip decision,
improves immunity of the algorithm against small or short
disturbances and reduces oscillations of the directional index
values caused by CT saturation.
The presented results show that in all tests the reliability
and speed of response of the algorithm are very good.
Figure 18. Averaged directional indexes over one half period of the signal
Simplicity of the algorithm offers another advantage of the
From Fig. 19 one can note that averaging over the full algorithm in its application in ground fault protection of
period of the signal resulted in a reasonably stable value of power transformers. It can easily be implemented in the
the directional index. existing units for protection of power transformers.
Differential protection usually consists of several units,
among them are phase differential relays and differential
REF relays. For operation of the mentioned units the phase
currents at transformer terminals and transformer neutral are
measured. Therefore the existing units for protection of
power transformers provide signals required for operation of
the new algorithm.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The authors would like to thank the Ministry of Science
and Technological Development of the Republic of Serbia
(project III 42009) which made this work possible.

Figure 19. Averaged directional indexes over the full period of the signal REFERENCES
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Advances in Electrical and Computer Engineering Volume 14, Number 3, 2014

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