11.1 Suppose that x, y are distinct points in a space X with the indiscrete topology. Then there are no disjoint open sets U, V with x ∈ U and y ∈ V , since the only open set containing x is X , which also contains y .
11.2 (a) Suppose that X is Hausdorff and {x} is a singleton set in X . For any y = x in X , there exist disjoint open sets Uy , Vy such that x ∈ Uy , y ∈ Vy . In particular x ∈ Vy . Now X \ {x} is the union, over all y ∈ X \ {x} of the Vy and hence is open so {x} is closed. (b) Now if X is finite and Hausdorff then any subset of X is a finite union of singletons, hence by (a) a finite union of closed sets, hence is closed in X . Then by taking complements we see that every subset of X is open, so X has the discrete topology.
11.3 We can prove this by induction on n. When n = 2 the conclusion is simply the Hausdorff condition. Suppose the result true for a given integer n 2, and let x1 , x2 , . . . , xn+1 be distinct points in X . By inductive hypothesis, for i = 1, 2, . . . , n there exist pairwise disjoint open sets Wi with xi ∈ Wi . Also, by the Hausdorff condition, for each i = 1, 2, . . . , n there exist disjoint open sets Si , Ti such that xi ∈ Si , xn+1 ∈ Ti . For each i = 1, 2, . . . , n put Ui = Si ∩ Wi , n and put Un+1 = Ti . Then U1 , U2 , . . . , Un are pairwise disjoint since W1 , W2 , . . . , Wn are, i=1 and for each i = 1, 2, . . . , n we have Ui ∩ Un+1 = ∅ since Ui ⊆ Si and Un+1 ⊆ Ti . Also, by construction each of U1 , U2 , . . . , Un+1 is open in X . Thus U1 , U2 , . . . , Un+1 are pairwise disjoint. This completes the inductive step.
11.4 (a) Suppose that X is Hausdorff and A is a subspace of X . For any distinct points a1 , a2 ∈ A there are disjoint open subsets U, V of X with a1 ∈ U, a2 ∈ V . Now by definition of the subspace topology A ∩ U, A ∩ V are open in A; also, a1 ∈ A ∩ U and a2 ∈ A ∩ V , and A ∩ U, A ∩ V are disjoint since U, V are. Hence A is Hausdorff. (b) First suppose that X and Y are Hausdorff spaces, and let (x1 , y1 ), (x2 , y2 ) be distinct points in the topological product X × Y . Then either x1 = x2 or y1 = y2 (or both). If x1 = x2 then there exist disjoint open subsets U, V of X with x1 ∈ U, x2 ∈ V . Then U × Y, V × Y are disjoint open subsets of X × Y with (x1 , y1 ) ∈ U × Y and (x2 , y2 ) ∈ V × Y. There is an entirely similar argument if y1 = y2 . Conversely suppose that X × Y is Hausdorff. Let x1 , x2 be distinct points in X . Then since Y is non-empty, there is some y ∈ Y with (x1 , y) = (x2 , y). Since X × Y is Hausdorff, there exists disjoint open subsets W1 , W2 of X × Y such that (x1 , y) ∈ W1 , (x2 , y) ∈ W2 . Since W1 is open in X × Y and contains (x1 , y) there exist open subsets U1 , V1 of X, Y respectively such that (x1 , y) ∈ U1 × V1 ⊆ W1 . Similarly there exist open subsets U2 , V2 of X, Y such that (x2 , y) ∈ U2 × V2 ⊆ W2 . Now x1 ∈ U1 , x2 ∈ U2 , and U1 ∩ U2 = ∅ (since if x ∈ U1 ∩ U2 we would have (x, y) ∈ W1 ∩ W2 ). This proves that X is Hausdorff. Similarly Y is Hausdorff. (c) Let x1 , x2 be distinct points in X . Since f is injective, f (x1 ) and f (x2 ) are distinct points in Y . Since Y is Hausdorff, there are disjoint open subsets V1 , V2 of Y with f (x1 ) ∈ V1 , f (x2 ) ∈ V2 . By continuity of f the sets U1 = f −1 (V1 ) and U2 = f −1 (V2 ) are open in X . Moreover, x1 ∈ U1 since f (x1 ) ∈ V1 , and similarly x2 ∈ U2 . Finally, U1 and U2 are disjoint, since f is injective and V1 , V2 are disjoint. (d) This follows from (c), since if f : X → Y is a homeomorphism then both f and f −1 : Y → X are continuous injective maps, so if Y is Hausdorff so is X and vice-versa.
11.5 We prove that X × Y \ Gf is open in X × Y . (Once we have opted to try this, the rest of the proof ‘follows its nose’.) So let (x, y) ∈ X × Y \ Gf . It is enough, by Proposition 7.2, to show that for every point (x, y) ∈ X × Y \ Gf there exists an open subset W of X × Y with (x, y) ∈ W ⊆ X × Y \ Gf . So let (x, y) ∈ X × Y \ Gf . Then (x, y) ∈ Gf , so f (x) = y . Since Y is Hausdorff, there exist disjoint open subsets V1 , V of Y such that f (x) ∈ V1 , y ∈ V . Since f is continuous, U = f −1 (V1 ) is open in X . Note that x ∈ U since f (x) ∈ V1 . Also, y ∈ V . Write W = U × V . Then (x, y) ∈ U × V = W , and W ⊆ X × Y \ Gf since if (x , y ) ∈ W then x ∈ U and y ∈ V so f (x ) ∈ V1 and y ∈ V , but V1 ∩ V = ∅ so f (x ) = y , which says that (x , y ) ∈ Gf .
11.6 (a) Clearly x is in the intersection S of all open subsets of X containing x. Suppose that y = x. Then by the Hausdorff condition there are disjoint open sets U, V such that x ∈ U and y ∈ V . In particular there is an open subset U containing x which does not contain y , so y ∈ S . This shows that S = {x}. (b) Let X be an infinite set and consider it as a space with the co-finite topology. Then X is not Hausdorff, by Example 11.6. But for any x ∈ X let S be the intersection of all open subsets of X containing x. Then x ∈ S , but if y = x then X \ {y} is a set with finite complement (namely {y}) hence is open in X and contains x but not y , so y ∈ S . Hence S = {x}.
11.7 (a) Suppose first that X is a Hausdorff space. We shall prove that X × X \ ∆ is open in X×X , from which it follows that ∆ is closed in X×X . So let (x, y) ∈ X×X\∆. By Proposition 7.2 it is enough to show that there is an open set W of X × X with (x, y) ∈ W ⊆ X × X \ ∆. Now (x, y) ∈ ∆ so y = x. Since X is Hausdorff there exist disjoint open subsets U, V of X such that x ∈ U, y ∈ V . Then W = U × V is an open set in X × X , and (x, y) ∈ U × V . Moreover W ⊆ X × X \ ∆ since if (x , y ) ∈ W then x ∈ U, y ∈ V and U ∩ V = ∅, so y = x , which says (x , y ) ∈ ∆. Conversely suppose that ∆ is closed in X × X . Then X × X \ ∆ is open in X × X . Now let x, y be distinct points of X . Then y = x so (x, y) ∈ ∆. Hence (x, y) is in the open set X × X \ ∆ and by definition of the product topology there exist open subsets U, V of X such that (x, y) ∈ U × V ⊆ X × X \ ∆. Now x ∈ U, y ∈ V , and U ∩ V = ∅ since if z ∈ U ∩ V then (z, z) ∈ ∆ ∩ (U × V ) - but this set is empty. So X is Hausdorff. (b) Consider the characteristic function χA : X × X → S of the set A = X × X \ ∆. The open sets in S are ∅, {1}, S. Now χ−1 −1 −1 A (∅) = ∅, χA (1) = A and χA (S) = X × X . Thus χA is continuous iff X × X \ ∆ is open in X × X , that is iff ∆ is closed in X × X , and by (a) this holds iff X is Hausdorff.
11.8 Suppose for a contradiction that f (x) = g(x) for some x ∈ A. Since Y is Hausdorff, there exist disjoint open subsets U, V of Y such that f (x) ∈ U, g(x) ∈ V . By continuity of f the sets f −1 (U) and g −1 (V ) are open in X ; also, x ∈ f −1 (U) since f (x) ∈ U , and similarly x ∈ g −1 (V ). So W = f −1 (U) ∩ g −1(V ) is open in X and x ∈ W . Now x ∈ A, so there is a point a in A ∩ W . But now since a ∈ W ⊆ f −1 (U) we have f (a) ∈ U and similarly g(a) ∈ V . This contradicts U ∩ V = ∅ since f (a) = g(a) for all a ∈ A. Hence f (x) = g(x) for all x ∈ A.
11.9 Since fA and fB are continuous, so is g . So since (0, ∞) and (−∞, 0) are open in R we know that g −1(0, ∞) and g −1(−∞, 0) are open in X . Also, A, B are closed sets, so A = A and B = B . Now from Exercise 6.16, fA (x) 0 for all x ∈ X and fA (x) = 0 iff x ∈ A. Similarly fB (x) 0 for all x ∈ X and fB (x) = 0 iff x ∈ B . Hence, since A, B are disjoint, for x ∈ A we have fA (x) = 0 and fB (x) > 0, so g(x) < 0. Similarly for x ∈ B we have g(x) > 0. Thus A ⊆ g −1(−∞, 0) and B ⊆ g −1 (0, ∞). Finally, g −1 (−∞, 0) and g −1 (0, ∞) are clearly disjoint (if x ∈ g −1 (−∞, 0) then g(x) < 0 and if x ∈ g −1 (0, ∞) then g(x) > 0).
11.10 This follows from previous results. First, the composition (f × g) ◦ ∆ : X → Y × Y
is continuous, where ∆ : X → X × X is the diagonal map of X . (This uses Propositions 10.13, 10.12 and 8.4). Also, the diagonal set ∆Y in Y × Y is closed in Y × Y by Exercise 11.7(a). But C = ∆−1 (f × g)−1(∆Y ) since x ∈ C iff f (x) = g(x) iff (f × g)(x, x) ∈ ∆Y iff ((f × g) ◦ ∆)(x) ∈ ∆Y iff x ∈ ∆−1 (f × g)−1(∆Y ). So C is closed in X , by Proposition 9.5. In particular we can apply this for any continuous self-map f : X → X , taking g : X → X to be the identity function; in this case C = {x ∈ X : f (x) = x} = F , and we get that the fixed-point set F is closed in X .
