Senior High School

Earth and Life

Science
Quarter 2 - Module 10
Unifying Themes in the Study of Life
and Animal Reproduction

1
 What I Know

Pretest: Read the sentences or questions carefully. Choose the letter of the
correct answer.

1. This is that which contains all life on earth.

a. ecosystem b. biosphere c. community d. earth

2. This is a chemical structure consisting of two or more atoms.

a. atomic number b. mixture c. solution d. molecule

3. This is the fundamental unit of structure and function among organisms.

a. cell b. tissue c. organ d. organ system

4. This is a type of cell that lacks a true nucleus and membrane-bound organelles.

a. prokaryotic b. eukaryotic c. sex cell d. muscle cell

5. This is the form of that genetic materials take in chromosomes.

a. DNA b. RNA c. Gene d. Chromatid

6. This is the entire collection of genetic instruction that an organism inherits.

a. genome b. gene expression c. genomics d. alleles

7. Producers in a food chain or web are _______ in nature.

a. heterotrophic b. singular c. single-celled d. photosynthetic

8. He is the father of evolution.

a. Alexander Graham Bell

b. Copernicus

c. Charles Darwin

d. Gregor Mendel

9. This is the ideal duration of pregnancy among humans.

a. 32 weeks b. 34 weeks c. 36 weeks d. 38 weeks

10. Which of the following is a type of sexual reproduction?

a. hermaphroditism b. fragmentation c. budding d. parthenogenesis

i
 Unifying Themes in the Study
Lesson of Life
1
What I Need to Know

The study of life in general is very wide. And to help us understand this vastness, are what we
call themes. Themes are distinct characteristics, pattern, and or quality. To help us understand better
the study of life, we can look at themes individually and as a collective. In this way, we can easily digest
the commonalities of those exhibiting life.

The unifying themes in the study of life are an organization, information, energy and matter,
interactions, and evolution. The study of organisms ranges from macro to micro or vice versa. This
means that the study of life can be from the planet earth as a planet that can host life to the molecular
level that comprises that life. The good thing, however, is that these large chunks of concept can be
broken into smaller ones. Let us explore quickly these levels in the table below:

Table 1.1 Levels of Biological Organization

Levels Characteristics / Definition
1. Molecules These refer to chemical structures that are composed of two or more
atoms.
2. Organelles These are parts of the cell which are responsible for function and
integrity. Some are membrane bound while others are not.
3. Cells These are the basic working and structural unit of an organism.
Different cells work in different organs. They are structured according
to function. Organisms can either be single-celled or multicellular in
nature.
4. Tissues These are simply cells grouped together and performs a specialized
function.
5. Organ This this a body part or a part of an organism which is made up of a
group of tissues. An organ functions, specifically in a body.
6. Organism This refers to the individual living species. Each thriving plant or
animal is an organism.
7. Populations These refer to all individuals of a species living in a specific area. Let
us take for example a population of crabs living in a coastal area.
8. Communities These are the variety of species inhabiting a specific area. An
example would be a coastal community. In this community, we would
expect to see a variety of animal and plant species that thrives in
coastal areas. Thus, a community is a combination of different
populations.
9. Ecosystems These refer to the biotic and abiotic factors in an area. This includes
not only the interaction between living things but also the interaction
between living and nonliving.
10. Biosphere This consists of all the livable parts of the earth, by livable, we are
referring to all spaces which is inhabited by life. This includes spaces
in land, water, and air.

2
 Source: https://www.simply.science/index.php/organization-of-life

Figure 1.1 The levels of Biological

Organization

In the field of biology, not only is organization important

as it gives a compartmentalized focus on the different
fields within biology but more importantly it gives us a
glimpse of new characteristics that are not present in the
previous hierarchy of organization. These
characteristics we refer to as, emergent properties, are
a cause of the interaction and position or arrangements
of the previous organization’s parts. This allows for the
subsequent organization to be more complex than the
previous

What’s New

Activity 1: Designing an Experiment for Life

Objective: This activity is aimed at better understanding and appreciation of the themes in
the study of life. After this activity, you are expected to be able to determine the themes of
biology as they relate to the properties of life.

Materials: mung bean seeds

Pot
Soil
Measuring tools
Other materials (as needed by the experiment design)

Procedure:

1. Propose a hypothesis
From common knowledge, you already have an idea as to what plants need to grow healthy,
like water and sunlight. Think of other factors or substances that will affect plant growth
(suggestions: type of soil, fertilizer type, music or human voice). Choose a variable, then
propose a hypothesis about how the presence and absence of that factor affects the growth
or survival of a plant.

2. Conduct your experiment

a. Outline the steps of your experiment. Identify the variable and controls in
your experiment. NOTE: There should only be one experimental variable –
the presence or absence of the factor you are testing.
b. Determine the time period for your experiment.
c. Specify the data that you will observe in the experimental and control
setups. Choose the data that can be accurately measured and compared.
d. Conduct your experiment and record your observations.

3. Analyze your data

a. Compare the measured data from the experimental and control plants.
b. Organize your data into a table.
3
 c. Make a graph to display your results.

4. Draw conclusion
Did the presence of your experimental variable make a difference in the growth
of the experimental and control plants? Was the effect more or less than you
had proposed?

What Is It

In this activity you are made to design an experiment that will allow you to
observe the growth of a plant in relation to several variables of your choosing. In this activity
you were expected to determine the themes of biology in relation to the growing plant. You
are expected to have observed the organization, interaction, matter and energy, information,
and evolution. Organization is when from a seed, the mung bean sprouted and grew to another
definite structure with differing functions. Interaction is when during its growth, the mung bean
internally maintained homeostasis for optimal growth while interacting with external factors.
Growth is a complex and energy consuming process, therefore, the growth of the mung bean
had to be supplied with energy coming from the nutrients in the soil and water, among others.
Information and evolution in this activity are indirectly observed by whatever the mung bean
is presently. This pertains to its physical features, functions, and molecular make-up.

What’s More

Make a Concept Map

Complete the concept map below by adding the following terms: adaptation,
atom, cell, community, ecosystem, energy, development, growth, individual, molecule,
organ, organization, organ system, population, reproduction, response, tissue.

organisms

Have may have

Properties of life many levels of organization

4
 What I Need to Know

Another theme to help us understand the study of biology is information. All living
things have to deal with the transfer and expression of genetic information. Inside cells,
chromosomes exist and inside chromosomes are genetic material in the form of DNA or
Deoxyribonucleic acid.

Recall in your grade 8, you learned about the two mechanisms in cell division, mitosis
and meiosis. Before each process happens and or is completed, the very first thing that occurs
is the replication of genetic materials. The replication or copying of the DNA is to ensure that
the daughter cells will receive the same complete set of chromosomes with that of the parent
cell. These DNA will then contain sections called genes. This replication of the DNA prior to
cell division will eventually be the template for the trillions of cells that will make up an
organism.

The structure of the DNA is responsible for its ability to store information. It is a double
helix of strands of building blocks called, nucleotides. The following nucleotides are adenine,
thymine, cytosine, and guanine – aptly abbreviated as A, T, C, and G, respectively. The
different sequence of these four nucleotides accounts for the encoding of information in the
DNA. Think of it this way, the way we arrange the alphabet to form words is, in a way, like how
these nucleotides are sequenced for encoding information as shown in figure 2.

https://ghr.nlm.nih.gov/primer/basics/dna

Figure 1.2 DNA structure

The sequencing provides for a blueprint for most

genes to make proteins. In turn, these proteins
accounts for different function in the body and in
different organism. Like for example, a single-celled
gene may specifically create a protein that will be
able to breakdown a carbohydrate molecule, while a
human gene may specify a protein to act as an
antibody to help fight off infections.

The protein production is controlled indirectly through another related molecule, the
RNA. The RNA in this process serves as an intermediary. The nucleotide sequence along a
gene is transcribed into a mRNA, then translated into the building blocks of protein, amino
acids. The amino acid in this case is a link series, after completed, they form a specific protein
with a unique shape and function. This whole process where the information in a gene guides
to create a cellular product is called, gene expression.

What I Need to Know

Unity and Diversity of Life

Evolution is a much-debated topic in the past, but withstanding scientific evidences,

evolution has stood its ground and became a field. Evolution by characteristic is the scientific

5
thought which states that the organisms of today are the modified descendants of their
ancestors in the past as shown in figure 3.

Evolution is said to be the scientific thought that would explain or make sense of all the
organisms now. Fossil records show that organisms have been evolving for billions of years
now, and that this accounts for the vast diversity and variation of organisms in the past and
present. Fossil records also show evidences of unity aside from variation. There are animals
presently that may seem different from one another, let’s take for example the arm of a human
being, wing of the bat, leg of a dog, and flipper of a whale, they might have different uses but
their underlying anatomy are similar to one another. They considered homologous structures.

One notable evolutionary view emerged in the 1800s, when the father of evolution,
Charles Darwin, published the book, “The Origin of Species”. This book contained Charles
Darwin’s studies and observations, which expressed two main points. One, that
“contemporary species arose from a succession of ancestors that differed from them”. This is
what we call, descent with modification and accounts for the dual nature of life’s unity and
diversity. Second, that “natural selection is the primary reason of descent with modification”.

Natural selection sprung from Darwin’s observations from his studies. It states that
species with inherited traits are more adaptive to the environment which means they are more
likely to survive and reproduce than those who are not. This is because the environment
constantly selects for the production of traits from the random variant traits naturally occurring
within a population.
https://geneticliteracyproject.org/2018/07/23/evolution-is-aimless-

how-do-we-explain-external-testicles/

Figure 1.3 Concept of Evolution

What’s New

In this activity, you will determine the degree

of relatedness among some species based on their
amino acid sequences of cytochrome-c.

ACTIVITY 2: Relative Organisms

Objectives:
1. Compare the amino acid sequences of cytochrome-c of some organisms.
2. Calculate the degree of relatedness among some species based on the amino acid
sequences of cytochrome-c in their proteins.

Materials:

Pen and record notebook

Procedure:

1. Refer to the following table of amino acid sequences of cytochrome-c. compare the
amino acid sequences of the following pairs of organisms by encircling the portions
of the sequences where they differ. For each pair, count the total number of differing
amino acids.

a. human and chimpanzee d. chicken and turkey

b. human and rhesus monkey e. rattlesnake and fruit fly

6
 c. horse and monkey

Amino Acid Sequences of cytochrome-c

Human GDVEKGKKIFIMMKCSQCHTVEKGGKHKTGPNLHGLFGRRTGQAPGYSY
TAANKNKGIIWG
Chimpanz GDVEKGKKIFIMMKCSQCHTVEKGGKHKTGPNLHGLFGRRTGQAPGYSY
ee TAANKNKGIIWG
Rhesus GDVEKGKKIFIMMKCSQCHTVEKGGKHKTGPNLHGLFGRRTGQAPGYSY
Monkey TAANKNKGITWG
Horse GDVEKGKKIFVQKCAQCHTVEKGGKHKTGPNLHGLFGRKTGQAPGFTYT
DANKNKGITWK
Donkey GDVEKGKKIFVQKCAQCHTVEKGGKHKTGPNLHGLFGRKTGQAPGFSYT
DANKNKGITWK
Chicken GDIEKGKKIFVQKCQCHTVEKGGKHKTGPNLHGLFGRKTGQAEGFSYTD
ANKNKGITWG
Turkey GDIEKGKKIFVQKCQCHTVEKGGKHKTGPNLHGLFGRKTGQAEGFSYTD
ANKNKGITWG
Rattlesna GDVEKGKKIFTMKCSQCHTVEKGGKHKTGPNLHGLFGRKTGQAVGYSYT
ke AANKNKGITWG
Fruit fly GDVEKGKKLFVQRCAQCHTVEAGGKHKVGPNLHGLIGRKTGQAAGFAYT
NANKAKGITWQ

2. Calculate the percentage difference between the species of each pair by dividing the
number of differing amino acids by the total number of amino acids in the sequences
of the pair.

3. Record your data in the given table.

Data and Observations:

Human and Human and Horse and Chicken Rattle

Chimpanzee Rhesus Donkey and Turkey snak and
Monkey Fruit fly
Number of
differing
Amino Acids
in
cytochrome-c
Percentage
difference

Analysis Questions:
1. Which pair of organisms are most closely related? the least related? How do your
results compare with the taxonomic classification of the organisms?

2. How will you interpret those pairs of organisms having the exact amino acid sequence
of cytochrome-c?

3. What generalization or conclusion can be drawn from the activity?

Exploration:
Do you think that amino acid sequencing is a reliable basis for determining evolutionary
relationships among organism? Justify your answer.

7
 What Is It

One of the recent evidences of evolution that reinforces the fossil records
comes from molecular biology. By using the technique called amino acid sequencing,
researchers have discovered that closely related organism have great similarity in their amino
acid sequences, indicating a common descendant, hence suggesting unity and diversity. In
the activity, you have determined the degree of relatedness among some species based on
their amino acid sequences of cytochrome-c.

What I Need to Know

A characteristic common to all forms of life is the need for energy. This is a requirement
for organisms to perform life processes. The various indicators of life and processes like
growing, reproducing, moving, and other intracellular processes require that the organism
spend energy.

The sun is the primary source of energy in the environment. All organisms rely on the
sun’s energy input to survive. It provides energy on earth in the form of light and is received
and utilized by the autotrophs or producers. These autotrophs or producers are photosynthetic
organisms. These organisms are able to harvest sunlight to create their own food. The
photosystems harvest light ang together with
raw materials like CO2, and water covert light
energy into chemical energy. This process is
called photosynthesis. The chemical energy in
the form of food molecules will then be passed
by plants and other photosynthetic organisms to
other organisms that are not able to produce
their own food. Note that that there is already
energy transfer happening in this process. The
organisms receiving the energy from producers
are called consumers, as shown in figure 4
below.

https://www.tutorialspoint.com/environmental_studies/environmental_studies_energy_flow_i
n_ecosystem.htm

Figure 1.4 Energy Flow in An Ecosystem

When an organism uses energy to perform work or certain processes, such as cell
division, or pumping of blood from the heart to circulation, some of the energy used is lost in
the environment in the form of heat. In a nutshell, energy in an ecosystem flows through in
one direction, enters as light and exits as heat. And in contrast, chemicals used are recycled.
The chemicals that a plant absorbs from the soil and water is incorporated into the plant body,
then later passed on to the animal that eats the plant. Eventually, these chemicals will then be
returned into the environment by decomposers like bacteria that breaks down dead matter.
These chemicals will then be taken up by the soil (usually) and is ready to be again absorbed
by the plants. Then the cycle goes on, as shown in figure 5 below.
https://www.tutorialspoint.com/environmental_studies/environmental_studies_energy_flow_in_ecosystem.htm

8
 Figure 1.5 Nutrient Cycle in an Ecosystem

Remember the organizational

hierarchy presented in the beginning of this
lesson? From the molecular level to the
ecosystem, and to the biosphere in general,
interaction is important. Interaction’s
collegiate definition in the Meriam-Webster
Dictionary is the mutual or reciprocal action or
influence. In biology, interaction at every level
of hierarchy is important as it ensures smooth
operation and combination of parts to
function. This is very much evident in the
interaction of molecules in the cell, and in the
parts or components of the ecosystem.

When we talk about the lower levels of

hierarchy in biology, we are referring to the
interactions that make up the organism, this means, molecule level up to the organ level. The
interaction in the lower levels of hierarchy is important for operations of certain regulations.
Let us take for example the regulation of waste materials in the body, particularly carbon
dioxide. The body needs to keep the
levels of carbon dioxide in the lungs low
so that it can easily diffuse from the blood
to the lungs and excreted via exhaling.
This process alone, allows for a lot of
interaction in between organs, cells,
tissues, and molecules. This ability to
self-regulate is made possible by a
mechanism we call, feedback.

https://byjus.com/biology/exchange-
regulation-of-gases/
Figure1.6 Gas Exchange at the Alveolus

In an ecosystem, we see interaction at a macro level. Every organism interacts with other
organisms, and with the abiotic environment as well. The grass blade, for example, can be
eaten by a caterpillar and in turn is eaten by a bird. The bird, when it dies will then undergo
breakdown with the help of decomposers, and mate rials from the decomposition like
molecules will then be absorbed by the soil. You see, interaction like this ensures that
the ecosystem continues to thrive through having a regulated function, as shown in
figure 7 below.

9
 https://young7science16.weebly.com/interactions-and-ecosystems.html

Figure 1.7 Simple Food Web/ Ecosystem Interaction

What Have I Learned

Activity 3: Analyzing Interactions In Your community

The inside of your home is a dwelling place, not only for you and your family but for a
whole community of species. You can investigate their interactions if you…

Objective: Investigate interaction in a community

Materials: pen and paper

Procedure:

1. Make a list of organisms that can be found living in your dwelling place. Some
may be invited, such as pets or houseplants. Other may be uninvited, such as
rodents, insects, or molds.
2. Make a table and record information about the food relationships among
members in this community. A sample table is provided for you below.

Organism Food source Food relationship

Invited Uninvited

10
Analysis of Results:

1. What do the animals eat? Do they rely on the human food supply, or do they
have their own sources of food?
2. Are there predators and prey in this community?
3. Describe how the community members compete for resources.

Reproduction of
Lesson Representative Animals
2
What This Lesson is About
We are products of billions of years’ worth of evolution, and we know this much thanks to
reproduction. Through reproduction, nature has selected organisms that have a gene pool that
is capable of surviving and thriving. Animals have both adapted and evolved to better fit their
environments thanks to variation. While us, humans, have goals in life some animals were
born to reproduce and die immediately after. So now
you ask, why is reproducing offspring so important to
animals? This is one of question that we will be
answering into later, on this module. In this lesson,
we will understand key concepts about the
complexities of reproduction in animals and
synthesize our learning at the end. Lastly, this lesson
will also allow you to appreciate the true importance
of why a continuity of a species is important.

Source:https://pixabay.com/

Figure 2.1 Elephant herd crossing an African savannah

What I Need to Know

At the end of this lesson, you should be able to demonstrate

understanding of the four main concepts under animal reproduction:

1. Sexual and Asexual Reproduction

2. Mechanisms of Fertilization
3. The Factors that affect Successful Reproduction
4. The Journey of a Human Embryo

11
 What I Need to Know

According to the UN, there are about 360,000 babies born every day in
the world. Reproduction is one of the key survivals of a species – it is a way to continue life.
A male and a female organism will mate and produce an offspring. These parent organisms
will then pass on genetic information to their offspring, and in time, their offspring will pass
their own genetic information as well.

From our previous lesson of mitosis and meiosis, we know that cellular division plays
an important role in reproduction. The relationship between these two processes are vital to
animal reproduction. Some organisms like cows, sheep, dogs and will require two parent
organisms (sexual reproduction) in order to reproduce an offspring, while others do not
(asexual reproduction).

In this lesson, we will be describing the different ways on how representative animals
reproduce. (S11/12LT-IIej-15)

Sexual vs. Asexual

Figure 2.1 shows how sexual

and asexual reproduction produces
offspring. In an asexual reproduction, a
parent organism will not need a mate or
partner for it to produce its own
offspring. The offspring of asexual
organisms are an exact same copy of
its parent organism.
Figure 2.1
A diagram of Asexual and Sexual
Reproduction

In sexual reproduction, a male

and female gamete is needed in order
to produce an offspring. In most
instances, there is a male and female organism to produce the gametes but, this isn’t always
the case. Finding a partner for sexual animals can sometimes prove difficult, and so, as an
adaptive mechanism and evolutionary solution, some animals exhibit hermaphroditism. This
is when an organism has both male and female reproductive system. This is common among
sessile (stationary) animals. In hermaphroditism, the organism may or may not have a partner
for fertilization to occur. Unlike, an asexual offspring, a sexual offspring is genetically unique
from its parent organisms. Notice how there are two apparent sexes in sexual organisms,
while there is no definite sex in the asexual organism.

12
Types of asexual reproduction

1. Binary Fission – occurs in single celled

organisms. It is when a parent cell divides itself
into two equal parts and create an offspring. This
type of reproduction is like cloning as shown in
figure 3. To easily remember and understand the
reproduction process of binary fission it is valuable
to remember what the terms mean. The word
binary means something having two parts (the new
daughter bacteria) while the word fission means
the movement of splitting (the dividing of two equal
parts). Ex. Bacteria

Figure 2.3 Binary Fission in Bacteria

2. Fragmentation – occurs when an

organism breaks a part of itself into a
fragment, and the fragment develops into a
new organism as shown in figure 4. Ex.
Starfish & acoel flatworms

Figure 2. 4 Starfish undergoing fragmentation

3. Budding – happens when a parent

organism grows a bud attached to its body.
When the bud is developed it will detach itself
from the parent and form a new organism. Ex.
Yeast and Jellyfish
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-
biology/chapter/phylum-cnidaria/

Figure 2.5 Jellyfish Lifecycle

4. Parthenogenesis – occurs when the embryo of an organism can grow and

develop without fertilization.
Ex. Some species of ants & Honeybees.

13
 Types Advantages Disadvantages

Sexual Reproduction - The population is less - Needs a partner to

likely to catch diseases reproduce.
all at once. - Takes more time to
- Has more chances of reproduce.
survival
- Has genetic variation.
Asexual Reproduction - Only one parent - Has less surviving
organism is needed to chances due to the
reproduce. lack of genetic
- Faster than sexual variation.
reproduction. - Population is more
likely to catch diseases
at the same time.

https://www.britannica.com/animal/hymenopteran/Natural-history

Figure 2.6 Parthenogenesis in bees

Table 2.1 Advantages and Disadvantages in Sexual and Asexual Reproduction

What I Have Learned

Identify the type of reproduction described in the organisms in column A. Write your
answer in column B.

A B

1. A single organism that functions as

both the male and female in

reproduction.

2. An organism that requires both a

male and a female to reproduce.

3. This organism breaks a part of

itself to reproduce.

14
 4. A male and a female pig mate to

reproduce piglets.

5. This organism’s embryo does not

need fertilization to develop into an

offspring.

6. This organism divides itself into

two equal parts to reproduce.

7. An organism that grows buds to

reproduce.

What I Need to Know

Organisms are diverse, unique and have equally unique features that
help them survive in their environment. These features tailor to the animal’s environment, size,
habitat, and so many more factors. One unique feature is the way these organisms undergo
fertilization.

In this lesson we will have the following objectives:

Compare and contrast internal and external fertilization

Mechanisms of Fertilization

There are two types of fertilization – internal and external. Internal fertilization occurs when
the fusion of gametes is inside the female body, while an external fertilization is the opposite
where fusion of gametes is outside the female body.

The 3 types of internal fertilization

1. Oviparity – the female has fertilized eggs laid

outside its body. The young will get nourishment
from its yolk and will be protected by the external
covering of the egg. The types of eggs will vary in
different animals. Chicken eggs will have high
calcium carbonate concentrations, while reptiles will
produce leathery eggs. Ex. Chickens Source:
https://pixabay.com/

Figure 2.7 Chicks from chicken eggs

15
2. Viviparity – most common in mammals, the
offspring develops within the female and is
nourished by the mother’s blood in the placenta. Ex.
Bears

Source: https://pixabay.com/
Figure 2.8 Brown Bear frolicking in the grass

3. Ovoviviparity – like oviparity, ovoviviparity has

fertilized eggs that nourish the young from its yolk. The
key difference between them, is that ovoviviparous
animals only lay the eggs when they are ready to hatch.
Ex. Great White Sharks Source: https://pixabay.com/
Figure 2.9 Great White Shark in the ocean

The table below will better summarize the key difference and similarities of the two fertilization
processes.

Table 2.2 Summary of Features for Internal and External Fertilization

INTERNAL FERTILIZATION EXTERNAL
FERTILIZATION

PROCESS - Egg is fertilized inside - Egg is fertilized

female body. outside female body.

- Male gamete is - Male gamete is

discharged unto the discharged unto the
female gamete. female gamete.
SUCCESS RATE - Since the offspring is - Has a less chance of
developed inside the survival because the
body of the female, it offspring develops
will have more without protection in
chances of surviving the open environment.
even in harsh
environments because
it is protected.

16
 KEY FEATURES - Has three types: - Survives best in
1. Oviparity moist/aquatic
2. Viviparity environments.
3. Ovoviviparity
- Has a greater number
- few offspring are of offspring produced.
produced.
EXAMPLES - Elephants, goats, and - Fish and Frogs
cats

What I Have Learned

In your own words, describe the type of fertilization given below and
give and example of an animal that has that type of fertilization.

Description Animal

Viviparity

Internal fertilization

External fertilization

Oviparity

Ovoviviparity

II. Essay

Why do you think there is a difference in the types of fertilization among animals?
_________________________________________________________________

What I Need to Know

As mentioned in lesson 2, organisms have unique features that help them survive in
their environment. Animals are designed to survive their environment through their form and
function, and what better way to survive than to outsmart your predators and continue your
species through reproduction.
The male and female house bird will build a strong nest for its eggs to ensure that it
will hatch and survive. The female lion will teach its young cub to hunt and protect it from
predators when it is too young to defend itself.
17
 In this lesson you will be able to identify and understand the factors that affect the
success of reproduction.

What’s New
Pick a species and draw it in its natural habitat in the box below.
Now that you have drawn them here are some
follow up questions:

1. What is your chosen species and where does it

live?
2. Why do you think it thrives in that environment?
3. Do you think that its environment is being
disturbed by external factors?

What is It

The success of animal reproduction does not only end when an egg is fertilized. It ends
when the offspring can fully grow and eventually reproduce as well. As mentioned before,
reproduction is key to survival. We will all eventually die and we need to make sure that our
species continue through reproduction. Listed below are the factors that affect reproductive
success.

Factor #1: Predation

In the animal kingdom exists a food chain. At the top of the food chain there are animals
we call apex predators, while at the bottom of the food chain are animals that are weak and
easily hunted by predators. Apex predators are animals that hunt and feed on other animals
to survive and eventually reproduce. These predators are never or rarely hunted by any other
animal. On the other hand, since prey is easily hunted their offspring is always compromised
and in danger. The success for preys to reproduce is greatly affected by the chances that
these offspring get eaten when they are still young or developing. The connection of these
animals in the food chain help maintain their progeny.

Factor # 2: Environment
To ensure a healthy offspring, the animal’s environment must also be nurturing to the
young. Temperature greatly affects the development and the urges of an animal to mate. With
the continuing rise of temperatures around the globe, some animals are starting to dwindle in
number and die before they even reproduce. When the water becomes too warm, the fishes
will have a hard time getting oxygen and can eventually die when exposed to warm waters for
longer periods of time. Glaciers and ice caps are melting in the arctic, causing polar bears
suffer health conditions due to malnutrition.

Factor # 3: Human Interaction

Humans have been responsible for a lot of species extinction as we pose as one of
the greatest threats to animals. Polluting land, water, and air; hunting; and deforesting are
ways in which animal reproduction get disturbed. On the other hand, there are some human
interventions that try to reverse these effects and attempt to save endangered species.
18
 It is important to understand that the continuity of animals is vital to the balance of
ecosystems, and because there is a food chain, when one animal species is threatened the
whole food chain is threatened as well.

What’s More

Check your knowledge against the understanding that you have gained in the lesson regarding
reproductive success. Answer the following questions briefly and concisely.

Essay
1. Why do you think natural selection favors animals with the greatest reproductive success?

_____________________________________________________________________________
2. What do you believe is the greatest threat to animals and why?

_____________________________________________________________________________
3. Why is it important for animals to never go extinct?

_____________________________________________________________________________
4. How can we better preserve and protect animals so that they may continue to live on?

What I Need to Know

The stages of development of a human baby are complex and truly fascinating.
In this lesson our objective will be able to understand how a human embryo develops.

Before an egg cell can be fertilized by a sperm cell, both gametes need to be mature
and become spermatozoa and oocyte. For it to be mature, it first has to undergo stages of
development.

Stages of Development

Spermatogenesis Oogenesis
1. Spermatogonia Oogonia
2. Spermatocyte Oocyte
3. Spermatid
4. Spermatozoa

19
 What’s In

Before we continue with fertilization, remember your previous lesson in mitosis and
meiosis? Well, they play very important roles in the development of a human embryo. Mitosis
has a product of two identical daughter cells. These cells are in charge of the growth and
replacement of dead cells in the body. Whereas meiosis has a product of four sex cells, that
oversees the development of our gametes for us to reproduce.

What I Need to Know

The first stages of Fertilization

There are two ways in which the human female reproductive cycle can end –
menstruation or pregnancy. If in the case it ends in pregnancy there are distinct stages before
a baby is born. After copulation, when the sperm cell successfully merges with the egg cell,
fertilization or conception happens. After 24 hours of the conception, the zygote or the fertilized
egg undergoes a series of cell division also called the cleavage.
After cleavage, the zygote will undergo a series of growth divided into three trimesters,
or in forty weeks, before the baby is born. The table below gives a clear description on what
happens all throughout the duration of the pregnancy.

Trimester Weeks Description

1st 0 – 12 - The female body undergoes drastic

changes to prepare to house the unborn
child. The body will also start to
experience pregnancy symptoms like
nausea and fatigue.

- The zygote starts developing important

features like the legs, feet, arms, and
hands.

- By the end of the 12th week your baby will

have all the organs present. It will
continue to develop to become functional.
2nd 13 – 26 - The sex of baby can be determined.
- The heartbeat will be audible.

- The baby will move around the womb

more.

20
 3rd 27 – 40 - The baby will be able to see and hear.

- The baby will be able to coordinate better

like blink her eyes and grasp.

- The female could go into labor at any

time.

What I Can Do
Knowledge is power! Let us put your synthesizing skills to the
test through this animal profiling activity.

1. Pick an animal and draw his ID picture in the box.

2. Fill in the rest of the information by checking the right
choice and filling out the blanks!

1. Animal and Species: _____________

2. ( ) Asexual ( ) Sexual
3. *if your animal is asexual, please specify what type: ______________
4. ( ) Internal Fertilization ( ) External Fertilization
5. *if you checked internal fertilization, please specify what type: ______________
6. Place where this animal preferably gives birth:__________________

Now that we’re done with general profiling, let’s compare and contrast this animal’s
reproduction with humans using the venn diagram below.

21
Essay
Let us see how well our knowledge truly understand these ideas through essay
writing.

1. Why do you think is asexual reproduction present among animals?

______________________________________________________________

2. Is it possible for humans to undergo asexual reproduction? Why?

______________________________________________________________

3. Why is reproduction important for species survival?

______________________________________________________________
4. What makes hermaphrodites unique organisms?

______________________________________________________________
5. What is the difference between oviparity and ovoviviparity?
______________________________________________________________

Summary:

• Study of life anywhere on earth will always reveal unifying themes. These themes
allow for better understanding the so-called mystery called life. Organization
theme shows that emergent properties result from the interplay of the lower levels
of hierarchy. Reductionism allows for the compartmentalization of larger and more
complex systems to be easily studied. In information theme, it is all about life’s
processes revolving around the expression and transmission of genetic
information. And that this genetic information is encoded in the nucleotide
sequences of the DNA. Energy and Matter as a theme is important as life
processes requires energy. The sun being the fundamental source of energy
enters into the ecosystem as light and exits it as heat. Producers are responsible
for converting light energy into chemical energy which is then passed into
consumers. Interaction theme is important to life for regulation, thus enabling
organisms to survive. Internal interactions are done through feedback regulation.
This is a process where either an accumulation or decrease of an end product
allows for the speed up or decrease for its production. Evolution theme is the
change among organisms that has allowed for unity and diversity of life here on
earth. Charles Darwin who authored natural selection, saw it as a means of
evolutionary mechanism for adaption of organisms to their environment.

• To ensure species continuity, nature allows for both sexual and asexual
reproduction in the animal kingdom. Sexual reproduction requires the union of
22
 female and male gametes to form a diploid zygote. Asexual reproduction on the
other hand can produce an offspring without the union of gametes. Several
mechanisms for asexual reproduction include budding, fission, and
fragmentation. There are also some variations through reproduction can still
occur. These are through hermaphroditism and parthenogenesis, in which
environmental and hormonal factors have control in the reproductive cycles.
Fertilization can either occur externally when both materials are released outside
the body, or internally when a male fertilizes an egg in the female reproductive
system. Unlike asexual reproduction, sexual reproduction is a form of partnership
between organisms and at the same time, it promotes competition between
individuals and even between gametes.

Post Assessment:

Multiple Choice. Read the sentences or questions carefully. Choose the letter of the correct
answer.

1. In what trimester is the baby ready to be born?

a. 4th
b. 3rd
c. 2nd
d. 1st

2. A house lizard is ________, in terms of mechanism of reproduction.

a. oviparous
b. viviparous
c. ovoviviparous
d. asexual

3. Earthworms are _____ in nature.

a. asexual
b. hermaphrodites
c. none of the above
d. all of the above

4. What do you call animals that are at the top of the food chain?
a. Apex predators
b. Prey
c. Ants
d. Lion

5. Which is not a factor for successful reproduction in animals?

a. Temperature
b. Humans
c. Predation
d. asexual reproduction

23
True or False. Write the word true if the statement is correct and the word false if it is not.
1. Both internal and external fertilization has the male gamete discharged unto the
female reproductive system. ________
2. Internal fertilization has more offspring produces compared to external fertilization.
________
3. The 3rd stage of sperm development is called spermatozoa. ________
4. Humans are ovoviviparous. ________
5. Parthenogenesis is when an organism has both the male and female gametes.
________

Answer Key:

Pretest Post Test

10. a 5. False

9. c 4. False

8. c 3. False

7. d 2. False

6. a 1. False

5. a Part II.

4. a
5. b
3. a
4. a
2. d
3. b
1. b
2. b

1. b

24