CHAPTER
Coulomb’s Law and
Electric Field Intensity
establish and describe a few basic principles of electricity. In this chapter,
we introduce Coulomb's electrostatic force law and then formulate this in
a general way using field theory. The tools that will be developed can be used to
solve any problem in which forces between static charges are to be evaluated or to
determine the electric field that is associated with any charge distribution. Initially,
wwe will restrict the study to fields in vacuum or free space; this would apply ( media
such as air and other gases. Other materials are introduced in Chapters 5 and 6 and
time-varying fields are introduced in Chapter 9. Bl
H aving formulated the language of vector analysis in the first chapter, we next
2.1 THE EXPERIMENTAL LAW OF COULOMB
Records from at least 600 B.C, show evidence of the knowledge of static electricity,
‘The Greeks were responsible for the term electricity, derived from their word for
amber, and they spent many leisure hours rubbing a small piece of amber on their
sleeves and observing how it would then attract pieces of fluff and stuff. However,
their main interest lay in philosophy and logic, not in experimental science, and it
‘was many centuries before the attracting effect was considered to be anything other
than magic or a “life force.”
Dr. Gilbert, physician to Her Majesty the Queen of England, was the first to do
any true experimental work with this effect, and in 1600 he stated that glass, sulfur,
amber, and other materials, which he named, would “not only draw to themselves
straws and chaff, but all metals, wood, leaves, stone, earths, even water and oil.”
Shortly thereafter, an officer in the French Army Engineers, Colonel Charles
Coulomb, performed an elaborate series of experiments using a delicate torsion bal~
ance, invented by himself, to determine quantitatively the force exerted between two
objects, each having a static charge of electricity. His published result bears a great
similarity to Newton's gravitational law (discovered about a hundred years earlier). CHAPTER 2 Coulomb's Law and Electric Field Intensity
Coulomb stated that the force between two very small objects separated in a vacuum
or free space by a distance, which is large compared (o their size, is proportional to
the charge on each and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between
them, or
Qi
Re
where Q; and Q2 are the positive or negative quantities of charge, R is the separation,
and k is a proportionality constant. If the International System of Units! (SI) is used,
is measured in coulombs (C), R is in meters (m), and the force should be newtons
(N). This will be achieved if the constant of proportionality k is written as
1
are
‘The new constant ¢o is called the permittivity of free space and has magnitude, mea-
sured in farads per meter (F/m),
k
ro)
The quantity ¢o is not dimensionless, for Coulomb's law shows that it has the
label C/N m?. We will later define the farad and show that it has the dimensions
C2/N - m; we have anticipated this definition by using the unit F/m in equation (1),
Coulomb’s law is now
QiQr
regR?
@
The coulomb is an extremely large unit of charge, for the smallest known quantity
of charge is that of the electron (negative) or proton (positive), given in SI units as
1.602 x 10-!? C; hence a negative charge of one coulomb represents about 6 x 10"
electrons.” Coulomb's law shows that the force between two charges of one coulomb
cach, separated by one meter, is 9 x 10° N, or about one million tons. The electron
has a rest mass of 9.109 x 107*!kg and has a radius of the order of magnitude of
3.8 x 10-15 m, This does not mean that the electron is spherical in shape, but merely
describes the size of the region in which a slowly moving electron has the greatest
probability of being found. All other known charged particles, including the proton,
have larger masses and larger radii, and occupy a probabilistic volume larger than
does the electron.
In order {o write the vector form of (2), we need the additional fact (furnished
also by Colonel Coulomb) that the force acts along the line joining the two charges
‘The International System of Units (an mks system) is described in Appendix B, Abbreviations for the
‘units are given in Table B.. Conversions to her systems of units ate given in Table B.2, while the
prelixes designating powers of ten in ST appear in Table B.3.
2 The charge and mass of an electron and other physical constants are tabulated in Table C.4 of
Appendix C.
27 ENGINEERING ELECTROMAGNETICS
Origin
Figure 2.1 if Q; and Q» have lke
signs, the vector force F, on Qe is in the
same direction as the vector Rr.
and is repulsive if the charges are alike in sign or attractive if they are of opposite sign.
Let the vector r1 locate Qi, whereas r» locates Qx. Then the vector Rix =r — 11
represents the directed line segment from Q, to Q2, as shown in Figure 2.1. The vector
F, is the force on Q> and is shown for the case where Q and Q, have the same sign.
‘The vector form of Coulomb's law is
19>
R=
4rreoR},
a 8)
where ai = a unit vector in the direction of Ri2, or
Rp _ Rv
Rol Ra im-r
an=
Oo)
We illustrate the use of the vector form of Coulomb's law by locating a charge of
Q; = 3 x 107 C at MQ, 2, 3) and a charge of Q) = —107' C at N(2,0,5) ina
vacuum, We desire the force exerted on Q2 by Qi
Solution. We use (3) and (4) to obtain the vector force. The vector Riz is
Rp =m—n = 2-Day + @— Day +6 — 3a, =a, — 2a + 2a,
Teading to [Ry| = 3, and the unit vector, a2 = } (a, — 2ay + 2a,). Thus,
3x 10-1074) (a, — 2a, + 2a,
4x /36r)10-9 x F 3
so (a2 4) N
The magnitude of the force is 30 N, and the direction is specified by the unit
vector, which has been left in parentheses to display the magnitude of the force. The
force on Q2 may also be considered as three component forces,
Fy = —10a, + 20a, — 20a, CHAPTER 2 Coulomb's Law and Electric Field Intensity
The force expressed by Coulomb's law is a mutual force, for each of the two
charges experiences a force of the same magnitude, although of opposite direction
We might equally well have written
Qi02
AregR
QiQ2
F 2
4neoRy
a2 6)
Coulomb's law is linear, for if we multiply Q, by a factor m, the force on Qo is
also multiplied by the same factor n. It is also true that the force on a charge in the
presence of several other charges is the sum of the forces on that charge due to each
of the other charges acting alone.
12.4. A charge Q4 = —20 uC is located at A(—6, 4, 7), anda charge Qg =
50 uC is at B(S, 8, —2) in free space. If distances are given in meters, find:
(@ Raz; (b) Ras. Determine the vector force exerted on Qa by Qs if eo =
(©) 10-°/(36) Fim; (d) 8.854 x 107? F/m.
Ans. May +4ay — 9a, m; 14.76 m; 30.76a, + 11.184ay — 25.16a, mN; 30.72a,
+ 11.169a, — 25.13a, mN
29
2.2 ELECTRIC FIELD INTENSITY
If we now consider one charge fixed in position, say Qy, and move a second charge
slowly around, we note that there exists everywhere a force on this second charge;
in other words, this second charge is displaying the existence of a force field that is
associated with charge, Q1, Call this second charge a test charge Q,. The force on it
is given by Coulomb's law,
Qi,
4reoR,
Writing this force as a force per unit charge gives the electric field intensity, Ey arising
from Qy
ay
F, Qi
E,-
Qi 4reoRj,
E; is interpreted as the vector force, arising from charge Qj, that acts on a unit positive
test charge. More generally, we write the defining expression:
ay ©)
M
in which E, a vector function, is the electric field intensity evaluated at the test charge
location that arises from all other charges in the vicinity—meaning the electric field
arising from the test charge itself is not included in E.
The units of E would be in force per unit charge (newtons per coulomb). Again
anticipating a new dimensional quantity, the volt (V), having the label of joules per
@
Interactives 30
ENGINEERING ELECTROMAGNETICS
coulomb (1/C), or newton-meters per coulomb (N - m/C), we measure electric field
intensity in the practical units of volts per meter (V/m).
Now, we dispense with most of the subscripts in (6), reserving the right to use
them again any time there is a possibility of misunderstanding. The electric field of a
single point charge becomes:
Q
wart 3)
We remember that R is the magnitude of the vector R, the directed line segment
from the point at which the point charge Q is located to the point at which E is desired,
and ag is a unit vector in the R direction?
We arbitrarily locate Qj at the center of a spherical coordinate system. The unit
vector a then becomes the radial unit vector a,, and R is r. Hence
gone ©
ireor?
‘The field has a single radial component, and its inverse-square-law relationship is
quite obvious.
If we consider a charge that is not at the origin of our coordinate system, the
field no longer possesses spherical symmetry, and we might as well use rectangular
coordinates. For a charge Q located at the source point r’ = x'a, + y'a, +2’a,, as
illustrated in Figure 2.2, we find the field at a general field point r = xa,-+ yay + za,
by expressing R as r — r’, and then
Q@ rr _ or-r)
are —rPir—r'| 4reolr—r'P
E
EQ) =
Ole = ¥)a, + -y)a, += 2a)
~ Frele —¥¥ FOP FE — EDP ae
Eaulier, we defined a vector field as a vector function of a position vector, and this is
emphasized by letting E be symbolized in functional notation by E(t).
Because the coulomb forces are linear, the electric field intensity arising from
two point charges, Q; at r; and Qs at ro, is the sum of the forces on Q, caused by
Q and Q, acting alone, or
Q: Qr
Ee) = — 2 a + — @
= Foronk™ + merone™
where a; and a are unit vectors in the direction of (r —r;) and (r — 12), respectively.
‘The vectors r,ry,r2, 7 —¥y,F —F2, ay, and az are shown in Figure 2.3.
3 We fimly intend to avoid confusing r and a, with R and ag. The fre wo refer specifically tothe
spherical coordinate system, whereas Rand ay do not refer any coordinate system—ie choice is
sul avaiable tous CHAPTER 2 Coulomb's Law and Electric Field Intensity at
Origin
Figure 2.2 The vector r locates the point
charge Q, the vector r identifies the general point
in space P(x, y,2), and the vector R from Q to
Pix. y.2)is then R=r— rr
Er)
Figure 2.3 The vector addition of the total electic field
intensity at P dus to Q; and Qs is made possible by the
lineavity of Coulomb's law. 32
Interactives
ENGINEERING ELECTROMAGNETICS
If we add more charges at other positions, the field due to n point charges is
ap
In order to illustrate the application of (11), we find Eat P(, 1, 1) caused by four iden-
tical 3-nC (nanocoulomb) charges located at P\(1, 1, 0), Pa(—1, 1, 0), Ps, -1, 0),
and P,(1, =1, 0), as shown in Figure 2.4.
Solution. We find that r = ay + ay + a..n1 = a + ay, and thus — ry = ay
‘The magnitudes are: |r — | = 1, |p — 12] = V5, |r — 45] = 3, and |r — 44] = VS.
Because Q/4€) = 3 x 10-*/(4m x 8.854 x 10-7) = 26.96 V - m, we may now
use (11) to obtain
alata, 1 2a,+2ayta,1 | ata, 5
BW)
E=6.82a, + 6.82a, + 32.8a, Vim
D2.2. A charge of —0.3 uC is located at A(25,—30, 15) (in cm), and a
second charge of 0.5 4C is at B(—10, 8, 12) cm. Find E at: (a) the origin;
(b) PAS, 20, 50) em.
‘Ans. 92.3a, —77.6ay ~ 94.2a, kV/m; 11.9ay —0.519ay + 12.4a, kVim
Py-1,0) P\(,1,0)
jure 2.4 Asymmetrical distribution of four identical 2-nC point
charges produces a field at P, E = 6.82a, + 6.82a, + 32.8a, Vim, CHAPTER 2 Coulomb's Law and Electric Field Intensity
oy 1)" +1
a ops yt
‘
2.9. Evaluate the sums: (a) > Gems
Ans. 2.52; 0.176
33
2.3 FIELD ARISING FROM A CONTINUOUS
VOLUME CHARGE DISTRIBUTION
If we now visualize a region of space filled with a tremendous number of charges
separated by minute distances, we see that we can replace this distribution of very
small particles with a smooth continuous distribution described by a volume charge
density, just as we describe water as having a density of 1 g/cm (gram per cubic
centimeter) even though it consists of atomic- and molecular-sized particles. We can
do this only if we are uninterested in the small irregularities (or ripples) in the field
as we move from electron to electron or if we care little that the mass of the water
actually increases in small but finite steps as each new molecule is added.
This is really no limitation at all, because the end results for electrical engineers
are almost always in terms of a current in a receiving antenna, a voltage in an elec-
tronic circuit, or a charge on a capacitor, or in general in terms of some large-scale
macroscopic phenomenon. It is very seldom that we must know a current electron by
electron.*
‘We denote volume charge density by p,, having the units of coulombs per cubic
meter (C/m'),
The small amount of charge AQ in a small volume Av is
AQ=pydv (12)
and we may define p, mathematically by using a limiting process on (12),
p= fim, 22 as
The total charge within some finite volume is obtained by integrating throughout that
volume,
=] adv 14)
Q fo Iv (4)
Only one integral sign is customarily indicated, but the differential dv signifies inte-
gration throughout a volume, and hence a triple integration.
A study of the noise generated by electrons in semiconductors and resistors, however, requizes just
such an examination of the charge through statistical analysis.
@
Ilustrations| 34 ENGINEERING ELECTROMAGNETICS
Asan example of the evaluation of a volume integral, we find the total charge contained
in a 2-cm length of the electron beam shown in Figure 2.5.
Solution. From the illustration, we see that the charge density is
Py = 5 x 1071" Cm?
‘The volume differential in cylindrical coordinates is given in Section 1.8; therefore,
008 par pont
o-[ f f 5 x 10%!" p dp dé dz
oor Is So
We integrate first with respect to ¢ because it is so easy,
004 root .
Q= f 10> e"!”" p do dz
lo
oo
and then with respect to z, because this will simplify the last integration with respect
o= f° (towne)
o —10 9 0.02
001
f = 10~F 77 (e200 — 4d
5
Figure 2.5 The total charge contained
within the right ctoular cylinder may be
obtained by evaluating = foe 0.0 CHAPTER 2 Coulomb's Law and Electric Field Intensity
Finally,
1000 9
= -10-%, (Sr _
—2000 ~ —4000 /,
1 1 =
= —10-, _ =
Q=-10 (sa ry) Fp = 0.0785 pC
where pC indicates picocoulombs.
The incremental contribution to the electric field intensity at r produced by an
incremental charge AQ at r' is
AQ rer av oro
AE(r) = ———, i
Aree —e'P fr—r'] 4reolt —r'P |r — 4]
If we sum the contributions of all the volume charge in a given region and let the
volume element Av approach zero as the number of these elements becomes infinite,
the summation becomes an integral,
Bo [ polt’)dv or
oi Aveo —¥'P |r
(is)
r|
‘This is again a triple integral, and (except in Drill Problem 2.4) we shall do our best
to avoid actually performing the integration.
The significance of the various quantities under the integral sign of (15) might
stand a little review. The vector r from the origin locates the field point where E is
being determined, whereas the vector r’ extends from the origin to the source point
where p,(r')dv' is located. The scalar distance between the source point and the
field point is |r — r’|, and the fraction (r — r’)/|r — ris a unit vector directed from
source point to field point. The variables of integration are x’, y’, and z’ in rectangular
coordinates.
pz.
bel. [yh Ie] = 0.2: oy =
Calculate the total charge within each of the indicated volumes: (a)0.1 <
1@)0
where
and
ror za;
Therefore,
pudz'(pay ~ z'a.)
An eo(p? + 22)?
Because only the E, component is present, we may simplify:
pred:
dmreg(o? + 22)?
and
prpdz’
v0 Ateq(p? + 2797?
Integrating by integral tables or change of variable, z’ = p cot, we have
a ,(2 ~
Ee Loo(3 a)
and
Pr
2wreop
or finally, @
(16) _ [ilustrations|
E,=
2neop
We note that the field falls off inversely with the distance to the charged line, as
compared with the point charge, where the field decreased with the square of the
distance. Moving ten times as far from a point charge leads to a field only 1 percent
the previous strength, but moving ten times as far from a line charge only reduces
the field to 10 percent of its former value. An analogy can be drawn with a source of 38
ENGINEERING ELECTROMAGNETICS
6.8.2)
® Pes.3.2)
(0.80)
on
eee 68,0)
” ® 99)
Figure 2.7 Apoint P(x, y.2) is identified near an infinite
uniform ine charge located at x = 6, y = 8.
illumination, for the light intensity from a point source of light also falls off inversely
as the square of the distance to the source. The field of an infinitely long fluorescent
tube thus decays inversely as the first power of the radial distance to the tube, and we
should expect the light intensity about a finite-length tube to obey this law near the
tube. As our point recedes farther and farther from a finite-length tube, however, it
eventually looks like a point source, and the field obeys the inverse-square relationship.
Before leaving this introductory look at the field of the infinite line charge, we
should recognize the fact that not all line charges are located along the z axis. As an
example, let us consider an infinite line charge parallel to the z axis at x = 6, y = 8,
shown in Figure 2.7. We wish to find E at the general field point P(x, y. 2)
We replace p in (16) by the radial distance between the line charge and point,
PLR = V(x — 6) + (y — 8), and let a, be ag. Thus,
bt
Inole=OFO-
where
ap = B 2&2 9 += Bay
Rl V@—eF +0 -8F
Therefore,
pa PE & = Oa +) = 8a,
~ Ineo (« — 6 +(y — 8)?
We again note that the field is not a function of z. CHAPTER 2 Coulomb's Law and Electric Field Intensity
In Section 2.6, we describe how fields may be sketched, and we use the field of
the line charge as one example.
12.5. Infinite uniform line charges of 5 nC/m lie along the (positive and
negative) x and y axes in free space. Find E at: (a) Pa(0, 0, 4); (b) Pa (0, 3, 4).
Ans. 45a, Vim; 10.8a, +36.9a, Vim
2.5 FIELD OF A SHEET OF CHARGE
Another basic charge configuration is the infinite sheet of charge having a uniform
density of ps C/m?, Such a charge distribution may often be used to approximate
that found on the conductors of a strip transmission line or a parallel-plate capacitor.
‘As we shall see in Chapter 5, static charge resides on conductor surfaces and not
in their interiors; for this reason, ps is commonly known as surface charge density
‘The charge-distribution family now is complete—point, line, surface, and volume, or
Q, px, ps. and py
Let us place a sheet of charge in the yz plane and again consider symmetry
(Figure 2.8). We see first that the field cannot vary with y or with z, and then we see
that the y and z components arising from differential elements of charge symmetrically
located with respect to the point at which we evaluate the field will cancel. Hence
only E, is present, and this component is a function of x alone, We are again faced
with a choice of many methods by which to evaluate this component, and this time we
use only one method and leave the others as exercises for a quiet Sunday afternoon.
Let us use the field of the infinite line charge (16) by dividing the infinite sheet
into differential-width strips. One such strip is shown in Figure 2.8, The line charge
Ps ay
y——|
Px, 0,0)
Figure 2.8 An infinite shoot of charge in the yz
plane, a general point P on the x axis, and the
sifferential-wicth line charge used as the element in
determining the field at P by JE = psdy’an/(2ne0R)
39 40
ENGINEERING ELECTROMAGNETICS
and the distance from this line
Vx? -Fy?. The contribution to
density, or charge per unit length, is pz, = ps dy’
charge to our general point P on the x axis is R
Ey at P from this differential-width strip is then
dB, = 8 cog = PS 20"
et eyt Ine P+ y?
Adding the effects of all the strips,
ps [™ _xdy’ PS tant XY LBs
Ey tan os
re iz $y? One “| eq
If the point P were chosen on the negative x axis, then
for the field is always directed away from the positive charge. This difficulty in sign
is usually overcome by specifying a unit vector ay, which is normal to the sheet and
directed outward, or away from it. Then
E=~ay an
This is a startling answer, for the field is constant in magnitude and direction.
Lis just as strong a million miles away from the sheet as it is right off the surface
Returning to our light analogy, we see that a uniform source of light on the ceiling of
a very large room leads to just as much illumination on a square foot on the floor as it
does on a square foot a few inches below the ceiling. If you desire greater illumination
on this subject, it will do you no good to hold the book closer to such a light source.
If a second infinite sheet of charge, having a negative charge density —ps, is
located in the plane x = a, we may find the total field by adding the contribution of
each sheet. In the region x > a,
and when 0 < x
