Data Structures and Algorithms
Lecture 2: Analysis of Algorithms,
Asymptotic notation
Lilia Georgieva
© 2004 Goodrich, Tamassia
Outline
Pseudocode
Theoretical Analysis of Running time
Primitive Operations
Counting primitive operations
Asymptotic analysis of running time
Analysis of Algorithms 2
Pseudocode
In this course, we will
mostly use Example: find max
pseudocode to element of an array
describe an algorithm Algorithm arrayMax(A, n)
Pseudocode is a high- Input: array A of n integers
level description of an Output: maximum element of A
algorithm
More structured than currentMax ← A[0]
English prose for i ← 1 to n − 1 do
Less detailed than a if A[i] > currentMax then
program currentMax ← A[i]
Preferred notation for return currentMax
describing algorithms
Hides program design
issues Analysis of Algorithms 3
Pseudocode Details
Algorithm arrayMax(A, n)
Control flow Input: array A of n integers
if … then … [else …] Output: maximum element of A
while … do …
repeat … until … currentMax ← A[0]
for i ← 1 to n − 1 do
for … do …
if A[i] > currentMax then
Indentation replaces currentMax ← A[i]
braces
return currentMax
Method declaration
Algorithm method (arg, arg…)
Input …
Output …
Analysis of Algorithms 4
Pseudocode Details
Algorithm arrayMax(A, n)
Method call
Input: array A of n integers
var.method (arg [, arg…]) Output: maximum element of A
Return value currentMax ← A[0]
return expression for i ← 1 to n − 1 do
Expressions if A[i] > currentMax then
currentMax ← A[i]
← Assignment
return currentMax
(like = in Java)
= Equality testing
(like = = in Java)
n2 superscripts and
other mathematical
formatting allowed
Analysis of Algorithms 5
Comparing Algorithms
Given 2 or more algorithms to solve the
same problem, how do we select the best
one?
Some criteria for selecting an algorithm
1) Is it easy to implement, understand, modify?
2) How long does it take to run it to completion?
3) How much of computer memory does it use?
Software engineering is primarily
concerned with the first criteria
In this course we are interested in the
second and third criteria
Analysis of Algorithms 6
Comparing Algorithms
Time complexity
The amount of time that an algorithm needs to
run to completion
Space complexity
The amount of memory an algorithm needs to
run
We will occasionally look at space
complexity, but we are mostly interested
in time complexity in this course
Thus in this course the better algorithm is
the one which runs faster (has smaller
time complexity)
Analysis of Algorithms 7
How to Calculate Running time
Most algorithms transform input objects into
output objects
sorting
5 3 1 2 1 2 3 5
algorithm
input object output object
The running time of an algorithm typically
grows with the input size
idea: analyze running time as a function of input
size
Analysis of Algorithms 8
How to Calculate Running Time
Even on inputs of the same size, running time
can be very different
Example: algorithm that finds the first prime
number in an array by scanning it left to right
Idea: analyze running time in the
best case
worst case
average case
Analysis of Algorithms 9
How to Calculate Running Time
Best case running best case
time is usually average case
worst case
useless 120
Average case time is 100
very useful but often
Running Time
80
difficult to determine 60
We focus on the 40
worst case running 20
time 0
1000 2000 3000 4000
Easier to analyze Input Size
Crucial to applications
such as games,
finance and robotics
Analysis of Algorithms 10
Experimental Evaluation of Running Time
9000
Write a program 8000
implementing the 7000
algorithm 6000
Time (ms)
Run the program with 5000
inputs of varying size and 4000
composition 3000
Use a method like 2000
System.currentTimeMillis( 1000
) to get an accurate 0
0 50 100
measure of the actual I nput Size
running time
Plot the results
Analysis of Algorithms 11
Limitations of Experiments
Experimental evaluation of running
time is very useful but
It is necessary to implement the
algorithm, which may be difficult
Results may not be indicative of the
running time on other inputs not included
in the experiment
In order to compare two algorithms, the
same hardware and software
environments must be used
Analysis of Algorithms 12
Theoretical Analysis of Running Time
Uses a pseudo-code description of
the algorithm instead of an
implementation
Characterizes running time as a
function of the input size, n
Takes into account all possible
inputs
Allows us to evaluate the speed of
an algorithm independent of the
hardware/software environment
Analysis of Algorithms 13
RAM: The Random Access Machine
For theoretical analysis, we assume RAM
model for our “theoretical” computer
Our RAM model consists of:
a CPU
a potentially unbounded bank of
memory cells, each of which can hold an
arbitrary number or character
memory cells are numbered and
accessing any cell in memory takes unit
time.
1 2 3 ……………………………………
Analysis of Algorithms 14
Primitive Operations
For theoretical analysis, we will count
primitive or basic operations, which are
simple computations performed by an
algorithm
Basic operations are:
Identifiable in pseudocode
Largely independent from the programming
language
Exact definition not important (we will see
why later)
Assumed to take a constant amount of time
in the RAM model
Analysis of Algorithms 15
Primitive Operations
Examples of primitive operations:
Evaluating an expression x2+ey
Assigning a value to a variable cnt ← cnt+1
Indexing into an array A[5]
Calling a method mySort(A,n)
Returning from a method return(cnt)
Analysis of Algorithms 16
Counting Primitive Operations
By inspecting the pseudocode, we can determine
the maximum number of primitive operations
executed by an algorithm, as a function of the
input size
Algorithm arrayMax(A, n)
currentMax ← A[0] 2
for i ← 1 to n − 1 do 2+n
if A[i] > currentMax then 2(n − 1)
currentMax ← A[i] 2(n − 1)
{ increment counter i } 2(n − 1)
return currentMax 1
Total 7n − 1
Analysis of Algorithms 17
Estimating Running Time
Algorithm arrayMax executes 7n −1 primitive
operations in the worst case. Define:
a = Time taken by the fastest primitive operation
b = Time taken by the slowest primitive
operation
Let T(n) be worst-case time of arrayMax.
Then
a (7n −1) ≤ T(n) ≤ b(7n −1)
Hence, the running time T(n) is bounded by
two linear functions
Analysis of Algorithms 18
Growth Rate of Running Time
Changing the hardware/ software
environment
Affects T(n) by a constant factor, but
Does not alter the growth rate of T(n)
Thus we focus on the big-picture which is
the growth rate of an algorithm
The linear growth rate of the running time
T(n) is an intrinsic property of algorithm
arrayMax
algorithm arrayMax grows proportionally with n,
with its true running time being n times a
constant factor that depends
Analysis on the19
of Algorithms specific
Constant Factors
The growth rate is not affected by
constant factors or
lower-order terms
Examples
102n + 105 is a linear function
105n2 + 108n is a quadratic function
How do we get rid of the constant factors to
focus on the essential part of the running
time?
Analysis of Algorithms 20
Big-Oh Notation Motivation
The big-Oh notation is used widely to
characterize running times and space
bounds
The big-Oh notation allows us to ignore
constant factors and lower order terms
and focus on the main components of a
function which affect its growth
Analysis of Algorithms 21
Big-Oh Notation Definition
Given functions f(n) 80
and g(n), we say that 70 3n
f(n) is O(g(n)) if there 60 2n+
are positive 50
10
constants 40
n
c and n0 such that 30
20
f(n) ≤ cg(n) for n ≥ n0
10
Example: 2n + 10 is 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
O(n) n
2n + 10 ≤ cn
(c − 2) n ≥ 10
n ≥ 10/(c − 2)
Pick c = 3 and n0 = 10
Analysis of Algorithms 22
Big-Oh Example
Example: the 100,000
90,000 n^2
function n2 is not
80,000 100n
O(n) 70,000 10n
n2 ≤ cn 60,000 n
50,000
n≤ c 40,000
The above 30,000
inequality cannot be 20,000
satisfied since c 10,000
must be a constant 0
0 100 200 300 400 500
n
Analysis of Algorithms 23
More Big-Oh Examples
7n-2
7n-2 is O(n)
need c > 0 and n0 ≥ 1 such that 7n-2 ≤ c•n for n ≥ n0
this is true for c = 7 and n0 = 1
3n3 + 20n2 + 5
3n3 + 20n2 + 5 is O(n3)
need c > 0 and n0 ≥ 1 s.t. 3n3 + 20n2 + 5 ≤ c•n3 for n ≥ n0
this is true for c = 4 and n0 = 21
3 log n + 5
3 log n + 5 is O(log n)
need c > 0 and n0 ≥ 1 s.t. 3 log n + 5 ≤ c•log n for n ≥ n0
this is true for c = 8 and n0 = 2
Analysis of Algorithms 24
Big-Oh and Growth Rate
The big-Oh notation gives an upper bound on
the growth rate of a function
The statement “f(n) is O(g(n))” means that the
growth rate of f(n) is no more than the growth
rate of g(n)
We can use the big-Oh notation to rank
functions according to their growth rate
f(n) is O(g(n)) g(n) is O(f(n))
g(n) grows Yes No
more
f(n) grows more No Yes
Same growth Yes Yes
Analysis of Algorithms 25
Big-Oh Rules
If is f(n) a polynomial of degree d, then
f(n) is O(nd), i.e.,
1. Drop lower-order terms
2. Drop constant factors
Use the smallest possible class of
functions
Say “2n is O(n)” instead of “2n is O(n2)”
Use the simplest expression of the class
Say “3n + 5 is O(n)” instead of “3n + 5 is
O(3n)”
Analysis of Algorithms 26
Big-Oh Rules
If is f(n) a polynomial of degree d, then
f(n) is O(nd), i.e.,
1. Drop lower-order terms
2. Drop constant factors
Use the smallest possible class of
functions
Say “2n is O(n)” instead of “2n is O(n2)”
Use the simplest expression of the class
Say “3n + 5 is O(n)” instead of “3n + 5 is
O(3n)”
Analysis of Algorithms 27
Asymptotic Algorithm Analysis
The asymptotic analysis of an algorithm
determines the running time in big-Oh notation
To perform the asymptotic analysis
We find the worst-case number of primitive
operations executed as a function of the input size
We express this function with big-Oh notation
Example:
We determine that algorithm arrayMax executes at
most 7n − 1 primitive operations
We say that algorithm arrayMax “runs in O(n) time”
Since constant factors and lower-order terms
are eventually dropped anyhow, we can
disregard them when counting primitive
operations
Analysis of Algorithms 28
Seven Important Functions
Seven functions 1E+30
that often appear in 1E+27 Cubic
algorithm analysis: 1E+24 Qua-
Constant ≈ 1 1E+21
dratic
Logarithmic ≈ log n 1E+18
Linear
Linear ≈ n
T(n)
1E+15
N-Log-N ≈ n log n 1E+12
Quadratic ≈ n2 1E+9
Cubic ≈ n3 1E+6
Exponential ≈ 2n 1E+3
1E+0
In a log-log chart, 1E+0 1E+2 1E+4 n 1E+6 1E+8 1E+10
the slope of the line
corresponds to the
growth rate of the
function
Analysis of Algorithms 29
Computing Prefix Averages
We further illustrate
asymptotic analysis with
35
two algorithms for prefix
averages X
30 A
The i-th prefix average
of an array X is average
25
of the first (i + 1)
elements of X:
20
A[i] = ( X[0] + X[1] + … + X[i])/
(i+1)
15
Computing the array A
of prefix averages of 10
another array X has
applications to financial
5
analysis Analysis of Algorithms 30
Prefix Averages (Quadratic)
The following algorithm computes prefix averages in quadratic time by
applying the definition
Algorithm prefixAverages1(X, n)
Input array X of n integers
Output array A of prefix averages of X
#operations
A ← new array of n integers n
for i ← 0 to n − 1 do n
s ← X[0] n
for j ← 1 to i do 1 + 2 + …+ (n − 1)
s ← s + X[j] 1 + 2 + …+ (n − 1)
A[i] ← s / (i + 1) n
return A 1
Analysis of Algorithms 31
Arithmetic Progression
The running time of 7
prefixAverages1 is 6
O(1 + 2 + …+ n)
5
The sum of the first n
integers is n(n + 1) / 2 4
There is a simple 3
visual proof of this fact
2
Thus, algorithm
prefixAverages1 runs in 1
O(n2) time 0
1 2 3 4 5 6
Analysis of Algorithms 32
Prefix Averages (Linear)
The following algorithm computes prefix averages in linear time by
keeping a running sum
Algorithm prefixAverages2(X, n)
Input array X of n integers
Output array A of prefix averages of X
#operations
A ← new array of n integers n
s ←0 1
for i ← 0 to n − 1 do n
s ← s + X[i] n
A[i] ← s / (i + 1) n
return A 1
Algorithm prefixAverages2 runs in O(n) time
Analysis of Algorithms 33
More Examples
Algorithm SumTripleArray(X, n)
Input triple array X[ ][ ][ ] of n by n by n integers
Output sum of elements of X #operations
s ←0 1
for i ← 0 to n − 1 do n
for j ← 0 to n − 1 do n+n+…+n=n2
for k ← 0 to n − 1 do n2+n2+…+n2 = n3
s ← s + X[i][j][k] n2+n2+…+n2 = n3
return s 1
Algorithm SumTripleArray runs in O(n3) time
Analysis of Algorithms 34
Useful Big-Oh Rules
If is f(n) a polynomial of degree d, then
f(n) is O(nd)
2 d
f ( n )=a 0 +a 1 n+a2 n +. ..+a d n
If d(n) is O(f(n)) and e(n) is O(g(n)) then
d(n)+e(n) is O(f(n)+g(n))
d(n)e(n) is O(f(n) g(n))
If d(n) is O(f(n)) and f(n) is O(g(n)) then d(n)
is O(g(n))
If p(n) is a polynomial in n then log p(n) is
O(log(n))
Analysis of Algorithms 35
Relatives of Big-Oh
big-Omega
f(n) is Ω(g(n)) if there is a constant c > 0
and an integer constant n0 ≥ 1 such that
f(n) ≥ c•g(n) for n ≥ n0
big-Theta
f(n) is Θ(g(n)) if there are constants c’ > 0
and c’’ > 0 and an integer constant n0 ≥ 1
such that c’•g(n) ≤ f(n) ≤ c’’•g(n) for n ≥ n0
Analysis of Algorithms 36
Intuition for Asymptotic Notation
Big-Oh
f(n) is O(g(n)) if f(n) is asymptotically less than or
equal to g(n)
big-Omega
f(n) is Ω(g(n)) if f(n) is asymptotically greater than
or equal to g(n)
Note that f(n) is Ω(g(n)) if and only if g(n) is O(f(n))
big-Theta
f(n) is Θ(g(n)) if f(n) is asymptotically equal to g(n)
Note that f(n) is Θ(g(n)) if and only if if g(n) is O(f(n))
and if f(n) is O(g(n))
Analysis of Algorithms 37
Example Uses of the Relatives of Big-Oh
5n2 is Ω(n2)
f(n) is Ω(g(n)) if there is a constant c > 0 and an integer constant n0 ≥ 1
such that f(n) ≥ c•g(n) for n ≥ n0
let c = 5 and n0 = 1
5n2 is Ω(n)
f(n) is Ω(g(n)) if there is a constant c > 0 and an integer constant n0 ≥ 1
such that f(n) ≥ c•g(n) for n ≥ n0
let c = 1 and n0 = 1
5n2 is Θ(n2)
f(n) is Θ(g(n)) if it is Ω(n2) and O(n2). We have already seen the former,
for the latter recall that f(n) is O(g(n)) if there is a constant c > 0 and
an integer constant n0 ≥ 1 such that f(n) < c•g(n) for n ≥ n0
Let c = 5 and n0 = 1
Analysis of Algorithms 38
Math you need to Review
Summations
Logarithms and Exponents
properties of
logarithms:
logb(xy) = logbx + logby
logb (x/y) = logbx - logby
logbxa = alogbx
logba = logxa/logxb
properties of
exponentials:
a(b+c) = aba c
abc = (ab)c
ab /ac = a(b-c)
b = a logab
bc = a c*logab Analysis of Algorithms 39
Final Notes
Running time
Even though in this course we focus
on the asymptotic growth using big-Oh
notation, practitioners do care about A
constant factors occasionally
Suppose we have 2 algorithms
Algorithm A has running time 30000n
Algorithm B has running time 3n2 B
Asymptotically, algorithm A is better
than algorithm B
However, if the problem size you deal
with is always less than 10000, then problem size
the quadratic one is faster
Analysis of Algorithms 40
