CHAPTER 4:

DEFECTS IN SOLIDS
1 mole Fe = 55.85g; V= 7.10 cm3 (D=7.87g/cm3); ～ 6 x 1023 atoms
It would be nearly impossible to arrange so many atoms in exact
3D periodicity. So, formation of defects is not unexpected!

ISSUES TO ADDRESS...
• What types of defects arise in solids?
• How do defects affect material properties?
• Are defects undesirable?

Chapter 4 - 1
 Defects in Solids
There is no such thing as a perfect crystal.
• What are these imperfections?
• Why are they important?

Many of the important properties of

materials are due to the presence of
imperfections.

Chapter 4 - 2
 Types of Imperfections

• Vacancy atoms
• Interstitial atoms Point defects
• Substitutional atoms

• Dislocations Line defects

• Grain Boundaries Area defects

Chapter 4 - 3
 Point Defects
• Vacancies:
-vacant atomic sites in a structure.

Vacancy
distortion
of planes

• Self-Interstitials:
-"extra" atoms positioned between atomic sites.

self-
interstitial
distortion
of planes

Chapter 4 - 4
 Equilibrium Concentration:
Point Defects
• Equilibrium concentration varies with temperature!

No. of defects Activation energy

Nv Q 
 exp 
 v ÷
÷ unitless; probability
No. of potential  kT 
defect sites. N
Absolute
Boltzmann's constant Temperature
(1.38 x 10 -23 J/atom-K)
(8.62 x 10 -5 eV/atom-K)
Each lattice site 1 eV = 1.6 x 10-19 J
is a potential
vacancy site
Chapter 4 - 5
 Measuring Activation Energy

• We can get Qv from Nv Q 

= exp 
 v ÷
÷
an experiment. N  kT 
• Measure this... • Replot it...

Nv Nv slope
ln
N N
-Qv /k
exponential
dependence!

T
1/T
defect concentration
Chapter 4 - 6
 Estimating Vacancy Concentration
• Find the equil. # of vacancies in 1 m3 of Cu at 1000C.
• Given:
 = 8.4 g /cm 3 A Cu = 63.5 g/mol
Qv = 0.9 eV/atom NA = 6.02 x 1023 atoms/mol
0.9 eV/atom
Nv  Q 
exp 
 v ÷
÷= 2.7 x 10-4
Cu Tm=1083 C, so at T~Tm
~ 1/104 sites are vacant
N  kT  (general rule)
1273K
8.62 x 10-5 eV/atom-K
NA
For 1 m3 , N=  x x 1 m3 = 8.0 x 1028 sites
A Cu
• Answer:
Nv = (2.7 x 10-4)(8.0 x 1028) sites = 2.2 x 1025 vacancies
Chapter 4 - 7
 Point Defects in Alloys
Two outcomes if impurity (B) added to host (A):
• Solid solution of B in A (i.e., random dist. of point defects)

OR Insterstitial site can

be calculated using
simple geometry.

Substitutional solid soln. Interstitial solid soln.

(e.g., Cu in Ni) (e.g., C in Fe)
• Solid solution of B in A plus particles of a new
phase (usually for a larger amount of B)
Second phase particle
--different composition
--often different structure.

Chapter 4 - 8
 Imperfections in Solids
Conditions for substitutional solid solution (S.S.)
• W. Hume – Rothery rule
– 1. r (atomic radius) < 15%
– 2. Proximity in periodic table
• i.e., similar electronegativities
– 3. Same crystal structure for pure metals
– 4. Valency
• All else being equal, a metal will have a greater tendency
to dissolve a metal of higher valency than one of lower
valency

Chapter 4 - 9
 Imperfections in Solids
Application of Hume–Rothery rules – Solid
Solutions Element Atomic Crystal Electro- Valence
Radius Structure nega-
(nm) tivity
1. Would you predict Cu 0.1278 FCC 1.9 +2
C 0.071
more Al or Ag H 0.046
O 0.060
to dissolve in Zn? Ag 0.1445 FCC 1.9 +1
Al 0.1431 FCC 1.5 +3
Co 0.1253 HCP 1.8 +2
Cr 0.1249 BCC 1.6 +3
2. More Zn or Al Fe 0.1241 BCC 1.8 +2
Ni 0.1246 FCC 1.8 +2
in Cu? Pd 0.1376 FCC 2.2 +2
Zn 0.1332 HCP 1.6 +2

Table on p. 106, Callister 7e.

Chapter 4 - 10
 Imperfections in Solids
• Specification of composition
m1
– weight percent C1  x 100
m1  m2
m1 = mass of component 1

' n m1
– atom percent C 
1 x 100
n m1  n m 2

nm1 = number of moles of component 1

Chapter 4 - 11
 Line Defects in Solids
One dimensional defect in which atoms are mispositioned.

Edge Dislocation

Fig. 4.3, Callister 7e.

Chapter 4 - 12
 Line Defects in Solids
Linear Defects (Dislocations)
– Are one-dimensional defects around which atoms are
misaligned
• Edge dislocation:
– extra half-plane of atoms inserted in a crystal structure
– b  to dislocation line
• Screw dislocation:
– spiral planar ramp resulting from shear deformation
– b  to dislocation line
Burger’s vector, b: measure of lattice distortion

Chapter 4 - 13
 Motion of Edge Dislocation
• Dislocation motion requires the successive bumping
of a half plane of atoms (from left to right here).
• Bonds across the slipping planes are broken and
remade in succession.
→ materials can be deformed rather easily……

Atomic view of edge

dislocation motion from
left to right as a crystal
is sheared.

(Courtesy P.M. Anderson)

Chapter 4 - 14
 Line Defects in Solids
Screw Dislocation
Screw Dislocation

b
Dislocation
line
Burgers vector b (b)
(a)
Adapted from Fig. 4.4, Callister 7e.

Chapter 4 - 15
 Edge, Screw, and Mixed Dislocations
Mixed

Edge

Adapted from Fig. 4.5, Callister 7e.

Screw

Chapter 4 - 16
 Imperfections in Solids
Dislocations are visible in electron micrographs

Adapted from Fig. 4.6, Callister 7e.

Chapter 4 - 17
 Planar Defects in Solids
• One case is a twin boundary (plane)
– Essentially a reflection of atom positions across the twin
plane.

Adapted from Fig. 4.9, Callister 7e.

• Stacking faults
– For FCC metals an error in ABCABC packing sequence
– Ex: ABCABABC
Chapter 4 - 18
 Polycrystalline Materials

Grain Boundaries
• regions between crystals
• transition from lattice of
one region to that of the
other
• slightly disordered
• low density in grain
boundaries
– high mobility
– high diffusivity
– high chemical reactivity
Adapted from Fig. 4.7, Callister 7e.

Chapter 4 - 19
 Microscopic Examination

• Crystallites (grains) and grain boundaries.

Vary considerably in size. Can be quite large
– ex: Large single crystal of quartz or diamond or Si
– ex: Aluminum light post or garbage can - see the
individual grains
• Crystallites (grains) can be quite small (mm
or less) – necessary to observe with a
microscope.

Chapter 4 - 20
 Optical Microscopy
• Useful up to 2000X magnification.
• Polishing removes surface features (e.g., scratches)
• Etching changes reflectance, depending on crystal
orientation.

crystallographic planes
Adapted from Fig. 4.13(b) and (c), Callister
7e. (Fig. 4.13(c) is courtesy
of J.E. Burke, General Electric Co.

Micrograph of
brass (a Cu-Zn alloy)

0.75mm
Chapter 4 - 21
 Optical Microscopy
Grain boundaries...
• are imperfections,
• are more susceptible
to etching,
• may be revealed as polished surface
dark lines,
• change in crystal surface groove
orientation across grain boundary
(a)
boundary. Adapted from Fig. 4.14(a)
and (b), Callister 7e.
ASTM grain (Fig. 4.14(b) is courtesy
of L.C. Smith and C. Brady,
size number the National Bureau of
Standards, Washington, DC

N = 2n-1 [now the National Institute of

Standards and Technology,
Gaithersburg, MD].)

number of grains/in2 Fe-Cr alloy

at 100x (b)
magnification Chapter 4 - 22
 Microscopy
Optical resolution ca. 10-7 m = 0.1 m = 100 nm
For higher resolution need higher frequency
– X-Rays? Difficult to focus.
– Electrons
• wavelengths ca. 3 pm (0.003 nm)
– (Magnification - 1,000,000X)
• Atomic resolution possible
• Electron beam focused by magnetic lenses.

Chapter 4 - 23
 Scanning Tunneling Microscopy
(STM)
• Atoms can be arranged and imaged!
Photos produced from
the work of C.P. Lutz,
Zeppenfeld, and D.M.
Eigler. Reprinted with
permission from
International Business
Machines Corporation,
copyright 1995.

Carbon monoxide Iron atoms arranged

molecules arranged on a copper (111)
on a platinum (111) surface. These Kanji
surface. characters represent
the word “atom”.

Chapter 4 - 24
 Summary
• Point, Line, and Area defects exist in solids.

• The number and type of defects can be varied

and controlled (e.g., T controls vacancy conc.)

• Defects affect material properties (e.g., grain

boundaries control crystal slip).
• Defects may be desirable or undesirable
(e.g., dislocations may be good or bad, depending
on whether plastic deformation is desirable or not.)

Chapter 4 - 25
Homework

4.3, 4.5, 4.7, 4.16, 4.19, 4.23, 4.27

Due in one week

Chapter 4 - 26