Textbook

of
Modern
Herbology
Second Revised Edition

by
Terry Willard, Ph.D.
assisted by James McCormick, M.Sc.

Foreword by Michael Tierra, O.M.D.

Wild Rose College of Natural Healing, Ltd.

302, 1220 Kensington Rd. N.W.
Calgary, Alberta
T2N 3P5
Copyright © 1993, Wild Rose College of Natural Healing Ltd. ©
Disclaimer: Individuals seeking relief from illness should consult a
qualified health practitioner. This book cannot, and is not meant to,
replace the services of a health professional.

Revised Second Edition © Terry L. Willard 1988, 1993

Published by:

Wild Rose College of Natural Healing, Ltd.

302, 1220 Kensington Rd. N.W.
Calgary, Alberta, T2N 3P5
Phone: (403) 270-0936
FAX: (403) 283-0799

First Edition published by:

C.W. Progressive Publishing Group Inc.

Calgary, Alberta

ISBN # 0-9691727-4-5

Printed in Singapore

First printing, May 1988

Second printing, revised edition, June 1993

Illustrations: Rob Renpenning, James McCormick, Naomi Lewis

plus materials digitally processed from the public domain.

ii Copyright © 1993, Wild Rose College of Natural Healing Ltd.

Table of Contents
Foreword by Michael Tierra, O.M.D. iv
Dedication vi
Preface to Second Edition vii
Preface to First Edition ix
Acknowledgements x

Introduction 1
Chapter 1: History of North American Herbology 13
Chapter 2: Basic Principles of Physiological Functioning 21
Chapter 3: Plant Identification 37
Chapter 4: Plant Classification 55
Chapter 5: Some Biochemical Mysteries ... 71
Chapter 6: The Digestive System and Tonics 87
Chapter 7: Physiology of Blood Pressure and Stimulants 113
Chapter 8: Elimination and Diaphoretics 139
Chapter 9: The Kidneys, Renal Function and Diuretics 157
Chapter 10: The Respiratory System, Expectorants
and Demulcents 175
Chapter 11: The Colon and Cathartics 197
Chapter 12: The Nervous System, Nervines and Antispasmodics 217
Chapter 13: Defense Systems, Alteratives and Antiscorbutics 239
Chapter 14: The Lymphatic System and Astringents 257
Chapter 15: The Reproductive System and Emmenagogues 269
Chapter 16: The Endocrine System and Flower Essence Systems 289
Chapter 17: Additional Herbs 307
Chapter 18: Herbal Formulations 319

Appendices
1: Herbal Preparations 331
2: Weights and Measures 338
3: List of Associations and Contacts 339
4: First Steps in Herbal Research 340
5: Glossary of Botanical Terms 342
6: Summary of Herbal Therapeutic Groups 345
7: A Bach Flower Questionnaire 348

Index 351

Copyright © 1993, Wild Rose College of Natural Healing Ltd. iii

Foreword
by Michael Tierra, O.M.D.

Dr. Tierra is author of The Way of Herbs and Planetary Herbology and editor of
American Herbalism: Essays on Herbs & Herbalism by Members of the American
Herbalists Guild. He is an Executive Member of the American Herbalists Guild and has
been very active in establishing a North American herbal profession. Michael is a
licensed acupuncturist and herbal practitioner who lives and works in Santa Cruz,
California.

An herbal textbook. If we rule out the professional hack journalists who

pass down second– and third–hand information about herbal medicine
(often out of context), we have only a few good books that actually
draw from the author's personal experience. In this work, we can find
the decades of dedication and professional experience of an outstand-
ing herbalist. The well–organized presentation carefully guides the
student through the various facets of herbal medicine.

In one sense, Terry and I have walked parallel paths, he in Canada and I
in California, since the days of Dr. Christopher (whose teachings were
the wellspring of so many of us). The days of awakening to inner and
outer nature — the days of the late Sixties and early Seventies when
most of us were wildly reaching out for alternatives.

I know that both Terry and I found what we were looking for in nature.
Probably at the same time that I was living in the Klamath National
Forest of Northern California, hunting and fishing salmon out of the
Klamath and Salmon rivers, Terry was living in a tipi in western Canada.

In some mysterious way, what spoke to me at that time, echoing, as it

were, out of the earth herself, was the voice of healing. The same voice, I
discovered years later, also enchanted Terry on the east slope of the
Rocky Mountains. The voice led us both unknowingly into the near–
forgotten world of herbal medicine.

I am reminded of a comment by my first herb teacher, a highly eccentric

Taoist, Professor Foon Lee Wong. As I began my study of Chinese
herbal medicine with him in San Francisco, he said, "It takes more than
one lifetime to learn herbal medicine." After 25 years, his words remain
clear as I realize how much farther yet there is to go. For me, and I know
for Terry, it feels like our journey has only begun.

iv Copyright © 1993, Wild Rose College of Natural Healing Ltd.

Yet, now we are becoming the elders, the mentors of thousands who
are seeking their way through herbal enchantment. As we go on, we
have each assumed the formidable responsibility of helping others who
are just beginning to find their way along the path to herbal knowledge.
And so, each of us has left our books as tokens of where we have been.
Perhaps they also serve to point the way for a mountain of social and
political acceptance yet to be traversed. Or more important levels of
integration with our herbal ancestors from Europe, China, Tibet, India,
Native America and with our recent spiritual herbal brothers and sisters.

Terry's Textbook is one of his stepping stones on the path. For me it

provides a remarkably well–organized exposition of a highly effective
Western herbal medicine that draws on the experience of Dr. Christo-
pher, Dr. Shook, Dr. Nowell, perhaps with echoes of the wild woman
herbalist, Norma Myers of Vancouver, and other herbal forebears.

For the dedicated student, Textbook of Modern Herbology is just about

the cleanest and clearest text you can have to get off to a good solid
start.

M.T.
Santa Cruz, CA
May 1993

Copyright © 1993, Wild Rose College of Natural Healing Ltd. v

Dedication
I would like to dedicate this book to past students of natural healing
who kept the arts of healing alive and to those who will be future
bearers of this knowledge.

I would also like to dedicate this book to my first great teacher in

herbology, the late Dr. John R. Christopher. As a healer, educator and
master herbalist, his contribution to North American herbology is
incalculable.

And, of course, the patience of Yarrow, Aiyana and Liu Wei has warmed
my heart during the days and nights of revising this text.

vi Copyright © 1993, Wild Rose College of Natural Healing Ltd.

Preface to the Second Edition
Five years ago the first edition of this text was published. In the interven-
ing years, many students and teachers have made valuable suggestions
that I've tried to incorporate into this new edition. The original text grew
into a three part herbal study series. The Wild Rose Scientific Herbal and
the Textbook of Advanced Herbology are the companion volumes in the
series. For the correspondence student, we developed a workbook to
make the study process more enjoyable and more effective. It soon
became evident that classroom students and other interested parties
who bought the textbook wanted a workbook also. As a result, we are
now making a version of the workbook available to the public. It is
designed as a study guide and companion text with up-to-date informa-
tion. The workbook is in a loose leaf format making updates easier and
therefore more regular.

I have removed a few herbs from this second edition. Either I don’t use
them that much anymore and/or they are hard to find commercially. I
also added some herbs that have become prominent in my practice
since the first edition. This includes some herbs in the Additional Herbs
section (Chapter 17) as well as a few scattered throughout the text.

Under the heading of Therapeutic Uses for each herb, you will see
actions that are capitalized. They can be considered the primary uses
for a particular herb.

Since the first edition, political and academic initiatives supporting

herbal medicine have been very notable. Internationally there are
several three and four year programs available. In North America, there
are several small schools of herbal medicine. Both the Canadian
Association of Herbal Practitioners and the American Herbalists Guild
have been asking for higher educational standards for herbal practitio-
ners. Wild Rose College is the first three year program for clinical
herbalists available in North America and this edition of the Textbook of
Modern Herbology will be used in the introductory course.

On the political scene, the United Nation’s World Health Organization

(WHO) has proposed a huge shift toward indigenous botanical medi-
cines as a way to lower health care costs. Most developing nations have
adopted this system. The European Community and Australia are
embracing it wholeheartedly. The major "wilderness" for botanical
medicine is North America. Now, with escalating costs in high-tech
health care, there appears to be a very solid niche opening for botanical
medicine practitioners in North America and around the world. Her-
bology not only is a cost effective form of complementary health care, it
adheres to tenets of holistic medicine that are quite popular among an
ever increasing portion of the population.

Copyright © 1993, Wild Rose College of Natural Healing Ltd. vii

In this edition, we have added some symbols to draw the reader's
attention:

Sc means that this herb can also be found in the companion text
Wild Rose Scientific Herbal. This book gives more detailed information
on the plant including references on constituents, energetics, mode of
action and history.

Ad means that the associated herb can be found in the Textbook of

Advanced Herbology. This text has information on the botanical from a
chemical perspective.

Ed means this herb can be found in the field guide, Edible and
Medicinal Plants of the Rocky Mountains and Neighbouring Territories.
This book has many folk and practical uses of herbs and also draws
deeply on the First Nations' uses for indigenous plants. Most of the
botanicals listed have line drawings and colour pictures to aid identifica-
tion.

☞ This symbol points to very important notes in the text. Pregnancy

warnings, contraindications and potential toxicity are common ex-
amples.

It's heartening to see the progress and enthusiasm of herbalists since

the publication of the first edition in 1988. I hope you'll find the Second
Revised Edition of the Textbook of Modern Herbology a dependable and
enjoyable introduction to a fascinating world.

Calgary, Alberta
May 1993

viii Copyright © 1993, Wild Rose College of Natural Healing Ltd.

Preface to the First Edition
The Textbook of Modern Herbology started out as notes used for teach-
ing my first herbology courses. These courses were sixteen weeks long,
with two classes of approximately 30 students each. During the semes-
ter a few students invariably missed a lecture here and there and asked
if they could photocopy the notes. Lecture notes, being what they are,
were not always neat or complete so the next year I decided to spruce
them up a bit in case there were more requests. It wasn’t long before
there was so much material to cover that it was sensible to hand out a
complete set of notes at the beginning of the course to help people
along in their studies. So I created manuals for the course.

This system, along with cassette tapes, promptly worked its way into a
correspondence course from the Wild Rose College of Natural Healing
that has been very active since 1978. From the first notes to the present
form you see, this material has been completely reworked eight times.
During this period we have included many of the suggestions of the
students.

As director of two wholistic clinics (in Calgary and Vancouver), I have

had the benefit of many chances to learn about herbal use at a practical
level. Academic study must always be tempered with real-life experi-
ence and much of this textbook has been revised and rethought on that
basis. No doubt there will be new ideas and new herbs to note as the
coming years bring a renaissance in herbology.

A word about style. The British/Canadian spellings of many terms are

used in this book when possible merely as an arbitrary standard. In the
sections on herbal description under Therapeutic Action, major usages
are capitalized.

There will be people who read this text almost at a sitting. They will be
eager for further education and while I encourage them, I must say that
herbal education in North America has a great deal of growth and
refinement ahead of it. The recommended readings at the end of each
chapter and the appendix with herbal organizations should provide the
aspiring herbalist with a starting point.

Calgary, Alberta
April 1988

Copyright © 1993, Wild Rose College of Natural Healing Ltd. ix

Acknowledgements
This book has evolved over a period of 20 years with contributions by
many parties. First and foremost, I must acknowledge the contributions,
large and small, of over 5,000 students who have used the manuals and
textbook that were the precursors of this edition. I should also thank
colleagues, book reviewers and readers of the first edition of the
Textbook of Modern Herbology who often took time to make corrections
and suggestions. As much as possible, I’ve tried to integrate recom-
mended improvements.

In a work that has gone through so much revision, over such a long
time, with contributions by so many people, undoubtedly I will forget
someone. This book grew out of notes that at times were not well
referenced. We hope there are no direct quotes without references,
and we haven’t received any comments on the subject from readers of
the first edition but again, we welcome corrections. I am confident that
each future edition of this book will take further advantage of the large
pool of herbal knowledge that is beyond the ability of a single author to
recall.

James McCormick's patience and undying support through rewrites

and corrections should also be acknowledged. This, or any of the other
books I've written, would never have been completed if not for the
thousands of hours of his editing, recomposing and layout. For his
support and friendship I could never thank him enough.

The publishing assistance supplied by my brother, Ted Willard and

Cathy Martin and Debbie Mantik of the C.W. Progressive Publishing
Group was critical for the first edition. During the final production push
on that edition, my sister-in-law Wendy Willard gave critical assistance.
The efforts of Marie, Dorothy, Kathleen, Mary and Terri in supporting the
publishing efforts of Wild Rose College deserve a big "Thanks".

The many writers, teachers and clerical staff who contributed to the
creation of the course manuals, and ultimately the first edition of the
text, deserve additional thanks. Their spirit remains influential in this
text.

Since 1988, the expansion of Wild Rose’s classroom and correspon-

dence activities in Alberta and British Columbia has offered additional
opportunities for me to refine the contents of this book. Dramatically
improved computer technology also allows Wild Rose to offer a more
attractive second edition at this time.

At Wild Rose, we use an interactive workbook for both classroom and

correspondence courses which supplements the text and increases
student comprehension. My thanks to the students who've worked with
the "beta" versions of the workbook and to instructors Don Rost and
Martin Stone who gave me feedback as they taught with those early
versions.
x Copyright © 1993, Wild Rose College of Natural Healing Ltd.
 Introduction

Introduction

Whenever a Great Physician treats disease, he has to be

mentally calm and his disposition firm. He should not give way
to wishes and desires, but has to develop first of all a marked
attitude of compassion. He should commit himself firmly to
the willingness to take the effort to save every living creature.

Sun Szu-miao (A.D.581?-682)

“To the absolute sincerity of Great Physicians” in

Ch’ien-chin fang

Unschuld, trans.

The Rebirth of Modern Herbology

Interest in herbal medicine in North America is growing by leaps and
bounds. In the midst of our high-tech, high-cost medical systems,
government, businesses and citizens are looking for an alternative --
something safe, effective, healthy and a lot less expensive!

While the World Health Organization (WHO) says that 80% of the world’s
population depends on traditional medicines (herbs) for their primary

Copyright © 1993, Wild Rose College of Natural Healing Ltd. 1

Textbook of Modern Herbology, Second Revised Edition

care, North American interest has been hidden for the last 90 years.
Recent academic papers however suggest that 1/3 of North Americans
use an “unconventional health therapy” each year and roughly one in
ten visit an “unconventional health therapist” (averaging 19 visits per
year).1 In the face of such statistics, we can predict that herbal medicine
will return to more public prominence.

Herbs (pronounced either “herb” or “erb”) aren’t staying hidden in the

Indian medicine man’s pot or in the satchel of the midwife. The blurring
between what is a “food” and what is a “drug” means that medicinal
herbs appear in the vegetable and spice section of every supermarket.
Whether in a health food store or health clinic, herbs are more and
more available. Bookstores are filled with information allowing people
to take better care of themselves.

Information on herbs is increasingly more scientific. As industrialized

countries around the world re-examine botanical products (whether
for medicines, flavourings, spices or foods), they assemble large “mono-
graphs” on the safety and effectiveness of each plant.

It is my strong opinion that we are entering an era when botanicals will

move into the forefront of pharmaceutical medicine. The cutting edge
of new advances in medicine will come from research into substances
which are in greatest harmony with the body, those of the botanical
kingdom. Herbs will soon be first class citizens alongside the synthetic
derivatives of plants. Our modern society is starting to see that there are
many ailments that can be alleviated as effectively and safely with
natural ingredients as with synthetic ones. Of course, traditional societ-
ies around the globe have recognized this for thousands of years!

As we also begin to understand the biochemistry of botanicals, re-

searchers and government bodies gain confidence in the substances.
That confidence translates into regulations and legislation that makes
herbs available to everyone in safe, clean, informative circumstances.
Time cannot be turned back. The resurgence of interest in herbal
medicines will be complete when they are integrated into modern
society. The use of herbs must be based on the ancient intuitive skills of
the healer and on the finest standards of scientific inquiry.

Some of the more dramatic, chronic health problems facing modern

populations can be more easily cured by natural substances. So many
of the ailments we suffer from can be related to lifestyle and diet. The
immune system, for example, is the focus of tremendous scientific
interest because of its relation to diseases such as cancer, leukemia,
Chronic Fatigue Syndrome, AIDS and severe allergies. Yet the immune
system is often weakened by pharmaceuticals. In contrast, it is strength-
ened by herbs like echinacea, astragalus and reishi. Before such state-

1
Eisenberg, D.M. et al., “Unconvential Medicine in the United States”, New England
Journal of Medicine, Vol. 328:246-252, Jan. 28. 1993.
2 Copyright © 1993, Wild Rose College of Natural Healing Ltd.
 Introduction

ments will be generally accepted, however, herbal materials must be

subjected to rigourous and open examination.

The paramount reason for the effectiveness of botanical preparations is

life itself. Because botanicals have lived, they carry a pattern of life
energy. Human beings are an intimate part of this planet. We evolved
here over millions of years, our physiology is adapted to acquiring its ‘life
force’ from the materials around it. Called by many names around the
world (Qi, Chi, Ki, Prana, Vital Energy), this essence of life is the fuel of
our health, the basis of our existence. By taking our medicines the way
our body absorbs energy normally (i.e. through digestion of ‘food’) we
take advantage of as many subtle elements of healing as possible.

It is interesting to note that even in a modern society, with its advanced

communication systems, we tend to blind ourselves to the time-tested
healing systems of other cultures. While you read these words, there are
more people around the world using botanicals as medicine than any
other method. This is something that we forget in our isolated box of
high-tech culture. The hunters, farmers and pastoralists of the world
have the medicinal system they need. But our current medical predica-
ment is a matter of our choice. While we attempt to bring expensive
medicine into the Third World, we are simultaneously trying to free
ourselves from the economic and emotional burden it entails.

The use of botanical medicines is still a major part of Chinese and

Indian public medicine. These societies, lacking advanced material
technology as we conceive it, have logically consistent medical systems
that are based largely on herbs. Though using a different type of “physi-
ology” than the Western world, these “sciences” have worked on
billions of people over thousands of years. Statistics like that are hard to
refute unless we wish to ignore the care and intelligence of thousands
of dedicated healers through the centuries. The elaborate medical
systems like traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) and Ayurveda are now
undergoing western scientific study. It has often been shown that the
folklore and ancient medical systems also have a biochemical basis for
their effective treatment of ailments.

There is more than one logically consistent medical system. There are
many. For example, the Chinese have a system that is over 5,000 years
old and it is very effective in the healing of people. The rules and laws
that the Chinese practitioner employs would confuse or amuse a
modern biochemist or physiologist but the effectiveness of the tech-
niques are indisputable. They work. The scientific models that our
medical systems have developed are not the only possible models of
health. There are many valid models that can help a competent practi-
tioner to suggest natural substances that speed up the healing process.

Copyright © 1993, Wild Rose College of Natural Healing Ltd. 3

Textbook of Modern Herbology, Second Revised Edition

A Global Look at Licorice Sc Ad Ed *

Licorice is the number one DRUG (a botanical used for a healing
purpose) used in the world today. It is used more than any pharmaceu-
tical. Though only administered sparingly in North America, in China
and India it is used extensively.

Lets look at a few different models of how it works.

The Chinese experience

In China, licorice is the most used herb. Sometimes it is called the

“Grandfather of Chinese herbs” or the “Great Adjunct” and the “Great
Detoxifier”. Its major use is harmonization of herbal formulas. Licorice’s
atmospheric energies are neutral, the flavour sweet, acting on all twelve
meridians though especially beneficial to the spleen, stomach, kidney
and lung. It has tonic energy and revitalizes the “center” or as it is called
the “middle burning space”, supplementing and balancing the internal
regions of the body. It is believed to drive all toxins and poisons out of
the body and is used to eliminate side effects of many other herbs. The
end result of all these attributes is its appearance in many formulas. It is
stated that licorice will clean out meridians and allow qi to flow
smoothly.

Old Chinese classics state that “licorice is the cure for thinness and can
change weak into strong... Licorice is the master of toxic Ch’i of the world
and mountains and rivers and fog and dew; its eliminates toxins of the
earth and miasma.” Shen Nung (China’s first great herbalist) said
“licorice is the master of the hot and cold evil Ch’i of the viscera. It fortifies
the sinews and bones and muscle growth, and doubles our strength; it
cures swollen wounds due to wrenching and cutting and detoxifies the
blood and energy.”

Licorice is used very often by Chinese herbalists. It is described as the

herb most used by the herbalists on themselves. Combined with an
orchid (Dendrobium sp.) and boiled or simmered for 20 minutes it is
said to raise the energies of the practitioner, used to replace lost energy,
help one to handle stress and is considered one of the best formulas
after overindulging (especially excessive sexual activity).

In China, licorice is prepared in many different ways (e.g., raw, peeled,

cooked, burnt, barbequed, glazed in honey) with different uses for the
different preparations.

* These symbols refer to other Wild Rose books, please consult the Second Edition
Preface for more detail.

4 Copyright © 1993, Wild Rose College of Natural Healing Ltd.

 Introduction

Figure 0.1
Licorice
Glycyrrhiza glabra

The East Indian experience

Licorice is used extensively in the East Indian or Ayurvedic tradition. Its

rasa (taste) is sweet; virya (potency) is cold; vipaka (taste which
emerges after digestion) is sweet. Traditionally botanicals having virya
and/or vipaka sweet would not work on the stomach, but licorice is a
strong “liquifier of the stomach”, helping impaired digestion, moistening
food and aiding secretions of the stomach. It also aids in fevers, helps
circulation, transports nutrients and encourages sweating. Licorice, in
this tradition, has been used for hoarseness of voice, hiccups, bronchi-
tis, asthma and colds. Its actions promote longevity and healing powers,
strengthen cases of fatigue and promote eyesight. It is used against
rheumatism, throat irritation, bleeding, urinary complaints, morbid thirst
and exhaustion.

The Native American experience

The North American Indians used licorice for sore throats, for bronchitis
and for upset stomach. It was also valued as one of the most potent
flavouring agents. Licorice was used by the Cheyenne for gastrointesti-
nal problems, most specifically as an antidiarrheal and for ceremonial
purposes. Dakota used licorice for earaches, fever and toothache and
as a veterinary medicine. The Navaho decocted the root as a mild
cathartic. The Pawnee used it for earaches, fevers, pediatric problems
and toothache while the Fox Indians used licorice for gynecological
problems.

Copyright © 1993, Wild Rose College of Natural Healing Ltd. 5

Textbook of Modern Herbology, Second Revised Edition

The European experience

Licorice has long been used as a demulcent, moderately effective

pectoral and emollient. It is commonly employed for chest pains,
consumption, bronchitis, coughs, mild constipation and overall fatigue.
The alchemists thought licorice was ruled by Mercury, aiding communi-
cation, affecting the nervous system and strengthening people suffering
from moodiness or mental swings.

Modern Science

Pharmaceutically licorice is considered to have the following actions:

estrogenic, aldosterone-like, anti-inflammatory (cortisol-like action),
anti-allergic, antibacterial, antiviral, antitrichomonas, antihepatotoxic,
anticonvulsive, choleretic, antineoplastic, expectorant and antitussive.

Licorice has been reported to have a regulating ability on estrogen

metabolism. Large doses can cause pseudoaldosteronism, raising
blood pressure and causing edema. This effect has been put to use in
cases of Addison’s disease. Licorice apparently stimulates interferon, in
turn working as an immune stimulator. It has been shown to inhibit the
growth of DNA and RNA in many viruses and has therefore been used
for herpes, vaccinia and vesicular stomatitis. Licorice has been very
successful in treating ulcers. It can inhibit toxicity in the liver, regulate
acute intermittent porphyria, while having a “cortisone-like” action as
an anti-inflammatory and anti-allergic agent.

As you can see, one single plant has had many cultures, many healers,
apply insight and intelligence to its healing properties. Different cultures
have come up with similar uses for licorice though lacking advanced
communication systems for “comparing notes”. Many feel that this
replication of effectiveness across so much time and distance strength-
ens the validity of the results. Thousands of similar healing plants are
available to people living today.

Our approach to botanical medicine

This is a textbook for courses on herbal medicine, defined here as the
art and science of restoring a living creature2 to health by the use of
plant remedies. The purpose of herbal remedies is helping the body’s
own recuperative processes. The subordinate and assisting role of
herbs must always be kept in mind. Herbs, in and of themselves, are not
a panacea. Intelligently used, however, they can play an extremely
important role in helping the body restore its own health.

2
While herbs are very useful in veterinary medicine, this text will focus on the human
applications.

6 Copyright © 1993, Wild Rose College of Natural Healing Ltd.

 Introduction

The three "bodies" may be represented in three dimensions by a "cone" or in two

dimensions by concentric circles. Seen below, the three bodies are set, one within the
other, with "Vital Energy" (the dark coloured core) providing the basis for life. Ill health works
its way in towards the level of Vital Energy and down the cone to deeper levels of the
body.

Mental body

Emotional body M
E
Physical body P

Vital Energy

(adapted from Vithoulkas 1980)

Figure 0.2
Diagram of Three Bodies

There are many different models of health that we can use. We are
going to use a model that is often applied by (w)holistic healers in North
America, Australia/New Zealand and Europe. Modern herbology, in
North America specifically, is a dynamic blend of North American Indian
and Western European herbology. It assimilates orthodox scientific
discoveries which appear daily and yet also respects the powerful
concepts and methods of Oriental medicine.

(W)holistic Model of Humans

The model that I like to use separates humans into three ‘bodies’.

➊ Physical
➋ Emotional
➌ Mental
Throughout this set of ‘bodies’ flows a force call “Vital Energy”.

Copyright © 1993, Wild Rose College of Natural Healing Ltd. 7

Textbook of Modern Herbology, Second Revised Edition

Physical Body

First we have the physical body. In Western science, this body has been
the focus of most of the attention. It is dense, inhabiting both space and
time. The physical body is easy to identify and therefore has been
studied in much detail. This textbook has a two-pronged approach to
the physical body. First, a physical system of the body is reviewed. Then
the herbs appropriate for that system are discussed. The physical level is
where all of the biochemical processes go on. Because we understand
the physiology of the body and the biochemistry of many herbs, the
interaction of the two is the easiest to understand.

Of course, some of the folklore uses of herbs may never be understood

at a biochemical level. This merely challenges herbalists to increase their
understanding of the other ‘bodies’. This textbook is not a detailed
biochemical herbal. It is designed as an introduction for the serious
student. A companion volume in the Wild Rose Herb Series, The Wild
Rose Scientific Herbal, reviews in detail the biochemistry and physiologi-
cal effects of many common herbs. And for those that want even more
understanding, The Textbook of Advanced Herbology, offers a view of
herbs specifically in terms of the biochemical families found in plants.

Looking at Figure 0.2 you will see that we have placed the physical body
on the outside with the emotional and mental bodies closer to the
center. The physical body is dense, strong and well evolved. Many
(w)holistic practitioners suggest this body, being the densest, is a
protection for the more fragile bodies deeper in the person.

A metaphor or example I like to use is the medieval European castle.

The physical body is like the outer wall of the castle, protecting the
inhabitants from any hostile forces. It makes a good barrier, protecting
the more delicate parts.

Emotional Body

Going inwards, the next body is the emotional. Here we have a more
delicate system of subtle vibration. The emotional body exists in time, it
grows and matures, but it does not inhabit space. We can’t weigh our
emotions even though they may feel heavy on our shoulders. We can’t
measure their width, length and depth. We can therefore say that
emotions have “positive-time, negative-space”. But our emotions can
profoundly affect our health. The stresses of a marriage break-up, a
death in the family or a crisis of self-confidence, all can have dramatic
effects on our health. Correspondingly, the birth of a healthy baby, a
graduation from high school or falling in love can all have a tremendous
positive impact on our health.

8 Copyright © 1993, Wild Rose College of Natural Healing Ltd.

 Introduction

Not only can emotion affect the physical body, the physical body can
affect the emotions. If a person has low blood sugar or candidiasis, they
may have dramatic mood swings -- and those moods will indirectly
affect other people. We can also inspire healing by working from the
level of one body to another. By eliminating the low blood sugar
through diet and regulating the pancreas we can provide a firmer
foundation for the emotions and change a person’s expectations of
how they will feel and behave.

A classic example is the adolescent experience of acne. A teenager

looks at their face in the mirror, sees the acne and suffers a lack of self-
esteem, perhaps an anxiety attack. This places the person’s body under
stress and before you know it the acne problem is worse. The emo-
tional stress stimulates physiological changes which support the acne,
in turn causing more stress and so on into a vicious cycle. Of course like
many patterns, processes can be reversed. We could suggest to the
teenager the application of some aloe vera on the skin and 1/4 cup
taken internally daily. This starts a physiological process to reduce acne.
As this happens, confidence in the healing method is established and
self-esteem will return. Emotional stress is relieved and we have created
a positive cycle toward healing.

All health problems have a certain element of the physical and a certain
element of the emotional. As a herbalist you will have to blend the
knowledge of these levels together to effect a good cure. A basic
necessary level of health in the emotions is the client’s confidence in the
herbs and in you, as a practitioner. Belief systems are very important.
They will enliven the emotions and take some of the stress away. As a
natural healer gains more knowledge and practice, they will evolve
greater skills in this area. There can be great variation in the degree to
which the emotions or the physical body provoke disease. We will look
at this issue in greater depth with the Bach Flower Remedies and other
Flower Essences in Chapter 16.

In our model of the castle we can compare the emotions to the court-
yard full of merchants, jugglers, peasants and soldiers. They are pro-
tected by the castle wall, but in turn, by their very presence, they protect
the inner court. The inner court is more fragile but very important to
running the kingdom.

Mental Body

The next circle moving inwards is the mental body. This body is even
more subtle than the emotional one. Mental concepts, different from
the emotional, can also affect our health. Too rigid a point of view can
lead our physical body to become too crystalized (e.g., causing arthritis).
Fanaticism is a “dis-ease” in itself. The mental body is akin to the inner
court of advisors. They protect the king in his inner sanctum.

Copyright © 1993, Wild Rose College of Natural Healing Ltd. 9

Textbook of Modern Herbology, Second Revised Edition

Vital Energy

At the center of our being we have a vital energy that activates all of the
other bodies. This is the energy that keeps us going. This can be com-
pared to the king of a country, who influences and controls widely
while doing very little himself. All other people in the kingdom are there
to protect him and he in turn has a responsibility to them.

Herbs and the Three Bodies

When looking at herbs we can see they are much more than just
physical material. We can analyse the chemicals in the herbs, copy
them, and synthesize them in a lab but that is only part of their nature. In
the courses I have taught over the last decade at Wild Rose College of
Natural Healing, we have taken the biochemistry of herbs very seriously.
Such study allows us to deal with the ‘physical body’ of the herb. The
folklore and traditional knowledge which has been passed down to us
refers more to the personality of the herb.

Natural healers have to deal with both the physical body of a person
and the personality. Similarly, we have to deal with the various aspects
of herbs. Recommending a biochemical duplicate of a plant will not be
the same as giving the person a herb.

Plant Personality
A brief examination of a North American Indian approach to plants will
help clarify the concept of plant personality. A young Indian interested
in becoming a herbalist healer had to learn not only which plant was
applicable to which part of the body but also the “totem” of the plant.
The “totem” reflects the personality of the plant. Learning to determine
the essence of the plant was a far more subtle goal than just memoriz-
ing colour, shape and preparation. How a plant acquires its vital energy,
stores and distributes it, all contribute to the personality. Only after truly
understanding the essence of a plant could an Indian herbalist make
use of it in healing. Through the years, such a herbalist would build up a
great deal of understanding, bridging the vital energy of plants to the
presence or absence of vital energy in humans. Thus healing is match-
ing the strengths of the plant totem with the needs of the ailing human.
In our studies, the folklore of a botanical will let us appreciate the
personality of the herb and the modern biochemical knowledge will
also help us look for the signature chemicals which suggest plant
nature.

The vital energy of an individual is the ultimate level that we are trying to
influence to encourage healing. This is the area that herbs deal with the
best. Vital energy is life itself. Since herbs have been alive, collecting their
vital energy from the sun, they possess qualities of life. They can help
activate the life in us.
10 Copyright © 1993, Wild Rose College of Natural Healing Ltd.
 Introduction

Summary
In this introduction we took a first look at the diversity of herbal study,
choosing licorice as an example of how different cultures approach the
use of a plant. We also outlined one way of looking at human healing
(the three body concept) and how the idea of a plant personality can
assist the herbalist.

Recommended Readings
Vithoulkas, G., The Science of Homeopathy, Grove Press, N.Y.; 1980.
Blackie, M.G., The Patient, Not the Cure, Woodbridge Press, Santa Barbara, Calif.:
1978.
Thakkur, C.G., Ayurveda: The Indian Art & Science of Medicine, A.S.I. Publishers, N.Y.:
1974.
Kapoor, L.D., CRC Handbook of Ayurvedic Medicinal Plants, CRC Press, Boca Raton,
FL,: 1990.
Dash, V.B., Fundamentals of Ayurvedic Medicine, Bansal & Co.: 1978.
Erichsen-Brown, C., Use of Plants for the past 500 years, Breezy Creek Press, Aurora,
Ont., Canada: 1979.
Lust, J., The Herb Book, Bantam Books, N.Y.:1973.
Hsu, Hong-Yen, et al., Oriental Materia Medica, a concise guide, O.H.A.I., Long Beach,
CA, 1986.
Moerman, Daniel, Medicinal Plants of Native America (2 vols.), U. of Michigan
Museum of Anthropology, Tech Report Number 19, 1986.
Vogel, V.J., American Indian Medicine, Ballatine Books, N.Y.: 1970.
Grieve, M., A Modern Herbal, Jonathan Cape, London: 1931.
Bensky, D. & A. Gamble, Chinese Herbal Medicine (Materia Medica), Eastland Press,
Seattle: 1986.
Keys, J.D., Chinese Herbs, Charles E. Tuttle Co., Rutland, VT.: 1976.
Tierra, M., The Way of Herbs, Orenda/Unity Press, Santa Cruz, CA:1980.
de B. Levy, J., Herbal Handbook for Farm and Stable, Rodale Press, Emmaus, PA.:
1976.
Chishti, H., The Traditional Healer, Healing Arts Press, Rochester, VT,: 1988.
Iwu, M.M., Handbook of African Medicinal Plants, CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL,: 1993.
Grossinger, R., Planet Medicine, North Atlantic Books, Berkeley, CA,: 1980.

Copyright © 1993, Wild Rose College of Natural Healing Ltd. 11

Textbook of Modern Herbology, Second Revised Edition

12 Copyright © 1993, Wild Rose College of Natural Healing Ltd.

 History of North American Herbology

History of
North 1
American
Herbology

Synopsis:

This chapter briefly reviews the philosophy and history of herbalism in North
America. Of particular interest is the Thomsonian tradition which established
much of the herbal knowledge which we continue to use to this day.

Copyright © 1993, Wild Rose College of Natural Healing Ltd. 13

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Textbook of Modern Herbology, Second Revised Edition

Table of Contents

Introduction
North American Herbalists
Nineteenth Century
Twentieth Century
A Final Word Before Starting Chapter 2
Summary
Recommended Readings

14 Copyright © 1993, Wild Rose College of Natural Healing Ltd.

 History of North American Herbology

Introduction

T
he use of plants as a healing medium is an integral part of the
planet’s history. How prehistoric peoples discovered specific uses
for plants is difficult to determine. Like modern people, a certain
amount of discovery was likely through intuition, experimentation and
food usage. Early written records come from the Middle East and China
where interest in medicinal plants was well established thousands of
years ago. By that time, elaborate medical theories with philosophical
and methodological aspects were present. In India the Ayurveda is
claimed to have come from the beginning of time, presented by the
gods. It is a whole system of healing that has lasted to this day.

In Europe the use of botanicals goes back to the beginning of recorded

history. Much of the medical theory used in medieval times came to
Europeans from ancient Egyptian, Greek and Roman traditions. The
Arabic world also contributed significantly to European traditional
medicine. The tradition of herbal use has had continuous representa-
tion in Europe. To this day, European clinics and herbalists conduct
some of the best research on plant use.

North American Herbalists

In North America the early settlers brought their folklore from Europe
augmenting this with the abundant knowledge of Native Americans. The
First Peoples, as we will see throughout this text, have many tales of
how the Great Spirit gave certain medicinal plants for the use of the
people.

In the latter half of the nineteenth century, herbology became an

organised medical system in North America known as physio-
medicalism. The philosophy stemmed from the vitalist school, which
Copyright © 1993, Wild Rose College of Natural Healing Ltd. 15
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Textbook of Modern Herbology, Second Revised Edition

regarded the human body as being controled by a ‘vital force’. This vital
force was considered an intelligent energy that endeavoured to maintain
the functional integrity of humans, directing the body’s energies. All
functional operations were considered the result of the vital force
working on cellular function. Any imperfect response was the result of
internal or external obstruction or restrictions of this force.

The theory describes the vital force as producing resistance to negative

forces which influence the organism from within or from the outside. It
eliminates toxic materials and is reconstructive to tissue. This force flows
through all living things. The force is aided and activated in our bodies by
the vital force that also lives in plants.

The basic ideas of this philosophical tradition can still be found in many
herbal commentaries and are an active part of homeopathic philosophy.

Nineteenth Century
One of the major forces in this early movement of the physiomedical
system was Samuel Thomson, whose name was lent to the Thomsonian
tradition of herbology. Most botanical medicine practiced in North
America can trace its roots to the Thomsonian tradition. Other impor-
tant pioneers in this field were Wooster Beach, W.H. Cook, T.J. Lyle, J.M.
Thurston and B. Lust. This group placed their emphasis on the vital force,
feeling symptoms were an effort of the organism to rid itself of toxic
encumbrances.

American medicine was also influenced by the hygienic philosophy that

sprang up in Europe (especially Germany) and later became the back-
bone of Naturopathy.

Let’s review some details from the lives of famous North American
herbalists:

Samuel Thomson (1769 - 1843) emphasized the elimination of toxins

through rapid diaphoresis by vapour baths and internal stimulants, and
alimentary elimination through emesis and enemas. He felt that self-
treating was the best principle of healing. He wrote a book called New
Guide to Health and promptly set up an organization to promote its
principles. One method of promotion was to sell “family franchises”
which allowed utilization of the Thomsonian method of healing. In 1839
he claimed to have sold 100,000 family franchises called “friendly botanic
societies”. Even though Samuel Thomson felt that a person should be
self-treating, a group of professional Thomsonian doctors banded
together to form the Eclectic School of Medicine.

Because Thomson himself was against this, the Eclectics didn’t gain
force until after his death. A school in Cincinnati under the direction of a
New Yorker, Wooster Beach, was established. Wooster Beach (1794-
1868) added to Thomson’s work with a concept — ‘equalising the
circulation’. This idea was improved upon by W.H. Cook with the
16 Copyright © 1993, Wild Rose College of Natural Healing Ltd.
 History of North American Herbology

correlation of circulatory and nervous systems in the book Science and

Practice of Medicine, 1879. He also introduced the concepts of ‘over-
contraction’ and ‘over-relaxation’ of tissue. J.M. Thurston in Philosophy
of Physiomedicalism (1900) introduced the idea that behind all local
phenomenon and the autonomic balance, the goal is to get a balance
between contraction and relaxation.

Another group of herbalists and natural healers followed the lead of

Benedict Lust who came to North America in 1892 from Germany as a
disciple of Father Kneipp. He combined the ideas of hygienics and
hydrotherapy. Lust is considered to be the father of naturopathy. He
bought the term naturopathy from Dr. John Scheel in 1902 using the
name in his journal “The Naturopathic and Herald of Health”.

It must be remembered that some of the most active medical minds

were directing their thoughts towards the use of herbal remedies up
until World War I. Herbal knowledge at that time had come a long way
from simple folklore. Science was taking many of the folklore ideas and
showing how God-given herbs could be directed to alleviating illness.

The overshadowing of the natural healers by orthodox medical practice

was the result of many trends and historical circumstances. There was
severe splitting in the philosophies of the homeopaths, the Eclectics and
the hygienic school. And all these schools had internal philosophical
conflicts. At the same time the allopaths1 were gaining much power
with the formation of the American Medical Association.

Many of the natural practitioners in the late 1800’s joined the A.M.A.
(which was dominated by the allopaths) further diluting emphasis on
theories of ‘vital’ energy in the body. Two other factors struck the final
blow against multiple theories of medical practise in North America: The
Flexner Report and the formation of the Carnegie and the Rockefeller
Foundations. The Flexner Report, funded by the Carnegie Foundation,
graded medical schools for the A.M.A.. All but one Eclectic and one
homeopathic medical school failed in the process of examination. Their
labs and training facilities were not up to the standard of the “Scientific
Schools”. Well-documented financial contributions were made to
schools that met the views of medical education and philosophy of the
two philanthropic foundations. This had an impact that cannot be
underestimated. “Scientific Medicine” was the only sort funded, cutting
out all schools that taught natural healing. The advancement of the use
of pharmaceutics, that the foundations both supported and profited
from, became the standard of North American medical schools.

1
Technically `allopathy' refers to a system of medicine which treats disease by use of
substances which counteract the body's symptoms (allo - `against'), contrasting with
homeopathy which uses substances to "encourage" the body's symptomatic response.
For at least 100 hundred years however, orthodox medical practise, as North Ameri-
cans know it, has been refered to as allopathy. Herbology in most cases would be
considered an allopathic system in the technical sense.

Copyright © 1993, Wild Rose College of Natural Healing Ltd. 17

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Textbook of Modern Herbology, Second Revised Edition

Twentieth Century
There have been many herbalists who can rightly be considered the
curators of herbalism during the long spell from the early part of the 20th
century to the counterculture period of the late 60's.

John Christopher, one of my first herbal mentors, travelled around North

America lecturing on and supporting vitalist theories of human physiol-
ogy. He played a key role in returning herbology to public awareness. At
least three major herbal manufacturing companies in North America
trace their formulations from his tradition of clinical work and writing.

Norma Myers, a Canadian herbalist who lived in various parts of British

Columbia, was the teacher of many of today's senior West Coast herbal-
ists. Ella Birzneck, Dr. H. Nowell and Dr. Moxi also influenced many
herbalists through the long-standing correspondence course offered by
Dominion Herbal College. The power of the written word is reflected in
the influence that M. Grieve's Modern Herbal, Alma Hutchens' Indian
Herbalogy and John Lust's The Herb Book had on a generation of eager
but widely dispersed students.

A few schools and healers maintained the natural tradition through till
the late 1960’s when a revival of natural concepts came out of the
counterculture movement. Today we’ve entered into a new era of
botanical use. Naturopathic colleges are flourishing in Canada and the
U.S., offering very high standards of education. In Europe, herbalist
training is reacquiring its lustre and reputation and very exciting research
is taking place. Political developments in Europe are pushing govern-
ments to consolidate their regulations for botanical products. In Austra-
lia, I’ve been really impressed with the amount of herbalist education
underway.

And slowly but surely, training specifically for herbalists is being re-
established in North America. The establishment of a three year program
for certification in Canada is a first step and the efforts in the U.S. of
members of the American Herbalists Guild deserve special mention. In
the U.S., the activities of a rapidly expanding acupuncture community,
using Chinese herbs, is having a major impact on the possibility of future
herbal use in North America.

We have a long and proven history of restoring health to the people of

the world. We are now proving the old ways with solid science, strength-
ening further the advancement of these traditions. The dominance of
allopathy as a form of healing is but a small ripple on the pond of time.
The future will be a time of co-existence and cross-fertilization of medical
ideas. Herbal use has great momentum from the past. With the knowl-
edge we are gathering today from the labs, herbalists will again have a
respected place among healers. Not as the “only” healing system but one

18 Copyright © 1993, Wild Rose College of Natural Healing Ltd.

 History of North American Herbology

of many traditions that look at health from different view points and are
therefore beneficial for different people at differents stages of their life
and health.

Our job as herbalist is to assist the body’s inherent tendency to move

toward internal harmony. We therefore have to be able to recognise the
difference between conditions that are impeding function, those that are
eliminative or the reconstructive forces of the vital energy. Our aim is not
to treat surface symptoms but to treat underlying conditions that influ-
ence the whole organism.

A final word before starting Chapter 2

Billions of dollars per year are spent on medical and hospital care. Most
of this vast sum goes for surgery, synthetic drugs and doctor fees.

Many people, however, are beginning to realize that it is far better to

spend reasonable amounts on good nutrition and natural remedies than
to spend the large amounts mentioned above. Even in countries where
medicine is socialized, governments are concerned that the public purse
cannot afford an expensive and expanding hospital system. As we move
toward the end of the century, every alternative to expensive, “heroic”,
last-minute, high-tech medicine will be explored.

Herbs are natural remedies which can help stimulate critical body
processes for renewal and healing, and they can play an extremely
important role in helping you restore health to your patients. Almost as
important is the role they can play in bringing down health care costs in
the nations of the world and making sure that necessary services are
within the financial reach of all.

Summary of Chapter 1
In this chapter, we reviewed the origins and progress of North American
herbology. An early vigorous start with Thomsonian botanic medicine,
physiomedicalism and the Eclectic school was followed by the suppres-
sion of the early twentieth century. With the beginnings of the counter-
culture movement in the Sixties, the efforts of people like John R. Christo-
pher paid off. Herbology is now stepping forward as a complementary
form of medicine for a modern world.

Recommended Readings
Starr, P., The Social Transformation of American Medicine, Basic Books Inc., N.Y.: 1982.
Priest, A.W. & L.R. Priest, Herbal Medication, A Clinical and Dispensary Handbook, L.N.
Fowler & Co., Romford, Eng.:1982.
Pizzorno, J.E. & M.T. Murray, A Textbook of Natural Medicine, John Bastyr College
Publication, Seattle, Washington:1985.
Coulter, H.L., Divided Legacy, III vols., North Atlantic Books, Richmond, California:1973.

Copyright © 1993, Wild Rose College of Natural Healing Ltd. 19

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Textbook of Modern Herbology, Second Revised Edition

Illich, I., Limits to Medicine, Medical Nemesis: The Expropriation of Health, Penguin
Books, Middlesex, England: 1977.
Mendelsohn, R.S., Confessions of a Medical Heretic, Warner Books, N.Y.: 1979.
Jackson, R., Issues in Preventive Health Care, Discussion Paper, Science Council of
Canada, May 1986.
Tierra, Michael (ed.), American Herbalism: Essays on Herbs & Herbalism by Members
of the American Herbalist Guild, Crossing Press, Freedom, CA: 1992.
Conrow, Robert, et al., Herbal Pathfinders, Woodbridge Press, Santa Barbara, CA:
1983.
Griggs, Barbara, Green Pharmacy, Jill Norman & Hobhouse, London, U.K.:1981.
Lust, J., The Herb Book, Bantam Books, New York, NY: 1974.
Grieve, M. A Modern Herbal, Jonathan Cape, London, U.K.:1931.
Hutchens, A., Indian Herbalogy of North America, Garden City Press, London,
U.K.:1969.
Boyle, Wade, Herb Doctor, Pioneer in Nineteenth-Century American Botanical
Medicine, Buckeye Naturopathic Press, East Palestine, OH: 1988.

20 Copyright © 1993, Wild Rose College of Natural Healing Ltd.

 Basic Principles of Physiological Functioning

Basic
Principles of
2
Physiological
Functioning

Synopsis:

In this chapter we will introduce the basic components of the human body and
their relative importance in its function. The three main substances of the body
created from the components are discussed. These substances in turn form the
12 body systems, each of which has a role in maintaining body homeostasis. The
chapter concludes with a discussion of the natural healing concept of ‘health’.

Copyright © 1993, Wild Rose College of Natural Healing Ltd. 21

Textbook of Modern Herbology, Second Revised Edition

Table of Contents
Introduction
Organic and Inorganic Components
The Three Body Substances
The Four Central Concepts of Physiological Functioning
The 13 Body Systems and their Role in Homeostasis
Principles of Natural Healing
A Definition of Health
Natural Healing Does Not Treat "Disease"
What the Body Needs to Be Healthy
IN
DO
OUT
The Occasions for Impaired Health
Emotions
Mental Concepts and Belief Systems
Summary
Recommended Readings

List of Tables and Figures

2.1 Table of Body Composition

2.2 A Few Types of Cells
2.3 Cell Schematic
2.4 Integumentary and Reproductive System
2.5 Skeletal and Articulatory System
2.6 Muscular System
2.7 Respiratory System
2.8 Digestive System
2.9 Circulatory System
2.10 Excretory System
2.11 Lymphatic System
2.12 Endocrine System
2.13 Nervous System

22 Copyright © 1993, Wild Rose College of Natural Healing Ltd.

 Basic Principles of Physiological Functioning

Introduction

P
hysiology is a science which has been developed extensively in the
Western world. It is the elaborate blend of biochemical and
physical science. We have already stated that we feel that science
is comparable to the body of a person, whereas folklore is like the
personality, making up the emotions and mental concepts. This also
holds true for botanical medicine and to an extent even our social
structure. In some ultimate sense we get what we deserve. If we want a
medical system that is focused on expense and sophistication and
ignores how we live our lives, we will get it. If we want a medical system
that focuses on a definition of health rather than a catalog of disease,
that is what we will get.

During the course of this text we will be looking into the physical side
quite a bit. The more we understand how the body works, the more we
will be able to understand the relationship of botanicals to it.

Science is a very important part of the study of herbology. Many people

feel that there is something inherently evil or bad about science. To me,
this seems to stop our goal of being (w)holistic healers dead in its
tracks. So much useful information is available, structured in the
language of physics and biochemistry. We may take advantage of this to
different degrees, based on our ability and interest, but a nodding
acquaintance with this knowledge is essential. This will also give us
more confidence in our system of herbal use — not just relying on the
past folklore — but understanding some of the underlying principles.

This section might just be a review for students with a background in

physiology. You may want to skip over it. But for those people just
beginning a journey in understanding how the body works and the

Copyright © 1993, Wild Rose College of Natural Healing Ltd. 23

Textbook of Modern Herbology, Second Revised Edition

related principles of natural healing, we will be covering some basic

ideas in the next few pages. Remember herbology is a science as well as
an art.

It is impossible to isolate study of body functions from a study of

nutrition. This is because of one very important fact: the human body is
essentially a big “Nutrition Factory.”

The essence of living, in fact, on the most basic level (as opposed to
theorizing about its ultimate purpose) is one grand process of “taking in
and converting” and “getting rid of.” Food, water, and air are taken into
the body and converted into its tissues and fluids. The waste products
of this conversion are removed. All this activity is directed toward the
major biological role of any species -- to pass their genes onto the next
generation, to reproduce.

Let’s look at what is being turned over.

By weight, 96% of the human body is made up of atoms of oxygen,

carbon, hydrogen and nitrogen. Water accounts for about 60% of body
weight and is made up of atoms of hydrogen and oxygen (recall the
formula H2O). Protein accounts for about 15% of body weight and is
made up primarily of atoms of oxygen, carbon, hydrogen and nitrogen.
Fat accounts for about 15% of body weight in the average well-propor-
tioned man and about 27% in the average well-proportioned woman
and is made up of atoms of oxygen, carbon and hydrogen. The remain-
ing 4% of body weight, as indicated by Figure 2.1, is made up of about 21
minerals which are variously combined to form inorganic compounds
(e.g., sodium chloride and calcium phosphate.)

Organic and Inorganic Components

The word “organic” has come to mean many things but in this text we
are using the scientific definition. Organic means “carbon-based mol-
ecules existing only as a result of being produced by something that is, or
was, alive.”

And inorganic means “found in Nature without necessarily having to be

produced by something that is, or was, alive.”

The protein, fat, and carbohydrate components of the human body are
organic, while the water and mineral components are inorganic. These
two components, the organic and inorganic, furnish all the materials
that are required to construct an individual’s body.

24 Copyright © 1993, Wild Rose College of Natural Healing Ltd.

 Basic Principles of Physiological Functioning

Element Symbol % (of Human Body)

Oxygen O 65 These 4 elements make up 96% of body
Carbon C 18 weight. In various combinations they
Hydrogen H 10 form the components of the body:
Nitrogen N 3 water, protein, fat and carbohydrates.
Calcium Ca 1.5-2.2 These nutrients, sometimes called the
Phosphorus P .8-1.2 macronutrients, are also required for
Potassium K .35 health. There are seven of them and
Sulphur S .25 collectively they make up almost the
Sodium Na .15 entire remaining 4% of human body
Chlorine Cl .15 weight. Each of them is a mineral.
Magnesium Mg .05
Iron Fe .004 These nutrients, sometimes refered to as
Zinc Zn .002 themicronutrients, are also required
Selenium Se .0003 for health. They are 14 in number and
Manganese Mn .0002 collectively they make up a very small
Copper Cu .00015 part of the remaining 4% of human body
Iodine I .00004 weight. Each of them is a mineral.
Molybdenum Mo Trace
Cobalt Co Trace
Chromium Cr Trace
Fluorine F Trace
Silicon Si Trace
Vanadium V Trace
Nickel Ni Trace
Tin Sn Trace

Figure 2.1
Body Composition

The Three Body Substances

If we took a “chunk” out of the human body and examined it under a
microscope, we would find the components mentioned above: water,
protein, fat plus carbohydrate and mineral compounds. All the compo-
nents would be organized into three, and only three, different struc-
tures:

➊ Cells, about 75 trillion of them. There are over l00 different types of
cells in the body (e.g., bone cells, nerve cells, muscle cells, fat cells) but
basically all are alike in that:

(a) Each must get food, water, and oxygen in order to live and
carry out its special function (nerve cells, for example, transmit
messages, while muscle cells make movement possible);
(b) They use almost the same types of nutrients (and we’ll discuss
this in greater detail in a moment);
(c) They all use oxygen as a major source of energy;
(d) The general mechanisms by which nutrients are converted into
protoplasm (the “stuff” of cells) and energy are essentially the
same in all cells;

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Textbook of Modern Herbology, Second Revised Edition

Muscle cells Sperm cell Epithelial cells Ovum

Figure 2.2
A Few Types of Cells

(e) All cells deliver the end products of their chemical reactions
(their metabolic waste) into the fluid surrounding them;
(f) All cells have the ability to reproduce (except the cells of the
nervous system).

➋ Glue, substances (protein fibers to be exact) secreted by the cells and

which connect them with adjacent cells so that they are all held close
together. The technical term for “glue” is intercellular matrix.

➌ Fluids, the fluids of the body can be roughly divided into:

(a) Blood Plasma — the fluid in which blood cells are carried and
which is confined to the blood vessels. This fluid, together with
the blood cells in it, is called blood.
(b) Intercellular Fluid — the fluid that surrounds and bathes each
of the 75 trillion cells in the body.

Of the three body substances — cells, “glue”, and fluids — only the cells
are alive, exhibiting the four basic characteristics of all living things:

➊ The ability to respond to stimuli;

➋ Growth;
➌ Metabolism — the sum of the processes involved in turning over
the body’s materials; and
➍ Reproduction. Cells, with the exception of those of the nervous
system, are continually dying and being replaced. Every six years
the human body has rebuilt itself!

Let’s look at this “cells, “glue,” and “body fluids concept” in a diagram
form. If you can understand it, and the four central concepts of nutri-
tion we’ll be looking at in a moment, you can understand, essentially,
what the physiological functioning of the human body is all about.

26 Copyright © 1993, Wild Rose College of Natural Healing Ltd.

 Basic Principles of Physiological Functioning

Blood plasma — is the fluid in which blood cells

are carried. There are about 3 litres in the body.
Blood plasma "leaks" through the capillary walls,
carrying nutrients to the cells and picking up their A typical cell — about 80% water, 15%
waste products. It then passes back into the protein, 4% carbohydrate and minerals, and
capillaries. 1% fat.

A capillary — a microscopic blood vessel.

Billions upon billions of them come close to
every single cell in the body. They bring
food — water, oxygen, protein, carbohy-
drates, vitamins and minerals - to the cells
and carry away their waste products of
metabolism.

Intercellular fluid — the fluid surrounding each

cell from which it takes in what it needs
(food, water and oxygen) and dumps what it
no longer needs (its end products of
Glue — protein fibers holding the cells metabolism). There are about 12 litres of it in
together (as a tissue). the human body.

Figure 2.3
Cell Schematic

The Four Central Concepts of Physiological

Functioning
The four central concepts necessary for an understanding of physiologi-
cal functioning are:

CONCEPT #1

Nutritive substances — oxygen, water, amino acids, carbohydrates, fats,

vitamins and minerals — are delivered to every cell in the body and
waste products are carried away.

If each of the cells of the body has an adequate supply of nutrients,

and if it is able to get rid of its waste products (urea, uric acid,
carbon dioxide, water, etc.) it will be healthy and be able to provide
its special function (e.g., glandular cells manufacture secretions and
bone cells provide support).

CONCEPT #2:

The fluid that surrounds each of the cells — the intercellular fluid —
must have a consistent nutrient content (amino acids, carbohydrates,
fats, vitamins, minerals, water and oxygen), temperature (98.6 o F), and
pH (7.35-7.45 — slightly on the alkaline side) in order for the cells to
remain alive and healthy.

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Textbook of Modern Herbology, Second Revised Edition

Cellular activity, called metabolism, tends to alter these things. The

technical term “homeostasis” (meaning “keeping the same”) is
used to refer to the maintenance of this stable condition of the fluid
surrounding each of the 75 trillion cells in the body. Remarkably,
within certain limits, no matter how much one eats, exercises or is
influenced by the environment, the composition of this fluid
remains virtually unchanged.

CONCEPT #3:

Essentially all of the tissues, organs and systems of the body perform
functions which help maintain the constant state of the intercellular
fluid.

CONCEPT #4

At all stages of life the need for food, water, and oxygen never stops. This
is because the body is in what is referred to as a state of dynamic
equilibrium.

Dynamic equilibrium means that while the body’s materials are

constantly being broken down and replaced, the individual remains
in some sense “the same.”

humerus
elbow joint

femur
knee joint

Figure 2.4 Figure 2.5

Integumentary System Skeletal System

28 Copyright © 1993, Wild Rose College of Natural Healing Ltd.

 Basic Principles of Physiological Functioning

nose
mouth
larynx (voice box)
trachea (windpipe)
deltoid lungs
biceps

Figure 2.6 Figure 2.7

Muscular System Respiratory System

The 13 Body Systems

and their Role in Homeostasis
Let’s look briefly now at each of the 12 body systems and see exactly
how each contributes to homeostasis.

1. Integumentary System — (the skin and its associated structures

such as the hair, nails, and glands) contributes to homeostasis by
regulating body temperature and eliminating, through its pores,
certain metabolic waste products.

2. Skeletal system, 3. Articulatory (joint) system and 4. Muscular

system together contribute to homeostasis by allowing for move-
ment, so that food and water can be obtained.

5. Reproductive System produces special hormones, regulates them

through a simple feedback mechanism and thereby profoundly
influences the structure of all body systems. Ultimately it provides
for homeostasis of the human race.

6. Respiratory System consists of a series of tubes leading into and

out of the lungs. It contributes to homeostasis by obtaining oxygen
(which goes into the bloodstream for delivery to all of the cells),
eliminating carbon dioxide (one of the waste products of metabo-
lism), and regulating the pH (acid-alkaline balance) of the body.

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 Textbook of Modern Herbology, Second Revised Edition

mouth
esophagus
heart
blood vessel

liver
gall bladder
stomach

small intestine
large intestine
rectum
anus

Figure 2.8 Figure 2.9

Digestive System Circulatory System

7. Digestive System — a long tube (about 28 feet in length) which

breaks down food physically and chemically so that it can be
absorbed into the circulatory system.

8. Circulatory System — consisting of the heart, blood and blood

vessels. It contributes to homeostasis by carrying nutrients
(oxygen, water, amino acids, sugars, fats, vitamins and minerals)
to the cells and picking up and eliminating cellular waste prod-
ucts. It also helps maintain proper pH in the body.

9. Excretory System — a group of organs that produce and elimi-

nate urine. It contributes to homeostasis by getting rid of waste
products, regulating fluid balance, and maintaining proper pH of
the body.

10. Lymphatic System - made up of lymphatic organs (such as the

spleen), lymph vessels, lymph nodes and lymph. The lymphatic
system filters the blood and protects against disease.

The two master controllers of the body are 11. Glandular System
and the Nervous System (#12). The glandular system regulates
the body’s activities through hormones, while the nervous system
regulates it through nerve impulses.

The Immune System (#13) is not centred in one specific organ or

body location. It is the overall defence system of the body and

30 Copyright © 1993, Wild Rose College of Natural Healing Ltd.

 Basic Principles of Physiological Functioning

lymph vessels
lymph node

kidney
ureter

bladder
urethra

Figure 2.10 Figure 2.11

Urinary System Lymphatic System

pineal
pituitary brain
thyroid and
parathyroids

pancreas
spinal cord

adrenals

ovaries
testes nerves

Figure 2.12 Figure 2.13

Endocrine System Nervous System

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Textbook of Modern Herbology, Second Revised Edition

consists of the lymphatic system, thymus gland, bone marrow,

individual cellular mechanisms and pyschological features like
resistance to stress and mental attitude.

And there you have it — an overview of the essence of physiological

functioning. Remember, in understanding the role of any body part, you
need only ask yourself the question, “How does this particular tissue or
organ contribute to homeostasis (the balance of the body)?”

We will look at the various systems of the body in greater detail in later
chapters matched with an in-depth discussion of the particular herbs
which are instrumental in promoting the health of each of them. Having
set the stage with the systems of the body, let’s review some principles
of natural healing which we’ll use throughout our study of herbology.

Principles of Natural Healing

The word ‘health’ is derived from the Saxon word for whole. Heal is
derived from the same word and means “to restore to a state of whole-
ness, soundness, or integrity.” It will be your objective to restore health
to your patient by healing them. But what is health?

A Definition of Health

Earlier we introduced the concept of the human body as one grand

“nutrition factory”— a “factory” which is continually taking in food,
water, and oxygen — the “factory” then converts them into its tissues
and fluids, with the waste products from this conversion and other
cellular activities being removed. This process is called “nutrition”.

It is through the process of nutrition that an individual grows and

develops, possessing strength and vitality. In fact, it is through the
process of nutrition that you are able to read these words this very
moment. And because the body is one marvelous nutrition factory, we
may say that health is the same thing as nutrition. And we can just as
validly state that poor physical health is equivalent to poor nutrition. Of
course, as we have discussed, the emotional and mental bodies are also
very important to this whole process. If you are under great emotional
stress, the nutritional factory has difficulty operating.

Natural Healing Does Not Treat “Disease”

Natural Healing does not treat disease. It seeks to restore health, regard-
ing a healthy body and mind as the goal of medicine. “Disease” is
nothing other than a state of impaired health. In other words, anything
wrong with an individual locally (e.g., hepatitis) is a sign that there is
something wrong generally. Natural Healing takes “the big picture”
perspective and as a result, seeks to make the entire body healthy. It
does not merely concentrate on “curing” the liver of its ailment. The
ailment in any particular part will slowly but surely “disappear” as the
body works out the recovery through its own innate healing capabilities.
32 Copyright © 1993, Wild Rose College of Natural Healing Ltd.
 Basic Principles of Physiological Functioning

What the Body needs to be Healthy

A simple little principle we like to use is:

IN - DO - OUT

IN
You have probably often heard that “you are what you eat”. Of course
there is truth to this. We are chemically made up of the nutrients that we
consume. If we eat good food that is nutritious, wholesome and without
toxic residue from pesticides and fertilizers, we have a better chance of
building good tissue. Where else can the chemicals that make up our
bodies come from?

We can take this one step further. We are not only what we eat. We are
made up of whatever we take in. The attitude we have while we eat is
very important too. Consider two individuals sitting in a park eating. One
is a young health food advocate, eating an alfalfa sprout sandwich.
Beside her is a business man who stopped off at a fast food restaurant
and grabbed a hamburger, fries and a shake. Who is taking the “best” in?
At first glance it is the health food advocate.

Lets look again. The health food advocate is looking at the business man
with total disgust. She is thinking, ‘how can anyone be so disgusting as to
eat flesh, especially from a fast food, cholesterol-distributing outlet? It’s
going to make him sick’. Looking at the business man we see a big smile.
He is thinking ‘I have been waiting for hours to be able to go out in the
park, listen to the birds and have a nice hamburger. Boy, is this good!’

Attitude is also part of the taking in. We are not only what we eat, we are
what we think and feel also. This is all part of the IN cycle. There is yet
another level to consider that some people feel is critical -- the energy that
the food carries.

Have you ever been driving down an old country road and found some
cows on the road? They look at you, wonder what you are and if you are
persistent in moving towards them they saunter off the road chewing
their cud. Looking at them you’re not likely to feel they are all that bright.
They seem to have been bred to just meander around the fields, sit and
chew their cud, waiting for the eventful day that they get to take a ride in
that big truck, going to the city. On the other hand, think of an elk. Their
level of awareness seems to be much higher. Their survival depends on it.

If you want to eat meat, which energy do you think would be best going
into your system? The cow’s (which is dull, slow and some what monoto-
nous) or the elk’s (which is sharp, energetic and alert). You are what you
eat, tempered by how you feel and think, acquiring the subtle energy that
is present in the food.

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Textbook of Modern Herbology, Second Revised Edition

The IN section doesn’t stop there. You can put the best food in the
world in your mouth but if you don’t digest it, the nutrients aren’t going
to do you much good. You are made of the nutrients that you eat, but
even more so, what you digest. The nutrients have to cross out of the
digestive tract into the blood before we can use them. If we only digest
50% of our food the undigested parts will just go down into our lower
intestinal tract and ferment. The human body is not suited to this, in the
way a cow might be.

DO
You are more than what you take in. It is also very important what you
DO with these nutrients, how you metabolize them, what your liver does
with them. Is a weak pancreas causing low blood sugar or diabetes?
How we distribute the nutrients throughout our bodies is also impor-
tant. We are what we take in, but we are also what we do with the
nutrients and energies.

OUT
The “out” systems are also important. We are not only what we take in
and make use of. We are also what we fail to put out. We are continu-
ously breaking down old tissues and building up new tissues in our
body. In the process, we produce waste materials. These materials need
to be eliminated or they will toxify the body. We have four eliminatory
channels, which we’ll review later. They are the colon, skin, lungs and
kidneys. We need to keep the cleansing channels open and working
efficiently. So we are what we take in, what we do with what we take in
and what we do not eliminate.

This also is true of thought and feeling. If we have negative thoughts or

feelings and don’t eliminate them, they stay with us. Often such emo-
tions end up in the form of tightened muscles, spastic colons or an edgy
nervous system.

The Occasions for Impaired Health

Less than optimum health (which manifests in “disease” according to
an individual’s inherent weakness) results when any of a number of the
requirements for health are not met. This is what is meant by “wholistic
health”. Total health results from the balanced interplay of several
factors in a person’s life. It is an important point to keep in mind for a
competent healing practitioner. There are many factors which are
influential in determining and restoring health in any individual.

This textbook focuses on the use of herbs in healing the physical body
but be aware that the role of the other two ‘bodies’ is always active.

34 Copyright © 1993, Wild Rose College of Natural Healing Ltd.

 Basic Principles of Physiological Functioning

Emotions
A person’s emotional attitude is very important for the smooth function-
ing of the body. There is a specialized area of herbology that edges into
the realm of homeopathy. Bach Flower Remedies, named after the
formulator Edward Bach, help to adjust the emotions, to take out some
of the negative peaks. We will be dealing with this system of remedies in
Chapter 16. Until then we will be looking primarily at the different
physical systems and how they work, what can go wrong and which
herbs can restore the balance in those areas.

Mental Concepts and Belief Systems

Belief systems are very important in any healing art. This is not to say that
botanicals are placebos. As we explore some of the laws of healing we
will find that “all healing comes from above, down”. A simple interpreta-
tion of this is that if you don’t think you are going to get well, you won’t.

A gentleman comes into my clinic. He has gout and sciatica in his left
leg. He doesn’t really want to come to a herbalist, but his wife made him
come. He states “I’ve gone to all kinds of specialists and they can’t help,
so I don’t think you can either.” This man is already defeated. It appears
as though he doesn’t want to get well. Perhaps if he gets well his wife
won’t do as many things around the house for him. His attitude, in a
word, is the “pits”.

Since sciatica and gout are somewhat difficult to deal with and are tied
into emotional and mental feelings, working with these specific prob-
lems might not be the best place to start. Healing won’t proceed as fast
as we would like and the fellow would very soon stop the program. The
man has other problems though. He is so uptight that his intestinal tract
is spastic, making him constipated.

One option for the practitioner is to give him a muscle relaxing cathartic
(i.e., a laxative — which you will learn about in a later chapter). This will
start the process of cleansing for both gout and the sciatica, but more
importantly, the client will find some instant changes. We don’t start in
this case with an involved program because he will just throw up his
hands and say that “I’m not taking all those herbs and eating that
`rabbit food’.” Have him come back in three to five days after he has had
a few good bowel movements and his attitude will have changed quite
a bit. He now feels that you know something about his body. He is more
receptive to starting on a more sophisticated program.

The experienced natural health practitioner knows when to take

advantage of changes or circumstances in a client’s mental state.

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Textbook of Modern Herbology, Second Revised Edition

Summary of Chapter 2
In this chapter we reviewed the various elements of the body and the
systems they form. We also noted some of the basic principles used in
natural healing.

Recommended Readings

Bowes & Church, Food Values of portions commonly used, 14 ed., J.B. Lippincott Co.,
Philadelphia: 1985.
Nutrition Search, Inc. Nutrition Almanac, McGraw-Hill Book Co., N.Y.: 1975.
Memmler & Wood, Structure and Function of the Human Body, 4 ed., J.B. Lippincott
Co. Philadelphia: 1983.
Bland, J., Your Health under Siege, Stephen Greene Press, Brattleboro, VT: 1981.
Airola, P., How to Get Well, Health Plus Publishers, Phoenix, Arizona: 1974.
Jensen, B., Nature has a Remedy (It can be Physical, Mental or Spiritual), Benard
Jensen Publ., Escondido, CA: 1978.
Mills, S.Y., Out of the Earth, Viking /Penguin USA, NY:1991.
Kapt. W. et al., The Physiology Coloring Book, Harper & Row, NY:1987.

36 Copyright © 1993, Wild Rose College of Natural Healing Ltd.

 Plant Identification

Plant
3
Identification

Synopsis:

In this chapter, the basic elements of plants are introduced and special features
which allow classification are discussed. The main categories are roots, stems,
leaves, flowers and fruit. This chapter should provide you with a good founda-
tion in plant anatomy.

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Textbook of Modern Herbology, Second Revised Edition

Table of Contents
The Dandelion
The Principal Parts of a Plant
Roots
The Vascular System
Stems
A Natural Healing Definition of Herb
Thorns, Prickles, Spines
Classification of Herbs According to Lifespan
Leaves
Flowers
Fruits and Seeds
Summary
Recommended Readings

List of Tables and Figures

3.1 Dandelion
3.2 Main Parts of Vascular Plants
3.3 Direction of Stems
3.4 Annual, Biennial, Perennial
3.5 A Typical Leaf
3.6 Leaf Margins
3.7 Leaf Shapes
3.8 Leaf Attachments
3.9 Typical Flower
3.10 Flower Arrangement

38 Copyright © 1993, Wild Rose College of Natural Healing Ltd.

 Plant Identification

Figure 3.1 Sc Ed
Dandelion

Dandelion is a perennial top shaped herb with a very milky

root. The leaves are all radicals, shining green in color,
sessile and pinnate. The scape or flower stem is longer than
the leaves, five to six inches in height, bearing a single
yellow flower. The fruit is an achenium.

If you know what a perennial is, what radical leaves look like, what
sessile and pinnate mean, and what an achenium is, then you obviously
already have considerable background in botany and plant identifica-
tion. Feel free to skip this chapter entirely or merely give it a quick
review.

If the description above has you baffled, this lesson is a must. Becoming
a skilled herbalist without having a knowledge of plants and plant
identification is much like being a carpenter without knowing what a
hammer is. If you wish to pick your own herbal remedies, the informa-
tion in this chapter will be most valuable.

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Textbook of Modern Herbology, Second Revised Edition

Strive for a good

general understand-
ing and don’t worry
about details! If you flower
want to make a
deeper and thorough
journey into this
fascinating subject,
tap the resources of fruit
the local library.
Ideally, purchase your
own book on plant
identification or local
flora.

We will now take a

closer look at the
various organs of a stem
leaf
plant (the roots, roots
stems, leaves, etc.).
Keep in mind that the
morphological
(structural) differ-
ences between plant Figure 3.2
parts are the basis for Main Parts of Vascular Plants
plant classification.

The Principal Parts of a Plant

Figure 3.2 shows the main parts of a normal complex vascular plant.
Each main part of the plant has specific functions. Generally, the roots
and stem are concerned with plant growth and food storage, the leaves
are the food manufacturing center of the plant, the flower is the repro-
ductive system and fruit and seeds, the offspring.

Roots
The root is the underground part of the plant. It anchors the plant to the
ground and absorbs water and mineral salts from the soil.

In most plants the roots have four functions:

➊ To anchor the plant to the ground.

➋ To absorb water and minerals from the ground.
➌ To transport food and water.
➍ To store excess food (plants like sugar beets and carrots use the
roots as a storage center.)

40 Copyright © 1993, Wild Rose College of Natural Healing Ltd.

 Plant Identification

In some cases, the roots can also be used by the plant for asexual
reproduction (they put out runners, or aboveground stems forming
adventitious roots — see below) — the wild strawberry, for instance.

Because the root has several jobs, it contains several kinds of cells. Each
root grows mainly at its tip which is called, not surprisingly, the root tip.
This part of the plant is protected during its downward passage through
the soil by the root cap. Near the tip of each root there are many root
hairs, ideal absorbing cells which take in water and minerals by pro-
cesses known as osmosis and diffusion.

If you have ever germinated seeds or made sprouts, you’ve probably

noticed the minute whitish structure that emerges through the seed
coat. This structure is the root tip mentioned above. It grows to become
the primary root and it soon produces small versions of itself called
secondary roots. For practical purposes, all roots other than the
primary one are referred to as secondary roots.

There are two basic types of roots:

➊ Fibrous roots, such as those of grasses, consist of a mass of thin

spreading roots of a fairly uniform size.
➋ Taproots, such as those found in carrots or parsnips, consist of a
single main root with smaller roots branching out to the side.

Dicots have taproots or fibrous roots, while all monocots have a fibrous
root system.

Adventitious roots grow from a plant stem or leaf rather than from the
true root system. Think of the strawberry or spider plant. Some plants
produce aerial roots, which may serve as tendrils for climbing.

Some plants are parasitic upon a ‘host’ plant by means of their roots.
Others are parasitic by means of slender twining branch roots, and live
both on and off their hosts. Some plants that appear to be parasites are
not damaging to the host. In the case of the orchid, it fixes nitrogen for
the host plant. Such a relationship is called symbiosis and each partner
is called a symbiote.

The Vascular System

After water and minerals have been taken in through the root hairs (by
diffusion) they then pass into the center of the root where conducting
cells are located. The transporting cells are arranged in upright "files",
one cell on top of the other. One vertical file of cells is called a vessel,
with each single cell being a hollow cylinder, so that the vessel forms a
long “pipe” which joins with similar pipes in the stem and leaf.

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Textbook of Modern Herbology, Second Revised Edition

The plant’s vascular distributing system is made up of two types of cells.

The first are the water-conducting cells, which collectively are referred
to as xylem. The second are the food-conducting cells, collectively
known as phloem.

Stems
The stem is the central portion of most plants which supports the
leaves, branches, flowers and fruits. In addition to an important struc-
tural role, its chief work is to transport food from one part of the plant to
another. It conducts water and nutrients from the roots to the leaves for
photosynthesis (the formation of carbohydrates in the chlorophyll-
containing tissues in the presence of light), and distributes food pro-
duced in the leaves to other parts of the plant.

One of the simplest and most useful ways to classify plants is on the
basis of their type of stem. In this respect, they are divided into three
classes — herbs, shrubs and trees.

A herb is a plant with a soft-tissued stem. The stem does not live from
year to year. A shrub or a tree is a woody plant with stems and branches
which lives from year to year. Their branches and stems become thicker
with each successive year. A shrub is differentiated from a tree in that it
has no main trunk but instead many major branches rising from ground
level. A tree has a single main trunk with branches on only the upper
parts of the plant.

Ordinarily, shrubs are smaller than trees, but there is no precise demar-
cation between these three groups. There are, in fact, many intermedi-
ate forms between herbs, shrubs, or even trees, depending on the
climate and the part of the world in which they grow.

A Natural Healing Definition of ‘Herb’

The scientific definition of a herb, as defined immediately above, is a

soft-tissued stem which does not live from year to year. The natural
healing usage of the term is a medicinal plant and it does not matter
whether it has a herbaceous (soft-tissued) or woody stem. In this sense,
a herb may be the entire plant or merely a part of it, such as the leaves,
roots, or possibly the flower.

Direction of stems
Erect The stem stands upright.
Diffuse The stem spreads in all directions.
Declining The stem bends away from the vertical.
Decumbent The stem rests on the ground, lacking sufficient
internal tissue strength to stand erect (except at the
tip where only minimal weight is to be supported).
Procumbent or Prostrate The stem lies on the ground.

42 Copyright © 1993, Wild Rose College of Natural Healing Ltd.

 Plant Identification

Diffuse Declining Decumbent

Procumbent Creeping Erect

Figure 3.3
Direction of Stems
Creeping The stem climbs, using other structures (i.e., other plants) for
support.

Special Types of Stems

A stolon is a long stem produced by a number of plants, particularly

blackberries. It arches over, touches the ground at the stem tip, and takes
root (adventitious). The terminal bud produces a new shoot from the same
tip. Runners, exemplified by strawberries, are similar but consist of lateral
(going out to the side) horizontal shoots which grow out from the main
stem, producing new daughter plants from buds in the leaf nodes. A
rhizome is a horizontal underground stem which serves as a means of
food storage and asexual reproduction.

The thickened portion of a rhizome is called a tuber (the potato is a tuber).

Bulbs are short, thickened stems with many fleshy or scalelike leaves.

Thorns, Prickles and Spines

A thorn is a specialized sharp pointed woody branch whose internal
structure is continuous with the vascular branch. A prickle is a sharp,
pointed growth on the side of the stem whose internal structure is not
continuous with the vascular bundle (roses have prickles). A spine is a
sharp, specialized stem that emerges from the ground at the apex of the
plant (exemplified by some yucca plants).

Classification of Herbs according to Lifespan

One of the features in which flowering plants show variation is their life
span. Some plants are short-lived, form fruits and seeds, and complete
their entire life cycle within a few months. These are known as ephemerals.
Many persistent “weeds” such as Shepherd’s Purse grow in this way.

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Textbook of Modern Herbology, Second Revised Edition

flower bud
flower flower
fruit bract
bract Perennial
fruit
leaf (cauline) cauline leaf
stem flowering stem
stem of preceding year
Annual

basal leaf
basal leaf of
leaf (basal) preceding year
primary (tap) root caudex
secondary root leaf base of first year
primary root
secondary root

Second season
First season
Biennial

Figure 3.4
Annual, Biennial, Perennial Plants

Annuals complete their life cycle only once in a growing season. They
live through the winter (or off-season) as seeds and come up each year
as seedlings, fruit and then die (strawberry blite). Biennials have a two-
year cycle and produce leaves, stems, flowers and fruit in the second.
They live only two growing seasons.

The rest of the flowering plants are called perennials. They last for many
years and usually flower each year. They survive the winter or dry
season not only through seeds but also by the persistence of under-
ground parts. Some produce stems, leaves, flowers and fruit the first
year, while others do not flower until the second growing season
(ginseng). Figure 3.3 illustrates an annual, biennial and perennial plant.

Leaves
A leaf is usually a flat outgrowth from the surface of a stem. Each leaf is
a factory where food for the entire plant is manufactured. In fact, the
roots and stems seem to be the “service and supply stations” for the
leaves which manufacture food by a process known as photosynthesis.

44 Copyright © 1993, Wild Rose College of Natural Healing Ltd.

 Plant Identification

midrib
blade
vein

axillary bud
petiole
leaf base
node
internode

Figure 3.5
A Typical Leaf

Most foliage leaves are thin and have a large surface area to absorb light
and carbon dioxide from the air. Only a small percentage of the light
that falls on the leaf is absorbed, and carbon dioxide gains entry to the
leaf through small openings called stomas. Photosynthesizing cells are
found in the middle of the leaf and the complete photosynthetic
process takes place in a structure called the chloroplast and depends
upon a light-absorbing green pigment called chlorophyll. Food pro-
duced in the leaf is transported to all other parts of the plant.

The typical leaf, as illustrated above, is comprised of a thickened leaf

base (which is attached to the stem), a slender petiole (also called a
stalk) and a flat blade. In some families a small scale called a stipule may
issue from each side of the leaf base.

The leaf blade consists of a network of veins, with intervening softer

tissue. In most leaves the middle vein, or midrib, as it is called, is larger
than the other and is surrounded by a greater amount of supporting
tissue. The arrangement of the veins in a leaf is referred to as venation.
In dicots, the veins are typically branched and sub-branched, forming
netted veins. Monocots, on the other hand, have parallel veins. Some
dicots appear to have parallel venation because they are thick and
narrow but their netted venation is just obscured.

The leaves of plants vary greatly in size, shape and in their arrangement
on the stems. Often leaves are so distinctive that an exact identification
of a plant may be made on the basis of its leaves alone. You should
therefore become familiar with leaf description terminology.

Simple Leaves and Compound Leaves

Leaves are classified as simple or compound. A simple leaf is one which

has a one-leaf blade. The great majority of plants have simple leaves. The

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Textbook of Modern Herbology, Second Revised Edition

palmately 3-parted crenate dentate sinuate-dentate

palmately 3-divided serrate undulate

Figure 3.6
Leaf Margins

leaves of some plants, however, have the blades of their leaves divided
into smaller leaf-like parts called leaflets. A severally divided leaf is said
to be compound.

A compound leaf with a leaflet arrangement that resembles the out-

stretched hand is said to be palmate (e.g., the geranium). A compound
leaf with leaflets arranged on opposite sides of the axis (the midrib) is
pinnate (meaning “resembling a feather”). If the leaflets are opposite
each other with an odd leaflet at the end it is called odd pinnate, if the
end is missing, it is said to be even pinnate.

Entire, Toothed And Lobed Leaves

The margin of a leaf is its edge. If the margin of a leaf is even and unbro-
ken, the leaf is said to be entire. If the leaf margin has more or less
regular, shallow identations, the leaf is said to be toothed. If the leaf of
the plant has several deep indentations which separate it into several
sections, the leaf is said to be lobed. Figure 3.6 indicates the most
common leaf margins.

Petiolate And Nonpetiolate Leaves

If a leaf is attached to its stems by a petiole, it is said to be petiolate. If it

is attached to the stem directly at its base and has no petiole it is said to
be nonpetiolate or sessile.

46 Copyright © 1993, Wild Rose College of Natural Healing Ltd.

 Plant Identification

Linear Oblanceolate Elliptical

Lanceolate Oblong Oval

Cuneate Deltoid Cordate Reniform

Ovate Obovate Spatulate

Orbicular Peltate

Figure 3.7
Leaf Shapes

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Textbook of Modern Herbology, Second Revised Edition

In the leaves of certain monocots (grasses, for example), the basal

(bottom) portion of the leaf forms a sheath around the stem. A small
growth attached to this sheath (again, as in grasses) is called a ligule.

Leaf Shapes

Leaves come in a variety of shapes (Figure 3.7). Verify the shapes

illustrated with some of the definitions below.

Orbiculate - circular or nearly circular in outline.

Peltate - shaped like a shield.
Elliptic - shaped like a ellipse.
Ovate - having an outline like a longitudinal section of an egg with
the basal (lower) end broader.
Obvate - ovate with the narrower end basal.
Lanceolate - tapering to a point at the apex and sometimes at the
base.
Oblanceolate - inversely lanceolate.
Oblong - more or less rectangular.
Linear - elongated with nearly parallel sides.
Rhombic - somewhat diamond-shaped.
Cordate - heart-shaped.
Obcorate - inversely cordate.
Reniform - kidney-shaped.
Sagittate - shaped like the head of an arrow.
Hastate - triangular with sharp basal lobes spreading away from the
base of petiole.
Subulate - linear and tapering to a fine point.
Cuneate - narrowly triangular with the acute angle toward the base.
Deltoid - triangular.
Obdeltoid - inversely deltoid.
Spatulate - shaped like a spatula.

Often a leaf will be between these geometric conceptions. The terms

are simply combined (linear-spatulate, for example).

Leaf Attachment

The manner in which leaves are arranged on the stem should always be
noted, as leaf arrangement often provides some useful clues to plant
identification (see Fig. 3.8). Leaves grow from a junction in the stem
called a node. The space between the nodes is called an internode.
Leaves growing from the base of the plant are called basal leaves (or
rosettes). Those growing above the base are stem or cauline leaves.
Many plants have both basal and cauline leaves. Uppermost cauline
leaves are called bracts and are located right under the flower. Bracts
are said to subtend the inflorescence.

48 Copyright © 1993, Wild Rose College of Natural Healing Ltd.

 Plant Identification

alternate opposite whorled

Figure 3.8
Leaf Attachments

When the stem leaves grow directly across from each other, in pairs, the
leaves are said to be opposite. When they grow in circles of threes,
fours, fives and so on, they are said to be whorled. If the leaves are
arranged singly on the stem, first at one point and then at another, the
leaves are termed alternate.

When determining whether leaves are alternate or opposite, avoid the

tips of the stem where the leaves are crowded. Instead, choose for your
examination a part of the main stem where the leaves are widely spaced
and their arrangement is distinct. If there is only one leaf, at a node, the
leaf is considered alternate.

Flowers
The flower is one of the most important parts of the flowering plants. It
is vital to reproduction, and a flower’s colour and shape is an attraction
to insects and other animals which carry out the process of pollination
or fertilization.

There are several parts to a typical flower. Each of these parts has a
specific function. Figure 3.9 illustrates a typical flower. The receptacle,
which consists of several crowded nodes separated by very short
internodes, is found at the very base of the flower. The first internode on
the branch beneath the receptacle is termed the pedicel. The second
internode below a single flower is called the peduncle.

The sepals are the outermost organs of the flower. Collectively they
form the calyx. In the majority of flowers they are green but they are
sometimes brown and scale-like or highly coloured and petal-like.

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Textbook of Modern Herbology, Second Revised Edition

Stamen:
anther
filament

petal
Pistil:
stigma
sepal
style
ovary
receptacle

Figure 3.9
Typical Flower

The petals are collectively known as the corolla. They are usually the
white or coloured parts that make the flower showy, attracting insects.
Sepals and petals are not always easily distinguishable. In such cases
they are referred to as the perianth. The stamens, collectively known as
the androecium, are the male organs of the flower. They typically
consist of two parts — a stalk called the filament and a small compart-
ment at the top called the anther. Pollen is produced in the anther. The
anther usually harbours four pollen sacs.

The pistil is the female organ of the flower and it is situated in the center
of the flower. There may be more than one carpel. At its base is the
ovary containing one or more bodies called ovules. At the summit is the
stigma which receives the pollen. The stalk-like portion between the
ovary and the stigma is called the style.

A flower is said to be complete if it has four sets or parts: sepals, petals,

stamen and at least one pistil. Many flowers are incomplete. They may
lack all or more parts of the perianth, or either the stamens or pistils.
The perianth is entirely absent in the willow. Most commonly, the petals
are absent while the calyx is present. Flowers which lack petals and
which may or may not have sepals are said to be apetalous (e.g.,
grasses, sedges, willows and poplars are apetalous). In some apetalous
plants (e.g., clematis) the sepals are large and white or coloured.

Flowers having both stamens and carpels (male and females parts) are
perfect or bisexual. Flowers lacking either are unisexual. If both types
of unisexual flowers (male/stamen and female/pistil) are present on the
same plant, it is said to be monoecious (mono means “one” and oikious
means “household”). If the staminate and pistillate flowers are on
different plants, the plant is termed dioecious.

50 Copyright © 1993, Wild Rose College of Natural Healing Ltd.

 Plant Identification

Spike Raceme Panicle

Umbel Corymb Cyme

Figure 3.10
Flower Arrangement

If the parts of a flower are separate from one another, they are distinct.
When the structures of a particular series of flower parts (e.g., the petals
in bluebells) are united to each other in some fashion, they are said to
be coalescent.

If the sepals, petals, and stamens are attached at a point above the ovary
attachment, the ovary is inferior (in other words, the ovary stands
below them). If the ovary appears to be above the sepal/petals, it is
regarded as superior. If the ovary is on an equal level with the sepals,
petals, and stamens, it is midline. The technical terms used to refer to
inferior, superior, and midline ovary attachment are, respectively,
epigynous, hypogynous and perigynous.

Flowers are arranged on each species of plant in a characteristic way. A

solitary or terminal flower occurs singly at the apex of a main stem. An
axillary flower terminates at the end of a small lateral branch.

Indeterminate Inflorescences

Inflorescences in which the topmost buds continue to grow for an

indefinite period (for as long as conditions are favorable) are termed
indeterminate. Racemes, spikes, corymbs and panicles are indetermi-
nate inflorescences.

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Textbook of Modern Herbology, Second Revised Edition

A raceme is an inflorescence consisting of a main axis bearing single

flowers alternately or spirally on stalks (pedicels) of approximately equal
length. A spike is a racemose (raceme-like) inflorescence, but the
flowers are without pedicels. Grasses and catkins exemplify this type of
flower arrangement. A corymb is a rounded or flat-topped inflorescence
of racemose type in which the lower (outer) flower stalks (pedicels) are
longer than the upper (inner) ones, so that all the flowers are at about
the same level. In a corymb the outside flower always flowers and fruits
first. The central flowers are often in bud stage when the outside
flowers are in fruit. A panicle is a compound inflorescence that is
typically a cluster of racemes, spikes or corymbs.

Determinate Inflorescences

In a determinate inflorescence, the terminal (top) buds flower first and

since no further elongation can occur, the growth of the inflorescence
is regarded as “predetermined.” Subsequent growth is therefore from a
lateral growing point, with the oldest flowers being at the apex, or
center (opposite from a corymb).

A cyme may assume either of two common forms, depending on

whether the inflorescence is alternate or opposite. On those plants with
alternate branching, the cyme resembles a corymb, with the difference
that the flower buds are on the rim of the flat-topped cluster with the
fruit in the center. The flower formed on successively lower branches
blossom later. As in the corymb, the lower pedicels are longer.

In a cyme with opposite branching, the terminal bud of the stem forms
a flower and the two axillary branches at the first node below the flower
then elongate. Each of these forms a flower and again the two axillary
buds at the next node form flowers, continuing the development. The
final result is a more or less flat-topped cluster of buds, flowers and fruit
with the oldest fruit in the center.

An umbel is an umbrella-shaped inflorescence with all stalks (pedicels)

arising from the top of the main stem.

Fruit and Seeds

The function of the flower is the production of seeds from ovules and
fruits from the ovaries. After the eggs in the ovary of the flower have
been fertilized, the flower parts are no longer required (the corolla and
sometimes calyx) wither and drop away. The ripened ovary plus the
seeds is called the fruit. In some plants, the receptacle of the flower
ripens, and develops into the fruit.

The functions of the fruit are:

➊ To protect the seeds and

➋ To provide a means of distributing the seeds (seed dispersal)
after the seeds have attained maturity.
52 Copyright © 1993, Wild Rose College of Natural Healing Ltd.
 Plant Identification

There are two types of fruits. Dry fruits are those which have a dry,
outer covering, protecting the seeds. Grains, nuts, lima beans, maple
and dandelion are dry fruits. Fleshy fruits have a juicy meat that both
protects the seed and aids in distribution. Animals, including man,
harvest the fruit for nourishment and later deposit the seed along with a
nice pile of fertilizer.

Summary of Chapter 3
We have covered the anatomical features of the plant such as roots,
stems, leaves, flowers and fruits. You should be able to practice identifi-
cation of plant parts at this point. Practising in your home or in a local
garden is a good way of “memorizing through utilization” of the mate-
rial in this chapter.

Congratulations! You’ve made it this far, reviewing about one year of

botany. One more chapter and you will have the basics in botany that
are essential for a herbalist.

Recommended Readings

Inquire at your local library for floras of your area. Gardening stores often carry
excellent introductions to botany.
Young, Paul, The Botany Coloring Book, Barnes & Noble Books, NY: 1982.
Wilson, Loomis & Steeves, Botany, 5 ed., Holt Rinehart, N.Y.: 1971.

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 Plant Classification

Plant 4
Classification

Synopsis:

In this chapter we will look at the difference between plants and animals, how
plants are classified by scientists, the four major plant phyla and a number of the
most important plant families. The further distinction between monocotyledonous
and dicotyledonous plants is emphasized.

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Textbook of Modern Herbology, Second Revised Edition

Table of Contents
Plants and Animals — The Difference
Classification of Plants
The Four Major Plant Phyla
The Gymnosperms
The Angiosperms
Monocots
Four Important Families
Dicots
Twelve Important Families
Summary
Recommended Readings

List of Tables and Figures

4.1 Gymnosperm cone
4.2 Monocotyledon
4.3 The Grass Family
4.4 Spikelet Flowers (Grass)
4.5 Dicotyledon
4.6 Carrot
4.7 Flower shape
4.8 Differences between Monocots and Dicots

56 Copyright © 1993, Wild Rose College of Natural Healing Ltd.

 Plant Classification

Introduction

I n this section we are going to look at plant classification using some

of the tools we acquired from the last chapter on plant identifica-
tion. If you don’t have an understanding of basic botanical anatomy
(or haven’t reviewed the last chapter), you’ll need to read Chapter 3. We
will be dealing mainly with the classification of major plant families.

Plants and Animals — the differences

The organisms of the earth are classified into two kingdoms, the plant
kingdom and the animal kingdom. Nearly everything that lives on the
earth is either a plant or an animal. Some organisms are borderline,
making it difficult to place them in one kingdom or the other.

Plants are generally distinguished from animals in the following ways:

➊ They often possess chlorophyll.

➋ Almost all of them are fixed in one place.
➌ They have no nervous system.
➍ Plants grow continually throughout life and have no maximum
size or characteristic form in the adult phase in contrast to
animals.
➎ They have rigid supporting cell walls containing cellulose.
➏ Most plants can synthesize their own food from inorganic
materials.

Plants range in size and structural complexity from simple microscopic,

unicellular organisms to flowering trees, three to four hundred feet tall.
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Textbook of Modern Herbology, Second Revised Edition

The different types of plants (more than 386,000) belong to several major
groups. More than two-thirds (255,000) are flowering plants, trees,
shrubs or herbs. The remaining one-third are made up of ferns, mosses
and liverworts, algae and fungi.

It should be emphasized that science does not really know how many
plants or animals exist on the planet. Huge sections of the rainforest have
not been studied or catalogued. To put this in perspective, research has
shown that there are more species of organisms in a square kilometer of
rainforest than there are in the entire continent of North America. With
the rapid pace of rainforest destruction, many species are going extinct
every year.

Classification of Plants
Living things, both plants and animals, are classified into groups. The
branch of biology concerned with classification is called taxonomy,
which is etymologically derived from the Greek word taxis, meaning
“arrangement.” The purpose of classification is to enable biologists to
organize their studies in a systematic and orderly way.

The first division (containing the organisms which are alike in their most
general characteristics) is called a ‘kingdom’. Thus we have the plant
kingdom and the animal kingdom. In some systems of classification, a
third kingdom called the protists includes those living organisms having
characteristics of both plants and animals. Each kingdom is further
subdivided into groups called ‘phyla’ with more and more specific
characteristics.

The divisions proceeding from the most general to the more specific or
limiting characteristics are summarized as:

Kingdom
Phylum (or Division)
Class
Order
Family
Genus
species
subspecies
(variety)

Sometimes sub-groups are used (e.g. sub-kingdoms and subphyla).

A family usually contains a number of genera. A genus therefore contains

a number of species. A species sometimes contains a number of subspe-
cies or varieties. A species is defined as a group of living organisms which
reproduce (sexually) among themselves to give the same type of organ-
ism.
58 Copyright © 1993, Wild Rose College of Natural Healing Ltd.
 Plant Classification

The need to name organisms is obvious. Various living things have been
known by a number of names at different times and places in the world.
This was particularly true in herbals. Many very old herbals used folk or
local names. In the process of unifying medicinal herbals, a naming
system had to be employed. To ensure that a living thing would be
known by the same name, scientists have agreed to use a system of
naming organisms that is called the binomial system, developed by the
Swedish botanist, Carolus Linnaeus. In this system, each living thing is
designated by two terms. The first term refers to the genus and the
second part to the species. Once we have the exact name of a plant, it is
possible to summarize a great deal of knowledge about it.

The following very condensed example should have much more

meaning for you now!

Kingdom Planacea (Plant)

Sub-Kingdom Embryophyta (Seed Plant)
Phylum Tracheophyta
Sub-phylum Spernopsida
Class Angiospermae (Flowering Plant)
Sub-Class Dicotyledoneae(Dicot)
Order Opuntiales
Family Cactaceae
Genus Cereus
species giganteus

Biologists called this plant Cereus giganteus, commonly known as the

“giant cactus”. And note that it is customary to capitalize the genus but
not the species name. The scientific name is always expressed in italics
(or when writing or typing by underlining). This is to show that the
words are part of a scientific vocabulary and not a part of everyday
vocabulary. Getting into this habit will make your own notes more
effective pieces of communication.

In scientific texts, genus, after first mention, can be abbreviated to a

single letter (e.g., Cereus giganteus becomes C. giganteus) if it is the last
genus mentioned that begins with “C”). If confusion might arise (e.g.,
several genuses starting with “C”), then the whole genus name should
be used. In situations where the exact species is unknown or unimpor-
tant, the species name can be abbreviated (e.g. Cereus giganteus
becomes Cereus sp.). In cases where more than one species is men-
tioned, the abbreviation is spp.. Don’t confuse this with the abbreviation
for subspecies (ssp.). If the entire genus is refered to, the abbreviation is
gn. (e.g. Cereus gn.). Herbalists can take advantage of this scientific
system when identifying and studying the Plant Kingdom.

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Textbook of Modern Herbology, Second Revised Edition

The Four Major Plant Phyla

The plant kingdom can be divided into four major phyla:

➊ The Thallophyta
➋ The Bryophyta
➌ The Pteridophyta
➍ The Spermatophyta

Let’s take a brief look at the first three and a detailed look at the fourth.

The Thallophyta are simple plants with no roots, stems, leaves, flowers
or seeds. They include the:

➊ Algae ➋ Fungi ➌ Bacteria ➍ Slime Molds

Most of them are one-celled. Some grow in chains or colonies of cells.
The majority of them do not contain chlorophyll and cannot manufac-
ture their own food. Thus, they must get their food from other plants
or animals.

The Bryophyta are plants with leaves and stems but no true roots. The
“roots” that they do have serve only for anchorage. They are not true
roots because they lack conducting tubes through which water is
carried to the rest of the plant. The Bryophyta include:

➊ The mosses ➋ The liverworts

The Pteridophyta are plants with roots, stems, leaves, and water-
conducting tissue. They reproduce by means of spores. They consist
of:

➊ The ferns ➋ The horsetails ➌ The clubmosses

The Spermatophyta (Seed-bearing Plants) are plants with roots, stems
(trunks and branches), leaves, a highly efficient conducting system
which courses through all parts of the plant, fruit, seed producing
organs and seeds. The most advanced plants in the plant kingdom are
the seed plants. Most of the herbs that we will be studying in this text
fall within this phylum. Spermatophytes are divided into two classes —
the Gymnospermae and the Angiospermae.

The Gymnosperms (“naked seed”)

These are plants which form seeds in cones but not flowers or fruit.
They are mainly evergreen trees which are characterized by needle-like
leaves and cones in which “naked” seeds are produced. By “naked”, we

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 Plant Classification

Male Cone
bract

naked seed

Cone
The naked seeds lie between the bracts (unless they have
Cross-section
already been shed).
There are male cell-producing cones and female egg-producing cones. Early in the spring, when the
male and female reproductive cells are mature, the cones on the evergreens grow upright with the
scales open. The wind carries the male to the receptive female cells, which remain in their cones.

Figure 4.1
A Gymnosperm Cone

mean that the seeds are not enclosed in fruits, as they are in the flower-
ing plants. By “evergreens”, we mean that the leaves stay on the trees
more than one season.

The gymnosperms that bear cones are called conifers. The reproductive
structures are present in the cones. There are some conifers, such as
juniper, that have “berry-like” cones. Some examples of gymnosperms
are the fir, spruce, cedar, Bald cypress and larch (a deciduous non-
evergreen conifer). The giant redwood of California (and the sequoias),
also gymnosperms, are among the oldest living things on earth.

Evergreens are of great economic value to man. They are used univer-
sally for building purposes, for furniture making, for masts of ships and
for telephone poles. Much of our paper comes from the wood pulp of a
variety of spruce tree. Resin, turpentine, and tar products come from
pine trees.

The Angiosperms (Flowering Plants)

These plants form flowers and produce seeds enclosed in containers
(fruits). Flowering plants are the dominant land plants today, numbering
approximately 255,000 species. No other class approaches this number.
Variation is seen clearly in their size. They range from the small duck-
weed, a plant which floats on fresh water and is less than 1/8 of an inch
across, to the eucalyptus tree which has been measured at over 325 feet
high. The flowering plants can be divided into two groups — Monocoty-
ledons and Dicotyledons. They are named according to the number of
cotyledons (seed-leaves) in the embryo (the young plant in the seed).

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cotyledon

Once again, monocots are so-called because they

have only one seed leaf in the embryo of their seed.
Dicots have two. In some seeds, the cotyledons are
flat and leaflike. In others, such as the bean (a dicot)
the cotyledons store the seed's food reserve for
germination and are fleshy. In most plants the
cotyledons emerge above the soil with the seedling as
it grows.
germinating maize
seed

Figure 4.2
Monocot Diagram

Monocotyledons (Monocots)
About 20% (55,000 species in all) of all known flowering plants species
are monocots. There is only a single seed leaf (mono = one, cotyledon
= seed leaves). The subclass contains species generally recognized as
the most highly evolved of all plants, yet at the same time, some of the
most primitive of the Angiospermae. This group includes plants which
have shoots that are often unbranched, stems which may remain
underground, long leaves with parallel veins and many small roots.

Monocots on the whole are herbaceous (soft-bodied) but occasionally

they do become woody. For example, the bamboos can grow up to 130
feet tall.

Some Examples of Monocots

Grasses Palm Onion Barley

Iris Lily Bulrush Daffodil
Pineapple Banana Oats Orchid

We will take a brief look at four important monocotyledenous families

— the grass family, the sedge family, the lily family and the orchid family.

GRAMINEAE (POACEAE) — The Grass Family

Grasses, forming prairies and steppes and covering about one quarter
of the land surface of the earth, are members of the most important of
all plant families.

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 Plant Classification

The grass family is one of the largest, with over 10,000

species. Grasses are mostly perennial herbs but include
the canelike bamboos which grow up to 130 feet high.

Despite their great importance (about 12 species of cereals

provide the staple diet for most of the world's population),
grasses are rarely conspicuous. Different species often look
very much the same. The major reason for this uniformity
is that grasses have no need to sepals, petals, or other
brightly coloured structures to attract pollinating insects.
Instead, the flowers of grasses are well adapted for wind
pollination. Each style terminates in a feathery stigma which
provides the largest possible surface area for catching
pollen grains as they blow past in the air. The flowers,
which are bisexual, are arranged in spikelets.

Figure 4.3
Grass Diagram
Either as cereals or as forage for livestock, they are the basic source of
food for most of the world’s human population. No other plant family
is cultivated to nearly the same extent. Other characteristics of grasses
are their tufted growth style, their hollow circular stems and their long
narrow parallel-veined alternate leaves. The lower part of each leaf
sheathes around the stem.

CYPERACEAE — The Sedge Family

The Cyperaceae is a large family of mainly perennial, and a few annual,

grass-like herbs. For the most part they are extremely difficult to
identify. This family is distributed in all parts of the world but especially
in the damp, wet, or marshy regions of the temperate and subarctic
zones. The Cyperaceae is perhaps
closest to the grasses, but the relation-
ship is not close despite the superficial
similarities in circumstance and
appearance. The sedges are generally
distinguished by the often solid and
three-angled stems. The small, incon-
spicuous flowers are bisexual or
unisexual (with male and female
usually on the same plant), and ar-
ranged in spikelets. Spikelets are very incon-
spicuous flowers.
LILIACEAE - The Lily Family

The lily family is a large family of pre- Figure 4.4

Spikelet Flowers
dominantly herbaceous flowering
plants. It is important horticulturally, as
it includes the lilies and numerous

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Textbook of Modern Herbology, Second Revised Edition

other outstandingly beautiful cultivated genera. The flowers are borne

in clusters. Sometimes they are solitary.

ORCHIDACEAE — The Orchid Family

Orchidaceae is a very large family of perennial herbs distributed

throughout the world. Prized for their spectacularly beautiful flowers,
orchids are cultivated by many, with sometimes fanatical devotion.
Enormous numbers of new hybrids are produced, many of them
commanding high prices. Many wild species are in danger of extinc-
tion through the destruction of natural habitats.

Dicotyledons (Dicots)
Dicotyledons are plants with two seed leaves in the embryo of their
seed. This group includes plants which have shoots which are usually
branched, stems which grow above the ground, broad leaves with veins
making a network with taproots or fibrous roots.

Some Examples of Dicots

Carrot Cucumber Rose Grapes

Beans Nuts Apple Orange
Foxglove

We will now take a very brief look at twelve of the most important
families of Dicots. This list is certainly not exhaustive.

The dicots have two parts to the seed. Unlike

the parallel leaf veins on monocots, the leaf
veins of dicots are arranged in a net pattern.

Dicots are sometimes herbs (that is,

herbaceous or non-woody), more often woody
and grow into large trees. They never reach
the great size or age attained by the conifers.

Figure 4.5
Dicotyledon Diagram

64 Copyright © 1993, Wild Rose College of Natural Healing Ltd.

 Plant Classification

SALICACEAE — The Willow Family

The Salicaceae is a family of mostly north

temperate trees and shrubs containing the
aspen, the poplars and the willows. This stem
family is dioecious. The leaves are simple,
usually alternate, have stipules and are
primary root
almost invariably deciduous. The flowers
secondary root
called catkins (pussy willows), are uni-
sexual, and male and female flowers are
borne on separate plants (dioecious).
Three important genera are the Salix (the
willows), the Betula (birches) and the
Populus (the aspens and poplars).

CARYOPHYLLACEAE — The Carnation Family Figure 4.6

“The Carrot”
The Caryophyllaceae is a large family of
mainly temperate herbaceous plants. It
includes the popular carnation and pinks, and some well-known wild
flowers and weeds such as campions and chickweed. In spite of its
size, the Caryophyllaceae is a relatively uniform and easily recognized
family. The leaves are almost invariably opposite and the stems are
swollen at the nodes. The flowers are symmetrical, four-or-five parted
and sometimes lack petals. The number of stamens is typically double
the number of sepals (as in chickweed).

RANUNCULACEAE — The Buttercup Family

The Ranunculaceae is a large family containing a number of well

known wild flowers and garden ornamentals such as buttercups,
anemones and hellebores as well as some very poisonous plants such
as aconitum. The family is distributed throughout the world but is
centered in temperate and cold regions of the northern and southern
hemispheres. The plants are mostly herbs. Their flowers are typically
regular, and symmetrical petals are generally numerous but some-
times lacking. The calyx is petal-like and the stamens are numerous.

CRUCIFERAE — The Mustard Family

The Cruciferae is a large family of major economic importance,

containing a wide array of crop plants grown as salads, vegetables, for
oilseed, animal feed, and condiments. It includes several well-known
garden ornamentals such as the wall-flower, honesty and aubretia.
There are approximately 3,000 species contained in about 380 genera.
Members of this family are found in most parts of the world but are
mainly concentrated in the north temperate region and more espe-
cially in the countries surrounding the Mediterranean basin and in

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Textbook of Modern Herbology, Second Revised Edition

southwestern and central Asia. The Cruciferae are mostly annual to

perennial herbs, rarely small shrubs, and very rarely climbers. They
usually have a bitter, watery juice. They bear regular flowers with four
deciduous sepals, four cruciform petals (shaped like a crucifix), and six
stamens. The leaves are usually alternate and without stipules.

SAXIFRAGACEAE — The Currant Family

The Saxifragaceae is a large and widespread family consisting mainly of

perennial herbs and shrubs, with a few annuals and a very few small
trees. It contains the currants and gooseberries, as well as many
popular garden flowers such as the hydrangeas. It’s represented in the
tropics, South Africa, Australia and New Zealand, but only scantily. The
great majority of the 1,250 species (80 genera) are found in the north
temperate zone, especially in eastern Asia and the Himalayas and in
North America. The flowers are regular, perfect, and five-parted, with
the petals as numerous as the sepals. The stamens are equal or double
the number of sepals. There are either two or three styles, and the
leaves are simple and usually alternate or basal.

ROSACEAE — The Rose Family

The Rosaceae is a large and important family of woody and herba-

ceous plants. It is valued both for its genera of bush and tree fruits of
temperate regions, including apples, cherries, plums, peaches, raspber-
ries and strawberries, and for many popular horticultural ornamentals.
The family is worldwide, with its maximum development in the north
temperate zone. The flower is characteristically insect-pollinated and
frequently large and showy. Flowers are regular, five-parted, with many
stamens and perfect containing a united calyx and free petals.

LEGUMINOSAE — The Pea Family

The Leguminosae is a very large family of herbs, shrubs and trees. Many
species are of enormous importance to man. The approximately 700
genera and 17,000 species have a cosmopolitan distribution in tropical,
subtropical and temperate zones. All the alpine members of this family
are perennial herbs. The flowers are perfect and irregular with five,
more or less united, sepals and five unlike petals. The leaves are usually
alternate, compound, and stipulate, often with tendrils.

ONAGRACEAE — The Evening Primrose Family

This is a widespread and botanically well-defined family of herbs and

some shrubs. Many of the members are popular ornamentals. Al-
though virtually cosmopolitan, the family is most diverse in the western
United States and Mexico, where all 18 genera are found.

66 Copyright © 1993, Wild Rose College of Natural Healing Ltd.

 Plant Classification

Figure 4.7
Rosa pendulina

The plants are perennial and annual herbs with simple, alternate or
opposite leaves. The flowers are perfect and have inferior ovaries. The
parts of the flower are usually in fours and twos. The stamens usually
number eight.

UMBELLIFERAE — The Carrot Family

The Umbelliferae is one of the best known families of flowering plants.

It contains about 300 genera and 2,500 to 3,000 species and is found
in most parts of the world, although it is commonest in temperate
upland areas.

The Umbelliferae are herbaceous annuals, biennials, or perennials,

however, the majority are biennials. The stems are usually hollow with
alternate or basal compound leaves. The flowers are small and usually
bear umbels. Common members of the group include carrots, cow
parsnip and lomatium.

ERICACEAE — The Heath Family

The Ericaceae is a large family consisting primarily of dwarf shrubs

with evergreen or deciduous leaves. The flower is perfect, regular, five-
parted, and often has an urnlike corolla. Examples are bearberry (uva
ursi), blueberry and laurel.

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Textbook of Modern Herbology, Second Revised Edition

LABIATAE — The Mint Family

The Labiatae is a large family of mostly herbs and undershrubs. They

are typically annuals or perennials and often have a strong odour. The
stems are four angled (square, in other words) with simple, opposite,
and usually toothed leaves. The flower is perfect and the ovary is
superior. The family includes spearmint, pennyroyal and Heal-All.

COMPOSITAE (ASTERACEAE) — The Sunflower Family

The Compositae is one of the largest families of flowering plants, with

about 1,100 genera and 25,000 species. Most of its members are
evergreen shrubs or sub-shrubs or perennial herbs, but biennial and
annual herbs are also frequent. This family, which is found worldwide,
includes lettuce, artichokes and sunflowers, as well as chrysanthe-
mums, dahlias and numerous other popular garden flowers, not to
mention weeds like dandelions, thistles and sow thistles.

Members of this family have compound flower heads. The leaves

opposite or alternate, rarely whorled and without stipules. The familiar
daisies, thistles and dandelions exemplify one of the most characteris-
tic features of the Compositae — the headlike inflorescence known as
a capitulum, made up of numerous small individual flowers called
florets, and surrounded by an involucre of protective bracts. The
entire affair resembles a single flower and is usually seen that way by
the layperson.

Summary of Differences between Dicots and Monocots

As you have learned, all flowering plants — which includes most herbs -
fall into one of two major classes — the dicotyledons (or dicots) and the
monocotyledons (or monocots).

Their differences are mainly in the structure of their seeds, stems, leaves
and floral parts (See Figure 4.8).

68 Copyright © 1993, Wild Rose College of Natural Healing Ltd.

 Plant Classification

Chart of the Differences between Monocots and Dicots

➊ The basic distinction between dicots and monocots is that dicots have two
cotyledons, or seed leaves, while monocots have only one.

➋ Typical dicots have a central core (called pith), ringed by vascular

(conducting) tissue. Monocot stems have scattered vascular bundles.

➌ Dicots typically have taproot systems. All monocots have fibrous root
systems

➍ The leaves of dicots have a branching network of veins. Monocots have a

parallel arrangement.

➎ In dicots, the floral parts are arranged in groups of four or five. In monocots,
they are arranged in multiples of three.

Figure 4.8
Comparison of Monocots and Dicots

Summary of Chapter 4
In this chapter, we reviewed the current scientific method of the
classification of plants. Each plant is a member of a progressively more
specific category. Within the Plant Kingdom, phyla and families contain
many thousands of unique plants which are alternately distinguished by
their genus and species. The Spermatophyta contains the Gymno-
sperms and Angiosperms. The latter breakdown into the monocotyle-
dons and the dicotyledons. The most important families in the
Spermatophyta were briefly examined for their significance.

Recommended Readings
Benson, L., Plant Classification, D.C. Heath & Co., Lexington, MA: 1959.
Standardized Plant Names, J. Horace McFarland Company: regularly updated.

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Textbook of Modern Herbology, Second Revised Edition

70 Copyright © 1993, Wild Rose College of Natural Healing Ltd.

 Some Biochemical Mysteries

Some
Biochemical 5
Mysteries...
and a Planetary Herbology

Synopsis:

In this chapter we will look at the difference between inorganic and organic
materials and their physiological actions. We will also look at planetary
herbology to help see where herbology fits in to health care at a global scale.

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Textbook of Modern Herbology, Second Revised Edition

Table of Contents
Organic versus Inorganic
Organic organization
Where Humans Fit In
An Esoteric Look at the Energy Difference
Physiological Action of Organic versus Inorganic
The Combination of Chemicals
Modern Herbology
Ayurvedic Medical Theory
Traditional Chinese Medical (TCM) Theory
Unani
First Nations Peoples
African
Alchemy
Eclectic
Scientific
Summary of Chapter 5
Recommended Reading

List of Tables and Figures

5.1 Atomic Structure of Water

5.2 Summary of Plant Energy Capture
5.3 Chlorophyll Molecule
5.4 Glucose and the Krebs Cycle

72 Copyright © 1993, Wild Rose College of Natural Healing Ltd.

 Some Biochemical Mysteries

Organic versus Inorganic

I
n the mineral kingdom, elements (atoms) are bonded in a more or
less “random” manner based on the principle of electron comple-
mentation. When atoms are interacting chemically, each element
forming the compound strives for a complete number of electrons in its
outermost shell. Lets take the example of water (H2O). In Fig 5.1 we can
see that hydrogen has one electron in its outer shell whereas oxygen
has six. Both of these shells are incomplete. For the hydrogen to be
complete it needs another electron, its level of energy demands two
electrons for a complete shell. On the other hand, oxygen needs eight
electrons for a complete shell. This means the addition of two would
make it complete. If two hydrogens shared their electrons with the one
oxygen, we would have a cooperation that satisfied both partners. This
gives us a very stable relationship called H2O or water. This is how
simple inorganic chemistry works.

Water is one of the most critical molecules for life on our planet. It
is composed of two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom.
Atoms are organized with a nucleus of protons and neutrons and
a set of electrons which spin around the nucleus in "shells".
Appearance Ideally, the first shell contains two electrons, the second - eight
electrons. Atoms attempt to seek this ideal by sharing electrons.
In this case, the two hydrogens provide missing electrons in
H oxygen's second shell and in turn receive an electron to fill their
first shell. Because electrons effectively move at the speed of
O light, a molecule would look more like a "cloud" of electrons
around three nuclei than a solid object. Note that the hydrogen
H atoms always attach to oxygen "like Mickey Mouse ears".
Shell Diagram

Figure 5.1
Atomic Structure of Water
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Textbook of Modern Herbology, Second Revised Edition

Organic organization
In plants there is a different process going on. The molecules in a living
substance are energised by the sun. Lets take a look at what happens
with this ecology of energy. The major energy source of our solar
system is the sun, of course, and that is where our energy originates.
Some 93 million miles away, the sun acts as a very efficient nuclear
reactor and produces untold amounts of energy. The planet Earth is
fortunate in that it has developed a system for capturing this solar
energy. In Figure 5.2 we have a summary of the whole process.

Sunlight Chlorophyll Molecule

6CO2 + 6H2O + 672 KCal

Carbon Water solar energy captured C6H12O6 + 6O2

dioxide by chlorophyll
glucose oxygen

Energy Storage for Plant

Figure 5.2
Summary of Plant Energy Capture

The Sun shines upon our planet. Plants have the ability of capturing
some of this energy and putting it into the biological realm. Plants are
the only lifeforms that can capture this solar energy and convert it to a
form for use by the rest of the biological systems on this planet. One can
easily see that the plant kingdom has a very important responsibility in
being the sole collector of biological energy for our planet.

Looking at the situation a bit closer we can see what happens on a

molecular level. When the Solar energy hits a chlorophyll molecule in
the green parts of the plant the magnesium (Mg) atoms’ electrons are
excited. In our simplified diagram of the magnesium atom we see that
the orbital of the electron has expanded. We could make this analogy to
a person jumping for joy when something very exciting is happening.
The plant in its complete dedication to the Sun seems to get very excited
(or at least its Mg molecules do!) when the radiation of the Sun shines
upon it.

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 Some Biochemical Mysteries
CH 2
CH CH 3
The magnesium atom is the
key element in the
chlorophyll molecule. As it
CH 3 CH 2CH 3 absorbs solar energy it
N passes that energy on to the
N
chlorophyll molecule which
in turn passes the energy on
Mg to other energy storage
molecules in the plant's
cytoplasm.

N N As can be seen by the

H diagram to the left, the
CH 3 magnesium atom seems to
"float" in the midst of the
hydrogen, carbon and
CH 2 CO oxygen atoms. If the
chlorophyll molecule was
CH 2 OCH 3 O seen from the side, the
magnesium atom would
O C seem to pop up above the
plane of the rest of the atoms.
OC 20H 39 Figure 5.3
Structure of the Chlorophyll Molecule

This description is very simplified but is of the utmost importance,

because the excitation of magnesium represents the entrance of solar
energy into the Earth’s biological systems. All other organisms live off
this energy. This ‘excited’ energy is passed onto other molecules, such
as ATP and NADPH2, for short-term storage in the plant cell. Think of
them as solar batteries. This solar energy, now converted to biological
energy is available to do work in the organism or to be stored in the
form of nutrients such as a simple sugar called glucose.

The basic energy manufacturing process of nature occurs through a

series of chemical reactions, one of the best known being “the Krebs
Cycle”. If we take two units of working energy and put it into the Krebs
Cycle, with this basic stored energy, we get 38 units of working energy
out on the other side of the reaction! This energy can be used else-
where to make raw chemicals into various nutrients for the plant such
as glycosides, alkaloids, vitamins and many other nutrients. The key
point here is that it takes the excited energy of the original solar source,
being passed along the system, to activate these molecules. All of these
biologically manufactured nutrients contain molecules made up of
excited electrons, energy from the original solar excitement of the
magnesium molecule.

Chemicals are basically shells that carry energy. We survive on biological

energy. I have to eat living organisms with biological energy to survive.
The plants collect this biological energy for us. They pull the minerals
out of the ground, filling them with live biological energy so that we can
use them. Since our primary need for eating is to obtain this biological
energy, we eat plants or organisms that eat plants.
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Textbook of Modern Herbology, Second Revised Edition

2ATP 6H20 6CO2 36ATP 6O2 12H20

pyruvic acid

sugar glycolysis Krebs cycle oxidative phosphorylation terminal oxidation.

2NADH2

fermentation 10NADH2 24H+ + 24e-

In this diagram, the process of breaking sugars (e.g. glucose) into usable energy is
summarized. The process is quite complex but the presence of the Krebs cycle is the
"magical" step which increases the ultimate energy output of the chemical reactions.

Figure 5.4
Glucose and the Krebs Cycle

To gain its energy a herbivore eats plants and a carnivore eats herbi-
vores. To get our energy we can eat from any of these groups, as we are
of a higher group. It is interesting to note that any waste materials,
either in the form of excrement or parts not completely eaten, are
recycled via the micro-organisms. This compost makes it very much
easier on the plants because now they do not have to convert all
nutrients into biologically usable forms. Some nutrients absorbed from
the soil are already in this form and only need to get charged up.

Where Humans Fit In

The ecology of the energy that we use in our body, and for that matter,
any biological system, is important to understand. We don’t really eat
because it tastes good or because it looks nice! The main reason for
eating is to take energy into our body. All the food we eat is really little
packets of energy that we use to animate ourselves, think or even read
this page. We are a big nutritional factory that processes foodstuffs to
give us energy, at least on the biological level. I eat an apple because it
looks good, tastes good but more specifically because of the energy it
gives me. This energy is the Vital or biological energy that is in the food.

What is most “dis-ease” but a lack of proper biological energy? When

sick, certain types of nutrients are essential for healing. These nutrients
are really organic chemicals that are specific to our energy needs. Since
our needs are biological, we will normally be better served with chemi-
cals that come from the biological realm.

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 Some Biochemical Mysteries

Along come humans with an isolated view of the universe and a desire
to find the “better” way. Looking at the way a plant makes a chemical
(traditionally used for a certain health problem) chemists realize they
can make it cheaper and faster, and therefore more profitably. The big
problem is that the scientist doesn’t realize that there is much more to
plants and humans than just chemicals. Humans cannot live by chemi-
cals alone. The only way that these chemicals can work in a biological
system is to be activated by biological energy. Synthetic chemicals have
to take the energy from the biological system they are in. These synthetic
chemicals, which might be useful in crisis medicine, don’t really have a
place in our day to day life.

A substantial difference between the electron configurations of natu-

rally occurring and synthetic substances does exist. While the synthetic
substances exhibit a random distribution and very close orbitals, the
organic substances show much larger and equidistant orbital spaces.

These synthetic chemicals, because of their lack of biological energy,

have to be taken in fairly large quantities to work. Synthetic chemicals
work like a bulldozer pushing chemicals down certain biochemical
pathways. Since there are often side branches to these pathways a
person often gets side effects from them. Herbs, on the other hand,
have the biological energy already in them, so the same quantity of
chemical is not needed to achieve the job. This has a threefold benefit:

➊ Because the biological energy in the herb is in “harmony” with

the biological needs of the body, the herbal chemical most often
goes down the right pathway without side effects.
➋ The possibility of side effects is reduced because of the lower
quantity of chemical.
➌ Biological energy is given to the body during this process, not
taken away as is the case with synthetic chemicals.

These benefits are not without drawbacks. Herbal energy takes much
longer to form. Herbs are just not as fast as synthetic chemicals. This is
why a smart herbalist will often surrender to a practitioner of synthetic
chemicals in a crisis situation and then will try to clean up the side
effects later.

To summarize:

When an inorganic substance is ingested by a plant, it is processed

through some sort of “energy grid” and we witness a beautiful alchemi-
cal process. The electrons of the various orbitals take on what we may
call harmonic levels of organization. This is one of the differences
between organic and inorganic. Chemicals that have gone through the
energisation of the plant kingdom have this solar energy.

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Textbook of Modern Herbology, Second Revised Edition

To clarify this, let’s look at an analogy. If you play MIDDLE C on the

piano, there are numerous other notes that you can simultaneously play
that make for a discordant, “sour” or off-key effect. But other notes
played simultaneously will result in melodious and sweet sounding
chords. A similar harmonizing occurrence takes place in “plant al-
chemy”. The plant reorganizes the energy of substances to a state
where the electrons travel in attuned patterns with each other. The
result is a “beautiful music”. Most inorganic chemicals, on the other
hand, have not yet passed through this system. They manifest “random
notes”.

Scientifically, organic substances are ones that contain carbon and have
gone through a living system. Inorganic substances are made up of
minerals, often combined to make compounds like the water men-
tioned earlier.

An Esoteric Look at The Energy Difference

In some holy books, the Bible included, it states that God created
heaven and earth out of the “materials” of His own substance. Before
this act, there existed what may be called a nothingness (a “null set” if
you like). God was everywhere, but at the same time He was essentially
a void. Or, as explained in Mister God, This is Anna, (a book written
about a six-year old girl and her conception of God and the Universe):

“Mister God was a bit different from a yellow flower. A flower

that didn’t want the yellow light was called yellow by us because
that is what we saw. You couldn’t say the same about Mister
God. Mister God wanted everything so He didn’t reflect anything
back; now, if Mister God didn’t reflect anything back, we couldn’t
possibly see him...could we? So, as far as we were able to
understand what Mister God was, we simply had to admit that
Mr. God was quite empty.”

One explanation of how it is that God can be everywhere but at the

same time, completely “empty” and really be a “nothingness”, is that
energy is not in the material manifestation of the proton, neutron, and
electron. Alternatively, it is in the energy space between them.

If the energy spaces of the chemicals are more organized, the chemicals
themselves will logically represent a more harmonious manifestation of
the infinite Being. The energy will be easier to assimilate, more benefi-
cial, harmonizing and centering.

Physiological Action of Organic

versus Inorganic
If the foregoing is true, it may not be sufficient reason for an individual
to prefer organic substances to inorganic ones. The state of evolution of
the organic substance always enters the picture as a significant factor,
78 Copyright © 1993, Wild Rose College of Natural Healing Ltd.
 Some Biochemical Mysteries

but might not be a concern to some people. Some say, “Sodium is

Sodium is Sodium”, meaning that it doesn’t matter whether it is inor-
ganic or organic. I personally don’t believe this, and feel that it does
make a difference. A big one!

Allow me to provide you with a few examples of the difference between

these types of chemicals:

Example 1: Oxalic Acid (C 2O4H2(H2O)) is a strong acid found in rhubarb,

sorrel, oak bark and yellow dock. In its organic form it is valuable as a
herbal medicine. Synthetic oxalic acid, on the other hand, is one of the
most virulent tissue-destroying poisons known to man. It will destroy
all organic tissues it comes in contact with.

Example 2: Sulphur when taken into the body as Flower of Sulphur will
shortly emerge through the pores of the skin. It is eliminated un-
changed, indicating that it was not assimilated by the cells. While in
the body, it robs iron from the food and blood, and even proves to be
constipating. It also forms foul-smelling gas that results from the
decaying of organic matter. But the organic sulphur found in onions,
watercress, marigold flowers and garlic is highly virtuous — it restores
the sulphur needed by the cells and carries away decaying and
diseased tissue.

The Combination of Chemicals

One of the main reasons why organic substances are considered
superior to inorganic is that they are comprised of more than one
chemical. These additional chemicals provide assistance to one another
in the body. Some chemicals influence the primary healing principle of
the organism while others care for potential side-effect or toxicity
problems.

Not all chemicals in the plant kingdom are without poisonous effect.
Some are very poisonous. Nonetheless, chemicals in plants are different
than those made in a lab.

Chemicals, when quite complex (as in plants) often have different

shapes. A substance can have the same chemical elements in it but be
very different in action due to its shape. These different shapes are
called isomers. Often a right–handed and a left–handed form of the
same chemical exist. These forms will work quite differently in our body,
sometimes not working at all! When making a chemical synthetically in
a lab we will get both forms. Because of cost considerations a manufac-
turer will sometimes leave both forms in the product. This will of course
influence the effect and the effectiveness of the product.

Plants have continued to evolve on this planet during the same time
frame as we have. We have set up specific ways to digest these foods
(chemicals). The shapes (isomers) are very specific to our system

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Textbook of Modern Herbology, Second Revised Edition

needs. In a lab it is very hard to copy these things exactly. Chemicals are
often made ‘similar’. These similar chemicals have biological activity but
not always exactly the same as the plant source. There are economic
incentives to create a chemical slightly different from an active constitu-
ent in a plant. It can be patented and owned. A company can control its
sale and demand a royalty for manufacture.

For another look at herbs, a quote from the Bible (Ezekiel 47:11):

"And the fruit thereof shall be for meat

and its leaf thereof for medicine.”

Herbs are whole medicines without missing parts. The significance of

herbs in religious development has always been noted. How much we
choose our medicines on the basis of tradition depends on our respect
for the wisdom of our ancestors.

Modern Herbology
Modern herbology is a blend of many forms of both new and old
systems. There are many herbalists that rely on old tested ways of
gathering (wildcrafting) their own herbs in the fields, mountains and
streamsides. These same people might have an in–depth understanding
of the chemistry and modern extraction techniques. The modern
herbalist can take a blend from different cultural or traditional practices
and apply them in a busy downtown clinic. The number and varieties of
herbalists is greatly expanding. Growers, gatherers, small–time to big–
time manufacturers, practitioners, educators — all consider themselves
herbalists.

We stand at an interesting point in time with for the field of herbology. A

blending of the old and the new is taking place. A combination of
Chinese, Indian, European, First Nations Peoples' culture, as well as that
of the indigenous peoples from all over the world. The modern scientific
perspective which provides the chemical profiles of the herbs is being
brought together with the energetics of the past. The cost of health care
in industrial nations is spiralling out of control. Since the publication of
the first edition of this book, the United Nation’s World Health Organiza-
tion (WHO) has supported the development of a world wide integration
of botanical medicine. The goal is to lower health care costs in develop-
ing nations. By being able to use indigenous plant–based medicines,
health care cost can be dramatically be reduced. The WHO have stated
that over 80 % of the worlds population now uses botanical medicine as
a form of primary health care. As the discussions and conferences on
these developments have occurred, the European Community (EC) has
taken on a significant interest. With health care cost out of hand, it
became rapidly obvious that even the developed nations could benefit
from a primary plant-based medicine. This has lead to the development
of ESCOP (European Scientific Co-operative of Phytomedicines) with
the goal of creating a EC monograph system for over-the-counter (OTC)

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 Some Biochemical Mysteries

system for botanical medicines. As the G–7 nations get on the band-
wagon and with health care issues becoming the number one issue of
lowering budget in both Canada and U.S.A. we should see some
interesting changes in the coming years.

Let’s take a look at the global herbology of the past and as it might
become as the new century approaches.

Ayurvedic Medical Theory

This form of medicine comes to us from ancient India and is still in use
today. (Ayur= Life and Veda = Science). Ayurvedic medicine considers
that the basic energies of the universe are split up into five elements:
Ether, Air, Fire, Water, Earth. These five blend into three principles or
humours called tridosha. They are Vata, Pitta and Kapha. Vata is made
from up of ether and air. Fire and water constitute Pitta. Kapha is the
combination of water and earth. Energetic theories are common to
most medical systems apart from the allopathic medical approach.

The tridosa govern the body, emotions and mind. The constitution of a
person is made up of these tridosha, usually with one being prominent.
Ayurvedic medicines are classified according to taste (rasa), qualities
(guna), potency ( virya) and taste arising after digestion ( vipaka). The
constitution of an individualand any symptomatic anomalies are
matched up with the energetics of specific medicines to determine a
remedy. Therefore diagnosis is based on various sign such as observa-
tion of the tongue, pulse, face, eyes, nails and lips. Usually herbs are
recommended along with diet, exercise, enemas, and massage. Detoxi-
fication programs are very common in Ayurvedic medicine.

Traditional Chinese Medical (TCM) Theory

The basis of Chinese medicine is the flow of an energy called Qi. This
‘nutrient’ energy is the basic substance of the Universe. A person is born
with a specific amount of Qi (prenatal Qi) and can acquire Qi from food,
air and medicines (postnatal Qi). This qi flows around the body in
‘rivers’ and ‘streams’ call acupuncture meridians. Disease, in Chinese
terms, results from a blockage, excesses or imbalances in Qi flow. Qi is
split into Yin and Yang. They can be symbolized as night and day, cold
and hot, back and front.

In classical Chinese medicine the body is split into five elements: wood,
fire, earth, metal and water. Each element has a yang organ and a yin
organ. Since all parts of the universe are made up of Qi, it is the job of
the practitioner to match positive Qi patterns in the botanical with
problem Qi in the person. This job is one always of balance. TCM is still
one of the most prominent medical systems on the planet. Even though
based on tradition, folklore and the fabric of nature, it has withstood the
test of time and serious scientific scrutiny.

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Unani
This system is used and maintained by Arabic/Persian Muslim popula-
tions. It follows a tradition of evaluating symptom groups to determine
temperaments (mizaj). Imbalances in temperaments are cause by
subtle elements of life, such as rest and activity patterns, work stresses
and interpersonal relations. Botanicals medicines are used to aid in
moving the temperament back to a more centered place from a disease
state. The practitioner’s (bakim, wise physician) job is to match the
herbs to the persons imbalances. This theory is based on four elements:
earth, water, air and fire. Each element has a corresponding humor:
blood to air; phlegm to water; yellow bile to fire; black bile to earth.
There are nine kinds of temperaments. A temperament is that quality
which exists through the interaction of the four elements.

First Nations Peoples

Because the Indians or First Nations Peoples are really made up of many
nations of people, with many traditions, it is impossible to discuss one
unifiedmedical approach. Medical practice amongst these peoples
usually involves a shaman (medicine man/woman) using various rituals
to ‘scare’ away various spirits that are afflicting a patient. It should be
noted that indigenous people had a very sophisticated, rational method
of using botanical medicine when Europeans came to North America.
Becoming a powerful medicine person required many years of dedica-
tion to ‘study’. The time and effort required might be compared to a
modern Ph.D. or M.D. Again we can say that First Nations Peoples’s
medicine are usually based on a system of energetics — the examina-
tion of energy flow and imbalances in that energy flow. Herbs and ritual
ceremonies were used to help a person or group of people regain their
balance.

African
The recorded healing systems of Africa goes back to 3200 B.C., with the
Pharaohs of Egypt. A "scientific" approach to medicine started in 2980
B.C. with Imhotep during the reign of Pharaoh Zosar of the Third
Dynasty — who also is credited with the creation of step pyramids. By
525 B.C., he was considered the god of medicine. The ancient African
healers had a very elaborate materia medica consisting of herbs, animal
parts, minerals and clays. The plant sections could be considered a
cross between food plants and medicinal plants with little distinction of
what would be a health food or a medicinal substance.

The flora of Africa is very diverse, contributing to a very large materia

medica. There are also over 2,000 distinct tribes with diverse cultures.
Despite the cultural variety, there has been a fairly standard form of
medical practice among these tribes over time. Many consider the
medicine of Africa associated with medicine man/witch doctor images

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 Some Biochemical Mysteries

and regard it as superstition. In reality traditional African medicine is

quite similar to North America Native traditions and is a systematic,
logical application of clearly established principles. African medicine is
concerned with power: the utilization of human energy, the environ-
ment and the cosmic balance of natural forces as tools in healing.
African medicine, as is true of most other systems, cannot be reduced to
simple herbalism. When dealing with medicinal plants, they are not
considered inert substances that have chemical constituents that
produce a healing. The energy and spirit of the plant is the important
ingredient for the healing formula. All substances, animate or inanimate,
have a sort of spirit or power within them — a life force that can only be
properly harnessed and utilized by a knowledgeable initiate. A medicine
person is not measured by the number of herbs they know but by the
depth of their understanding of natural laws and the ability to use them.
Again, the idea of energetics dominates and the flow of life energy (vital
force) is considered the most significant substance within a medical
setting.

Alchemy
The old tradition of Western alchemy is still alive and active throughout
Europe and North America. It is the ancestor of most modern science,
especially the fields of chemistry, physics, math and biology. Alchemy
views plants, animals and minerals as possessing various "bodies",
similar to (w)holistic healing theory. The basic concept in alchemy is to
separate the entity into it various bodies, purify them and combine them
again. The tools for this process are derived from the energetic perspec-
tives of astrology, Kabbala (QBL) and laboratory work. Many great
herbalists such as Culpepper felt the understanding of the astrology of
the planets was the most important tool for determining which herbs to
use with diverse individuals for different ailments. Some of our greatest
scientists were alchemists, ranging from Newton and Copernicus to
modern day psychologists like Carl Jung.

One of the highest forms of herbology, according to the alchemist, was

to develop a plant stone or the ‘little works’. This field is discussed in
more detail in the Textbook of Advanced Herbology.

Eclectic
As mentioned in the Chapter 1, the Eclectics were a prominent force in
herbology at the turn of the 20th century. They continued the teachings
of Samuel Thomson. There are a many great herbals reprinted from this
era: King, Ellingwood, Felter, Culbreth, Cook and Wood are the names of
a few famous authors. These people were some of the most prominent
doctors of the day. The image of "Doc" on the popular television show
Gunsmoke is not far from the Eclectic ideal — the country doctor with
his bag of tinction, potions and lotions. This era dealt with the emerging
science of botanical medicine. Great care was taken to understand some

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Textbook of Modern Herbology, Second Revised Edition

of the active ingredients of the botanicals. Even though this scientific

approach was used, common sense concepts of hygiene, fresh air and
good food were also an important part of the medicine.

These doctors were vitalists, believing that the vital energies of foods
and plants, combined with the vital energies of environment and a
person’s relationships were the most important aspect of medicine. The
eclectic understanding of the herbs has survived to this day, preserved
by the naturopathic doctors and a few dedicated herbalists

Scientific
The scientific exploration of medicinal botanicals was fairly intense at
the end of the last century. This investigation has picked up again in
earnest in the last decade. In the Western world investigation of medici-
nal plants has mostly been directed towards producing analog chemi-
cals that could be patented (a means of protecting one's profits).
Serious attempts are being made to gain knowledge of active ingredi-
ents. Feverfew, ginkgo and milk thistle are all examples of plants which
have been subjected to intense European and/or Japanese investiga-
tion. In the Orient, chemical and clinical validation of botanicals has
renewed a broader acceptance and helped to develop new product
ideas. Detailed research into tropical rainforest plants seems be on the
verge of expanding our horizons of medicinal plants and possibly our
interaction with the ecosystems of our planet. In an interesting reverse
strategy, environmentalists now attempt to protect the rainforest by
claiming its plants hold the key to alleviating human ailments.

The world of herbology is rapidly expanding. There are many writers,

lecturers and practitioners blending the concepts of energetics of the
various cultures from around the world with the scientific information
of the day. This makes the practice of herbology truly both an art and a
science. The directions a herbalist can take are many — from gatherer
to researcher; practitioner to manufacturer. The cultural or scientific
perspective can vary from one herbalist to another. This is truly an age
of eclectic herbology, a true renaissance of medical theories is occur-
ring in North America and other parts of the world.

Summary of Chapter 5
In this chapter, we laid the foundation for biochemistry from a herbal
perspective. We reviewed the methods by which plants capture energy
and the difference between natural source and synthetic materials. We
went on to explore some of the prominent botanical medicine systems
around the world. Most of these traditions were based on a system of
energetics. The modern herbalist is one who blends the traditions of the
past with the science of today to create a dynamic effective healing
system — herbology as an art and a science.

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 Some Biochemical Mysteries

Recommended Readings

Thakkur, C.G., Ayurveda: The Indian Art & Science of Medicine, A.S.I. Publishers, N.Y.:
1974.
Kapoor, L.D., CRC Handbook of Ayurvedic Medicinal Plants, CRC Press, Boca Raton,
FL,: 1990.
Dash, V.B., Fundamentals of Ayurvedic Medicine, Bansal & Co.: 1978.
Erichsen-Brown, C., Use of Plants for the past 500 years, Breezy Creek Press, Aurora,
Ont., Canada: 1979.
Lust, J., The Herb Book, Bantam Books, N.Y.:1973.
Hsu, Hong-Yen, et al., Oriental Materia Medica, a concise guide, O.H.A.I., Long Beach,
CA, 1986.
Moerman, Daniel, Medicinal Plants of Native America (2 vols.), U. of Michigan
Museum of Anthropology, Tech Report Number 19, 1986.
Vogel, V.J., American Indian Medicine, Ballatine Books, N.Y.: 1970.
Grieve, M., A Modern Herbal, Jonathan Cape, London: 1931.
Bensky, D. & A. Gamble, Chinese Herbal Medicine (Materia Medica), Eastland Press,
Seattle: 1986.
Keys, J.D., Chinese Herbs, Charles E. Tuttle Co., Rutland, VT.: 1976.
Tierra, M., The Way of Herbs, Orenda/Unity Press, Santa Cruz, CA:1980.
de B. Levy, J., Herbal Handbook for Farm and Stable, Rodale Press, Emmaus, PA.:
1976.
Chishti, H., The Traditional Healer, Healing Arts Press, Rochester, VT,: 1988.
Iwu, M.M., Handbook of African Medicinal Plants, CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL,: 1993.
Grossinger, R., Planet Medicine, North Atlantic Books, Berkeley, CA,: 1980.
Wilder, A., History of Medicine, 1906, USA.
Boyle, Wade, Herb Doctors: Pioneers in Nineteenth-Century American Botanical
Medicine, Buckeye Naturopathic Press, East Palestine, OH: 1988.

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Textbook of Modern Herbology, Second Revised Edition

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 The Digestive System and Tonics

The
Digestive
6
System
and Tonics

Synopsis:

In this chapter we will look at absorption of nutrients from food by examining

the structure and biochemistry of digestion. Herbal tonics work effectively
through improving digestion. A Clinical Stomach Formula introduces the section
on tonics. The following herbs are examined in detail in this chapter: Gold-
enseal, Barberry, Gentian, Peruvian Bark, White Poplar (Aspen), Blessed
Thistle, Myrrh, Meadowsweet.

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Textbook of Modern Herbology, Second Revised Edition

Table of Contents
Introduction
Digestion
Function and Parts of the Digestive System
The Route of Food
Mouth and Salivary Secretion
Stomach
Pancreas
Liver and Gall Bladder
Small Intestine
Tonics
Clinical Stomach Formula
Barberry and Oregon Grape
Goldenseal
Gentian
Peruvian Bark
White Poplar — Aspen
Blessed Thistle
Myrrh
Meadowsweet

List of Tables and Figures

6.1 The Human Digestive System
6.2 The Stomach
6.3 Pancreas
6.4 Liver/Gall bladder
6.5 Absorption in Small Intestine
6.6 Barberry
6.7 Goldenseal
6.8 Gentian
6.9 Peruvian Bark
6.10 White Poplar (Aspen)
6.11 Blessed Thistle
6.12 Myrrh
6.13 Meadowsweet

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 The Digestive System and Tonics

Introduction

E
ach of the living cells in the body must have food to obtain the
energy and materials it needs to live. The food the cell uses, how-
ever, is quite different from the food that an individual takes into his
mouth. Cells are unable to take in and utilize the food until it is dissolved
and able to pass through the cellular membrane.

If we attempt to dissolve a piece of orange, meat or potato in water, it

simply won’t work. Contrast this with stirring sugar into a glass of water
and watching it “disappear”, that is, go into solution. Nutrients, as a rule,
are not soluble. They must be changed into a soluble or diffusible form
before they can be absorbed by the circulatory system, transported to
and utilized by the cell.

Digestion
The process of changing insoluble and non-diffusible substances into
soluble and diffusible forms which may be absorbed into the circulatory
system is called digestion. Digestion may additionally be defined as the
(hydrolytic) process by which large, complex organic molecules called
macromolecules (protein, fats and carbohydrates) are broken down into
simpler, soluble organic molecules (amino acids, glucose, glycerol and
fatty acids) that are able to pass through the cell membrane.

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Textbook of Modern Herbology, Second Revised Edition

Functions of the Digestive System

The digestive system in humans is a group of organs adapted for four
functions:

➊ The ingestion and mastication of food.

➋ The secretion of chemical substances that produce chemical
changes in the food, making them soluble and diffusible.
➌ The absorption of nutritive materials.
➍ The elimination of undigested residues.

Components of the Digestive System

The digestive system consists of:

I. A hollow tube which extends from the lips to the anus.

II. Various glands, whose secretions are emptied into this tube and
assisting the digestion of the substances in the tube, making them
soluble and diffusible to the extent that this is possible (roughage
remains undigested).

I. The hollow tube, or digestive tract, consists of the following

organs and structures:

➊ Mouth — containing:
a) Teeth
b) Tongue
➋ Pharynx
➌ Esophagus
➍ Stomach
➎ Small Intestine — divided into three segments:
a) Duodenum
b) Jejunum
c) Ileum
➏ Large Intestine — with the following segments:
a) Cecum and Appendix
b) Ascending Colon
c) Transverse Colon
d) Descending Colon
e) Pelvic or Sigmoid Colon
f) Rectal and Anal Canal

II. The various glands include the following:

➊ Salivary glands, comprising:

a) Parotid Glands (paired)
b) Submandibular Glands (paired)
c) Sublingual Glands (paired)
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 The Digestive System and Tonics

➋ Liver
➌ Gall Bladder
➍ Pancreas

parotid gland
pharynx
submandibular and
sublingual glands
esophagus

liver
stomach
gall bladder
duodenum
pancreas
splenic flexure
hepatic flexure
transverse flexure
jejunum
ascending colon
descending colon
ileum
cecum
appendix
sigmoid colon
rectum
anus

Figure 6.1
The Human Digestive System

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Textbook of Modern Herbology, Second Revised Edition

The Route of Food

Food is taken into the body through the uppermost portion of the
digestive tract, the mouth. Here it is chewed and moistened to facilitate
swallowing and an enzyme is added to it that will initiate its breakdown
into smaller particles. The food is then swallowed (without chewing in
the case of liquids) and passes through the pharynx, down the esopha-
gus, and into the stomach, where it is temporarily stored. In the stom-
ach, more enzymes and hydrochloric acid are added to the food and a
certain amount of mechanical mixing and massage take place, due to
the reflex contraction of the smooth muscle fibres in the wall of the
stomach.

After a variable length of time, the partially digested food leaves the
stomach and enters the first ten inches of the small intestine, the
duodenum. Here, secretions from the liver and pancreas are added,
along with a secretion of the duodenum itself. The duodenum is
continuous with the next portion of the small intestine, the jejunum,
which in turn is continuous with the next portion, the ileum.

Intestinal juice is added as food moves through all portions of the small
intestine. Most digestion and absorption of food takes place within this
portion of the digestive tract. After the small intestine has coiled for over
twenty feet, the end of the ileum joins with the first portion of the large
intestine. All unabsorbed food passes into the large intestine as waste,
and although large quantities of water and small amounts of other
substances (mostly minerals) are taken into the bloodstream from this
portion of the digestive tract, the colon (another name for the large
intestine) serves largely as an organ of elimination by disposing of solid
wastes from the body.

In some sense, what is in the digestive tract is not yet inside the body.
The nutrients must first cross into the bloodstream or lymphatic system.
This point is important because undigested food settling in a weak
digestive system can produce gas and toxins which then are passed
into the body.

We will now look at the progress of food along the alimentary canal in
greater detail.

The Mouth and Salivary Secretion

The mouth is the first part of the digestive tract and is specialized for the
ingestion of food. Digestion begins in the mouth. The digestive functions
are mastication and lubrication. The chewing and grinding action of the
teeth reduce the food to a more manageable size so that the enzymes of
the stomach are able to exert their influence.

Mastication represents a very important part in the digestive process. It

is perhaps the only part of the digestive process that comes under
conscious control. The importance of chewing food well cannot be
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 The Digestive System and Tonics

overemphasized. Insufficient mastication will interfere with the entire

digestive process. The result may be a number of problems throughout
the body.

Inadequate chewing of food prevents the saliva (a slightly alkaline juice

secreted by the three sets of salivary glands) from mixing thoroughly
with the food. The saliva — which contains the starch-splitting enzyme
called ptyalin — may be likened to a “key” for good health and longev-
ity. It sends a “code” to the stomach, informing it what particular food
has been eaten. Insufficient amounts of saliva result in inadequate
starch-splitting and confused “coding” — the stomach will receive
improper signals and secrete the wrong amounts of gastric juices. The
digestive process further on down the alimentary canal will likewise
suffer.

Secretion of saliva comes entirely under the control of the autonomic

nervous system.

There are two types of salivary glands:

SALIVARY GLANDS LOCATION SECRETES

➊ Parotid upper jaw in front serous

of ear
➋ Sublingual and lower jaw, under tongue mixed mucus
Submandibular and top of neck and serous

Serous is a clear, watery, salty fluid that contains sodium (Na) and
potassium (K) and ptyalin, an enzyme which initiates the breakdown of
starches into dextrins and maltose. Ptyalin also works in the first and
non-acidic portion of the stomach. A viscid mucous secretion called
“mucin” helps lubricate the bolus (the masticated mass of food) for
swallowing.

Stomach
The stomach is a muscular, elastic, sac-like, J-shaped dilation of the
gastrointestinal tract. It is divided essentially into three parts: the fundus,
the body and the pylorus. The fundus section enlarges or bulges
substantially during a meal. It functions primarily as a reservoir that
constantly puts pressure on food so that it moves throughout the
stomach body toward the pyloric section. In the pyloric section, the
food is thoroughly commingled with the gastric juices. The semi-liquid
result, called chyme, then passes through the pyloric sphincter into the
first portion of the small intestine, called the duodenum.

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Mucosal lining absorbs

some water, alcohol,
glucose to bloodstream.

greater curvature

esophagus Churn — mixes food with

cardiac sphincter gastric juice.
fundus
lesser curvature
body Its outer wall
pyloric portion consists of 3
duodenum smooth muscle
coats —
longitudinal,
circular,
oblique

Mucous cells secrete

mucin — protects mucosa
from its own secretion.
pyloric sphincter Peptic cells — secretes
enzymes.

Rennin — clots milk.

x40 Lipase — weak fat-
splitting action.

Pepsinogen in presence of
x40 body region hydrochloric acid — start
chemical breakdown of
protein to simpler
substances — proteoses
and peptones.

Hydrochloric acid - kills

pyloric glands --> alkaline bacteria, renders some
mucus minerals (e.g. calcium and
iron salts) suitable for
absorption in the intestine.

Figure 6.2
The Stomach

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 The Digestive System and Tonics

head
body
tail
duodenum

bile duct

Ampulla of Vater

Sphincter of Oddi

Pancreatic duct
serous acini secrete pancreatic juice

zymogen granules furnish enzymes

x150 Ducts drain external (digestive) secretion

to duodenum.

Islets of Langerhans Capillaries drain internal secretion to

secrete hormones — bloodstream.
insulin and glucagon
(internal secretions).

Figure 6.3
Pancreas

The digestive enzymes secreted by the stomach are:

Rennin clots milk.

Lipase has weak fat-splitting action.
Pepsinogen in the presence of hydrochloric acid (HCl), it
breaks protein down into simpler substances,
called “peptides.”
HCl kills bacteria, and renders some minerals, e.g.
Ca and Fe, suitable for intestinal absorption
Mucin protects the mucosa (the mucous membrane) from
its own secretions.

Pancreas
The pancreas is a soft, yellowish, multi-lobed, glandular organ about
seven inches in length and one and one-half inches wide. It resembles a
dog’s tongue and has two types of secretions. The first is delivered into
the digestive tract where it assists in the formation and secretion of
digestive enzymes. In a smaller percentage of its cells it produces a
hormone called insulin involved with sugar metabolism. We will con-
cern ourselves only with the former.

As seen from the diagram (Fig. 6.3), both the bile duct and the pancre-
atic duct join together to excrete their enzymes and ferment through the

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Textbook of Modern Herbology, Second Revised Edition

Ampulla of Vater. Some of the pancreatic enzymes need to be activated

by the bile before they can properly carry out their functions. The
pancreas secretes the following into the digestive tract:

Water and Alkaline Salts neutralize acid from the stomach.

Lipase splits some fats into fatty acid and lower
glycerides.
Amylase splits starch into maltose.
Trypsinogen is activated by enterokinase of the small
intestine.
Trypsin splits protein (activated by proteases in
small proteins) into peptides.
Chymotrypsin breaks internal peptide bonds (acti-
vated by trypsin) in proteins.
Carboxypeptidases splits off from peptides the terminal
amino acids carrying the carboxyl
group
Nucleases breaks down nucleic acids with release of
simple nucleotides.

Liver and Gall Bladder

The liver is the largest and most complex gland in the body. It is a very
versatile organ with thousands of functions. We will concern ourselves
here only with its most basic secretions into the digestive tract:

Bile — a viscoid green fluid, is manufactured in the liver from dead red
blood cells. It is then stored in the gall bladder where it is concen-
trated fifteen to twenty-seven times by the removal of water. The gall
bladder also adds mucus to the bile. Bile is slightly alkaline, and
contains lecithin, cholesterol and inorganic salts. Bile functions in the
small intestine to ➊ activate lipase from the pancreas, ➋ emulsify fats
prior to their digestion by enzymes (bile contains no digestive en-
zymes) and ➌ form water-soluble complexes with some that are not
water-soluble (for example, cholesterol and fat-soluble vitamins) and
promote their absorption.

Small Intestine
The stomach empties into the small intestine at the pyloric sphincter.
Absorption of most of the foodstuffs occurs here through the villi —
microscopic, finger-like projections which give the small intestine a
velvet-like appearance.

The capillary of a villus absorbs amino acids, sugar, minerals, glycerol,

some fatty acids and vitamins. The lacteal of a villus absorbs glycerides,
some fatty acids and the fat-soluble vitamins. The lacteal goes straight
into the lymphatic system without going through “processing” whereas

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 The Digestive System and Tonics

Liver and Gall Bladder

The liver is a large highly complex organ with many functions. One of these is to secrete 500-
1000 ml of bile per day.

Bile is secreted continuously by

the liver. It is stored and
concentrated in the gall bladder.
Periodically (e.g. during a fatty
meal) it is discharged.

Hepatic ducts

Cystic duct

Gall bladder

Sphincter of Codi

Duodenum

Intestine

Figure 6.4
Liver

the nutrients entering through the capillary go to the liver to be pro-

cessed, detoxified, changed or stored.

The large intestine, the lower part of the digestive tract, is dealt with in
Chapter 11. The diameter of the gastrointestinal tract (GI tract) is
controlled by the autonomic nervous system (refer to chapter 12). The
sympathetic nervous system has a contracting and astringent action
whereas the parasympathetic system has an expanding or relaxing
action. These two sections of the autonomic nervous system maintain a
nervous balance throughout the GI tract. Tension, especially emotional
stress, overstimulates the sympathetic nerves. This will cause a contrac-
tion of the GI tract, decrease motility and slow down the secretion of
fluids necessary for digestion. If this happens chronically, digestion will
be incomplete and malnutrition or malabsorption will be the result. This
problem is extremely common in the modern North American popula-
tion.

Another major problem in digestion comes with food combination. As

outlined earlier in the chapter, different foods or nutrients are digested
by different enzymes. If a certain enzyme is stimulated by specific
nutrients, it can often slow down the digestion of other nutrients or
offset the secretion of other enzymes. One of the most common
mistakes in food combination is protein (meat, cheese) and simple
carbohydrates (fruit, sugar, candies, bread).

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Absorption of most digested foodstuffs occurs in the

small intestine through the striated border epithelium
covering the villi.

Amino acids, sugars, minerals, glycerol, some fatty

acids and vitamins into capillaries.

Glycerides and some fatty acids and fat-soluble

vitamins into lacteals.

Nerve plexus of Meissner

Nerve plexus of Auerbach

Mesentery
branch of mesenteric vein
branch of mesenteric artery
lymphatic vessels

Figure 6.5
Small Intestine / Villi

Proteins, not simple carbohydrates, are digested in the stomach. They

are broken down into smaller peptide chains. Since the carbohydrates
are not digested they move through the stomach very quickly. If carbo-
hydrates are left in the stomach for too long they will begin to ferment
(almost like the wine-making process). In contrast, proteins need to
remain in the stomach for a long time for HCl acid and pepsinogen to
work properly.

If proteins and carbohydrates are consumed together, the proteins will

key the digestive process to slow down, the carbohydrates will begin to
ferment in the stomach and gas will result. Carbohydrates should be
eaten 1/2 hour before proteins or 3 hours after. This is a striking contrast
with the typical North American meal: meat and potatoes followed by a
sweet dessert.

Even though food combination is important, it is not necessary to

become overly concerned. Worry itself will cause a contraction of the
sympathetic nervous system and poorer digestion. The critical question
is “How effective is the individual’s digestion?”. If it is poor, food combi-
nation is a straightforward issue that needs to be addressed. The poorer
the digestion, the more that attention should be placed on food combi-
nation. If a person has strong digestion, little attention is needed.

One of the causes of poor digestion is eating too fast. Digestion is a

coded sequence. Our taste buds, and the amount of saliva produced,
cues the rest of the digestive tract for particular food. If we bolt down

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 The Digestive System and Tonics

our food, we neither taste it nor masticate it thoroughly. The resulting

digestive enzymes released by the body are not appropriate. Many
natural healers in the past considered saliva the “Fountain of Youth”.
The saliva aids in digestion by sending messages to the stomach on
food content and thereby instructing it on the proper amounts of
digestive enzymes.

Tonics
Tonics increase body tone. They act primarily on the digestive system
and therefore benefit the entire physiology. All organs acting in conjunc-
tion with the stomach can be directly influenced by the use of tonics.
These herbs can be split into two types: stimulating and relaxing. This
chapter is focused on stimulating digestion. In the chapter on nervines
there is a review of relaxing herbs which also affect the digestion. The
primary purpose of tonics is to restore strength, particularly to the
digestive system, for the health of the entire body depends upon
adequate functioning of this group of organs.

The bowel must be clean for the tonics to function properly. Tonics are
used in convalescence or where the patient’s vitality has been dimin-
ished by disease. The tonic should not be used freely until the patient
has passed through the acute stages of illness. Tonics are slow acting,
but remarkably effective in the long run. Do not overuse them in an
attempt to get quicker results. As a rule, tonics are bitter and are there-
fore sometimes called “Bitters” or “Bitter Tonics”. Having a healthy
digestive system is understandably of prime importance. Whether or
not we assimilate our food is the difference between health and happi-
ness on the one hand, and disease and death on the other.

As stated earlier, one of the most important factors to be considered in

working on the digestive tract is to keep it clean. This can be accom-
plished in several ways but the one way that I feel to be the simplest and
best and which has worked very well for my patients uses some basic
herbal formulas.

Two tonics we use regularly at Wild Rose are the Clinical Lower Bowel
Formula (discussed in Chapter 11 on cathartics) and the Clinical
Stomach Formula:

Clinical Stomach Formula ➏- ➊

2 Parts Meadowsweet Spiraea ulmaria
1 Part Goldenseal Root Hydrastis canadensis
1 Part Fennel Seed Anethum foeniculum
1 Part Fenugreek Seed Trigonella foenum
1 Part Lobelia Lobelia inflata
1 Part Cayenne Capsicum minimum

Dosage: 1-2 “0” capsules before 2-3 meals daily.

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Textbook of Modern Herbology, Second Revised Edition

Clinical Stomach Formula is designed to stimulate the digestion and

clean out the upper GI tract. Meadowsweet (Spiraea ulmaria) stimu-
lates the parietal cells in the stomach to produce HCl acid and pepsino-
gen. Goldenseal instigates an improvement in the quality and quantity of
mucus in the GI tract and is called the “King of the Mucous Mem-
branes”. Fennel and fenugreek seed aid in distribution of the mucus.
Lobelia helps in establishing autonomic balance whereas cayenne
ensures proper circulation to the stomach area.

Some people (approximately 10%) experience a little nausea when

taking this formula. The blame is usually placed on the cayenne. Con-
trary to popular myth, scientific research indicates that cayenne is quite
soothing to the stomach, even for individuals who have ulcers. The
reason for the nausea is actually a result of the triad — goldenseal,
fennel, fenu-greek. If a person has a lot of mucus in their stomach,
Clinical Stomach Formula will work on removing it to allow the Mead-
owsweet to stimulate the parietal cells. It is the moving of the mucus
that causes the nausea.

Another simple yet effective digestive tonic used by Jarvis:

1 tablespoon Apple Cider vinegar

1 teaspoon of honey

The mixture is placed in 1/3 - 1 cup of warm water and is consumed at

the beginning of two meals daily. This simple pre-meal cocktail has
many benefits. It will stimulate digestion, thin the blood and reduce
arthritic symptoms.

Sc Ad Ed *
Barberry and Oregon grape
Berberis vulgaris and B. repens

This genus goes by two botanical names —

Berberis and Mahonia. They are often inter-
changed. Mahonia has prickly leaves but no
stem thorns and is evergreen. In contrast,
Berberis has smooth leaves, stem thorns and is
deciduous. Both botanists and herbalists
confuse the two, even in official documents.

Synonyms: Jaundice Berry, Pepperidge Bush

History: Berberis species are alternate hosts to

wheat rust. Since it was once presumed that
if this rust parasite did not spend at least part
of its life cycle on the Berberis host, it would
not be able to infect wheat, campaigns were
initiated in wheat-growing areas to eradicate
all Berberis species. This is one of the
reasons why today there is little Berberis in

* Please consult the Preface (2nd Edition) for an

explanation of these symbols.
100 Copyright © 1993, Wild Rose College of Natural Healing Ltd.
 The Digestive System and Tonics

some areas. Incidentally, the underlying assumption on which these campaigns

were based has since been proven false.

Identification: Berberis repens is a creeping dwarf shrub with bright yellow flowers,
which are somewhat spherical and on long racemes. The leathery leaves are
pinnate with three to seven prickly-toothed evergreen leaflets. The fruit is berry-like,
dark blue and has a bloom.

Berberis vulgaris stands four to ten feet tall and has upright branches. The leaves are
alternate, 1 - 1 1/2 inches long, shortly petioled, leathery and prickly. The flowers are
small, pale yellow and arranged in pendulous racemes.

Parts Used: The root bark primarily, but the berries are also used.

Solvent: Water, Alcohol.

Chemical Constituents: Berberine (2.35%), Oxycanthine (2.8%), berbam-

ine, gum, resin, tannin, physosteria and fat.

Therapeutic Action: Tonic, Antiseptic, Mild Laxative, Refrigerant, stimu-

lant, bitter.

Uses: Berberis is a famous Indian remedy and one of our most valuable
herbs. It is unequalled for normalizing liver secretions, and is an
excellent tonic for the delicate and weak (especially children). It
alleviates anemia and general malnutrition in just a few weeks. It
regulates the digestive system, lessens the size of the spleen, and
removes obstructions in the intestinal tract. It is undoubtedly a herb
that should always be in stock.

Barberry is an excellent antibiotic, effective against a wide range of

bacterial, fungal and viral organisms. It is also reported to be an
immunostimulator, working against several tumour systems when
tested in lab studies.

The Blackfoot Indians called it oti-to-gue and used the steeped, peeled
dried root to check rectal hemorrhages, dysentery and stomach
troubles. The bark of the root contains an alkaloid (berberine) that
promotes bile secretion. When used with cayenne (the carrier) it will
exhibit superior stimulatory effects on the liver. The alkaloid in the root
also tends to dilate the blood vessels and thereby lower blood pres-
sure.

A tincture of the root is helpful in urinary complaints, especially Herpes

simplex. It is best to use ginger along with this tincture. The Blackfoot
Indians would apply either fresh berries or an infusion of the root to
open boils. The berries were also used for kidney troubles. Externally,
the infused root was applied to wounds as an antiseptic. The root was
also chewed and then applied for the same purpose. As horse medi-
cine, the berries were soaked in water and the resulting juice was
given to a coughing horse. Human body sores were also treated with
an infusion of the root.

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Textbook of Modern Herbology, Second Revised Edition

Formulas:

Hepatic, Digestive and Tonic Tincture ➏- ➋

4 oz. Barberry bark
4 oz. Quaking Aspen
4 oz. Chokecherry bark
1 gal. Apple Cider vinegar

Crush and macerate the herbs for one week in apple cider
vinegar, strain and then bottle.
Dosage: One tablespoon three or more times daily.

Barberry Concentrate

4 oz. Barberry bark

3 pints water (preferably distilled)
8 fl. oz. Glycerin

Soak the bark for one hour in a pint of water. Then boil the bark slowly,
allowing it to evaporate until the water barely covers the bark. Strain the
liquid through a cloth and set aside. Return the herb to the vessel and
cover it with one quart of water and boil for fifteen to twenty minutes.
Strain and mix the two quantities of liquid together. Place in a clean
vessel and boil down to a concentrate of one pint. Remove from heat,
add glycerin, cool and bottle. This preparation will keep a long time.

Dosage: With respect to the concentrate one tablespoon should be

taken three times a day. For the infusion two to three tablespoons three
to four times daily, for the tincture one teaspoon daily.

Toxicity: No overdose of this harmless herb is possible (although it may

tend to give one diarrhea).

Goldenseal Sc Ad

Hydrastis canadensis

Goldenseal has definitely been overharvested during the last decade. Rather than push
this valuable plant onto the endangered species list, we recommend that herbalists use
cultivated goldenseal, or alternatives such as barberry, gold thread (Coptis sp., Huang
Lian Su) if possible.

Synonyms: Yellow Root, Ground Raspberry, Jaundice Root, Warnero.

History: Goldenseal is found primarily in eastern Canada and United States. It is found
most plentifully in the woods of Ohio. The Indians respected it for its tremendous
medicinal properties and also for its use as a dye. It was picked wild until 1905, at
which time the U.S. Government encouraged farmers to grow it. It sold then for 8
cents per pound. A pound today costs quite a bit more than that.
102 Copyright © 1993, Wild Rose College of Natural Healing Ltd.
 The Digestive System and Tonics

Identification: This perennial bush is native to the

moist woods and damp meadows of Eastern North
America. Goldenseal belongs to the Buttercup
Family. It has a rough, wrinkled yellow root with a
distinctive odour and taste. In the past, people altered
other roots to look like goldenseal, due to the high
price it commands. Even modern commercial
preparations use adulterants so continued care is
necessary. The stem is simple, hairy, eight to twenty
inches tall, and has three to five lobed, dark green
leaves that become four to ten inches broad in the
summer. The small, solitary flower appears in May
and June and is white or rose. The characteristic
berries are small and resemble raspberries.

Part Used: The Root.

Solvents: Alcohol, diluted alcohol and boiling

water.

Chemical Constituents: Berberine (as in

Barberry), Hydrastine (C 22H23NO6) the most
active ingredient; Xanthopuccine (similar to
Prickly Ash). There is, in addition, a green oil,
a volatile oil (which gives goldenseal its
characteristic fragrance), resin, albumin,
sugar, starch, fatty resins and 10% of
mineral matter.
Therapeutic Action: Tonic, stomachic, alterative and laxative.

Uses: Goldenseal has been called the “King of the Mucous Membranes”
and has gathered other honourifics as well. The Cherokee Indians
introduced goldenseal as a medicine for the treatment of ulcers and
arrow wounds. Since that time, it has gained a reputation as being one
of the most powerful herbal remedies. Even though this root is
intensely bitter and unpleasant to the taste, I have used it very success-
fully on many people. I have used it for stomach flu, slight food
poisoning, colds, swollen glands and many other acute illnesses.
Goldenseal seems to have twice the impact if myrrh is added. The
following formula is the one I usually employ:

3 parts Goldenseal ➏- ➌
1 part Myrrh
1 part Cayenne

This formula and variations of it are quite famous as a

cold/flu remedy. It is also good for general infections.
Another formula that is good for cold/flu, especially if
associated with a headache is:

4 parts Goldenseal ➏- ➍
1 part Capsicum
1 part Skullcap

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Textbook of Modern Herbology, Second Revised Edition

With respect to overcoming mucous membrane or stomach prob-

lems, goldenseal outshines all other herbs. Captain Frank Roberts,
author of The Encyclopedia of Digestive Disorders, considers it of
phenomenal value and accordingly, devotes a whole chapter to its
uses. There is even a book by Veninga and Zaricor devoted to this
remarkable herb. Any formula for the digestive system, especially for
the stomach, should have goldenseal in it.

For passive hemmorhage from pelvic tissue, the following formula has
proved valuable:

2 parts Goldenseal
1 part Geranium

For a nerve tonic and for treating spinal meningitis, combine equal
parts goldenseal, hops and skullcap. For mouth cancer, pyorrhea or
sore gums, goldenseal is remarkably effective. I use goldenseal as both
an internal and external “antibiotic” with great success. Goldenseal
can be successfully used for all mucous membranes, especially the
lining of the respiratory tract and uterine/vaginal area. Goldenseal is
specific for uterine contractions and menstrual problems. As with
barberry, goldenseal has a wide array of antibiotic effects. In using the
fluid extract, make sure you do not get the colourless one -- it is not
nearly as good (it lacks berberine). Finally, let me say that I have used
goldenseal root powder on several occasions as a snuff for congested
nasal passages, and have been quite pleased with its effect, even
though the taste isn’t very palatable.

Gentian Sc Ad

Gentiana lutea
Identification: This large perennial herb has a
thick stem, 0.6 - 1.3 meters tall, yellowish-
green. The radical leaves are ovate-oblong,
entire, 5-7 nerved, 15-30 cm long, glabrous,
yellowish green. The stem leaves are sessile,
ovate. The flowers appear between June and
August with cymes of 20 or more bright
orange-yellow flowers approximately 3 cm
long. Rhizomes are 5 - 40mm thick, yellowish-
brown. The rhizomes are annual, while the
roots are perennial. Odour is strong having a
characteristic taste, slightly sweetish strong
and persistently bitter.

Part Used: root.

Solvents: water, alcohol.

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 The Digestive System and Tonics

Chemical Constituents: gentiopicrin, gentianine, gentialutine,

xanthones, gentianose, phenolic acids and a volatile oil.

Therapeutic action: Tonic, stomachic, anthelmintic, antiseptic, anti-

inflammatory, anti-biliary, mildly laxative.

Uses: Well known as a digestive bitter, gentian stimulates gastric juices,

improving digestion, appetite, while stopping gastritis, heartburn,
nausea, gas, diarrhea and constipation. Gentian has been used to treat
hepatitis, jaundice, anal itch, vaginal rashes and dischages, as well as
urinary tract infection. Its antibiotic effect is mostly on the digestive
tract and urinary tract but has been employed successfully against
malaria. This herb has been written about extensively through history
and was employed heavily by First Nations Peoples for digestive
disorders.

Peruvian Bark Ad

Cinchona spp.
Synonyms: Jesuit’s Bark, Countess’s
Powder.

History: This plant is connected with an

interesting story. A native of South America
who was cast out of his camp because of
sickness wandered into the woods and
weakness finally caused him to fall. He
had only enough strength left to crawl to a
pool of water that was considered
undrinkable due to its bitter taste. So
strong was his thirst, that he decided to
drink the pungent water in spite of this.
Shortly thereafter, and to his astonishment,
he recovered, and later brought the sick to
the very same pond so that they could
partake of the salubrious water and be
cured. It was later discovered that the
therapeutic action of the pond was due to

a tree which had fallen into the water.

Peruvian Bark was not introduced to Europeans until 1658, at which time it was given
to Countess de Cinchon who was thereby cured of her fever. She in turn, administered
it in large quantities to the Jesuits. And from those instances, it derived two of its
common names (Jesuit’s Bark and Countess’s Powder) as well as its botanical name.
Ultimately, the British sent expeditions from Kew Botanical Gardens to South America
to collect seedlings. Those treasured little trees in turn made their way to plantations
around the world as the British Empire moved into areas known for malaria.

Peruvian Bark is the source of the well known chemical, quinine. Most people are
aware that large doses of quinine will result in deafness. Peruvian Bark itself will not
cause this because it is a whole herb. Quinine should not be used by herbal practitio-
ners. Peruvian Bark is much more effective and safe.

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Textbook of Modern Herbology, Second Revised Edition

Identification: These evergreen trees are native to South America and over thirty of
the species are useful.

Parts Used: The bark. The yellow bark cinchona is the the best as it
contains the highest quantity of quinine (70-80% of alkaloids). The
bark comes in “quills” 18-30" long and 1/8-1/4" thick. The external
colour is grey or light-brown and pale cinnamon-brown internally. The
inner surface is marked with very fine striae. Pale bark is also of high
quality with high quinine content (60-70% of alkaloid). It comes in
single or double quills, 3-15 inches, 1/4-1" in diameter, 1-2 lines in
thickness. The powder is light brown and its periderm is darker than
other species. Red bark (Cinchona rubea) has high alkaloid levels but
low quinine content (2%). Quills are thicker, wider and with a reddish-
cinnamon brown colour. The powder is also reddish-brown.

Solvents: Alcohol and boiling water.

Chemical Constituents: quinine, cinchonichoniden, quinamine,

homocinchonidise, hydroquine, quinic acid, ancholannic acid and
calcium oxalate.

Uses: Using Peruvian Bark is much safer than the use of quinine and is
more effective. Large doses over an extended time are, however,
found to give symptoms of poisoning but with no lasting effect after
usage ceases. Peruvian Bark’s influence extends throughout the entire
nervous system. It has a good reputation for treatment of feverous
conditions.

The powdered bark is often used in tooth powder because of its

astringency. A decoction of it gargled is a good throat astringent. Small
doses of Peruvian Bark increase the flow of saliva and gastric juice,
and augment peristalsis, heart action, cerebral functions and excre-
tion of waste products. Moderate doses diminish uric and phosphoric
acid levels.

The use of Virginia Snake Root with Peruvian Bark prevents the
stomach nausea that some people experience when taking Cinchona
spp.

The following is a good general tonic: ➏- ➎

1/2 oz. Peruvian Bark
1/2 oz. Gentian Root
1/2 oz. Orange Peel (unsprayed)
1/2 oz. Licorice
1/3 tsp. Capsicum

Boil in one quart of water for fifteen minutes. Cool, strain,

and administer a teacupful every three hours during the
day.

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 The Digestive System and Tonics

White poplar (Aspen) Sc Ad Ed

Populus tremuloides
Synonyms: Quaking Aspen, American
Aspen, Trembling Aspen.

Identification: Aspens are small to

medium-sized trees that reach a
height of thirty meters. The bark is
smooth, light green or greyish and
becomes deeply furrowed with age.
The leaves have very slender, flattened
petioles causing them to “tremble” in
the breeze. The blades are orbicular to
broadly ovate and finely serrated.

Parts Used: The bark and

sometimes the buds and leaves.

Solvents: Boiling water (the buds

are soaked in alcohol and then
boiled in water).

Chemical Constituents: The leaves and bark contain populin and volatile
oil. The bud of this poplar contains much less populin than Balm of
Gilead. Aspen also contains a bitter oil with a hop-like odour.

Therapeutic Action: Tonic, Diuretic, Emmenagogue, stimulant and

febrifuge (fever-reducing).

Uses: The inner bark of the aspen is listed by Dr. Nowell as tonic, slightly
astringent and diuretic. Aspen is high on the list of general tonics and
the most effective tonic for the urinary system. It is a replacement in
any situation requiring quinine and is more effective and much better
for the patient in general. It is often given instead of Peruvian Bark.
Aspen will tone the mucous membranes, and is even useful in cases of

An especially good formula for headache and hepatic ➏- ➏

insufficiency is:

1 part powdered Populus tremuloides

1 part powdered Berberis vulgaris
1 part powdered Ginger Zingibar officinale

Mix one teaspoon of powder in a cup of boiling water,

sweeten, and drink warm, leaving the sediment. The
powder can also be given in two “00” capsules.

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Textbook of Modern Herbology, Second Revised Edition

a lax stomach. Mix two parts of uva ursi (Arctostaphylos uva-ursi) and
one part aspen. The result will be a tonic for cystic catarrh of the
urinary system. Aspen’s relaxing effect on the system relieves head-
aches due to hepatic insufficiency or stomach flatulence and acidity.
As a wash, aspen is effective in treating eczema, purulent opthalmia,
syphilitic sores and chronic gonorrhea. Aspen is also a good female
tonic and is used for debility of the female reproductive system,
leucorrhea, painful menstruation and other female disorders. The
Blackfoot Indians used the inner bark as a brew for women who were
about to give birth. They also gave it as an infusion for heartburn and
general discomfort. Aspen has also been used for cankers, diarrhea
and bed-wetting. Blackfoot children often made whistles by loosening
the bark and replacing it, blowing through the air space. A forked
Aspen tree was the center pole in the Sun Dance Lodge (Okan) — a
most holy place of the North American Indians.

Blessed thistle Sc Ad
or Holy thistle
Centaurea benedicta
or Carbenia benedicta

Also Cnicus benedicta

Synonyms: Carduus, Cardin, St. Benedict’s
Thistle, Old Lady’s Thistle.

Identification: This annual herb flowers

from May to August. It is an erect plant
with woody, branched stems. The leaves
are two to three inches long, greyish
green and oblong to lanceolate. The
yellow flowers are terminal, one inch
long, and one and three-quarters inches in
width.
Parts Used: The entire herb.

Solvents: Cold to hot water, alcohol.

Chemical Constituents: bitter glycoside (cnicin), alkaloids, flavonoids,

sesquiterpenoid lactones, resin, nicotinic acid.

Therapeutic Action: Tonic (cold), diaphoretic (hot), emmenagogue and

emetic (in double or triple doses).

Uses: As a cold infusion, one of the most popular uses for this herb is a
tonic for nursing mothers. In fact, I had one student who was asked to
wet nurse an additional child over a long weekend. She decided she
should take a tea of 3 parts Blessed Thistle and 1 part raspberry leaf to

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 The Digestive System and Tonics

increase her milk supply. She drank 2 cups of the infusion (1 tsp./cup)
and decided to take 2 “00” capsules of Blessed Thistle to be sure she
had enough milk. She began to produce so much milk that both
babies couldn’t keep up and her breasts engorged and became
tender. She spent most of her long weekend breast feeding or using a
breast pump to relieve the pressure! Like all botanicals, Blessed Thistle
affects different people to a different degree but in this case, use
caution and begin slowly.

I have also had three students who adopted children and wished to
breastfeed them. They drank the above tea (2 - 6 cups daily) and after
about three days of the baby’s sucking stimulation, milk began to flow.
The process of the milk coming in was painful but these women all
said that it was worth the effort. Most amazingly, one of the women
was in her 50’s.

As pointed out above, the particular action of this herb depends on

the temperature of the infusion and the amount administered to the
patient. The warm infusion of the leaves produce a relaxing, dia-
phoretic effect with mild perspiration. In large doses, the warm
infusion produces a painless emesis. With this emetic action, there is
also a purging of the liver and gall bladder (thus making it cathartic).
The cold infusion, being tonic, is beneficial for female complaints,
especially if one part Blessed Thistle is combined with two parts
squaw vine. Half-teacup doses of this preparation three times a day is
reported to cleanse the blood and relieve headache. Dr. Samuel
Westcot advised that every mother should give their ten to twenty
year-old daughters Blessed Thistle just prior to their period. Doing so
will alleviate most of the pain and misery of pubertal transition. The
formula appears to be especially effective if added with equal parts of
ginger in a warm infusion.

Myrrh Ad

Commiphora myrrh

Synonyms: Balsamodendron Myrrh, Gum Myrrh.

Identification: Myrrh is a yellowish-brown to reddish-

brown gum resin obtained from a tree found in Arabia
and Somalia which grows no more than nine feet tall.

Parts Used: The oleo-gum resin from the stem.

Solvents: It is partially soluble in water, alcohol

and ether.

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Textbook of Modern Herbology, Second Revised Edition

Chemical Constituents: volatile oil, myrrhin, gum salts, commiphoric

acid, campesterol, sulphates, benzoates, malates and potassium
acetate.

Therapeutic action: Tonic, Astringent and stimulant.

Uses: Because myrrh is only partially soluble, it is best used as a fine

powder. Tincture of Myrrh has been used for many centuries as a
disinfectant for washing sores and ulcers. It is also used to wash
gums, prevent bad breath, remedy an inflamed throat or as a gargle
(3-5 drops per tsp. of warm water).

The tincture or the powder may also be applied to the umbilical cord
after birth. It was used by the Egyptians as an embalming fluid. As a
stimulant, and when taken as an infusion, myrrh assists the flow of
blood to the capillaries. As I have previously stated, the combination I
prefer is one of goldenseal, myrrh and capsicum. Myrrh’s ability to
discharge mucus makes it useful in some chest afflictions, colds,
asthma, and tuberculosis, especially in the formula mentioned above
and others.

One of the reasons myrrh is so effective as an antibiotic and disinfec-

tant is that it increases the white blood corpuscles up to fourfold their
regular number. Myrrh can also help to bring on menstruation and
expectoration.

Meadowsweet Sc Ad Ed

Spiraea ulmaria, Filipendula ulmaria

Synonyms: Queen of the Meadow, Sweet

Meadow, Meadow-wort, Meadow
Queen, Spirea, Pride of the Meadow.

Identification: Meadowsweet is a small

shrub 1 - 4 feet tall with one to several
erect stems. The inflorescence bears
small white (sometimes pink) flowers
in corymbs supported on long pe-
duncles. The leaves are alternate,
simple, ovate, smoothish and dark
green. It is indigenous to Europe with
related species found native in North
America.

Parts used: leaves.

Solvents: boiling water, alcohol,

oil.

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 The Digestive System and Tonics

Chemical Constituents: The oil of meadowsweet is high in many

salicylate derivatives, piperonal, vanillin and a camphor-like terpene,
glycosides, mucilage and quercitin. Meadowsweet’s major active
constituents are the salicylic glycosides, spiraein and gaultherin,
spiroaic acid (salicylic acid) in the flowers, a volatile oil containing
salicylic aldehyde, small amounts of methyl salicylate and some tannic
and gallic acids.

Therapeutic action: Stomachic, Tonic, diuretic, astringent and aromatic.

Uses: Captain Roberts in his Encyclopedia of Digestive Disorders consid-

ers meadowsweet to be the most effective herb for regulating the
parietal cells in the stomach for production of HCl. It raises HCl
production or lowers it as necessary. Spiraea has been used to treat
diarrheas and is used in disorders of the stomach and gastric ulcers.
Meadowsweet may exhibit some analgesic activity due to its salicylate
content.

Meadowsweet has also been employed as a diuretic in cases of

enlarged prostate, to relieve urogenital irritation, chronic cervicitis and
chronic vaginitis with leucorrheal discharge.

Dosage:

Dried herb: 4.0 to 6.0 grams

Fluid extract: 0.3 to 1.3 grams
0.5 to 1.0 drams
1.5 to 6.0 ml.

Toxicity: There is no evidence for meadowsweet toxicity, however, very

large doses could possibly result in salicylate poisoning or renal
damage due to the tannin content.

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Textbook of Modern Herbology, Second Revised Edition

Summary of Chapter 6
This chapter reviewed the organs and structures of the upper gastroi-
ntestinal tract and the process of human digestion. Herbs noted for
their tonic effect were examined in detail with appropriate formulas and
dosages noted.

Recommended Readings
Roberts, Frank, Modern Herbalism for Digestive Disorders, Thorsons, UK: 1978.
Davenport, H., A Digest of Digestion, Yearbook Medical Publications Inc., Chicago, IL:
1975.
Jarvis, D.C., Folk Medicine, Greenwich, Conn. Fawcett Publications, 1961.
Veninga, L. & B.R. Zaricor, Goldenseal/Etc.: A Pharmacognosy of Wild Herbs, Ruka
Publications, Santa Cruz, CA: 1978.
Hobbs, C. Foundations of Health: The Liver & Digestive Herbal, Botanica Press,
Capitola, CA: 1992.

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 Physiology of Blood Pressure and Stimulants

Physiology
of
Blood 7
Pressure
and Stimulants
Synopsis:

This chapter reviews the basic principles of blood circulation, constituents of

blood, methods of determining vascular balance and the pulse-cardiovascular
index. The herbal classifications of stimulants are discussed and detailed
information is provided on the following herbs: Cayenne, Ginger, Horseradish,
Cloves, Prickly Ash, Peppermint and non-stimulants which affect the heat and
blood such as Reishi and Hawthorn.

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Textbook of Modern Herbology, Second Revised Edition

Table of Contents

Introduction
Parts of the Circulatory System
Determining Vascular Balance
Blood Pressure
Diastolic and Systolic Pressure
Blood Pressure Changes
Pulse and Cardiovascular Index
Circulatory Tension
Blood Distribution
Medication of Circulation
Stimulants
Cayenne
Ginger
Horseradish
Cloves
Prickly Ash
Peppermint
Reishi
Hawthorn
Summary
Recommended Readings

List of Tables and Figures

7.1 The Heart

7.2 Arteries, Veins, Capillaries
7.3 Blood
7.4 Blood Pressure
7.5 Cayenne
7.6 Ginger
7.7 Horseradish
7.8 Cloves
7.9 Prickly Ash
7.10 Peppermint
7.11 Reishi
7.12 Hawthorn

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 Physiology of Blood Pressure and Stimulants

Introduction

T
he circulatory system is made up of the heart, arteries, arterioles,
capillaries, venules, veins and of course the most important part
of all, the blood.
It is the function of the circulatory system to ensure that blood reaches
all parts of the body. Every cell must receive nourishment and other
sustaining elements: food (carbohydrates, fats, proteins, vitamins,
minerals and water), oxygen, enzymes, hormones and antibodies.
Circulation also ensures that waste products of the cell (carbon dioxide,
urea, lactic acid, etc.) are carried to the kidneys, intestines, lungs and
skin where they are excreted. In this way, the circulatory system makes
its all-important contribution to the homeostasis of the “internal envi-
ronment”.

Let’s take a more detailed look at the parts of the system:

➊ Heart — a hollow, four-chambered muscular organ about the size of

a fist, that is responsible for propelling blood through the remainder
of the circulatory system. (see Figure 7.1.)

➋ Arteries — tubular blood vessels that carry blood from the heart to
the various organs and parts of the body. They have thicker, more
muscular, and more elastic walls than veins. (see Figure 7.2)

➌ Capillaries — minute, thin-walled blood vessels which connect

arteries with veins (actually, arterioles with venules). (see Figure 7.2)

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Textbook of Modern Herbology, Second Revised Edition

The heart has 4 chambers - lined with

endothelium, endocardium, thick walls of
cardiac muscle, myocardium, enclosed in a
two-layered serous membrane - pericardium,
a thin fluid separates the two layers of
pericardial sac.

aorta - to body tissues

to right lung pulmonary artery
to left lung
superior vena
cava pulmonary veins
left atrium
right atrium left ventricle

right ventricle

inferior vena cava

mitral valve
tricuspid valve

Figure 7.1
Heart

➍ Veins — tubular branching blood vessels which carry blood from the
capillaries toward the heart. They have thinner walls than arteries.
The veins have specialized valves (Fig. 7.2). These one-way valves
will let the blood flow in one direction only. This means that any
pressure put on the veins will cause the blood to flow in one
direction, towards the heart. The action of muscle movement will
aid in pushing blood back to the heart. The negative pressure of the
empty heart and the negative pressure created in the abdomen
from breathing also assist, along with the pressure of blood being
pushed into the venules from the capillary beds.

➎ Blood — the semi-fluid tissue that is pumped by the heart and

circulates throughout the body via the arteries, veins and capillaries.
It is the vehicle by which digested food, oxygen and other materials
are carried to the cells of the body, and also the vehicle by which
waste products are transported from the cells for elimination. Blood

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 Physiology of Blood Pressure and Stimulants

All cells are bathed by tissue fluid. It is from solution in this fluid that O2 and food materials diffuse
into each cell. Its waste products, including CO2, diffuse out of the cells. The cardiovascular
system is the transport system which conveys these materials to and from the tissues. This
simplified diagram gives an outline of the circulation. Heart — a pump which drives
Capillary Bed Blood — a complex fluid containing food
Pulmonary (or materials, respiratory gases, waste
Head, Neck
lesser) circulation — products, protective and regulating
from right ventricle to Upper limbs
chemical substances round
left auricle.
O2 is taken up by Blood vessels — a closed system of
blood and CO2 tubes
given off. Arteries — from the heart to the tissues of
Hepatic or Portal the body which branch into
Systemic (or Circulation Capillaries — where gases, food and
greater) waste substances pass between blood and
circulation - from
tissue fluids, and reunite to form
left ventricle to
right auricle. Veins — from the tissues of the body to the
Portal
Vein heart
Excess water Renal circulation Capillary Bed (Digestive
and waste tract)
products are Capillary Bed
filtered off. Trunk, Lower limbs Food is absorbed

Figure 7.2
Arteries, Veins, Capillaries

Blood is the specialized fluid tissue of the transport system. Its specific gravity
is 1.055 to 1.065; pH is 7.3 to 7.4. Average amount in body is 5 litres, though
it varies with body weight, usually forming 7% of body weight. A sample of
blood, prevented from clotting by the addition of an anticoagulant and allowed
to settle by weight, is displayed to the left.

Composition
a) Plasma - 55%: almost clear fluid, made up of 90% water and the following
Plasma
solids:
55%
- plasma proteins (6 to 7%) formed primarily in the liver, and consisting of
serum albumin (4%), serum globulin (2.7%) and fibrinogen (0.3%).
- regulatory and protective proteins such as hormones, antibodies and
enzymes.
- inorganic substances (0.9%) such as sodium, chloride, calcium, potassium,
White & bicarbonate, iodine and iron.
Red cells - organic substances such as waste materials (e.g., urea, uric acid, xanthine,
45% creatine, creatinine, ammonia) and nutritive materials (e.g., amino acids,
glucose, fats, cholesterol).
- respiratory gases such as oxygen and carbon dioxide.

b) Cells - 45%: heavier than the plasma, consist of white blood corpuscles
(9,000 to 10,000 per cubic mm), red blood corpuscles (4.2 to 6.4 million per
cubic mm), platelets (thrombocytes - 250,000 to 500,000 per cubic mm).

Figure 7.3
Blood

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Textbook of Modern Herbology, Second Revised Edition

consists of a liquid portion called plasma in which is found a solid

portion — many individual cells called corpuscles, and others called
platelets. The average-sized adult has about 5.6 litres of blood. (see
Figure 7.3)

From a therapeutic point of view the following must be considered:

➊ Heart — tone, nourishment, nerve supply and vasomotor function.

➋ Arteries — general or local vasoconstriction or vasodilation,
plaquing.
➌ Capillary bed — the contractility of the capillaries, plaquing, terminal
end of arterioles and venules.
➍ Veins — tone, portal circulation, valve strength.
There is no part of the circulatory system that can be affected without
affecting the whole system.

Determining Vascular Balance

To consider the vascular situation, we have to give an overall assess-
ment of the arterial-capillary-venous balance. We first look towards the
capillary bed, as circulatory problems often begin there, usually because
the accumulated capacity or volume of the capillaries is very much
greater than the arterial venous section.

We often start with a treatment of the capillaries if we find problems. To

establish this an examination of all extremities, the skin and subcutane-
ous tissues is conducted. The capillaries are under nervous control
(from the medulla oblongata, at the top of the spinal cord, base of the
brain stem) for contraction and relaxation. We will often find persistent
capillary contraction or persistent capillary relaxation.

Persistent capillary contraction can be caused by overactive nerves

(stress) or by some sort of arterial obstruction. In the latter case, there
will be an inflammatory response. In an acute or subacute condition
there will be heat associated with the inflammation, along with de-
creased function of secretory glands. This will result in dryness of skin
or mucous membranes, increased sensitivity and pain. In a chronic
state (most often seen by herbalists) there will be dehydration and
undernourishment. The solution is rehydration and relaxation. This
corresponds to diffusive stimulants (discussed later in this chapter)
and relaxing diaphoretics (reviewed in Chapter 8).

Persistent capillary relaxation results in a flaccidity of tissues and

organs. This will result in a pallour from lack of blood supply, over-
hydration from disturbed fluid balance, coldness and feebleness.
Initially there will be a cold clamminess to the skin followed by a flaccid
shrunken state. In these cases we need to increase capillary tone,
providing outward radiation of heat with an astringent action on the
venules to promote fluid reabsorption.

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 Physiology of Blood Pressure and Stimulants

Systole The arterial blood pressure is determined in humans by

using a sphygmomanometer. Air is pumped into the
rubber bag until pressure in the cuff is greater than
pressure in the artery even during the heart's systole;
the artery is then closed down during systole and
diastole. At the same time, air is pushing up the mercury
column in manometer. By releasing the valve on the
pump, the pressure in cuff is gradually reduced until
maximum pressure in artery just overcomes the
pressure in cuff. Some blood begins to spurt through
during systole, artery is still closed during diastole. At
this point, faint rhythmic tapping sounds begin to be
heard through the stethoscope. The height of the mercury
Diastole
in millimetres is taken as the systolic blood pressure
(e.g. 120mm Hg). Pressure in cuff is gradually reduced
farther until it is just less than lowest pressure in artery
near the end of diastole (just before next heartbeat), blood
flow is unimpeded during systole and diastole, the sound
stops and the height of the mercury in the manometer at
this point is taken as the diastolic blood pressure (e.g.,
about 80 mm Hg.).

Figure 7.4
Blood Pressure

Blood Pressure
Blood pressure is a measurement of the pressure exerted by the blood
on the walls of the arteries.

Diastolic and Systolic Pressure

Systolic blood pressure is the pressure on the artery wall while the heart
is contracting. Diastolic blood pressure is the pressure on the artery
wall while the heart is relaxed (and will therefore be the lower of the
two readings).

With every contraction (beat) of the heart, the ventricles eject approxi-
mately 70 cc. into the blood vessels. This entire volume cannot immedi-
ately flow through the arterioles and into the capillaries and veins as a
result of this propulsion. This means that about 5/8 of the cardiac
output of each heartbeat has to be stored from systole and passed on
during diastole.

To accommodate this, the arteries are typically in a more or less

stretched condition. While the heart is in diastole (between beats), no
blood is being pumped into the arteries — the artery walls logically,
then, “spring back” into their normal state, (similiar to a balloon shrink-
ing as air escapes from it). The inner dimensions of these elastic walls is
regulated by the parasympathetic and sympathetic nervous system. The
increases in pressure, which start in the aorta walls, pass along the

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Textbook of Modern Herbology, Second Revised Edition

entire arterial system as a wave, called the pulse wave. It is this mecha-
nism that maintains a steady flow of blood rather than a stop-and-go
situation.

So, the blood issuing from the heart in systole is stored in the aorta and
from there, passed along into the arteries, then into the capillaries, and
then into the veins during diastole. Because of this, the pressure will be
highest in those arteries closest to the heart. The approximate blood
pressure at various points within a healthy twenty year old man would
be:

Aorta 120 mm Hg
Muscular Arteries 110 mm Hg
Arterioles 40 mm Hg
Capillaries 16-30 mm Hg
Venules 16 mm Hg
Muscular Veins 12 mm Hg
Great Veins 4 mm Hg

Blood Pressure Changes

The following influences are responsible for maintenance of arterial
blood pressure:

➊ pumping action of the heart

➋ peripheral resistance (i.e., congestion in the kidney or capil-
lary bed)
➌ viscosity of the blood
➍ quantity of blood in the arterial system
➎ elasticity of arterial walls (including plaquing in the arteries.)
The overall blood pressure will vary with changes in any of the above.

Blood pressure is said to normally increase with age (although some feel
that this is not necessarily true). An average blood pressure reading for a
twenty year old person in good health is 120 mm Hg. (systolic) and 80
mm Hg. (diastolic), but ranges from 110-122 Hg. for systolic are normal.
A low blood pressure between 90 and 115 occurs in some people. This
is nothing to be concerned about. In fact, such a reading is thought by
some to be associated with athletes or a long life. Low blood pressure
can be an indication of one of the many symptoms associated with low
blood sugar though. Low pressure can also lead to symptoms such as
fatigue and vertigo (dizziness).

A slight rise in diastolic pressure occurs when a person rises from the
recumbent to sitting or standing position. This occurs to compensate for
gravity so that the brain will receive sufficient blood. Dizziness some-

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 Physiology of Blood Pressure and Stimulants

times results. Even the very healthy will sometimes experience dizziness
when rising too fast. Muscular activity also temporarily raises blood
pressure, which may reach levels of 180 mm Hg. Very strong emotions,
such as anger, fear and excitement will do the same.

In chronic high blood pressure (also called hypertension), the

individual’s blood pressure is considerably above normal levels. This
may be due to one of the above factors. High blood pressure is often
due to blockage along the arteries, arterioles or capillaries. The periph-
eral resistance of arterioles in one area, especially the kidney, can
increase resistance in all peripheral arterioles. This is why high blood
pressure is often treated by a diuretic (the diuretic cleans out the kidney,
thereby reducing peripheral resistance).

Pulse and Cardiovascular Index

The pulse can tell us many things about conditions in the circulatory
system. The following information is in contrast to the Chinese system
of pulse diagnosis which is a complete system in itself. Most introduc-
tory texts on Chinese medicine review Oriental theory on the pulse.

This text concerns itself with circulatory conditions as reflected by the

pulse. Problems can be broken up into:

a. Left cardiac and arterial

b. Right cardiac and venous, including portal

If we observe the pulse, blood pressure level and pulse pressure ratio, a
weakness to one side or the other is often discernible. A low systolic
level with pale extremities suggests a left cardiac and arterial insuffi-
ciency. A bluish colour with a puffy appearance of the subcutaneous
tissue will involve the right cardiac and venous function. The tone of the
vascular system is reflected in the diastolic pressure. If the diastolic
pressure is low this would suggest weakness in the elasticity of the
arterial system. For purposes of examination, the systolic/diastolic ratio
should be approximately 3:2 and the diastolic/pulse ratio 1:1.

This ratio can be important, especially when dealing with high blood
pressure. Dealing with the cardio-arterial area will reduce systolic
pressure whereas peripheral therapy will affect diastolic levels.

If we lower high systolic pressure, in individiuals whose peripheral

circulation is sclerotic, without lowering peripheral resistance (dias-
tolic), it could lead to cerebral ischaemia (too little blood reaching the
head). This ischaemia is associated with depression, forgetfullness or
vertigo.

If we reduce high systolic pressure when there are kidney problems,

blood supply to the kidneys may be reduced. This will increase the toxin
load of the kidneys and reduce the amounts of nutrients reaching the
kidneys.

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Textbook of Modern Herbology, Second Revised Edition

Such examples highlight the need to treat the body as one integrated
system. In both the above cases, it is necessary to reduce the local or
systemic peripheral congestion (and therefore diastolic pressure) at the
same time that the systolic is reduced. Watching reduction of these two
indicators will reveal the level of success in treating the whole body and
the condition.

The pulse varies according to autonomic and systemic nerve states. The
following are areas to watch:

➊ Pulse is thin and the person is tense — use relaxing herb.

➋ Pulse full and person sluggish — stimulate & tone.
➌ Pulse imperceptible — build up gradually.
➍ Pulse bounding — relax by diaphoresis.

Circulatory Tension
Circulatory tension, flexibility or strength can be determined by the
‘Cardiovascular Index’ (CVI):

Pulse rate x (Systolic + Diastolic)

For a normal healthy 20 year old male:

72 x (120 +80) = 14,400

A good range is 12,000 - 15,000 with the following remarks for other
readings.

Below 12,000 — chronic depressive states, general weakness,

wasting pathologies.
15,000-20,000 — degrees of circulatory tension, depending on
level.
>20,000 — cardio-renal-vascular pathologies
>25,000 — danger of cerebral hemorrhage

To the extent that an individual’s score is off the median range (12,000 -
15,000), a practitioner should use caution in treatment. The first step is
the return of systemic equilibrium and the strengthening of weak
organs. The next step is detoxification. Many practitioners of the “Old
School” would detoxify first and then look for details. This strategy is
very damaging to weakened organs. “Moving” the toxins in a weak
system merely runs the risk of new problems arising. In a modern
population, “lay the foundation” of a strengthened physiology before
moving to “renovations”.

Remember to note if the diastolic/systolic ratio varies while the CVI is

being normalized. The ratio should be kept on even keel before moving
on with the program. This will help to avoid headaches or new weak-
ened conditions in other body systems.

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 Physiology of Blood Pressure and Stimulants

Blood Distribution
When dealing with blood circulation, it is important not to “rob Peter to
pay Paul”. In traditional allopathic literature large amounts of blood are
directed to certain areas at the expense of others. Side effects are the
natural result. This tendency can be used to advantage in some cases. A
hyperaemic headache can be due to bilious dysfunction. By stimulating
blood flow to the abdominal area, excess is drawn away from the head,
relieving the headache and helping to clean out the gall bladder.

In the case of pneumonia where there is engorgement of the pulmo-

nary capillaries, relief can be found in stimulating the blood to move to
other areas. The Chinese use the simple remedy of 5 slices of ginger
with slices of the whites of 5 green onions in a tea. This concoction
sends blood to the extremities. Diaphoretics would also be successful
here.

One of the oldest remedies for congestion of the chest is a counterirri-

tant mustard plaster placed on the chest. A layer of waxed paper is
placed on the chest followed by a layer of powdered mustard, water
and flour. So much blood will be brought to the chest through the
plaster’s irritating effect that the skin surface starts to burn. This treat-
ment draws the blood away from the congested area.

Medication of Circulation
There are 3 stages to be observed:

➊ Remove obstruction. Venous system — liver, spleen and

intestines. Arterial system — kidney and skin.
➋ Regulate peripheral capillary beds. Examine skin and
subcutaneous tissue. The capillary beds have 100 times as
much blood as the rest of the system. Use diffusive stimulants
such as ginger.
➌ Regulate arterial-venous balance. Review pulse and pres-
sure, check extremity to decide if you need left cardiac -
arterial support or right cardiac-venous function.

For the left cardiac - arterial system:

Stimulant — Cayenne or Prickly Ash

Relaxant — Lobelia, all diffusive diaphoretics
Neuromuscular — Lady’s Slipper Root, Cramp bark

For right cardiac - venous system:

Tonic — Gentian, Goldenseal (portal)

Astringent — Bayberry, Collinsonia (portal)

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Textbook of Modern Herbology, Second Revised Edition

Stimulants
Stimulants are natural sanitative substances which are in harmony with
the laws of life. They produce a temporary increase in the functional
activity of the human body or any one of its parts. Pure or natural
stimulants do not injure the brain. Neither, as a rule do they abnormally
increase the pulse rate. Alcohol and illicit drugs are not stimulants, as
we are defining them here. Stimulants are of a healthful nature and can
be utilized by the vital forces in a manner compatible with proper
physiological functioning of the body.

Natural stimulants are valuable in they help equalize circulation and

blood pressure. Stimulants are indicated and can safely be employed in
congestion, inflammations and fevers. There are two major types of
stimulants — direct stimulants and diffusive stimulants.

Direct stimulants are those that begin their action on the heart and
have their effects spread out from there.

Diffusive stimulants are those that start their stimulative action at

the capillary peripheral area and work inward.

Cayenne Sc Ad

Capsicum minimum, C. fastigiatum, C.

annuum

(Capsicum is derived from Greek, meaning “to

bite”.)

Synonyms: Capsicum, Red Pepper, Bird Pepper,

African Pepper.

Identification: This perennial plant (C. annuum is

annual) grows to 3 feet or more. The glabrous
stem has a woody bottom being herbacious near
the top. Leaves are ovate to lanceolate, entire
and petioled. The drooping flower is white to
yellow, grows singularly in twos or threes with dark coloured oblong anthers. The
calyx is angular, erect, persistent with 5 short acute lobes. The corolla tub is very
short. Stamens 5, ovaries ovate, style filiform, stigma blunt. The fruit is 2 or 3 in
number attached where the branches fork. They are 1/2 to 1 inch long, narrow,
oblong-ovoid being bright scarlet-red to yellow borne on a flat cup-like calyx.
Although it grows primarily in Africa and Asia, it can grow naturally in the United
States around the southern border of Tennessee. The best Capsicum is African
Birdseye Cayenne (C. fastigiatum). It is a fairly brilliant orange-red, but loses its color
when exposed to light.

Parts Used: The fruit and the oil from the seeds.

Solvents: 60% alcohol, to some extent vinegar, water (increasing in

solubility with the heat).

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 Physiology of Blood Pressure and Stimulants

Chemical Constituents: Capsaicin, a red colouring matter, capsicidin,

carotene, oleic, palmitic, ascorbic and stearic acid.

Therapeutic Action: Stimulant (both direct and diffusive), tonic, carmi-

native, diaphoretic, alterative, astringent. It is also used as a condi-
ment.

Uses: This remarkable herb has a wide variety of uses. It is probably

most often employed for its ability to equalize blood pressure. It will
normalize both low and high blood pressure and is useful for both
sides of circulation. Capsicum is often used to stop bleeding from
wounds. The quick drinking of a half a cup of hot water in which is
dissolved a teaspoon of capsicum will arrest bleeding, almost immedi-
ately. A small amount should also be sprinkled on the wound. Capsi-
cum is a marvelous food for the circulatory system, feeding the
necessary elements to the cells and giving them elasticity. Capsicum
will help cleanse the blood system when it becomes loaded with
impurities. Although some people believe it will irritate the stomach,
this seems not the case, as both Dr. Nowell and Dr. Christopher have
used it for stomach problems, and even as a treatment for ulcers. I
have observed irritation in some sensitive people. Capsicum is virtu-
ous by itself and will accomplish wonders, although some authorities
like Hutchens feel that it should not be used alone, due to its awesome
power. Being a student of Dr. Christopher, I have used it singly for
many years, and have found it of great value. Capsicum can combine
with almost any herb and will act as a ‘carrier herb’ to assist other
herbs in many formulas. A carrier herb’s active principles are carried
along to the location of the master herbs in a formula. A lung formula,
for example, would contain several specific herbs for lung problems
and a small amount of cayenne. The result would be a formula which
focused the effects of the cayenne on the lungs and to a lesser degree
on the rest of the body. Because of this property, Capsicum appears in
many formulas, especially those of the late Dr. J.R. Christopher whose
research and active use of Capsicum is well known.

One of its little-known uses is that it is able to help individuals stop

their addiction to alcohol. It does so by reducing the dilation of the
blood vessels. Capsicum has been shown to significantly lower
cholesterol and triglycerides in the blood and to lower the LDL/HDL
ratio. Its ability to decrease platelet aggregation is also noted. I do not
wish to give the impression that cayenne is a panacea, but it does have
a wide range of uses and is one of the herbs that should be in every
house and in every first-aid kit.

As far as dosage is concerned, 1/3 of a teaspoon should be taken in a

glass of water six days a week. The amount of cayenne should be
increased every three days until one full teaspoon is reached. Some
practitioners, Dr. Christopher, for example, do not like using it in
capsule form. “It makes a man out of you if you take it straight”, he

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Textbook of Modern Herbology, Second Revised Edition

would say, and he also felt that you won’t have an excuse not to take it
if it was temporarily not available in a capsule form. Personally, I prefer
taking it in capsules, and I have found that my patients prefer it this
way also. I suggest 1-2 capsules after, or in the middle of, each meal,
for circulation problems. Cayenne, if taken on an empty stomach in
capsule form, can have a fairly dramatic effect (not injurious just
dramatic!). Cayenne is reputed to be hot going in and hot coming out.
I had one old guy tell me he had to quit using cayenne because it was
“burning out his exhaust pipe”. It can be a little irritating during bowel
movements but this effect usually disappears after about 3 days.

Formulas:

Here are some more useful formulas, in addition to those found easily in
some of Dr. Christopher’s texts.

Dr. Nowell’s Liniment: ➐- ➊

Tincture of Capsicum 2 Fl. oz.
Fluid Extract of Lobelia 2 Fl. oz.
Oil of Wormwood 1 Fl. Dram
Oil of Rosemary 1 Fl. Dram
Oil of Spearmint 1 Fl. Dram

A liniment that I personally have found quite useful is:

Tincture of Capsicum 2 Fl. oz. ➐- ➋

Tincture of Arnica 2 Fl. oz.
Oil of Birch 1 Fl. Dram
Oil of Spearmint 1 Fl. Dram

Both of these are useful for sprains, bruises, rheumatism

and neuralgia.

Ginger Sc Ad

Asarum caudatum, Zingibar officinale

Wild Ginger is usually considered to be the better of the two gingers but Jamaican
Ginger (Z. officinale) is most often used.

Identification: Jamaican Ginger is native to Asia, but it is cultivated in Jamaica and

sold commercially. The ginger plant has a perennial tuberous root or rhizome, erect
annual stems with smooth sheathed leaves, 2-3 feet high. The leaves are sub-sessile,
on long sheaths, alternate, lanceolate, linear entire, 4-6 inches long, 1 inch wide. The
solitary yellow flower is small, calyx tubular, opening on one side, 3 toothed, corolla
with a double limb, outer 3 - inner 3 lobed lip of dark purple.

Parts used: The dried rhizome and roots, which can be obtained in
both the root and powdered form (the powdered form keeps better).

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 Physiology of Blood Pressure and Stimulants

Solvent: Boiling water.

Chemical Constituents: Volatile oil,

zingiberine, gingerol and shogaol, an
acrid, soft resin insoluble in ether and oil,
gum starch, lignin, vegetable matter,
asmazone, acetic acid, acetate of potash
and sulphur.

Therapeutic action: Diffuse stimulant,

Antispasmodic, Carminative and dia-
phoretic (if taken hot).

Uses: Jamaican Ginger has its greatest

applicability in abdominal problems. It
acts as a vehicle, carrying other herbs to
this area. For this reason, you will find it
used in many formulas which treat
intestinal and female problems. Used
alone, it is remarkably effective in alleviat-
ing menstrual cramps and is quite
effective in arresting excessive menstrual
flow when taken as a hot infusion. For severe menstrual cramps, the
following formula can be employed:

Equal Parts of: Ginger

Blessed thistle
Cramp bark

Infuse one teaspoon per cup of boiling water. One to six cups should
be consumed. Magnesium Phosphate (a special “tissue salt” sold in
some health food stores) will also assist in alleviating cramps. Jamai-
can Ginger is also often given simultaneously with strong cathartics
because of its ability to stop the griping pain that can be associated
with a strong cathartic action.

As stated, Jamaican Ginger is a diffusive stimulant — it starts at the

capillaries and works its way back to the heart, via the venous struc-
ture. It is more diffuse than cayenne but can be substituted if cayenne
is not available. Ginger’s diffuse action often leads to its application for
poor circulation in peripheral areas. Cold hands and feet have found a
warm friend in ginger. Jamaican Ginger also has a strengthening effect
on both the liver and spleen. Ginger will contribute to a reduction in
platelet aggregation.

As mentioned earlier in this chapter, the Chinese use a formula of 5

slices of ginger with the slices of the white of 5 green onions, boiled in
water for 5 minutes. This cold and flu remedy can be a very beneficial
semi-diaphoretic during the first stages of congestion. I have been
using straight ginger tea as a major botanical during the last five years.

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Textbook of Modern Herbology, Second Revised Edition

For stomach and intestinal gas, ginger is excellent. ➐- ➌

Captain Roberts has given the following very successful
formula:

1 part Ginger
1 part Colomba
1/2 - 1 part Senna

Simmer one ounce of each in three pints of distilled

water for twenty minutes. Allow to cool, and then
strain. Add one ounce of glycerine, shake thoroughly,
and store in a brown bottle laid on its side in the
refrigerator. Dose: One wineglassful after meals or
when needed.

It is especially good during cold, wet weather.

I personally discovered a good use for ginger! Several years back I

used to break out in hives occasionally because of an allergic reaction.
I found the best way to obtain relief was to simmer one-half pound of
ginger in one gallon of water for five minutes in a non-aluminum pot.
The fluid was added to a bath of water on the “hot end” of comfort-
able. I took a relaxing soak. After stepping out of the bath, I would
sponge myself off with chamomile tea (1 tsp. infused in one cup of
water). It worked every time, with fast relief!

Chewing on ginger can help stimulate the salivary glands and has also
been used successfully by some for lung hemorrhage.

Wild ginger
Synonyms: Canada Snakeroot, Indian Ginger

Distribution: It grows from Maine to Michigan and southward, and along the West
Coast west of the Rockies from southern B.C. southwards. It resembles Jamaican
Ginger but has smaller leaves. It also has the characteristic scent of ginger.

Therapeutic Action: Diffusive stimulant, carminative, diuretic and

diaphoretic (hot). It is used in substantially the same way as Jamaican
Ginger, is just as effective (if not stronger) and is sometimes sold as
Jamaican Ginger.

128 Copyright © 1993, Wild Rose College of Natural Healing Ltd.

 Physiology of Blood Pressure and Stimulants

Horseradish Sc Ad Ed

Cochlearia amoracin, Roripa amoracia,

Amoracia lapathifolia

Synonyms: Great Railfort, Mountain Radish,

Red Cole.

The name “cochlearia” was bestowed by

Linnaeus, “cochleare” being the name of an
old-fashioned spoon to which its long leaves
have a resemblance. The popular English
name, “horseradish”, means “coarse
radish”, to distinguish it from edible radish
(the prefix “horse” is often used in this way,
e.g. horse-mint, horse chestnut, etc.)
Horseradish is a member of the Cruciferae
family (mustard family).

History: Both the root and the leaves of the

horseradish were universally used as a
medicine during the Middle Ages. They were
also used quite extensively as a condiment
but the leaves are rarely used medicinally in
our day.

Identification: The horseradish is a perennial

herb native to Hungary and Eastern Europe
but it has escaped cultivation and can be
found semi-wild in most parts of the world.
The plant grows from one to three feet tall, with lanceolate leaves eight to twelve
inches long and four to five inches wide. The leaves are somewhat similar to those of
comfrey. Horseradish has white flowers and two-celled pods. The root size varies
considerably in response to the soil and cultivation practices, but it is typically twelve
inches in length and one-half inch to three inches thick and tapers to a conical
shape. It is yellowish and somewhat scaly and has pungent, mustardlike odour when
scraped.

Part Used: Root.

Chemical Constituents: Sinigrin (C 10H19KNS2O19), a pungent principle

also found in black mustard, (which is decomposed in the presence
of water by myrosin, an enzyme which is also found in the root) to
form mustard oil, glucose and KNSO4. Sinigrin and myrosin exist in
different cells of the horseradish root and therefore do not act on
each other until the root is scraped or bruised. On exposure to air,
these substances quickly change colour and lose their strength. They
also become inert when boiled. Horseradish also contains a bitter
resin, sugar, starch, gum albumin, acetates of calcium, sulphate of
calcium and potash.

Solvent: Apple cider vinegar.

Therapeutic Action: Stimulant, diaphoretic, diuretic, digestive, rubefa-

cient.

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Textbook of Modern Herbology, Second Revised Edition

Uses: One of the most famous formulas taking advantage of the virtues
of horseradish root is Dr. Coffin’s Famous Formula for dropsy:

1 oz. Horseradish Root

1/2 oz. Crushed Black Mustard Seed (Brassica nigra or alba)

Cover with one pint of boiling water, allow to stand for four hours,
and then strain. The recommended dosage is three tablespoons, three
times per day. This formula is useful for water retention and is espe-
cially effective for dropsy, which frequently occurs in fevers.

Horseradish is effective for promoting stomach secretions and is

therefore effective as a digestive aid.

For removing blemishes, pimples and spots from the skin,

the following formula is valuable:

4 oz. Horseradish, freshly ground ➐- ➍

1 qt. Buttermilk
4 oz. Glycerin

Put all three ingredients into a half-gallon jar and shake

well. Let stand overnight in a cool place, shake well in the
morning, and then run the preparation through a sieve.
Bottle and keep in the refrigerator.

Directions: Wash the part to be treated in warm water, dry

thoroughly and then rub the formula into every affected part.
This should be done at night. After the skin has been
thoroughly saturated, it tingles with warmth. The surplus
formula should be wiped off before retiring. The organic
sulphur and calcium in this lotion will cure pimples and
produce a clear, healthy complexion.

The following formula is the most effective I’ve ever seen for sinus
problems!

1/3 tsp. fresh grated Horseradish

1/3 tsp. Apple Cider vinegar

The above should be chewed thoroughly with the mouth closed and
then swallowed. This should be done three times per day and the
amount masticated should be increased by 1/3 teaspoon every three
days until a full teaspoon is used. The procedure should be continued
for one to four months even though the problem may appear to have
been remedied. The vapour is very effective for inhibiting microorgan-
isms.

Even though this is the best formula we have found for clearing sinuses
we have a hard time administering it. When the sinigrin and myrosin

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 Physiology of Blood Pressure and Stimulants

combine in the apple cider vinegar they create a volatile oil that goes
up into the sinuses. The cleansing action is very irritating. Some of my
patients have found that stamping their feet when they are chewing
the horseradish will bring some of their consciousness out of the
sinuses to their feet, to enable them to continue the procedure. But
even though the effectiveness is astonishing, patient compliance is
very low. This brings us to a very important principle for the herbalist.

In an equation form:

R=ExC

Results equal the Effectiveness of the herb (or formula) multiplied by

the Compliance. You might have a perfect formula but if it tastes so
bad that no one will take it, well it just isn’t going to give the desired
result. Herbal formulas in a modern setting usually have to taste good
and be convenient. You will find some people that will take the
horseradishes of the world and get good results, and more power to
them. But if you have given a person a formula and it doesn’t seem to
be working, first find out whether the problem is compliance.

☞ Caution: horseradish should not be taken during pregnancy.

Cloves Ad

Eugenia caryophyllata, Caryophyllus aromaticus

Synonyms: Mother Cloves
History: Cloves were not known to the
ancients, being brought to England first by the
Arabians from the “Spice Islands” in the Far
East. For a long time, the Portuguese and
Dutch monopolized the trade. Now, most
cloves come from Zanzibar but the finest
come from Penang, Pemba and Bombay.
The typical cloves found in supermarkets
have half the strength of the ones found in the
herb stores. About two-thirds of the world’s
annual crop of clove is smoked, like tobacco,
in Middle Eastern countries.

Identification: Cloves grow in handsome

evergreen trees thirty to forty feet high. Cloves
are the solid calyx tubes.

Parts Used: The dried, unexpanded

flower bud.

Solvent: Oil.

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Textbook of Modern Herbology, Second Revised Edition

Chemical Constituents: volatile oil (eugenol), tannin (galla tannic acid) ,

gum, resin, caryophyllin, vanillin, green wax, sitosterol.

Therapeutic Action: Stimulant, Stomachic, Carminative, Aromatic,

Digestive, Germicide, astringent, antiemetic, antispasmodic, antiseptic.

Uses: Cloves are the strongest aromatic herb. They are also stimulating
and carminative. It is most commonly used for nausea and vomiting
during pregnancy. Dry cloves are fairly astringent in contrast to the oil.
Putting a drop of oil of clove on an aching tooth will speedily relieve
the toothache. Eugenol (the active ingredient) is still one of the major
pain relieving agents used by dentists. Cloves can be used as a cure for
all kinds of fungi-related diseases such as Athlete’s foot, Candida
overpopulation and often warts. Clove oil has broad spectrum antibi-
otic properties.

Prickly ash Sc Ad

Xanthoxylum americanum,
Xanthoxylum clavaherculis,
Xanthoxylum fraxineum

Synonyms: Yellow Wood, Toothache Tree,

Suterberry, Prickly Ash Berry.

Identification: This small tree grows eight to

fifteen feet high and is native to North
America, extending from Eastern Canada to
the Central U.S.A. and west to the Missis-
sippi. It grows in woods, thickets and on
riverbanks. The small flower appears before
the leaves in April and May, is greenish-red
and blue-black, and grows in clusters.

Parts Used: The bark and berries.

Solvent: Boiling water and dilute

alcohol.

Chemical Constituents: Small

amounts of volatile oil, fat, sugar,
gum, an acrid resin, a bitter alkaloid
(believed to be berberine) and xanthoxylin (the active principle).

Therapeutic Action: Stimulant, Diaphoretic, Tonic and antiseptic.

Uses: The bark is a positive diffusive stimulant and induces a good, free
capillary circulation. Its taste is warm and aromatic, and when
chewed, it induces a copious flow of saliva. As one of the common
names of Prickly Ash suggests, chewing the bark or berries will give
relief from toothaches or sores in the mouth.
132 Copyright © 1993, Wild Rose College of Natural Healing Ltd.
 Physiology of Blood Pressure and Stimulants

The stimulatory action of Prickly Ash is slower than cayenne, but its
effects are much more permanent. It is very effective in removing
obstruction in every part of the body.

There is a famous rheumatic acid and blood purifier ➐- ➎

remedy associated with Prickly Ash:

1/2 oz. Prickly Ash Bark

1/2 oz. Buckbean (Or Bogbean) Menyanthes trifoliata
1/3 oz. Cayenne

Boil in one and one-half pints of water for fifteen minutes.

Strain. One wineglassful should be given three or four
times daily.

Prickly Ash is an excellent tonic for convalescence from fevers (espe-

cially rheumatic fevers). It is an equally good tonic for convalescence
from stomach disease. It promotes general perspiration, invigorates
the stomach and strengthens the digestive system (especially when
sluggish). It also augments hepatic and pancreatic activity.

The powdered bark forms an excellent application for indolent (slow-

healing) ulcers and old wounds. It cleanses, stimulates, dries up and
heals the latter. Prickly Ash is valuable in paralysis, owing to its stimu-
lating properties as a simple infusion. It is also useful in cases of cold
hands and feet due to sluggish circulation.

Peppermint Sc Ad

Mentha piperita
Synonyms: Balm Mints, Brandy Mint,
Curled Mint, Common Mint.

History: The mints have a long history.

Peppermint is a native of the Mediterra-
nean but now appears naturalized
throughout the world. Its therapeutic
use goes back many thousands of
years.

Identification: Common to all members

of the mint family are square stems, a
distinctive characteristic. There is no
reason to confuse spearmint and
peppermint. Peppermint is much
stronger in action than spearmint and
is more of a stimulant, whereas
spearmint is more of a diaphoretic.

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 Textbook of Modern Herbology, Second Revised Edition

Spearmint (Mentha spicata) has a narrow, interrupted spike of pink to pale violet
Ad Ed flowers and sessile leaves, while peppermint has a thicker spike of purplish flowers
and petiole, and dark green leaves. Peppermint should be collected in August and
September, just as the flowers begin to appear. If the plant is used for its oil, it is best
just after the flowers have expanded. Commercially, it is cut back every two weeks
for oil.

Parts used: Leaves, stem and oil.

Solvent: Water. The active ingedients are extremely volatile and mint
should never be boiled.

Chemical Constituents: pipmenthol (C 10H20O), menthol (C 10H18), fla-

vonoids, phytol, tocopherols, carotenoids.

Therapeutic action: Stimulant, Stomachic, Aromatic, Carminative.

Uses: Peppermint is quite stimulating to the gastric membrane. It is an

excellent digestive aid and activates the secretory organs. Peppermint
tea mixed with chamomile tea forms an excellent soothing and
quenching compound tea after a large meal. It aids digestion. It will
aid in reducing that bloated feeling often associated with big feasts. It
does this by stopping the formation of gases in the digestive tract.

One of the most famous formulas for influenza is: ➐- ➏

1 oz. Peppermint leaves (Mentha piperita)
1 oz. Elder flower (Sambucus canadensis)
1 oz. Yarrow flower (Achillea millefolium)

Pour two pints of boiling water over the herbs, cover

tightly, and keep warm for fifteen minutes. Then strain.
The preparation should be consumed warm and the
individual should be kept covered. Honey can be added
if desired.

This formula is extremely helpful and has been used successfully so

many times that it has earned a fine reputation. The best way to admin-
ister it is to give one-half to one cupful every thirty to forty-five minutes,
until the patient perspires, and then two tablespoons every hour or two
until the patient falls asleep. It must be administered warm! When the
patient begins to sweat freely, the congestion will be broken and the
circulation will be equalized. In the morning, sponge the entire body
with equal parts of the apple cider vinegar and warm water. Do one
portion of the body at a time, so the patient does not get chilled. The
formula is very good for children, even babies who still nurse. With
youngsters we often use spearmint instead of peppermint and add
honey, making the formula weaker than normal (for taste reasons).

134 Copyright © 1993, Wild Rose College of Natural Healing Ltd.

 Physiology of Blood Pressure and Stimulants

If you are feeling tense, and also feel the need for an aspirin, take a
strong cup of hot peppermint tea and rest for ten minutes. You will be
surprised how quickly your composure returns! Peppermint is also
very useful in expelling wind and to suppress menstruation. Most of
the plants in the Mint Family are also mild stimulants and carminatives.

Reishi Sc Ad

Ganodermum lucidum
G. applanatum
Synonyms: Ling zhi
Identification: This wood-decomposing
fungi has a circular kidney-shaped cap,
divided by concentric growth rings,
resembling a ram’s horn. The colour is
shiny, lacquered red to reddish-brown or
black. The fruiting body is very woody as is
the stem. The spores are white to brown
with age, but spore print is brown.

Part Used: Fruiting body, mycelium

(biomass).

Solvent: water, alcohol.

Chemical Constituents: polysaccharides, lanostans, coumarin, ergos-
terol, triterpenes, adenosine, small amounts of germanium, organic
acids and resins.

Therapeutic action: Adaptogen, nervine, relaxant, stimulant, anti-

allergenic, hypoglycemic, alterative, anti-tumor, anti-viral, immune
tonic.

Uses: This herb works on the central nervous system to relax a person,
making it usesful for insomnia, nervous conditions and paranoia. It is
revered for its effect on the heart and respiratory tract, said to be able
get rid of ‘knots’ in the chest. Its effect on the circulatory system is to
lower blood pressure, lower cholesterol, balance LDL/HDL ratios of
cholesterol while reducing other blood lipids and stopping blood clots.
Specific for asthma, allergies, bronchitis and general upper and lower
respiratory problems. This herb has been considered a longevity tonic,
probably due to the anti-oxidant effect.

Reishi’s anti-microbial action is shown to be effective against bacteria,

fungi and viruses. In several countries of the world, this mushroom is
used to treat cancer, AIDS and chronic fatigue patients. It is considered
specific for all of these problems. In the digestive tract reishi has been
shown to calm down the autonomic nervous system, reduces spastic-

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Textbook of Modern Herbology, Second Revised Edition

ity, ulcers, colitis and detoxifies the liver. Reishi’s anti-allergenic effect
is both for air bound and food bound allergens.

Reishi is preferably not used completely alone for long periods of time.
It should be taken with other supplements. Vitamin C and ginger are
particularily good companions for it.

I have been using the following formula quite a bit lately:

Reishi solid extract 1:15 1 part (=15 parts)

Echinacea root 5 parts
Ginger root 3 parts
Barberry root 1 part

Ground powder encapsulated into “OO” capsules.

Dosage: 2-3 capsules — 2-3 times daily.

Hawthorn Sc Ad Ed

Crataegus oxyacantha

Synonyms: Mayblossom, Quick

Thorn, Whitethorn, Haw, Hazel,
Gazel, Halves, Hagthorn, Ladies
meat, Bread and Cheese tree.

Identification: This shrub to small

tree is found in thickets and woods
throughout Europe, central and
Northern Asia. It is cultivated as a
hedge in England. Reaching a
height of 30 feet this plant
possesses single seed-vessels in
each blossom which in turn
produce a single bright red berry,
looking like miniature stony apples
(i.e., apples with large "stones").
The flowers bloom in May.

Parts used: Berries and bark.

Chemical Constituents: As with all Prunus plants, hawthorn contains
amygdalin. It also contains crategolic acid, the alkaloid crataegin, a
mixture of saponins, triterpene acid (i.e., oleanolic, ursolic), purine
and flavonoid glycosides.

Therapeutic Action: Cardiac, diuretic, astringent, tonic.

136 Copyright © 1993, Wild Rose College of Natural Healing Ltd.

 Physiology of Blood Pressure and Stimulants

Uses: This plant is used primarily as a cardiac tonic and has a tremen-
dous reputation for success in this area. It is considered valuable for
cardiac weakness, valvular murmurs, sighing respiration, nerve
depression or neurasthenia, mitral regurgitation, cardiac pain, rapid or
feeble heart and heartstrain due to overexertion.

In 1951, Ullsperger used an extract of hawthorn on 100 patients and

indicated that it was useful for dilating coronary blood vessels. The
decoction has been used for sore throats and the infusion as a
diurectic in dropsy and light kidney problems.

Dosage: Fluid extract of berries 10 - 15 drops; 2 - 4 times daily

Syrup 1 tsp.; 2 - 4 times daily

Summary of Chapter 7
This chapter reviews the cardiovascular system, methods of monitoring
blood pressure and indications derived from cardiovascular indices.
Herbs noted as useful stimulants were examined in detail with appropri-
ate formulas and dosages.

Recommended Readings
Christopher, Dr. J., Capsicum, Christopher Publications, Springville, Utah: 1980.
Priest, A.W. & L.R. Priest, Herbal Medication: A Clinical and Dispensary Handbook,
L.N. Fowler & Co., Romford, England: 1982.

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138 Copyright © 1993, Wild Rose College of Natural Healing Ltd.

 Elimination and Diaphoretics

Elimination
and 8
Diaphoretics

Synopsis:

In this chapter, we will look at elimination in general, the sweat glands, fevers
and methods of treatment. Herbs noted for their diaphoretic effect include:
Yarrow, Chamomile, Hyssop, Catnip, Spearmint.

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Textbook of Modern Herbology, Second Revised Edition

Table of Contents
Introduction
The Sweat Glands
Sebaceous Glands
Sweat Gland Elmination
Fever
The Dangers of a Fever
Tone of the Skin
Diaphoretics
Wet Sheet Treatment
Yarrow
Chamomile
Hyssop
Catnip
Spearmint

List of Tables and Figures

8.1 Yarrow
8.2 Chamomile
8.3 Hyssop
8.4 Catnip
8.5 Spearmint

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 Elimination and Diaphoretics

Introduction

A
s we all know, good food is vital to good health. The old adage,
“you are what you eat” is true in many respects. But, in addition
to being what one eats, an individual is also:

➊ what is absorbed and assimilated,

➋ what is metabolized, and
➌ what is not eliminated.
Previous chapters have examined digestion (absorption and assimila-
tion), blood circulation and metabolism. In this chapter the topic is
elimination. An individual can put an assortment of wholesome foods
into their body but if the waste material is not eliminated (the by-
products of tissue conversion and the broken down tissue) the body
literally can die in its own waste! The situation is similar to putting alfalfa
sprouts, wheatgrass, and fresh vegetables (all healthful foods) into a
septic tank. The context for vitality is not present.

To build new healthy cells, old ones must be broken down. In the
process, unusable byproducts must be expelled from the body. These
products are usually formed on a cellular level and passed on to the
liver for detoxification. Elements that can be used are redirected to
other areas of the body. The unusable elements are converted to forms
that can be passed out of the body through one of the systems of
elimination.

Secretion and excretion of most substances, toxins included, are

controlled by the autonomic nervous system through the vaso-motor
function. If there is an imbalance causing an overreaction of the sympa-
thetic nerves, elimination will be affected. The imbalance can be caused

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Textbook of Modern Herbology, Second Revised Edition

by emotions, structural problems in the spinal area or local damage.

Nervines are sometimes indicated for the relaxation of local areas, the
body as a whole, or one or more of the elimination channels.

The human body has four major elimination channels:

➊ The colon — eliminates residues, indigestible material,

chemical byproducts.
➋ The skin — perspiration, local chemical byproducts.
➌ The kidneys — eliminates excess water, balances electrolytes
and chemical wastes.
➍ The lungs — eliminates carbon dioxide and other gaseous
chemical byproducts.

I do not think it is possible to say conclusively which eliminatory chan-

nel is the most important. At first, it appears to be the bowel or colon.
But when we examine the figures, we learn that a healthy body elimi-
nates about 2.2 pounds (one kilogram) of waste material through each
of the four channels daily. Perhaps, then, each of the channels is of
equal importance. The main thing to keep in mind is that each channel
must be kept clean and unobstructed.

One of the main concerns in a health program is a balance between

systems of elimination. Poor performance of one channel places a
greater burden on the others. A weak colon can increase elimination
through the skin, often manifesting as acne or skin ulcers. Inefficient
kidneys may result in extra catarrh released from the mucous mem-
branes of the lungs and eruptions on the skin. Keeping a close eye on
the skin and lungs gives the herbalist an indication of colon and kidney
performance.

It is important to keep in mind that “fast elimination is not necessarily

the best elimination”. Excessive elimination forced through an organ
can result in overload and health crisis. A crisis may appear as inflam-
mation and the appearance of local problems which result in shutdown
of one system entirely. This in turn taxes the other systems even more.

A critical rule to observe is:

Cleanse a little, build a little,

cleanse a little, build a little.

The body’s systems all have their own capacity, their own delicacy. A car
engine doesn’t run on jet fuel. Healing is the careful creative use of
purifying elements. In a classic system, W.H. Cook described four
groups:

➊ Slow organs (e.g., liver) require slow remedies.

➋ Rapid action organs (e.g., kidneys) require active remedies.
➌ Sudden conditions require prompt and strong herbal remedies.
142 Copyright © 1993, Wild Rose College of Natural Healing Ltd.
 Elimination and Diaphoretics

➍ Slowly appearing conditions require slow steady herbs.

Our first step is to examine the skin, which is more properly called the
integumentary system and then we will follow with a review of dia-
phoretic herbs. Central in this study are the function of the sweat
glands.

The Sweat Glands

There are two types of sudoriferous glands (“sudoriferous” means
“producing sweat”.)

➊ Apocrine sudoriferous glands are asssociated with hair follicles.

They are found in higher mammals.
➋ Eccrine sudoriferous glands are not associated with hair
follicles. They are found only in higher primates and are more
prevalent in man than any other species. The human body is
covered with literally hundreds of thousands of sweat glands
functioning primarily as temperature control. The evaporation of
one ounce of perspiration brings about 5 kilocalories (KCal) of
heat loss. This knowledge can be used to great advantage in
natural healing and will be considered later.

A second function of the sweat glands is to eliminate waste material.

Orthodox medicine accords little importance to this function. Natural
healers, on the other hand, do just the opposite. They regard the
eliminating activity of the skin as being extremely important. There is
another type of gland that merits consideration — the sebaceous gland.

Sebaceous glands
Sebaceous glands lubricate the skin and hair, endowing them with a
healthful and attractive sheen. They excrete oils, lipids and fatty acid
derivatives. They increase their activity at puberty (especially in women)
and during pregnancy. These facts may partially explain why females
have a different skin texture at these times. Sebaceous glands clog
easily, resulting in the familiar blackheads and other skin blemishes.

Often when people have skin problems (ranging from acne to eczema)
the problem is localized to the sebaceous glands. The oils that are
excreted in the sebaceous glands are very important for skin protection.
If you take a piece of leather and soak it in water, after removal it will
disintegrate and crack. Well-treated leather is a different story. Similarly,
our skin is treated with oils, keeping it soft and supple. If this oil is not
excreted regularly, our skin will also dry out and crack. On the other
hand, if the oil becomes too waxy, the sebaceous glands clog and acne
is the result. A tremendous amount of the skin’s health depends on
these oils. The oils are manufactured in the liver. The skin reflects the
tone of the liver as well as the other eliminatory organs.

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Sweat Gland Elimination

The sweat gland excretes considerable material and can be usefully
described as a “miniature kidney”. It removes toxic material from the
blood and excretes it through its pore. When the kidney fails to function
properly, a burden of work is placed on the sudoriferous glands.

Normal sweat contains fairly high concentrations of NaCl (sodium

chloride) which gives it its salty taste. It also contains urea, uric acid,
amino acids, ammonia, sugar, lactic acid and ascorbic acid. Also found
in sweat are additional toxins, such as drugs, preservatives, and other
synthetic products which have entered the body and which are injuri-
ous to it. The sweat glands are especially effective in eliminating sulfona-
mide from sulfa drugs.

Unpleasant odour associated with sweating is not characteristic of

normal, healthy sweat. In fact, some biologists and perfume companies
have examined sweat for sexual stimulants. It is well documented that
subtle hormonal signals (pheromones) are sent through the sweat and
can be detected by men and women at least on a subconscious level.
Body odour, as it is called, results from bacterial action on the sweat.
The bacteria are there because there are toxins for them to eat. Bacteria
have been called the “sanitation engineers” of the world. An individual
whose sweat contains low levels of toxins will also have a low bacterial
count. Body odour may be due to heavy toxins which are being elimi-
nated along with the perspiration. It is possible to advantageously utilize
the sweat glands to eliminate toxins from the body. This will provide
tired and overworked kidneys with a bit of restorative respite.

The bacteria and the resulting odour may be easily removed without
risking allergies to the many modern chemical products. A healthy
deodourant (and semi-antiperspirant) can be made by taking a small
amount of arnica tincture (about 1 tsp.) and a small amount of calen-
dula tincture (about 1 tsp.) and put them in zinc oxide ointment (250
ml). Zinc oxide ointment is sold in most drug stores for diaper rash. Mix
this thoroughly. Wash your underarms or feet thoroughly before bed
and apply mixture to the area. Wash off in the morning. This will kill the
bacteria for about 1 - 2 weeks at which time you can reapply the
mixture. The amount of herb may need to be varied for some people.
Too much herbal material in the mixture may cause a rash in sensitive
people. This formula is very effective and relatively inexpensive. There
are commercial products on the market in North America that use
arnica and calendula as central ingredients.

Another popular product is called Thai crystals. The salts in these

crystals change the environment of the sweat, making it more alkaline
and thus impossible for bacteria to live in. This makes the crystals very
useful as deodourant.

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 Elimination and Diaphoretics

Fever
What is a fever? “Clinically”, it is described as:

➊ An increase in body temperature.

➋ An increase in cardiac action.
➌ An increase in respiration.
➍ An increase in tissue water.
➎ An increase in faulty skin secretion.

And, clinically, the cause of a fever is unknown even though we will

examine some leading theories about the mechanism.

The North American Indians, as well as many natural healers, feel that a
fever results when the body is more or less “backed up against the
wall”. The body builds up its strength slowly, and then, with an intense
effort, “gives everything it has”, and endeavours to “sweat out” the
diseased state. We may compare the fever process to a cleansing,
purifying and health-restoring flood of energy.

One physiological explanation of fevers, holds that the toxic by-prod-

ucts of the disease produce some sort of change in the cell, making it
susceptible to the action of oxidizing enzymes. The resulting increased
oxidation leads to an abnormal amount of heat.

Other scientists feel that a hormone called pyrogen sets the “thermo-
stat” of the body higher, resulting in a higher body temperature (a fever
in other words). This process may be responsible for the “shivers” one
experiences at the commencement of a fever. Since the “thermostat” is
temporarily set at a higher temperature than what the blood tempera-
ture registers, the body is fooled into thinking it is cold, and therefore
reacts as if it is chilled.

When the body goes into a fever, blood is directed away from the
peripheral tissues and called into its more central areas, especially the
spleen. The spleen increases phagocyte production (a “phagocyte” is a
specialized white blood cell that consumes — “eats up” — material and
eliminates it via the lymphatic system). It also increases the antibody
count.

In addition, and fortunately, many organisms implicated in diseases

perish when body temperature is considerably above normal. Catabo-
lism is also increased during a fever, which assists in the removal of
much superfluous and unwanted material. There may be, for example,
an increased urea output with an increase in the breakdown of internal
protein.

Another prominent theory says that the part of the immune system
called phagocytes (monocytes and macrophages) encounter bacteria

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Textbook of Modern Herbology, Second Revised Edition

which cause the phagocytes to release a chemical (interleukin-1).

When interleukin-1 circulates, it induces the anterior of the hypothala-
mus to secrete prostaglandin (usually of the E series). These
hypothalmic prostaglandins reset the thermostat in the hypothalamus
which regulates body temperature and a fever occurs. It should be
emphasized that these are theories and complete scientific consensus
about the nature of “fever” has not yet been obtained.

One of the critical things to remember with fevers is: Wet fevers are
good, dry fevers are bad. A simple analogy can clarify this principle:

In a tropical rain forest, there is an abundance of life and life support

mechanisms. Where it is hot and dry, on the other hand, we find
deserts. Our body functions are little different. If it is hot and dry, we get
little life support or vital energy. If it is hot and wet, we get lots of vital
energy.

Thus, it is evident that fevers have a destructive effect on many diseases

states, especially infectious ones. In fact, the inability of the body to
produce a fever during an infection may reduce the chances of good
recovery. The Indians were well acquainted with this fact, and em-
ployed it to great advantage — they used a “sweat lodge” (similar to a
sauna) for healing purposes. When a person became sick they immedi-
ately built a sweat lodge and sweated the person. Of course, when the
epidemic infectious diseases of the white man appeared (to which the
Indians had no natural immunity), communal sweat lodges spread the
disease at a terrifying pace.

The Dangers of a Fever

When an individual has a fever, there is danger of it getting out of hand.
A temperature above 40 degrees C. is extremely dangerous (except in
children where temperatures slightly above normal can be no prob-
lem). Nerve damage occurs above 40oC., death occurs at 44oC. (112oF.).
On the other hand, hypothermic (too low a body temperature) death
occurs at 21.2 - 23.9 o C. (70 -75o F.). Blood temperature should be kept
within a fairly narrow level of homeostasis. Fever can be very good but
should be watched carefully.

With the use of a diaphoretic, the temperature can usually be keep in a

healthy range. If they do not do the trick, the application of several cool
towels might. In addition, sponge the body off with 50% solution of
apple cider vinegar and warm water. This will moisten the body, cooling
it down and also assist in the removal of toxins. Also, while doing this
“sponge bath”, keep the body well covered and expose only that part of
the body being wiped down — we do not want the patient to “catch” a
chill.

The abrupt interruption of a fever can be harmful to the body. Often this
is done by taking something like aspirin or acetaminophen since people
feel it is important to reduce the fever at any cost. They are mistaken
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 Elimination and Diaphoretics

and nothing could be further from the truth. Always endeavour to assist
nature in its cleansing process and try not to thwart its course. A
cautious eye is required only to make sure the fever doesn’t get out of
hand, nothing more.

Many doctors erroneously use aspirins, anti-fever drugs and ice towels
to dramatically bring a fever down. This results in great harm to the
body, not only shocking it, but leaving it in a state of disorientation.
During a fever, the body is waging a battle with “foreign organisms” and,
at the same time, releasing and dislodging many toxins throughout the
entire system. If these are allowed to be eliminated, all will be well. If this
process is interfered with and stopped short of completion, the toxins
will start dropping out into the tissue and perhaps into the major
organs. Another crisis situation may arise through which they may be
eliminated. Frequently, these toxins settle in muscle tissue where they
can produce an acid catarrhal situation throughout the body. This is
called “latent rheumatic fever”. Later it can cause heart problems,
arthritis and rheumatism.

One classic theory about fevers held by herbalists for about 50 years is
that bacteria are really just garbage men. They live in our body in small
numbers always. If an area of the body becomes “stagnated” or con-
gested, the bacteria collect in that area to clean it up. This is analogous
to a stagnated pool of water that breeds mosquitoes to eat up the
garbage. The body does not heat up to destroy the bacteria, it heats up
to incubate the bacteria and aid the consumption of toxins and destruc-
tion of stagnated systems. Proponents of this theory suggest that the
bacteria don’t cause disease (dis-ease). The bacteria are there instead to
assist in the body’s tendency to throw off stagnation. Of course microbi-
ologists will find particular bacteria associated with particular diseases
but they are part of the process not the cause. This is very similar to the
Chinese medical perception of bacteria “qi”, i.e. bacteria are merely
patterns of energy until distortions in the energy of the human body
allow the bacteria to become `real’. Thus the appearance of bacteria is
a result of disease not a cause of it.

Bacteria can get out of hand and destroy and damage the body but this
is the exception to the rule. If we support the vital energy of the body
through proper elimination in fever situations, the body will heal itself.
Fever destroys the bacteria.

Tone of the Skin

Overcontraction and over-relaxation of the skin can cause problems
with elimination, pushing the usual eliminative burden of the skin onto
the lungs and kidneys.

Contracted skin will be dry and then tight and irritable. A toneless
quality is followed by increased pigmentation. The condition is helped
by alteratives and antioxidants (see chapter 13).

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Textbook of Modern Herbology, Second Revised Edition

Relaxed skin is moist, puffy and cold, becoming pallid and slack over
time. A natural health program includes astringents, dry skin brushing
with air and sun bathing.

Diaphoretics
Diaphoretics open the pores of the skin, stimulate sweating and raise
body temperature. They assist the body in the following ways:

➊ They promote the absorption of dropsical fluids from the body.

➋ They assist other eliminatory organs in ridding the system of
waste products and dead cells.
➌ They arrest the development of local congestion of inflammation
resulting from cold or exposure.

Diaphoretics induce perspiration in the following ways:

➊ They enter the circulation, and as they are eliminated by the

sudoriferous glands (in the sweat and oil), they stimulate the local
nerve fibers, supplying these glands, thereby increasing perspira-
tion.
➋ They influence peripheral sensory nerves, which relax and dilate
the superficial capillaries and vessels. They influence first the
surface circulation and later the entire circulation. The increased
blood flow results in increased perspiration.
➌ They influence the sudoriferous glands indirectly by stimulating
the cells in the spinal cord and the medulla, from which the nerve
fibers controlling the action of the sudoriferous glands originate.

Diaphoretics should be taken hot, and accompanied by a stimulating

bath and rough towelling — a massage and sweat bath are excellent.
Yarrow is a typical diaphoretic.

A treatment often used by Dr. J.R. Christopher for persistent flus and
colds was the ‘wet sheet treatment’. In this program the person who is
sick is first put into a bath that is as hot as comfortable. This bath is
prepared by the addition of 2 ounces of mustard and 2 ounces of
ginger. While the person is in the bath, they are given as much yarrow
tea as they can drink. After about 10-15 minutes the person is helped
out of the bath and immediately wrapped in a cotton sheet that has
been soaked in ice cold water. The person, still wrapped in the cold wet
sheet, is then wrapped in another sheet (this one dry) and then a wool
blanket. They are left to sleep through the night. In the morning when
the person is unwrapped they usually feel much better. The sheet is
often covered with stains of the toxins that have come out overnight.

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 Elimination and Diaphoretics

Yarrow Sc Ad Ed

Achillea millefolium
History: The story represented etymologically
in its generic name “Achillea” dates back
many years to the time when Achilles made
a potion from yarrow as a healing agent for
the wounds of his soldiers after the battle of
Troy. Legend reports that he first learned of
its uses from Chiron, the centaur. The
species name `millefolium’ means “many
leaves”. Yarrow is the famous stalk chosen
by the ancient Chinese sages for consulting
the I Ching.

Identification: Yarrow is an aromatic herb

approximately three to seven dm in height.
Its composite flower heads are umbelled,
and its flowers are white or rarely pink. The
alternate leaves are very finely pinnate or
plumlike and covered with wool-like hairs.
The plant dries standing from fall until spring
as a brown skeletal replica of itself.

Part Used: Whole herb, especially dried flower heads.

Solvents: Water, Alcohol.

Chemical Constituents: achillein, achilleic acid, tannin, volatile body,

resinoid body, lactones (achillin), coumarins, saponins, nitrates and
phosphates.

Therapeutic Action: Diaphoretic (Hot), Diuretic (cold), Astringent, Tonic,

stimulant.

Uses: Yarrow is a strong, soothing diaphoretic. When taken hot in

infusion form, it will increase body temperature, open skin pores,
stimulate free perspiration, and equalize the circulation, making it one
of the most valuable herbs for cold and fevers. In opening the pores,
which results in increased elimination, it purifies the blood of morbid
waste material produced in sickness. Yarrow regulates the function of
the liver and is especially beneficial through its influence on secretion
throughout the entire alimentary canal. Yarrow will never weaken a
person, for its tonic action is most invigorating and will greatly assist
nature’s actions to remove congestion and disease. One of the best
uses for yarrow that I have found is its ability to stop bleeding quite
quickly and assist in the healing process. The green leaves are best for
this, although dried leaves and the flower heads may also be used.
Yarrow is mildly antibiotic against bacteria and possesses hypotensive
and anti-inflammatory properties.

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Textbook of Modern Herbology, Second Revised Edition

As an enema for piles and hemorrhages of the bowel, inject two

tablespoons of yarrow infusion several times after each stool. The
Indians also used the dried leaves of yarrow together with plantain to
halt internal bleeding, especially of the lungs. The juice of yarrow was
obtained by distillation and has been reported to stop hair loss. It is
also valuable in treating leucorrhea. The Ojibwa Indians used the
florets as incense in ceremonies and also burned it to allay fevers.

Yarrow is used to treat nosebleeds in a peculiar way: you simply insert

a roll of yarrow into the nostril — the bleeding will stop shortly. For a
severe sinus headache, insert a roll of yarrow into the nostril. A
nosebleed will result, thereby relieving pressure on the head, and as a
result, the headache. If you have a bleeding nose and you want to stop
it, use yarrow. If you don’t have a bleeding nose but want one (to
relieve sinus headache), use yarrow. It is quite an accomodating plant.

Yarrow tea was often used as a drink by the Blackfoot Indians to

hasten delivery. It was also used to expel afterbirth. Yarrow was listed
officially in the U.S.P. from 1863 to 1882.

Chamomile Sc Ad

Anthemis nobilis
History: Chamomile has been
cultivated in many areas of the world
and has recently become a cash crop.

Identification: Chamomile is annual

composite .3 - .6 m tall, branched,
with smooth, solid, striated greenish
stems. The leaves are 5 cm long bi- or
tri-pinnate, green, smooth with small
linear leaflets. The flower has white
rays and numerous yellow disk-
florets, flowering May - August. The
odour is pleasant with an aromatic,
slightly bitter taste. The herb should
be kept in a well sealed container.

Parts Used: The flower and sometimes the entire herb.

Solvents: Water, alcohol.

Chemical Constituents: The active principles are anthemic acid (the

bitter principle), a volatile oil (which is pale blue and becomes yellow
with age), chamazulene, farnesene, tannic acid, rutin and a glycoside.

Therapeutic Action: Diaphoretic (Hot), Stomachic, Tonic (cold), nervine

(Sedative), antispasmodic, stimulant, carminative, emmenagogue.

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 Elimination and Diaphoretics

Uses: As a diaphoretic, chamomile will induce perspiration and pro-

duce a good flow of blood to the body surface. It will also soothe and
soften the skin. Its beneficial influence is promptly seen upon the
circulation, stomach, nerves and uterus. Chamomile is excellent for
colds and bilious fever and puerperal fevers.

A simple infusion of chamomile is extremely effective in calming

hysterical cases. Its sedative effect is soothing and absolutely harm-
less. It will quickly relax one into a sleepy state. If it’s getting late and
you have company and you would like them to leave but are afraid to
politely hint that they do so, serve a round of chamomile tea, and
watch them get drowsy enough so that they decide themselves it’s
time to leave.

Chamomile is also reported to be an useful remedy for nightmares

(especially effective for children). Homeopaths believe it is specific for
young blond girls that wake in the night. In nervous conditions
affecting women, especially those with uterine symptoms, chamomile
has been applied effectively. Where menstrual flow is slow and
painful, chamomile tea taken cold has a decided toning effect upon
the uterus in relieving congestion and stimulating flow.

Prepared as an infusion (especially cold), chamomile is soothing to

the stomach. If a little ginger is added, it will be found helpful for
flatulent colic, heartburn, loss of appetite and a sluggish intestinal
canal. It should be taken one hour before the principal meal, but it will
also help to take it after a large one. Equal parts of peppermint and
chamomile after a heavy meal is both toning and relaxing to the
digestive system.

When preparing chamomile, (as in the preparation of all herbs with

volatile oils) the vessel should be kept covered to prevent steam from
escaping, since most of the medicinal qualities are in the vapours. This
fact, however, can be used to great advantage. For healing vapour
bath, slowly simmer chamomile flower in a pot, cover your head with
a towel, and breath in the vapour. Doing so is beneficial for colds,
coughs, the flu and lung problems.

Externally: Chamomile is quite useful externally. For rashes, it is both

gentle and effective. Chamomile is effective also as a poultice for
reducing swelling when one does not want to bring it to a head. Anti-
inflammatory and immunostimulatory effects have also been re-
ported.

Used as a hair rinse, chamomile imparts a beautiful sheen to blond

hair. It has even been used commercially in blond dyes.

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Textbook of Modern Herbology, Second Revised Edition

Hyssop Sc Ad

Hyssopus officinalis

History: The word “Hyssop” is of Greek origin

and means “holy herb”. Psalms 51:7 states:
“purge me with Hyssop, and I shall be clean;
wash me, and I shall be whiter than snow.” It
was said to be used for cleansing and
purifying the body.

Identification: Hyssop is native to Europe, but

is sparsely naturalized in the United States.
Being of the mint family, it has a square
stem. It is a shrubby, perennial plant, and is
woody at the base with rodlike branches. It
attains a height of two feet. The leaves are
opposite and sessile. Hyssop has an agree-
able aromatic odour and is hot, spicy and
somewhat bitter to taste. The flowers are

bluish-purple and grow chiefly on one side of a vertical spike.

Parts used: The tops and leaves.

Solvents: Water, Alcohol.

Chemical Constituents: volatile oil (pinocamphone), hyssopin, tannins,

flavonoid, ursolic acid, sitosterol, resin and gum.

Therapeutic action: Expectorant, Diaphoretic, stimulant, pectoral and

carminative.

Uses: The healing virtues of this plant are due to its volatile oil which is
stimulative, carminative and sudorific. Hyssop is used primarily for
quinsy and other sore throat afflictions — it is used, in combination
with garden sage as a gargle. It is also used for asthma, colds, “la
grippe”, chest afflictions and shortness of breath. Hyssop is excellent as
a blood regulator, since it both increases the circulation and lowers
blood pressure. As an expectorant, it is useful and in chronic catarrh its
diaphoretic and stimulant effects combine to make it especially valu-
able.

An infusion of the leaves has been used externally for relief of muscular
rheumatism, and an infusion of the fresh green tops consumed several
times daily is an old-fashioned country remedy for rheumatism. This
remedy is still employed in some places. Hyssop baths are also some-
times given but this does take a lot of plant! Hyssop is a splendid agent
for removing discolouration from bruises. Take a handful of herb, place
it in cheesecloth, soak it in boiling water just enough to allow the herb
to be absorbed and then apply as a poultice.

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 Elimination and Diaphoretics

A warm infusion of hyssop mixed with equal parts of horehound

improves the tone of a feeble stomach. It is also a fine tonic for the
respiratory system. For chest disease, hoarseness, irritable tickling
cough, bronchitis and similar troubles, the following preparation is
good:

2 oz. hyssop
1 qt. water

Simmer for fifteen minutes, strain and add honey. Gargle and/or drink
over a period of a day.

The following is an excellent remedy for lingering fevers, especially in

children. Simmer slowly in a covered pan 1 oz. of hyssop in 1 pt. of
water for three minutes. Let it stand where it can keep warm and
administer one wineglassful every hour. This preparation will bring
gentle moisture to the skin and thereby relieve the kidney and bladder.

In eruptive diseases, such as scarlet fever, measles, etc., use as above.

It is excellent if combined with marigold flowers. In addition, always
sponge down the patient with apple cider vinegar and warm water
once a day to help eliminate toxins. An extract of hyssop has been
shown to possess antiviral properties against herpes simplex.

Catnip Sc Ad

Nepeta cataria
Synonyms: Catmint, Catswort.

History: Catnip, as most know, is a stimulant

and aphrodisiac for cats — they revel in the
intoxicating delight of the bruised leaves. A
cat is unable to discern that the plant is
catnip unless it is bruised or transplanted —
a plant grown from seed will afford no
appeal. Bruised or transplanted, it will be
destroyed immediately by the
neighbourhood cats. On the other hand, rats
abhor catnip and will not approach it even if
they are starving and even if the plant is not
bruised. It has therefore been planted around
many areas as a rat repellent.
The roots of catnip are said to make even the most benevolent person extremely
mean. Legend has it that hangmen used to partake of the root just prior to hanging
people to get themselves in the “right mood”.

Identification: This perennial stands 2' - 3' high, its stem erect, square, hairy and
branching. Leaves are opposite, cordate, oblong, petiolate, coarsely serrated and
covered with soft down. The underside of the leaf is paler in colour. The many

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Textbook of Modern Herbology, Second Revised Edition

flowers are white or purplish set in whorled spikes. The flower has a two–lipped
corolla, the upper is a straight, whitish colour with dotted red spots. Its anthers are
deep red in colour. The calyx has 15 ribs.

Parts Used: The entire herb.

Solvents: diluted alcohol, boiling water.

Chemical Constituents: volatile oil, tannin, nepetatic acid, citral, butyric

and valeric acid.

Therapeutic Action: Diaphoretic, Relaxant, carminative, mildly stimu-

lant, tonic, refrigerant, slight emmenagogue.

Uses: Most of us think only of cats when catnip is mentioned but it is

valuable for humans. Catnip promotes free perspiration, making it
useful in treating colds and the flu. It is also valuable in any type of
fever, since it induces sleep and free perspiration without increasing
systemic heat. Catnip acts both as a mild stimulant and relaxant for
the CNS.

Catnip has been used for children’s diseases for centuries with
success.

One of its most famous fever formulas is as follows: ➑- ➊

Catnip 1 oz.
Pleurisy Root 1 oz.
Lobelia 1 oz.
Composition powder 1/2 oz. (Chapter 14,
under bayberry)

Grind the herbs into a powder, put one teaspoon of them

into a cup of boiling water, infuse for five minutes, and
then administer one cup every one - two hours. Catnip
should always be infused.

As an injection, catnip has achieved a solid reputation. For intestinal

flatulence, a luke-warm anal injection of catnip infusion should be
taken. It is useful for relaxing and cleansing the bowels. This same
injection has often been used for nervous headaches and hysteria.

Externally, the green herb is bruised and applied to piles for two - three
hours for pain relief.

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 Elimination and Diaphoretics

Spearmint Sc Ad

Mentha virides

Synonyms: Garden Mint, Our Lady’s Mint,

Spire Mint, Lamb Mint.

History: Spearmint is native to the

Mediterranean but has naturalized
throughout most of the world. Its generic
name, Mentha, is mythologically derived.
Mentha was a nymph who was loved by
Pluto. Prosperine, out of jealousy,
metamorphosed her into the spearmint
plant. Mice detest spearmint. It can
therefore be used to keep them away
from food, boxes and other plants. Mint
can be added to milk so that it won’t
curdle in the stomach and ferment.

Identification: Spearmint is similar to peppermint but is distinguishable by its thinner

leaves and its lighter green colour. Peppermint is stronger tasting and yields a cooler
sensation when inhaled.

Parts Used: The entire herb and the oil.

Solvent: Water.

Chemical Constituents: The chief ingredient of the oil is carvone.

Phelladrine, limonene, dihydrocarveol acetate, flavonoids, esters of
acetic, caproic and caprylic acid are also present.

Therapeutic Action: Diaphoretic, Carminative, diuretic, stimulant,

antispasmodic.

Uses: Generally, spearmint is milder than peppermint in its action,

although it has a stronger diaphoretic and diuretic effect. Spearmint is
often used in children’s complaints since it has a gentle diaphoretic
action. Spearmint should always be infused in a closed container
since it contains a volatile oil.

For stomach problems and vomiting, spearmint is useful. Its helps

allay nausea. It is also specifically helpful in the vomiting and morning
sickness characteristic of pregnancy.

Mentha 1/2 oz.

Cloves 2 drams
Cinnamon 2 drams
Rhubarb 2 drams

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Textbook of Modern Herbology, Second Revised Edition

For persistent vomiting, infuse these ingredients in one pint of boiling

water. Cover for twenty minutes, strain, and administer one wine
glassful every thirty minutes. White Flower is a Chinese herbal oil
concocted from spearmint and peppermint oil and other ingredients.
It is helpful for hay fever and congestion.

Summary of Chapter 8
This chapter reviews the nature of fevers and body elimination through
the skin. Diaphoretic herbs most common in modern herbology were
discussed in detail.

Recommended Readings
Christopher, J.R., The Incurables, New Life Publishing, Provo, Utah: 1976.

156 Copyright © 1993, Wild Rose College of Natural Healing Ltd.

 The Kidneys, The Liver, Renal Function and Diuretics

The Kidneys,
The Liver, 9
Renal Function
and Diuretics

Synopsis:

This chapter reviews the functioning of the kidneys, associated liver function
and principles of filtration, reabsorption and secretion. The range and types of
herbal diuretics are discussed along with eight clinical conditions related to the
kidneys. Herbs reviewed as effective diuretics include: Parsley, Bearberry,
Juniper, Gravel root, Cleaver, Buchu.

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Textbook of Modern Herbology, Second Revised Edition

Table of Contents
Introduction
The Liver
The Kidney
Diuretics
Therapeutic Action of Herbal Diuretics
Clinical Conditions and the Kidneys
Clinical Renal Kidney/Bladder Formula
Parsley
Bearberry/Uva-ursi
Ground Juniper
Gravel Root
Cleaver
Buchu
Summary

List of Tables and Figures

9.1 Liver
9.2 Kidney
9.3 Urinary System
9.4 Parsley
9.5 Bearberry
9.6 Ground Juniper
9.7 Gravel Root
9.8 Cleaver
9.9 Buchu

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 The Kidneys, The Liver, Renal Function and Diuretics

Introduction

B
efore we can examine closely the function of the kidney, it is
necessary to talk briefly about the other organ that is essential to
its proper functioning.

The Liver
You will recall from the chapter on digestion that the food assimilated in
the small intestine is absorbed into the portal vein. Instead of leading
straight to the heart like most veins, it goes to the liver, where it
branches and sub-branches finally forming a capillary-like network. At
this capillary level, the liver “sorts through” the incoming material,
removes toxins, converts foodstuffs into other products and stores
many nutrients which will slowly be released into the bloodstream.

Figure 9.1
The Liver

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Textbook of Modern Herbology, Second Revised Edition

During this process, the liver scrutinizes incoming nutritive material and
decides what to do with it. If there is too much of a certain nutrient, or if
there is not the right nutrient, the liver will alter them and move them
along for elimination from the body. In the case of excessive or im-
proper amino acid content, the liver will change them into ammonia
(NH3) and then urea. Should there be excess fats, it will convert them
into ketones. These, and many other products, are then delivered to the
heart via the hepatic vein.

The renal artery divides into

interlobular arteries

which divide into arcuate arteries

which form straight arteries

which form afferent arterioles

Kidneys (formation of urine)

ureters Each afferent arteriole
bladder (storage and divides into about 50
expulsion of urine) capillaries, which
urethra stay close together to form a
glomerulus. All the glomeruli
lie within the cortex of the
kidney.

Figure 9.2
The Kidney

The Kidney
Each kidney (see Fig. 9.2) receives a large supply of blood. In fact, 25% of
the blood leaving the left ventricle on each heartbeat in a resting situa-
tion is channeled to the kidneys. The renal artery divides and subdivides
until it becomes a capillary network. At this level, they form a glomerlus
(see Fig. 9.3) which is located in the renal cortex. Each kidney houses
approximately one million glomeruli! It is at this level that filtration
occurs. The glomerulus is surrounded by what is called the Bowman’s
capsule.

Osmotic pressure and other factors cause certain substances to filter

into the Bowman’s capsule. Some of these products are:
Water Uric Acid and Ketones Glucose Potassium
Salt Sulphates Urea

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 The Kidneys, The Liver, Renal Function and Diuretics

Each kidney contains approximately one million microscopic units — nephrons — which
form urine. Each afferent arteriole leads to a capillary tuft — the glomerulus. Surrounding this
tuft is the closed end called the Bowman's Capsule.
efferent arteriole
second capillary

Bowman's capsule
afferent arteriole

renal tubule

Kidney

cortex
medulla
renal artery and vein
pyramid
pelvis
calyx
ureter
vein

Figure 9.3
The Urinary System

At this point, the renal tubule collects the filtered liquid. The vinule
leaving the glom erulus w raps itself around the renal tube and reab-
sorbs much of the material. Many of these items filtered by the
glomerlus need water to be absorbed, but the body, to conserve water,
reabsorbs the water as well as some other products. In the renal
tubules, the cell structure is different and therefore more selective with
respect to what it will reabsorb. We can summarize the reabsorption as
follows:

High Threshold: water, glucose, NaCl and many essential salts,

amino acids, Vitamin C, etc.
Medium Threshold: potassium
Low Threshold: urea, phosphate, uric acid, ketones.
No Threshold: sulphates

Most of the high threshold substances are reabsorbed unless there is

already a high concentration of these substances in the blood. The
concentration holds true for medium and low threshold substances —
most of them will remain in the kidney except for a small amount that
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Textbook of Modern Herbology, Second Revised Edition

may be absorbed into the blood to restore proper vascular levels. Of

course, none of the “no threshold” substances will be reabsorbed.

Secretion is the next step. Some of the items reabsorbed or even not
affected by the first two stages are then secreted back into the renal
tubule. This entire system can ensure that both the job of all waste
material is completely done (some materials need special treatment) and
it helps keep a proper balance of the items. Quickly reviewing we have:

➊ filtration at the glomerlus

➋ reabsorption from the renal tubule into the vinules
➌ secretion of factors into the renal tubule.
The quantity of blood filtered is substantial. Approximately 1200 ml. of
blood enter the kidney each minute while 1199 ml. leave it. Obviously,
then, 1 ml. of waste material remains in the kidney for each minute that
passes. This waste material is collected and transported to the bladder.
One to 1 1/2 litres of urine are excreted per day.

Besides excreting waste material, the kidney also has two other func-
tions:

➊ It helps in the regulation of water balance.

➋ It maintains the acid/base balance in the blood (and therefore the
body).

Diuretics
There are over 450 herbs which have known diuretic properties. A
diuretic is an agent that brings about an increased production of urine.
Some diuretics enter the body and stimulate the kidneys directly, while
others work on the nervous system and revitalize the power of the
involved tissues.

Therapeutic Action of Herbal Diuretics

Herbal diuretics have the following therapeutic actions:

➊ They assist in the removal of waste products and poisonous

materials.
➋ They promote the absorption and excretion of dropsical effusion
by removing waste fluids from the tissues and cavities of the body.
➌ They maintain kidney action by stimulating the normal excretory
function. This action is of special value when the secretory func-
tion of the kidney is impaired or suspended (due to acute fevers,
congestion, Bright’s Disease or other problems).
➍ They lessen irritation of the genitourinary tract when the urine

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 The Kidneys, The Liver, Renal Function and Diuretics

contains an excessively high concentration by a solvent or

flushing action. They help eliminate urine solids.
➎ They alter morbid conditions of renal excretions. They have an
antiseptic effect.

Some diuretics increase the flow of urine by stimulating the cells in the
kidneys to excrete more urine. Others “improve” the fluid and wastes,
so that they may be better eliminated (as urine). Renal secretion is
increased in two ways. Firstly, raising the local flow of blood (by dilating
the afferent vessels) or by increasing the renal blood supply and circula-
tion through raising the general arterial pressure (by increasing the
action of the heart). Secondly, stimulating the secretory cells or nerves
of the kidney tissue.

The Two Types of Diuretics for solids in the urinary tract

Lithotriptic diuretics — which dissolve calculi

Antilithic diuretics — which prevent the formation of, or favour the
removal of, stones or calculi in the urinary or biliary tract.

It is necessary for a herbalist to know which of the diuretics act on solid

material, as these are the herbs that can be irritating. The practitioner
should use such diuretics in combination with a demulcent (such as
marshmallow root), since a demulcent will soothe any irritation.

One of the most important things to know about diuretics is that they
should never be used excessively when the kidneys are lacking in
functioning power (“tired”). This is analogous to whipping a tired horse.
Exercise patience and work slowly with the kidneys.

Clinical Conditions and the Kidneys

There are eight basic clinical conditions related to the kidneys:

➊ Slight sluggishness of the kidney requiring the use of a mild

diuretic in frequent dosage. Often used is 1 tsp. of parsley leaves
with 1 tsp. of raspberry leaves. Pour 1 cup of boiling water over
the herbs and steep 10-15 minutes. Drink 2 or more cups per day.
➋ When there is excessive stress on the kidneys relieve it with a
diaphoretic. Diuretics and diaphoretics are often opposite sides
of the same herb. Usually the hot application is diaphoretic and
the warm-cool is diuretic.
➌ Make sure the liver is functioning properly with herbs like
burdock, ginger or barberry.
➍ Overcontraction of the whole system especially in the kidney
area. Use a relaxant nervine (many nervines have a diuretic effect
merely because the person relaxes) such as skullcap or reishi.
➎ Constipation produces catarrh in the renal area. We must keep
the bowels clean.

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Textbook of Modern Herbology, Second Revised Edition

➏ Poor blood supply to the kidneys, needing a diffusive stimulant

like ginger.
➐ Adrenal stress will affect the hormone, aldosterone, produced
by the adrenal gland and influence the amount of potassium and
calcium excreted by the kidney. Licorice or Siberian ginseng are
helpful.
➑ Kidney and bladder infection. Use antiseptic, antibiotic diuretics
like uva ursi and juniper. It is often good to include cranberry
juice as this reduces infection in the area, especially yeast (Can-
dida) infections.

Clinical Renal Formula ➒- ➊

A renal formula used with great success in our clinics
consists of:

2 pts. Uva ursi (Arctostaphylos uva-ursi)

1 pt. Juniper berries (Juniperus communis)
1 pt. Buchu Leaf (Barosma crenata)
1 pt. Parsley Leaf (Petroselinum sativum)
1 pt. Marshmallow Root (Althaea officinalis)
1 pt. Ginger Root (Zingiber sp.)

Clinical Renal Formula is formulated to cleanse and build the renal

(kidney/bladder) system. It has also been found useful for clearing
congestion in the prostate gland. Uva-ursi contains a chemical called
arbutin which changes into the urinary antiseptic hydroquinone in the
kidneys, helping to rid the urinary tract of infection. Uva-ursi is also an
excellent diuretic, cleansing the kidneys and bladder and even dissolv-
ing kidney sediment such as sand, gravel and stones. Juniper berry is a
urinary antiseptic and diuretic. As Uva-ursi is most effective in alkaline
urine, it is suggested that an alkaline diet be followed when using this
herbal formula. Buchu is specifically for the prostate and also is a
diuretic. Parsley, a mild and soothing diuretic, is one of our most
nutritious herbs, high in Vitamins A and C. Marshmallow is a very useful
demulcent for the urinary tract, soothing the mucous membranes to
avoid irritation from concentrated urine or calculi deposits. Ginger is
used to stimulate peripheral circulation and to avoid griping in the
urinary tract.

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 The Kidneys, The Liver, Renal Function and Diuretics

Parsley Sc Ad

Carum petroselinum
Synonyms: The generic name for parsley is
somewhat confused. For various reasons it
has been changed many times. The
scientifically accepted name is Carum
petroselinum, but it also has gone by Apuin
petroselinum and Petroselinum sativum.
These latter names are sometimes used,
but quite infrequently. Other common
names are: March, Persely and Persel.

Identification: The fact that everyone knows

what parsley looks like makes description
unnecessary. One should point out, though,
that it is a member of the Umbelliferae
(carrot) family. Some people are allergic to
this family. Keep this in mind when using it.
Parsley has many varieties.

Solvents: Water, Oil and Alcohol.

Parts Used: Leaves, roots and seeds

Chemical Constituents: The root contains starch, mucilage, sugar,

volatile oil and apiin (a white, odourless, tasteless compound which is
soluble in boiling water). The fruit and seed contains volatile oil (in a
larger proportion than does the root — 2.6%), terpenes and apiol (the
active ingredient of fruit), a fixed oil, resin, apiin, mucilage, and ash.
Apiol is an oily, non-nitrogenous, allyl compound. It is insoluble in
water, soluble in alcohol and crystallizes when pure into white
needles. The best apiol is obtained from German fruit parsley. The
herb contains three closely allied principles: apiol, apiolin and
myristicin (the active principle of nutmeg). All are used in homeo-
pathic remedies. Parsley also contains high amounts of Vitamin A, B
complex and three times the Vitamin C content of citrus juices. It has a
higher content of iron than any other leafy, green vegetable, and is
high in potassium and other essential minerals.

Therapeutic Action: Diuretic, Aperient, tonic, expectorant and slightly

carminative.

Uses: Parsley is slow and gentle as a diuretic. Parsley leaves are often
employed in treating a person with weak kidneys or when an indi-
vidual is not in need of a strong diuretic.

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 Textbook of Modern Herbology, Second Revised Edition

The most common parsley formula I use in my clinic is

the following:

1 tsp. Parsley leaves ➒- ➋

1 tsp. Raspberry leaves

Infuse in one cup of boiling water and administer at least

one cup daily. This is an excellent formula for ridding the
body of mucus and building up the kidneys. Parsley leaves
can be used in cases of kidney inflammation, water
retention and bladder infections. This same tea is
excellent at the first stage of a cold or flu. Parsley has
been found to have antimicrobial properties and the ability
to lower blood pressure.

Parsley roots are much stronger than the leaves and have their major
influence on the liver and spleen. The root is specific for gallstones
☞ and to a lesser degree kidney stones. Parsley root should not be
used during pregnancy. Both the roots and leaves can be used as a
specific in cases of low blood sugar where adrenal malfunction is
associated. Both are also useful in delayed menstruation. Apparently
the two plant parts have a uterine toning effect (which carries over to
the prostate in men). Parsley is also known for its calming and
strengthening effect on the sympathetic nervous system.

Bearberry Sc Ad Ed

Arctostaphylos uva-ursi

Synonyms: Uva ursi, kinnikinnick,

arbutus.

Identification: Bearberry is a trailing

evergreen shrub and often forms mats 5
to 10 cm. in length. The flowers are pale
pink to white, urn-shaped, and arranged
in terminal racemes. The evergreen
leaves are oval, leathery and thin. The
branches tend to lose their rusty bark in
shreds. Bearberry is similar to some
Vaccinium species though the berries
are red and more mealy and less juicy
than vacciniums.

Parts Used: Leaves.

Solvents: Alcohol, water.

Chemical Constituents: The main ingredients of bearberry leaves are

arbutin (C 25H34O14), methyl-arbutin, ericinol, ursone, gallic acid,
hydroquinones and tannic acid (6 to 7%). Arbutin is the constituent

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 The Kidneys, The Liver, Renal Function and Diuretics

primarily responsible for bearberry’s diuretic effect. Upon entering the

body, it undergoes the following chemical change:

Arbutin + Water = Glucose + Hydrokinone + Methylhydrokinone

These last two chemicals have an antibiotic action on the urinary

mucous membrane. It is for this reason that bearberry is effective in
treating inflammation of the kidneys.

Therapeutic Action: Diuretic, Astringent, soothing, tonic.

Uses: The berries are mealy and virtually tasteless when raw, but quite
palatable when cooked. Two related species, A. alpine, and A. rubra,
have a better tasting berry. They are tasty raw but even better when
cooked, although some find them slightly acidic or even bitter.

Bearberry has specific healing action on the genitourinary organs. It is

especially good in cases of gravel or ulceration of the membrane of
the urinary tract. Uva-ursi has achieved a reputation as a solvent for
calculi deposits in the urinary tract. In chronic inflammation of the
bladder and kidneys, it has no equal. The leaves are powerfully
astringent (due to its 6 to 8% tannic acid content).

Bearberry is one of the herbs useful in diabetes. It is also useful in

chronic diarrhea, dysentery, profuse menstruation, piles and spleen,
liver and pancreatic problems. It is an effective douche. One heaping
teaspoon of bearberry should be steeped for 30 minutes, strained and
then introduced at a comfortable temperature.

According to the British Pharmacopeia, the dried leaves are best

collected in September and October. Sterile branches (those without
flowers or berries) are preferred. Dosage for concentrate is 1/2 to 1
teaspoon; fluid extract - 1/2 to 1 tsp; infusion - 1 wineglassful 3 to 4
times daily. It is important not to stimulate the kidneys excessively.
These delicate organs and the urinary area must be cleaned gradually.
Uva ursi works best in an alkaline urine with low specific gravity
(which can be stimulated by consuming cranberry juice).

The leaves are also used internally for stomach troubles and externally
for treating poison oak. The Blackfoot Indians made an infusion of the
plant and used it for cankers, sore gums and as a wash (it would have
value here, probably because of its tannic acid content). At the first of
the hiking season, when the feet may still be tender, it is beneficial to
soak them in a hot decoction of bearberry. This will toughen them up
for the hard trails ahead. Indians tan raw hides by boiling them in a
large amount of bearberry. This gives them a hard tan.

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 Textbook of Modern Herbology, Second Revised Edition

Enuresis or Bed-wetting ➒- ➌
1 oz. Uva-ursi
1/2 oz. corn silk
1/2 oz. Yarrow

Simmer the ingredients in 1 quart of distilled water for

20 minutes and then strain. Dosage: 3 tablespoons 3
times daily.

☞ Note: Overconsumption of uva-ursi can cause a harmless "green"

urine.

Kinnikinnick Mixture

The name “Kinnikinnick” was affixed as the common name of A. Uva-

ursi by an uninformed white man who thought it was the “tobacco”
used by some Indians in their peace pipes. Although bearberry is a
major constituent, it is only one of the plants comprising the
“Kinnikinnick” mixture.

There are several kinnikinnick mixtures, each one characterizing a

different locality. A traditional mixture is comprised of Arctostaphylos
leaf, Ledum groenlandicum (Labrador Tea) leaves (which are best
picked in the spring while the undersides are reddish orange), the
inner bark of Cornus stolonifera (red osier dogwood), and Artemisia
frigida (Prairie wormwood sage) leaves. This blend induces a slight
euphoria when smoked.

Ground Juniper Sc Ad Ed

Juniperus communis & J. horizontalis

Identification: Both species of ground juniper are prostrate to spreading shrubs and
sometimes attain the height of 1 metre. The blue-green needlelike leaves are in
whorls of three and deeply grooved. The fruit evolves in a pale green to whitish-
purple berrylike cone. This feature separates ground juniper from most of the other
conifers, which have scaly cones.

Parts Used: The ripe, dry berries.

Solvents: Boiling water, alcohol.

Chemical Constituents: Volatile oil, sugar, resin, fats, monoterpenes,

wax, formic and acetic acids. Oil of juniper is obtained by distilling the
fruit berries. It is constituted primarily of pinene and myrcene.

Therapeutic Properties: Stimulant, Diuretic, Emmenagogue, Antiseptic,

Anodyne, carminative and stomachic.

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 The Kidneys, The Liver, Renal Function and Diuretics

Uses: Juniper berries have been used as a

diuretic for centuries. The effects are
prompt and pleasant. It can be used for
retention of urine, gravel and dropsical
trouble. The flavour of juniper berries is the
characteristic flavour of gin. The berries can
also be made into a mush and then dried
into cakes. These so-called “berries” are
actually berry-shaped. They take two years
to ripen on the shrub and are green the first
year and purplish the second. The purple
ones are the more palatable (and also
more medicinal). I’ve often eaten them raw
and enjoyed them considerably, although
some find them distasteful. The Cree called
juniper “Ka Ka Kau-mini” and made a
poultice for wounds out of the bark.
Juniperus horizontalis is called `sik-Si-nou-
Koo’ (“black and round objects”) by the
Blackfoot Indians. The Blackfoot used
juniper on the floor of their sweat lodges
and also on their Sun Dance floor. A
liniment made by infusing juniper root and
poplar leaves was prepared by them to
treat stiff backs or backaches. They also used an infusion of the root
as a general tonic. Many a proud Indian horse owner would bathe
their horses in water in which the root had been soaked, as this would
impart a healthy gloss to their mount’s hair.

Black beads can be made from the berries of these plants. After
collecting a considerable number of berries, insert a small slip of
wood through each berry and allow them to dry. Then, after preparing
a fire and pouring some grease into it, hold the berries in the thick
smoke — this will turn them black. Then, polish and string them. If you
like, alternate them with wolf-willow seed beads. Some hides were
smoked yellow by smoking greased leaves of juniper. The European
herbalist has been using the berries as a diuretic, stimulant and
carminative for many years.

Many herbalists suck on juniper berries while treating patients with

infectious diseases as a preventative. Gargling a strong juniper tea also
prevents disease contagion. The berries can improve impaired diges-
tion and strengthen weak stomachs. Five softened berries should be
chewed and one berry should be added to the five each day until a
total of 15 berries a day are being consumed. This practice will also
help increase urine flow. I know women who have used the berries as
a contraceptive but I can offer no guarantees!

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 Textbook of Modern Herbology, Second Revised Edition

Use the berries of these shrubs for a weak condition of either the
bladder or kidney. Combine them with Arctostaphylos (bearberry) for
best results. For treating leucorrhea, combine them with bearberry
and bedstraw. The powdered berries are an excellent fumigant for
destroying fungi. The berries are highly antiseptic, antibiotic and also
assist in production of stomach acid (HCl).

Doses of the infusion: Macerate several tablespoons of berries and

add them to 1 pint of water; simmer for half an hour, and allow to
cool. Administer one-fourth of the infusion, four times daily. For the
tinctural preparation, 10 to 30 drops is the appropriate dose. Large
amounts should not be taken over long periods of time.

☞ Note: Juniper should not be used by pregnant women.

Gravel root
Eupatorium purpureum
Synonyms: Queen of the Meadow, Joe Pye, tall
boneset, purple thorough weed, kidney root.
Confusion can easily arise between the two
common herbal plants in the same genus,
Eupatorium purpureum and Eupatorium
perfoliatum. The latter is boneset. And, as you
can see above, one of gravel root’s common
synonyms is “tall boneset”. The fact is that the
two plants have distinctly different medicinal
properties. One of gravel root’s other common
names, “Queen of the Meadow”, can allow
mistaken comparison to the Spirea genus which
is also called “Meadowsweet” or “Queen of the
Meadow”.

Identification: Gravel root grows from New

Brunswick to Florida and westward to Manitoba
and Texas. It has a purple band about 1 inch
wide around the nodes. It is a perennial plant and
attains a height of five to six feet. It has pale-
purple to white tubular flowers which bloom in
August and September. The leaves are whorled
in threes, fours, or fives, and are broad, rough
and jagged. The roots have a slightly bitter
aromatic taste that is faintly astringent but not
unpleasant, and an odour that resembles that
emitted by old hay.

Solvent: Water.
Chemical Constituents: The chief constituent is eurparin and oleoresin
(C 12H11O3).

Therapeutic Action: Diuretic (lithothropic), nervine, stimulant, astrin-

gent, tonic and relaxant.
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 The Kidneys, The Liver, Renal Function and Diuretics

Uses: Gravel root is especially valued for its effect on the genitourinary
tract. It beneficially influences the kidneys, bladder, uterus and relaxes
and moderately stimulates the tone of the pelvic viscera. It is consid-
ered a valuable remedy in dropsy, gravel, gout and rheumatism. As
indicated by its common name, gravel root is very effective for loosen-
ing, dissolving and eliminating gravelly sediment in the urinary areas. It
is toning to the mucous membrane and cleans sediments that have
settled on their surfaces. It is also used for bloody urine, painful
micturition and irritation in the urinary tract. It is especially valuable for
prostate trouble.

As a nervine, it is reputed to influence the entire sympathetic nervous

system. It is used in cases of rheumatism and gout because it will
increase the elimination of solids in the urine. In cases of a depressed
state of typhoid fever, its combination with capsicum and juniper is
very effective.

For acute and chronic gonorrhea, aching of the ➒- ➍

back and weakness in the pelvic area, the
following formula is suggested:

1 1/2 oz. Gravel Root

1 oz. Squaw Vine
1 oz. Goldenseal

Simmer in 2 1/2 pints of water for 20 minutes.

Strain, and administer 3 tablespoons 3 times daily.

Cleaver Ad Ed

Galium aparine

Synonyms: Clivers, goosegrass, bayriff,

goosebill, bedstraw. This plant is a member
of the Bedstraw genus.

Identification: Cleaver is found on river banks,

in moist woodlands and in cultivated fields. It
occasionally “misbehaves” as a weed in
grain crops. It is an annual plant with a stem
3 to 10 cm in length and lies prostrate or
spreading in bushes. The leaves are whorled
in sixes, sevens or eights, are oblanceolate
and 1 to 3 cm long. The flowers are few and
grow in axillary clusters. They are greenish
white and about 2 mm wide. The fruit is
covered with minute hooked bristles.

Solvent: Water (do not boil).

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 Textbook of Modern Herbology, Second Revised Edition

Chemical Constituents: An abundance of chlorophyll, starch,

gallotannic acid (a tannic derivative), citric acid and rubichloric acid.

Therapeutic Action: Diuretic (lithotriptic), Aperient, Alterative, antiscor-

butic, tonic, refrigerant.

Uses: Cleaver is reputed to be one of the best herbs for deobstruction of

the urinary organs. It is used in combination with broom, uva-ursi,
birch and marshmallow for problems in this area. It can soften stones
or gravel and decrease the size of the calculi and/or accumulations to
the point where they can be eliminated. In handling these problems,
make sure that the bowels are moving properly. Cleaver is a soothing
and relaxing diffusive diuretic. It influences both the kidneys and the
bladder. It also acts mildly on the bowels. The juice of cleaver has
often been used as an antiscorbutic.

A wash made from cleaver has often been used for sunburns and
freckles. Decoct the (fresh) herb, and apply to the involved area with a
sponge or soft cloth. This beneficial herb has been acclaimed for its
value in treating skin cancer and related tumours, especially of the
breast. Dress the ulcerated part with an ointment of leaves and stem,
and also administer (internally) expressed juice at the same time,
three times daily. Cleaver ointment is also useful on burns and scalds.

☞ NOTE: Because Cleaver is a strong diuretic it is contraindicated in

diabetes. It overstimulates the adrenals and inhibits the action of
insulin.

Buchu Sc Ad

Barosma betulina

Synonyms: Buku, bucco.

Identification: Buchu thrives in the

strong soils of South Africa. We
receive it through importation only.
The herb comes in two varieties —
short-leaf and long-leaf. It is com-
monly held that the short-leaf is
medicinally superior.

Solvents: Water, alcohol.

Chemical Constituents: The

major therapeutic chemical is
diosphenol, which has a
decided antiseptic quality. The
long-leaf buchu harbours only
very small amounts of this

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 The Kidneys, The Liver, Renal Function and Diuretics

chemical and is therefore not the preferable of the two varieties.

Buchu also contains diasimin (a glycoside) <<flavonoid/enthone>>.
A few beneficial volatile oils and mucilage are also present.

Therapeutic Action: Diuretic, diaphoretic, stimulant, carminitive,

aromatic, antiseptic, astringent.

Uses: Buchu acts primarily on the urinary tract. Its antiseptic qualities
render it beneficial in virtually all affections of this area. Buchu is also
soothing to the mucous membranes of the stomach. In the pelvic area
it soothes the pelvic nerves, and alleviates lower back and loin pains
when combined with squaw vine or unicorn root.

In the urinary tract, buchu, when taken cold, increases the quantity of
urine (it is darkened and strongly aromatic), while at the same time
increasing the solids content. When taken warm, it has a gentle
diaphoretic action. For a congested prostate, accompanied by dis-
charge and an aching penis, its therapeutic action is favourable. The
herb should not be boiled because of the presence of important
volatile oils. When steeped in hot liquid, a covered vessel should be
used. Buchu also has a distinct carminative effect.

Summary of Chapter 9
This chapter briefly reviewed the role of the liver in renal function, the
structure and function of the kidneys and urine formation and eight
clinical conditions related to these organs. The two types of diuretic
herbs were defined followed by detailed examination of the most
common ones.

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174 Copyright © 1993, Wild Rose College of Natural Healing Ltd.

 The Respiratory System, Expectorants and Demulcents

The
Respiratory
System,
Expectorants 10
and
Demulcents
Synopsis:

This chapter reviews the components of the respiratory system, the mechanisms
of respiration and the excretory role of the lungs. Some of the most common
herbs used in modern herbology as expectorants and demulcents are examined.
They are: Comfrey, Mullein, Chickweed, Marshmallow, Slippery elm, Ma
Huang, Pleurisy Root.

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Textbook of Modern Herbology, Second Revised Edition

Table of Contents

Introduction
The Components of the Respiratory System
The Lungs and Pleura
The Respiratory Process
Excretory System of the Lungs
Mucous Membranes
Expectorants and Demulcents
Clinical Respiratory Formula
Comfrey
Mullein
Chickweed
Marshmallow
Slippery Elm
Ma Huang
Pleurisy Root
Summary

List of Tables and Figures

10.1 Respiratory System

10.2 Bronchial Tubes
10.3 Alveoli Sacs
10.4 Lungs and Pleura
10.5 Respiratory Process
10.6 Ciliary Activity
10.7 Comfrey
10.8 Mullein
10.9 Chickweed
10.10 Marshmallow
10.11 Slippery Elm
10.12 Ma Huang
10.13 Pleurisy Root

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 The Respiratory System, Expectorants and Demulcents

Introduction

H
uman life depends on the ability to utilize one gas (oxygen) and
to eliminate another (carbon dioxide). Oxygen comprises about
21% of the earth’s atmosphere. It must enter the blood and
reach every cell of the body to oxidize food components (carbohy-
drates, fats, and proteins) so that energy for work and heat may be
released. Without oxygen, most brain cells will die within three to five
minutes. And unless carbon dioxide is removed, it will accumulate in
the tissues, inhibit energy-releasing processes and ultimately lead to
death.

Respiration is defined as the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide

between the atmosphere and the cells of the body. The process has
three aspects:

➊ Breathing. Inspiration is the taking of air into the lungs. Expira-

tion is the expulsion of air from the lungs. The average individual
breathes in and out about 23,000 times per day.
➋ The diffusion of oxygen from the alveoli (small, very thin-walled
membraneous sacs in the lung) into the blood, and of carbon
dioxide from the blood into the alveoli.
➌ Transport of oxygen to, and carbon dioxide from, the cells of the
body.

The first two aspects are called external respiration and involve the
organs of the respiratory system. The third aspect is termed internal
respiration. This chapter focuses on external respiration only.

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Textbook of Modern Herbology, Second Revised Edition

nasal passages

larynx

trachea

bronchi

lung

Figure 10.1
The Respiratory System

The Components of the Respiratory System

The parts of the respiratory system, which also provide the means for the
production of speech, consist essentially of air passages leading towards
and into the lungs. The lungs contain countless minute air chambers
(alveoli) designed to bring the air into close relationship with the blood,
so that oxygen can enter the blood and the blood can give off carbon
dioxide.

The parts of the respiratory system are:

➊ The nose (or nasal passage): Air enters the nasal passage upon
inhalation and leaves upon exhalation. The nose is part of the
respiratory system whereas, properly, the mouth is not (it is part of
the digestive system). In the nasal passage, there are many small
hairs and mucous membranes which act as traps to catch bacte-
ria and dust particles. The nasal passage also has the ability to
control the humidity and temperature of incoming air, helping to
provide a controlled environment for the pulmonary air. An
individual can breath in air that is between -45 degrees F. and 350
degrees F. The air will be between 95-99 degrees F. by the time it
meets the trachea. This process does not occur when we breathe
in through our mouth. You should always breathe in through your
nose. Exhalation can be through the nose or the mouth.

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 The Respiratory System, Expectorants and Demulcents

thyroid cartilage vocal cords

glottis
circoid cartilage
larynx
cilia
trachea goblet cell
mucous glands
serous glands
thin-walled blood
vessels

to right lung
to left lung
main bronchi

Figure 10.2
The Bronchial Tubes

➋ The larynx and pharynx are structures which harbour the vocal
cords. Air vibrates over these special ligaments to form sounds.
➌ The trachea is a tube that conducts air from the nose into the
lungs.
➍ The lungs themselves harbour:
a) the bronchial tubes which form a inverted “Y” branch at the
end of the trachea. One branch goes to each lung. They
further branch to penetrate deeper into the lung structure.
b) The bronchioles subdivide into smaller and smaller tubes.
c) The alveoli sacs are at the terminal portions of the bronchi-
oles. We have minute groups of sacs which resemble
bunches of grapes. It is within these structures that the actual
oxygen transfer takes place. There are many thousands of
alveoli sacs in each lung. The total cumulative surface area of
the alveoli sacs is approximately 80 sq. meters — the size of a
badminton court! So, as you can see, the lungs are not merely
two “balloon organs”, as many people think. (see Fig. 10.3)

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Textbook of Modern Herbology, Second Revised Edition

trachea
lungs (right lung has 3 lobes, left has 2)
pulmonary veins
pleura - visceral layer
parietal layer
between these layers of the pleural sac is a thin
film of fluid.

interchange of respiratory
gases across alveolar
pulmonary artery membrane and capillary
pulmonary vein endothelium to and from blood
respiratory bronchiole in
alveolar ducts
alveolar sac
alveoli capillaries of pulmonary circulation which link to
O2 form branches of pulmonary veins which convey
freshly oxygenated (i.e., arterial) blood to left
CO2 auricle of heart for transport to all tissues of body.

The trachea and the bronchial `tree' conduct air down to the respiratory surfaces. There is no
exchange of gases in these tubes. The pulmonary artery brings venous blood from the right
ventricle of the heart. Its branches distribute blood to capillaries in close contact with respiratory
surfaces throughout both lungs. Bronchioles subdivide into smaller and smaller branches.
Cartilage and ciliated epithelium gradually disappear.

Figure 10.3
The Alveoli Sacs

The Lungs and Pleura

The right lung has three lobes; the left has only two (due to the space
taken up by the heart). The lungs are contained in two sacs called
pleura. This delicate serous membrane does not envelop them in the
sense of merely covering them. The set-up is analogous to two “fists”
(lungs) being pushed deep into two “balloons” (pleura). The pleura are
actually folded back over the surface of each lung on the same side. The
intervening space between the two pleural sections harbours a liquid
called the pleural fluid, which serves to protect the lungs from injury
caused by sudden jarring or the normal respiratory movements. (see
Fig. 10.4)

If the pleura is injured by a puncture, the fluid will escape, stopping the
negative pressure being applied to the lung. This will cause the lung to
completely collapse, even though the lung itself is not punctured.

The Respiratory Process

The process of respiration involves two major muscles. The first is the
diaphragm, a large muscle that separates the thoracic and abdominal
cavities. When the arch of the diaphragm rises upward, it produces an
increased pressure within the lung cavity. Air is thereby expelled. When

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 The Respiratory System, Expectorants and Demulcents

thoracic wall
intrapleural fluid
pleural membrane
lung
heart

fluid-filled balloon

Relationship of lungs, pleura and thoracic cage is analogous to pushing one's fist into a fluid-
filled balloon. Note that there is no communication between the right and left intrapleural fluid.
The
volume of intrapleural fluid is greatly exaggerated in the schematic diagram. Normally it
consists of an extremely thin layer of fluid between the pleural membranes.

Figure 10.4
The Lungs and Pleura
the reverse happens, that is, when the arch of the diaphragm falls, there
is an enlargement of the chest cavity, with the resulting creation of a
partial vacuum within the lungs and inspiration of air. (See Fig. 10.5)

The other muscles are the intercostal muscles, or the muscles between
the ribs. The muscles move the ribs, thereby increasing the volume of
the lungs, much like the area scooped out by a handle on a bucket (see
Figure 10.5). When the bucket handle is down, it touches the bucket,
when it is raised horizontally, the space between the bucket and the
handle is an increased volume. This same mechanism is true of the ribs
and with increased volume created in the lungs, we get again a low
pressure, therefore air flows in.

inspiratory positions
diaphragm

Movements of chest wall and diaphragm during breathing. The contracting

intercostal muscles move the ribs upward and outward during inspiration
while the contracting diaphragm moves downward. The action is much like
the movement on the handle of a bucket. Note how the shape and volume
of the gap between handle and bucket increases with the upward and
outward movement.

Figure 10.5
The Respiratory Process

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Textbook of Modern Herbology, Second Revised Edition

The cilia are actually the extensions of cells which `whip' rhythmically. The lining of the
mucous membranes contains these cells, which move their cilia in an ordered manner. The
contraction of the cilia moves in a wave along the membrane surface, and particles are
carried out of the lungs much as a cork rides on an ocean wave. From there they may be
blown out into the air or ingested.

Figure 10.6
Ciliary Activity

Excretory System of the Lungs

From the bronchioles to the pharynx, all the respiratory “tubing” is
covered with an epithelial lining blanketed with many hair-like projec-
tions called cilia. The cilia unrelentingly lash toward the pharynx. In
addition, the epithelial glands secrete a thick mucus which lines the
respiratory passages. Any dust contained in the inspired air adheres to
this mucus, which is constantly swept toward the pharnyx by the cilia. It
is then either coughed up or swallowed and eliminated in the feces.

Besides keeping the lungs clean, ciliary activity is part of the body’s total
defense against bacterial infection since many bacteria enter the body
on dust particles.

A major cause of lung infection is paralysis of the cilia resulting from

noxious agents like cigarette smoke. Such adverse stimuli also bring
about an increase in mucous secretion. The result may be a partial or
total airway blockage should the mucus not be eliminated. The morning
cough characteristic of smokers is nothing more than the body’s
attempt to clear those passageways.

Mucous Membranes
The entire digestive tract secretes a substance call mucin, which is
essentially mucus. Mucin lubricates and protects the digestive tract.
There are also various other mucous membranes in the human body.
They play roles in lubrication, transport of substances, and protection
(e.g., the mucous membranes of the vagina and parts of the urinary
system).

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 The Respiratory System, Expectorants and Demulcents

Obviously, then, mucus is an essential substance for the body. An

adherence to a strict “mucusless diet” for an excessively long period of
time could be harmful. The mucus produced by the body is beneficial.
When any body part gets irritated by toxins or other foreign substances,
the mucous membranes secrete supplementary amounts of mucus to
help protect the tissues from injury. In effect, a larger-than-normal
secretion of mucus serves as a “warning sign” that something is wrong.

Mucus is produced from a constituent of the bloodstream called fibrin.

Fibrin is held in solution in the bloodstream by the action of potassium
chloride (KCl — a tissue salt). If there is sufficient KCl in the blood-
stream, all will be well. If there is not enough KCl to hold fibrin in
solution, the latter will fall out of solution and produce catarrh in the
surrounding tissue. The insoluble exuded fibrin becomes non-func-
tional.

When fibrin exudation becomes excessive, the body will demand KCl to
such an extent that it will actually take it from other compounds which
are an essential part of other tissues. It may rob the nerves of potassium
phosphates and/or the heart of calcium chloride. As is evident, this
chemical imbalance will soon mushroom if proper nutrients are not
added to the system. It is in such conditions that our cell salt herbs and
our expectorants and demulcents come into play. (By the way, chicken
soup has potassium chloride in it. Maybe this is why it is so good for
colds and flus!)

When investigating the condition of the lungs, don’t forget their relation-
ship to the other eliminatory organs. Ineffective excretion by the liver or
kidneys of end- or by-products of carbohydrate or protein metabolism
will throw the burden on the lungs. The result may be “bad breath”.
Sluggish kidneys can often cause catarrh in the lungs. The Chinese use
this to advantage — often stimulating the kidney to rid the lungs of
mucus in the first stages of colds and flus. Remember the cold remedy
of parsley and raspberry found under diuretics? This collects mucus
from the lung and delivers it to the kidney where it is passed from the
body. A more sociable method of getting rid of mucus! Vitamin C works
along the same lines. Large amounts of Vitamin C (a common cold
remedy) also increases diuresis. When there is lung catarrh, check the
liver, kidneys and colon.

Skin problems which are not cared for will often go deeper into the
body and reside in the lungs. People with childhood eczema often end
up with adult asthma or emphysema.

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Expectorants and Demulcents

Expectorants
Expectorants act upon the bronchio-pulmonary membrane, altering
the quality and increasing the quantity of its secretions. They facilitate
the discharge, expulsion, or ejection of morbid material from the
trachea and surrounding area by triggering coughing or spitting, or by
stimulating cilia action. There are two types of expectorants:

1. Nauseating expectorants (Emetics), administered in large doses,

will act mechanically to expel mucus and other ingredients by
inducing vomiting. These work primarily on the digestive tract.
2. Stimulating expectorants increase elimination through the
bronchial mucous membranes and facilitate the expectoration of
morbid material.

Demulcents
A demulcent is an agent that soothes and allays irritation of mucous
membranes. Demulcents usually have slippery mucilaginous or oleores-
inous (greasy) properties. They coat, shield, lubricate and soothe the
inflamed membrane surface.

These agents are often used as carriers (both in the herbal sense and
mechanical sense) for other medicinal herbs. The term, demulcent, is
usually used when we are referring to a soothing and protecting herbal
agent used internally. Emollient is the general term for an externally
used demulcent. Not all practitioners adhere to this distinction in terms.
Many herbalists use the term demulcent when they are actually talking
about an emollient.

Because many conditions simultaneously call for herbs having both

expectorant and demulcent properties, and because many herbs do
harbour both properties, we will discuss expectorants and demulcents
in the same lesson.

Clinical Respiratory Formula ➓- ➊

3 pts. Ephedra (Ma Huang) (Ephedra sinica)
1 pt. Mullein leaf (Verbascum thapsus)
1 pt. Goldenseal root (Hydrastis canadensis)
1 pt. Coltsfoot leaf (Tussilago farfara)
1 pt. Marshmallow root (Althaea officinalis)
1 pt. Lobelia herb (Lobelia inflata)
1 pt. Cayenne pepper (Capsicum minimum)

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 The Respiratory System, Expectorants and Demulcents

This herbal formula is specific for dilating bronchial tubes while cleans-
ing mucus from the bronchials, lungs and sinuses. It has been found
useful for airbourne allergies, sinus congestion and lung problems. Ma
Huang, the major ingredient of this herbal formula, has been a major
part of Chinese medicine for over 5,000 years. Its major chemical,
ephedrine, used extensively in Western medicine since 1923, works on
the autonomic nervous system to cause dilation of the bronchial tubes
and alveoli. It has also been shown to be a great cleanser of the respira-
tory mucous membranes. Mullein leaves (demulcent, expectorant and
diuretic), and coltsfoot leaves (expectorant, demulcent and diuretic) are
both specific for the respiratory system. Goldenseal is considered the
‘King of the Mucous Membranes’, building the quality, while regulating
the quantity of mucus in the respiratory system. Lobelia herb works on
the nerve supply to the lungs and is also an excellent expectorant.
Cayenne stimulates blood circulation and supplies nutrients. It has been
called the purest and most certain stimulant in the herbal materia
medica.

☞ Note: In cases of high blood pressure or heart disease, this formula

should only be used under the supervision of a qualified health
practitioner due to the Ma Huang content.

Comfrey Sc

Symphytum officinale

Synonyms: Knitbone, Knitback,

Bruisewort, Boneset.

Identification: This perennial herb has a

stout spreading root that can be easily
divided for garden propagation.
Comfrey is approximately 3 feet in
height and has coarse, egg to lance-
shaped leaves. The tubular flower can
be blue-purplish, yellow, white or red.

Parts Used: Leaves and Root.

Solvent: Water.

Chemical Constituents: Comfrey

has 70% - 80% mucilage, tannin,
aspargine, sodium phosphate, calcium phosphate, from 0.5% to 0.7%
allantoin, iron, starch and small amounts of pyrrolizidine alkaloids.
Allantoin (C 4H6N4O3) is a cell proliferant that is found in the urine of
pregnant women and newborn babies. Allantoin is a major chemical
and it should be familiar to practising herbalists.

Therapeutic Action: Demulcent, Cell proliferant, Tonic, Styptic, astrin-

gent, expectorant.
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Textbook of Modern Herbology, Second Revised Edition

Uses: There has been much controversy surrounding comfrey for the
last fifteen years. Comfrey contains a pyrrolizidine alkaloid. Such
alkaloids are also contained in poisonous plants such as hellebore. It
was theorized that the pyrrolizidine alkaloids in comfrey could also be
hepatic (liver) toxic. Large amounts of Russian comfrey root fed to rats
have caused liver toxicity. This study is very informative because it tells
us that if you are a rat, you shouldn’t eat large amounts of Russian
comfrey. This herb has been used by humans for centuries without
reported toxic effects. I, personally, have consumed many gallons of
comfrey tea in my life with no ill effect. I would not hesitate to con-
sume it if I had a broken bone. The Canadian and American govern-
ments, however, have barred the internal use of this herb.

It is not appropriate for a herbalist to recommend this herb at the

present time. I have kept the following information in this edition of
the Textbook for historical reasons. Active herbalists will come across
many references to this botanical in the literature and may wish to
have a summary of usage.

It doesn’t seem to matter which part of the body is either broken or

injured, either internally or externally, comfrey has been used to
quickly heal it.

When I was a novice herbalist, a friend of mine was helping me build a

camper. Unexpectedly, a board fell down. The sharp edge of it hit him
in the head, causing a deep cut which would have required three to
five stitches. We applied comfrey aqueous extract to the wound. It
was amazing to watch the cut close — it drew together almost as
though stitches had been applied. We then put a comfrey leaf over the
wound and bandaged his head. The bandage was changed often and
a new supply of comfrey gel was applied with each change. The
wound healed remarkably fast. Today, it’s impossible to find a scar
though one would have been apparent had stitches been used!

Mucilage of Comfrey Root is a great cell proliferator (“new cell

grower”). It helps new flesh and bones grow. It is wonderful for
coughs, and soothes and heals inflamed tissue in a most remarkable
way. Comfrey is one of the best healers of the respiratory system,
especially where there is hemorrhage of the lungs. Comfrey is one
item that should be added to most poultices and fomentations.

NOTE: Administer no food for at least 12 hours while the treatment is

being given. In this way the mucilage will be able to reach the blood
and lungs without interference and loss of energy. (The formula is
itself highly nutritive!)

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 The Respiratory System, Expectorants and Demulcents

Mucilage of Comfrey Root ➓- ➋

2 oz. Comfrey Root 1 qt. Distilled
or Purified Water
6 oz. Honey 2 oz. Glycerin

Soak the root in water for 12 hours. Bring to a boil, then

cover and simmer 30 minutes. Strain, filter and squeeze
through muslin or linen cloth. Return the liquid to the
cleansed vessel, add the honey and glycerin, simmer for
5 minutes, and then set aside to cool. Store in a wide
mouthed bottle in a cool place.

Dosage: for coughs, raw or sore throat, or slight

hemorrhage, 1 wineglassful every hour until the tissues
are healed and the coughing stops.

Any individual who has a broken bone will discover that it will heal in
half the time if they drink comfrey root tea (1 tsp. boiled in 1 cup of
water for 2 - 5 min.). Comfrey is indicated when the internal functions
are weakened or injured to the degree that bloody discharges mani-
fest, whether in the sputum, urine or from the bowels. A syrup made
from equal parts of strong decoctions of comfrey and elecampane
root is valuable for coughs, consumption and all pulmonary afflic-
tions.

Make an excellent nervine cough syrup as follows: ➓- ➌

1 oz. Comfrey root 1 oz. Turkey
Rhubarb
1 oz. Elecampane root 1 oz. Spikenard
1 oz. Skunk Cabbage 1 oz. Horehound

Boil in 5 pints of water for 30 minutes; strain, and then

boil the liquid down to 1 1/2 pints. Add 2 lbs. of brown
sugar and cool. (1 ounce of good brandy can be added to
help preserve it.)

Dosage: one tablespoon three to four times daily.

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Textbook of Modern Herbology, Second Revised Edition

Mullein Ad Ed

Verbascum thapsus
Synonyms: Blanket Herb, Shepherd’s Staff.

History: The down of the leaves and stems,

when dry, make excellent tinder — it will
readily ignite if exposed to the slightest
spark. Mullein was also used as a lamp
wick in days of old, where interestingly
enough, it was said to be a necessary part
of many ceremonial incantations made by
witches.

Identification: The genus comprises some

300 species which are native to all
continents. Verbascum thapsus is a
biennial, producing a rosette of broad
leaves in the first year and erect stem 1 to
2 m. tall in the second. The stem and
leaves have dense feltlike hairs. The leaves
are alternate, ellipitical to oblanceolate,
and 1 to 4 cm. in length. Lower leaves are
petioled, the upper sessile. Inflorescent
arrangement is a spike-like raceme.

Distribution and Habitat: Mullein is found in waste places and along

roadsides that are well drained and dry.

Parts Used: Leaves.

Solvents: Boiling water, alcohol, apple cider vinegar.

Chemical Constituents: A yellow volatile oil, a fatty acid, free malic and
phosphoric acid, calcium phosphate.

Therapeutic Action: Demulcent, Pectoral, diuretic, anodyne, antispas-

modic, astringent.

Uses: Mullein is one of those herbs that has numerous uses but its main
function is in the treatment of pulmonary disease, coughs, consump-
tion and hemorrhage of the lung. Mullein is employed in many formu-
las:

I have primarily used mullein in infusion form for glandular problems,

especially those of the lymphatic system. For swollen testicles, the
following formula worked well in Dr. Nowell’s experience:

1 oz. mullein 1 oz. sanicle

Simmer in 2 quarts of water for 15 minutes, and foment as hot as is

convenient for 1 hour, 3 times daily.

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 The Respiratory System, Expectorants and Demulcents

2 oz. mullein ➓- ➍
1/4 oz. lobelia
1 tsp. cayenne

Simmer the ingredients in 2 quarts of apple cider vinegar

and closely cover for 15 minutes. Then strain. Foment as
warm as is convenient over the chest.

For internal use: ➓- ➎

2 pt. Mullein 1 pt. coltsfoot
1 pt. Pleurisy root 1 pt. comfrey
1 pt. cayenne 1 pt. goldenseal
1 pt. lobelia

Mix into “00” capsules and administer 2 to 3 times daily.

For diarrhea, use the herb as an ordinary infusion. If
bleeding occurs, boil 1 ounce of mullein in 1 pint of milk,
strain, and give 1/2 teacup doses after each evacuation.

A blood cleanser should also be administered in these situations.

Mullein possesses slight narcotic properties that do not induce
euphoria as a side effect. It will quiet inflamed and irritated nerves and
relieve pain. Mullein was smoked by the Indians as a wet smudge for
lung problems.

The following formula is excellent for lymphatic ➓- ➏

problems and water retention:

3 pt. mullein 1 pt. lobelia

Take 1 tsp. per cup and infuse, drink 2 - 6 cups a

day. This formula can also be used in tincture form.
Dosage is 15 drops, 3 times per day.

Chickweed Sc Ad Ed

Stellaria media
Synonyms: Starweek, Stitchwort, Scarwart.

Identification: Stellaria media is an annual herb with a trailing stem which mats. The
leaves are primarily ovate and 1 to 3 cm. in length. The upper leaves are sessile. The
flowers are solitary or in few-flowered cymes. The sepals are 5 in number and
separate. The petals also number 5, and are white with 2 deep lobes.

Part Used: Whole Herb.

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Textbook of Modern Herbology, Second Revised Edition

Solvents: Water, Alcohol.

Chemical Constituents: Chickweed is

very nutritious with high propor-
tions of protein, fiber, B vitamins,
Vitamin C and rutin.

Therapeutic Action: Demulcent,

Emollient, pectoral, refrigerant,
alterative.

Uses: Chickweed is a great healer

and soother in cases of internal
and external inflammation. When I
was living in a tipi I consumed
chickweed salads almost daily
because of their high nutritive value
and also because the plant was so
plentiful.

For pulmonary complaints, chick-

weed is very beneficial. It will also
help in treating weakness of the
stomach and bowel. It is especially
good when there is bleeding of the bowel or lung. Probably the most
common use for chickweed is as an external wash or ointment. The
wash is excellent for rashes and other skin infections and is gentle
enough to use on babies.

1 lb. Fresh Chickweed 1 1/2 lb. Lanolin or olive oil

2 oz. Beeswax

Cut up the chickweed and place all ingredients in a stainless steel or

glass pot. Cover and place in an oven for 3 hours at 200 degrees F.
Strain through a fine mesh and allow to cool. This ointment can be
used as a base for many other ointments.

The above ointments, or chickweed poultice, have been used for all
types of skin problems including skin ulcers, carbuncles and external
abscesses. They can also be employed for piles. People have often
been known to bathe in chickweed water for its “soothing effect”.
Chickweed is also used to release muscle cramps and tightened and
contracted sinews.

In blood poisoning, decoct chickweed for internal use and apply a

chickweed poultice to locally affected areas. Chickweed is also useful
for swollen testicles and tumours.

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 The Respiratory System, Expectorants and Demulcents

Dr. Christopher’s Black Healing Ointment ➓- ➐

Dr. Christopher’s “black healing ointment”, (from page
323 of his School of Natural Healing textbook) is
renowned for its remarkable healing properties:

1 1/2 pounds of mutton tallow base for every 1 pound

(fresh) or 1/2 pound (dry) herbs. Lanolin or olive oil
can be used as a substitute.

1 1/2 pounds of:

chickweed comfrey
lobelia goldenseal
kino (Pterocarpus marsupium, when possible)
marshmallow

1 ounce to each quart of Poke root tincture (Phytolacca

deo)
1 ounce, beeswax (warm climate, 2 ounces)
1/4 pint, pine tar
2 ounces, glycerin
3 - 4 ounces, wheat germ oil
3 - 4 ounces, olive oil

“Cut up the mutton tallow, place it into a stainless steel

pan (never use iron or aluminum, but you can use pyrex
or enamel if it is not chipped), cover and render in oven
at 170 degrees F.. Pour off the tallow as its renders, press
out the remainder and throw away the cracklings. Place
the tallow back into the pan and warm up to a liquid.
Place the correct proportion of herbs into the liquified
tallow base (acts as a catalyst and draws the medicinal
virtues of the herbs into the fat) and place into oven for 3 -
4 hours. Remove and strain through a fine wire strainer
and put back into oven to warm again. Add the beeswax,
wheat germ oil, olive oil, glycerin, pine tar, use a beater
(hand or electric) to homogenize or whip while hot and
then pour it into an ointment or wide-mouthed jar. Do not
try to move the jars until cool enough to be firm or there
will be a nasty mess to clean up.”

Marshmallow Ad

Althaea officinalis

Synonyms: Mortification Root, Sweetweed.

Identification: Marshmallow grows in marshy places in Europe and has been natural-
ized in certain areas of the United States. Marshmallow is a perennial herb with erect
stem 3-4 ft tall. It is simple or with a few lateral branches. The leaves have short
petioles, being ovate-cordate, 2-3 inches long and 1 1/4 inch wide, entire or 3-5 lobes
having irregularly toothed margin. The leaves are soft and velvety on both sides due to
dense stellate hairs. Marshmallow has small pale flowers which are axillary or in

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Textbook of Modern Herbology, Second Revised Edition

panicles. The stamens are united into a

tube with kidney shaped anthers. The
flower blooms during August and
September. The fruit is flat and round,
popularly called “cheeses” in Europe.

Parts Used: The root (the most

potent part of the herb), and
sometimes the leaves and flowers.

Solvent: Water.

Chemical Constituents: Starch,

mucilage, pectin, oil, sugar,
asparagin, calcium phosphate.

Therapeutic Action: Demulcent,

Emollient.

Uses: Marshmallow has outstand-

ing soothing and absorbing
properties. In fact, if the pow-
dered root is applied to a moist
surface, it will extract all mois-
ture.
Marshmallow is added to many formulas because of its soothing,
demulcent effect. It is especially used for inflamed respiratory, alimen-
tary, intestinal and genitourinary areas. As a constituent of a diuretic
formula, marshmallow is of special value due to its non-astringent
soothing effect. When the natural mucus of the intestine has been
abraded, marshmallow, being both mucilaginous and nutritive, is an
excellent “coating”. Marshmallow is usually used in a formula rather
than on its own.

Prepare a decoction as follows: add 1/4 lb. of dried marshmallow root

to 5 pints of water. Boil down to 3 pints and then strain. This same
decoction is also useful in treating bruises, sprains and aches in
muscle or sinew.

If the root is boiled in milk, it will prove beneficial in treating diarrhea

and dysentery. It will also enrich the milk of nursing mothers and at
the same time increase milk flow. Combining both blessed thistle and
marshmallow for enriched milk is especially effective. The leaves are
often used as poultices and fomentations.

192 Copyright © 1993, Wild Rose College of Natural Healing Ltd.

 The Respiratory System, Expectorants and Demulcents

For eye inflammation: ➓- ➑

1 oz. Marshmallow Root
1/4 oz. Raspberry Leaves

Boil in 1 to 1 1/2 pints of water. Strain and bathe the

affected eye with a cold decoction 6 times daily.

Slippery elm Sc

Ulmus fulva, U. rubra

Synonyms: Red Elm, Moose Elm, Indian

Elm.

Identification: This small tree is

abundant in North America. The
branches are quite rough with long
leaves, unequally toothed, having rough
hairs on both sides. The leaf buds are
covered with a dense yellow wool. The
flower is stalkless.

Part Used: Bark.

Solvent: Water.

Chemical Constituents: The major constituent is mucilage, made up of a

variety of polysaccharides.

Uses: As a remedy for a weak stomach, the following formula using

slippery elm is unsurpassed!

1 1/2 tsp. Powdered Bark 2 tsp. Sweetner

Add cold water and make a paste. Heat half a pint of milk to the boiling
point and then stir in the paste. This should take about 10 seconds.
Pour off and drink. A little cinnamon may be added.

Dosage: 1/2 to 1 pint, 1 to 3 times daily.

Slippery Elm is an ingredient of many poultices and boluses.

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 Textbook of Modern Herbology, Second Revised Edition

Ma Huang Sc Ad

Ephedra sinica
Synonyms: ephedra, yellow river, yellow
flow, General of Respiration.

Identification: Ma Huang is an erect to

prostrate low shrub, being 30-50 cm tall.
The branches are erect, short, glaucous,
green, and somewhat flat, being 1 - 1.5
mm thick, lightly striated lengthwise and
fasciated nodes. Leaves opposite, scale-
like, approx 2 mm. Male flower near
sessile, peduncle in catkins of 4-8 pairs
each with 8 anthers; female flowers
biflorous, pedunculate with 3-4 pairs of
scales. Fruit red, globular, fleshy 6-7 mm
long. Found mostly in Northern China.

Part Used: Needlelike branches.

Solvents: Boiling water, alcohol.

Chemical Constituents: The major component is 0.44 - 2.56% alkaloids

with ephedrine ca. 85% of that amount and the remainder consisting
mostly of pseudoephedrine. Ma Huang also contains small amounts
of saponins, catechins and tannins.

Therapeutic Action: Expectorant, Bronchiodilator, Vasoconstrictor,

Tonic, Nervine, sedative.

Uses: Ephedrine is classed as an adrenergic (bronchiodilator). It excites

the sympathetic nervous system, depressing smooth muscle and
cardiac muscle action, producing a similar effect to that of epineph-
rine. Its major difference with epinephrine is that it is not changed in
the GI tract or upon absorption and has a more prolonged effect.
Ephedrine is known to raise blood pressure and diminish hyperemia.
Ephedrine is known to dilate the pupils. Other uses include malarial
fevers, rhinitis, asthma, hayfever, emphysema, epilepsy, nocturnal
enuresis and myasthenia gravis.

Dosage: powder - 0.5 - 10.0 grams

extract - 10 - 30 mgs

☞ Toxicity: Ma Huang is contraindicated in cases of heart problems and

high blood pressure. The toxic dose is 30 - 45 grains per day of pow-
der and 90 mgs. of the extract. Antidote to ephedrine toxicity is licorice
(15 gms.) or 6 gms. of ma huang root or nodes.

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 The Respiratory System, Expectorants and Demulcents

Pleurisy Root Sc

Asclepias tuberosa
Synonyms: Butterfly Weed, Swallow-wort,
Whiteroot, Windroot, Tuber Root, Celand-
ine.

History: Many First Nations peoples

considered pleurisy root one of the “Great
Father’s best gifts to the children of
Nature.” It invariably cured their respira-
tory and chest pains.

Identification: Pleurisy Root is a member of

the milkweed genus but it is distinguish-
able in that it does not exude a white latex
(juice) when broken. It grows in southeast-
ern Canada, some parts of British
Columbia and throughout the United
States. This perennial herb has yellowish-
brown tuberous roots that turn grey with
age, at which point they lose much of their
therapeutic value. The stem is hairy, rises
two to three feet with alternate lanceolate
hairy leaves, and is dark green above and
lighter below. The flowers are numerous,
erect, and orangish-yellow; they yield long,
narrow, pubescent pods.

Part Used: The root.

Solvent: Boiling Water.

Chemical Constituents: The main ingredient is asclepiadin (a glycoside)

found mostly in the fresh herb, a chemical which can be toxic in large
doses. It is reduced substantially in the dried plant. Its action is on the
heart. It also contains volatile oils, two resins, mucilage, starch, tannin,
and 9% of mineral salts which have not as yet been defined.

Therapeutic Uses: Diaphoretic, Expectorant, carminative, sudorific,

anodyne. In large doses, it is emetic and cathartic.

Uses: Pleurisy root has a moderate, very persistent diaphoretic action. It

will relax the capillaries and influence the skin. It will have a noted
effect on mucous and serous (visceral membrane) tissue, thereby
relieving the heart and arteries of undue tension. It gradually increases
the skin temperature and promotes a slow, steady perspiration.

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Textbook of Modern Herbology, Second Revised Edition

Pleurisy Root, in the following formula, is a specific for

measles: ➓- ➒
Pleurisy root 2 oz. Jamaican ginger 1/2 oz.

Infuse one teaspoon in one cup of hot water, steep for

five minutes, and then drink hot, leaving a sediment.

For “La Grippe”: ➓- ➓

Pleurisy root 2 oz. goldenrod 2 oz.
ginger 1/2 oz. cayenne 1 dram

Use as above, increasing the capsicum content and

decreasing the Pleurisy root as the patient improves.

Since pleurisy root is a relaxing diaphoretic, it should not be used in

cases where the pulse is weak and the skin cold. A more stimulating
diaphoretic such as yarrow should be used instead. As the name of the
plant implies, it is one of our best pectoral and lung remedies. It has a
specific action on the lungs and thereby assists expectoration, subdues
inflammation and brings about reabsorption of exudates (oozing
mucus). It also exerts a general tonic effect on the entire system.

For dysmenorrhea and amenorrhea with spasmodic

pain, the following formula is useful:

Pleurisy root 1 oz. blue cohosh 1/2 oz. ➓-➊➊

wild yam 1/2 oz. ginger 1/4 oz.

Administer one wineglassful of a warm infusion (and

keep it warm!) every four hours.

Summary of Chapter 10
This chapter reviewed the different parts of the respiratory system and
the general mechanism of external respiration. The herbs that are
effective expectorants and demulcents are discussed.

196 Copyright © 1993, Wild Rose College of Natural Healing Ltd.

 The Colon, Cathartics and Anthelmintics

The Colon,
Cathartics 11
and
Anthelmintics

Synopsis:

This chapter reviews the major anomalies of the colon, the mechanism of
peristalsis and toxemia. Various fauna and flora of the large intestine are
discussed. The role of cathartics (and the five types) in modern herbology are
examined and the following cathartics reviewed: Cascara sagrada, Mountain
Flax, Turkey Rhubarb, Mandrake, Balm of Gilead, Senna. The four major
categories of herbs which affect internal parasites are defined and the common
ones are examined in detail: Wormwood, Malefern, Pumpkin Seeds.

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Textbook of Modern Herbology, Second Revised Edition

Table of Contents

Introduction
Movement of the Large Intestine
Defecation
Toxemia
The Flora and Fauna of the Colon
Harmful Fauna
Cathartics and Anthelmintics
Clinical Lower Bowel Tonic
Cascara Sagrada
Mountain Flax
Turkey Rhubarb
Mandrake
Balm of Gilead
Senna
Wormwood
Male Fern
Pumpkin Seeds

List of Tables and Figures

11.1 Healthy Colon

11.2 Prolapsed Colon
11.3 Flexure Problem
11.4 Ballooning
11.5 Diverticuli
11.6 Spastic Colon
11.7 Cascara Sagrada
11.8 Mountain Flax
11.9 Turkey Rhubarb
11.10 Mandrake
11.11 Balm of Gilead
11.12 Senna
11.13 Wormwood
11.14 Male Fern
11.15 Pumpkin Seeds

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 The Colon, Cathartics and Anthelmintics

Introduction

I
n Chapter 6, we examined the whole gastrointestinal tract but
focused specifically on the upper portion. Here we look at the lower
portion, the colon or large intestine. A normal, healthy colon has the
following shape:

transverse colon
hepatic flexure splenic flexure
ascending colon descending colon
taenia coli
sigmoid colon
rectum
anus

cecum
ileocecal valve
ileum
vermiform appendix

Figure 11.1
The Healthy Colon

The unfortunate thing, however, is that a normal colon is seldom seen.

Dr. Kellogg (1852 – 1943), a natural healing doctor of considerable fame,
spent much of his life working on colons. After either performimg or
assisting in approximately 22,000 abdominal operations, he reported
that not once did he see a "textbook" colon. Normal colons are also
seldom seen on x-ray examination. Variation in colon structure is great.
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Textbook of Modern Herbology, Second Revised Edition

Figure 11.2 Figure 11.3 Figure 11.4

The Prolapsed Colon Flexure Problems in the Colon Ballooning in the Colon

Figure 11.5 Figure 11.6

Diverticuli Spasticity in the Colon

Let’s briefly look at some of the most common colon problems:

➊ Prolapsed Colon: the transverse colon droops due to weak

abdominal muscles. The peritoneum is slack and stretches.
➋ Flexure Problem: The colonic flexures may bend back upon
themselves, forming “figure-8’s” or “triangles” as indicated in
Figure 11.3.
➌ Ballooning: The muscle tissue lining the wall of the colon
becomes weak, allowing internal gas pressure to distend it. (see
Fig. 11.4)
➍ Diverticuli: Diverticuli are small out-pouchings of the colon.
Parasites may reside in these pockets if toxins are present.
Diverticuli are like a trap — once parasites have settled in them,
they are there to stay. (See Fig. 11.5)
➎ Spasticity: The autonomic nerves are continuously active here,
causing the intestinal muscles to go into ring-like spasm.

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 The Colon, Cathartics and Anthelmintics

Movement of the Large Intestine

The large intestine exhibits two basic types of movement:

➊ Tone Waves: The large intestine contracts and stretches longitu-

dinally to churn the fecal matter. This is sometimes mistaken for
antiperistalsis.
➋ Mass Movement or Mass Peristalsis: Mass peristalsis is not really
a true peristalsis but is a large wave of colonic contraction which
transports the feces into the descending colon and sigmoid
colon.

Defecation
When fecal matter is swept into the colon, it stimulates the internal anal
sphincter, causing it to dilate. This action is controlled by the parasym-
pathetic nervous system and therefore not subject to conscious ma-
nipulation. The external anal sphincter, on the other hand, is controlled
by the somatic nervous system (after toilet training) and is therefore
consciously regulated.

A person should experience the urge to evacuate approximately ten

minutes to one hour after having finished a meal. The reason for this is
that there is a “feedforward system” operating from the pyloric sphinc-
ter (in the stomach). When chyme starts to pass through it, an impulse
is triggered via the autonomic nervous system. Hormone messengers
are released, bringing about a mass movement which begins at ap-
proximately the middle of the transverse colon and passes downward.
There is also stimulation of the internal anal sphincter. These actions
ensure an empty and clean colon so that partly digested food higher up
in the digestive tract can move along its way unobstructed. In this way,
gastrointestinal mobility and absorption are not interfered with. It is this
stimulus that brings about the urge to evacuate. Ideally, through this
process, any fecal matter from food taken into the body approximately
twelve to twenty-four hours earlier is eliminated from the system.

If the urge to evacuate is repeatedly not heeded, the impulse soon

becomes diminished in strength. This “not heeding the call of nature”,
with a consequent impairment of the feedforward mechanism, is one
of the major causes of constipation. It is always important to heed the
body’s signals. A person in good health and who eats three meals a day,
should have two-three bowel movements a day, the byproduct of each
meal.

Toxemia
Natural healers contend that fecal matter not removed from the colon
will stagnate and cause disease, a theory rejected by allopathic medi-
cine. Orthodox medicine states, in fact, in numerous physiology texts
that fecal matter stagnating in the colon causes “no apparent problem”,
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Textbook of Modern Herbology, Second Revised Edition

contrary to naturopathic theory. They usually cite the case of a man

who had a bowel obstruction and who was therefore unable to pass
waste for a year and a half. It is stated that he had no diseases arising
directly from this problem other than the “slight discomfort” resulting
from a one hundred and fifty pound weight gain, due to the non-
elimination of excess fecal matter!

Such ignorant viewpoints and statements force one to wonder which

group of healers-scientists are in the Dark Ages, so to speak. The major
purpose of the intestinal tract is to absorb nutrients. The colon is the
primary absorber of minerals and water, and the secondary absorber of
a few vitamins and other nutrients not to mention the site of bacterial
manufacture of some ‘B’ vitamins. If nutrients are being “steeped” for
long periods of time in decaying fecal matter, it takes little intelligence to
see that some of the toxins derived from the fecal matter will be ab-
sorbed along with the nutrient. When large amounts of fecal matter are
found in the colon, it backs up the ileocecal valve leading from the small
intestine. The small intestine is the absorption area of most nutrients. If
this backup occurs, the whole system is toxified and many problems
arise.

This phenomenon is seen clearly in iridology, where we can see how

toxins are absorbed into the system from the colon, causing many
health problems in many areas of the body. Naturopaths estimate that
80% of the cases of impaired health are due to an unclean colon. This
figure may be a little high, but I can say that it is my opinion, based on
many years of experience, that numerous and diverse health problems
have their origins in an unclean colon. If the bowel is kept clean, most
health problems may be avoided or alleviated.

Besides the toxins produced directly by decaying fecal matter, this

septic material is excellent breeding ground for harmful bacteria, yeast
and other organisms. The only way to keep harmful organisms out of
the colon is to keep it clean and healthy.

The Flora and Fauna of the Colon

(“Flora” refers to plant life. “Fauna” refers to animal life.)

Not all organisms flourishing in the colon are bad. In fact, the human
colon demands the presence of certain bacteria in order to maintain a
healthy environment. One of the most important and beneficial bacteria
in our colon is Lactobacilli acidophilus. This helpful organism creates an
acid environment in the colon, which helps control the population of
less desirable bacteria. L. acidophilus can be found in some yogurts,
kefir, and in liquid and pill form. L. acidophilus can also be produced in a
form called “rejuevilax”. Some of the forms of micro-organisms to look
for include L. acidophilus, B. bifidus and S. faecium. The BOD strain of

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 The Colon, Cathartics and Anthelmintics

Acidophilus appears very useful. Changing the strain and/or products

several times during therapy is quite beneficial. It creates a larger "ethnic
blend" in the colon.

To make "rejuevilax", soak wheatberries as if you were sprouting them.

After twenty-four hours of soaking, drain off the water and keep it
between 70-100 degrees F. for seventy-two hours (temperature must be
kept within this range to prevent the growth of harmful bacteria); then
refrigerate. Take one tablespoon two times daily or as needed. You can
get more details from Ann Wigmore’s book, Be your own Doctor.

Certain species of the harmful bacteria or Candida yeast can cause

toxins, gas and disease. One of the less-favoured bacteria is Escheria
coli. Although not a beneficial bacteria in large quantities, it is indeed
beneficial in small quantities. Ideally, E. coli should make up no more
than 20% of the total population of the colon.

Harmful Fauna
Numerous harmful worms can inhabit the colon. The most common
are pinworms, roundworms and tapeworms. Pinworms and round-
worms, which are quite small, can be contracted essentially from
anything that is eaten, e.g., fruit, vegetables or meat. This means that for
these types of parasites, it does not matter if you cook the food or not —
they are to be found “everywhere” and under all circumstances. The
only way to avoid them is to maintain a clean and healthy colon.

Tapeworms are considerably larger than pinworms or roundworms

and grip onto the intestinal wall. They can attain a length of twenty feet
and can be contracted only from meat. They are destroyed by thorough
cooking, or by freezing the contaminated meat for more than one
month.

Cathartics and Anthelmintic Herbs

Cathartics
A cathartic is an herbal agent that has a laxative action. Herbal cathartics
are not “laxatives” in the medical usage of the term. Mineral laxatives
and oils employed by the medical faculty are both dehydrating and
weakening to the colon. Herbal cathartics should not only accelerate
the evacuative processes, they heal and cleanse while they do so,
strengthening and toning the colon. There are several categories of
cathartics:

Aperients are cathartics that bring about moderate colon activity. They
slightly soften the stool and do not cause griping. An aperient is
preferably used on the weak and delicate. Its somewhat mild action is
beneficial.
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Textbook of Modern Herbology, Second Revised Edition

Cathartics per se are simple purgatives, which induce glandular secre-

tion. They sometimes cause a semi-fluid bowel movement accompa-
nied by griping. They take eight to twelve hours to work. They are best
taken in the morning or between meals. Some cathartics have specific
action on particular areas of the digestive tract.

Drastics are cathartics with an intensive purgative action. They induce a

violent movement with a watery stool and much griping. They irritate
the mucous membrane and should therefore always be taken with
demulcents.

Hydragogues are extremely powerful cathartics and are to be used only

in emergencies. They induce an evacuation of large quantities of
serum and water.

Cholagogues promote a discharge of bile to produce liquid, green-

coloured or bilious stools.

Clinical Laxative Formula ➊➊-➊

6 pts. Cascara sagrada (Rhamnus purshiana)
2 pts. buckthorn (Rhamnus catharticus)
3 pts. ginger rt. (Zingiber sp.)
2 pts. barberry (Berberis vulgaris)
2 pts. goldenseal root (Hydrastis canadensis)
2 pts. raspberry leaves (Rubus idaeus)
2 pts. fennel seeds (Anethum foeniculum)
2 pts. turkey rhubarb (Rheum palmatum)
2 pts. lobelia (Lobelia inflata)
1 pt. cayenne pepper (Capsicum minimum)

This laxative formula comes from a generic group that are specific for
the colon and benefit the digestive tract. The precise ratio of the ingredi-
ents is what makes the difference. Although it has a cleansing or
‘laxative’ effect, its major functions are to increase muscle tone and
flexibility of the intestinal wall and to correct neural and hormonal
control throughout the system. While many laxative formulas are
addictive, i.e., the longer you take them the higher the dosage needed,
this formula works differently. It works on muscle tone and strengthens
the colon, rather than merely causing a bowel movement. After taking
this formula for several months, the individual should be able to reduce
the dosage yet still have a healthy lower bowel.

Cascara sagrada, buckthorn and turkey rhubarb are the major compo-
nents as all have a group of glycosides in them that stimulate catharsis.
Two of the glycosides, emodin and chrysophanic acid, work similarly to
the brakes and gas pedal of a car. They control the motility of the colon.
This is the basis for the toning effect of this formula. Ginger and fennel
seeds help to reduce griping or nausea in the intestinal tract during the

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 The Colon, Cathartics and Anthelmintics

cleansing phase. Goldenseal strengthens

the mucous membranes while raspberry
leaves work as a demulcent, soothing the
intestinal tract. Barberry cleanses the liver
while producing bile, in turn stimulating
catharsis. Lobelia works on nervous
control and the cayenne increases the
blood circulation.

Cascara sagrada Sc Ad Ed

Rhamnus purshiana
Synonyms: Sacred Bark, California Buckthorn.

Identification: This tree is fifteen to twenty-five

feet in height, and has reddish-brown bark,
which is often covered with lichen. The leaves
are alternate, dark green, elliptic to oblong -
ovate, irregular, finely toothed or, often, almost
entire. In addition, they are rounded at the base
and may be obtuse or acute at the apex. The
small, greenish flowers grow in finely hirsute umbels and produce black, pea-size
drupes.

Parts Used: The aged, dried bark.

Solvents: Diluted alcohol and boiling water.

Chemical Constituents: Emodin (laxative principle, C 15H10O5),

chrysophanic acid and tannins. The longer the bark is kept after
harvesting, the milder and more effective it becomes in its laxative and
tonic action. It should be aged a minimum of one year.

Therapeutic Action: Tonic, Cathartic, Laxative to Drastic purgative

(according to dose), Alterative, Hepatic, Stomachic and febrifuge.

Uses: Cascara Sagrada is regarded primarily for its tonic action on the
entire alimentary canal. It increases secretion of the stomach, liver,
pancreas and lower bowel. It is of special value in the Clinical laxative
formula which appeared above.

For activating the gall bladder and pancreas, it is considered one of

the best herbs. It is often used in diabetes. Cascara is recognized by
allopaths as having a “permanent beneficial effect upon the intestinal
tract” (USP 19th Edition).

Fluid Extract of Cascara:

1 pound Cascara bark, cut

1 Gallon distilled water

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Textbook of Modern Herbology, Second Revised Edition

Boil vigorously until water just covers the bark, strain, and set the
liquid aside. Return the bark to the pan and add one-half gallon of
water. Boil the water until it just covers the bark, and then strain.
Combine, and simmer to one-half pint (with the last part being done
in a double-boiler). Add one-half pint of glycerin. Stir, cool, and bottle.
The dosage is one-half to one teaspoon in the evening upon retiring. It
is best not to add honey.

For blood disorders with constipation or engorged liver:

1 oz. Fluid Extract of Cascara sagrada (1:1)

8 oz. Syrup of Yellow Dock

The dosage is one teaspoon before bed.

As mentioned above, Cascara is usually used over long periods — it is

not a “one-time” herb.

Mountain flax Sc

Linum catharticum or Linum

usitatissimum

Synonyms: Mill Mountain, Purging Flax,

Dwarf Flax, Fairy Flax.

Identification: These plants have an

erect, slender, glabrous stems with few
branches. The leaves are alternate,
sessile, simple, entire and lanceolate to
oblong. The flowers are blue or violet-
blue with their five petals flowering
from June to August. The fruit is an
eight to ten seeded capsule.

Part Used: Seed.

Solvent: Water.

Chemical Constituents: 15% mucilage, phosphates, linamarin.

Therapeutic Action: Cathartic (laxative to simple purgative), Demulcent,

Anti-catarrhal, tonic and hepatic.

Uses: The crushed seeds have often been used as a poultice for irritation
and pain. With lobelia seed, they are used on boils. As a gentle cathar-
tic, I have often used a combination of one teaspoon of flax seed and
one teaspoon psyllium seed. It should be allowed to stand in room

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 The Colon, Cathartics and Anthelmintics

temperature water for twenty minutes, and then consumed. A diges-

tive and intestinal cleanser for use during or after a fast is as follows:

1 oz. flax seed 1 oz. buckbean

1 oz. meadowsweet (Spirea) 1/2 oz. ginger

Simmer while tightly covered for fifteen minutes in one quart of water.
Strain, cover, cool and bottle. The dosage is three tablespoons taken
three times daily.

Flax seeds are an excellent base for poultices. The oil, containing
essential fatty acids, is reported to lower cholesterol, control HDL/LDL
ratios and give rise to short–lived prostaglandins.

Turkey Rhubarb Sc Ad

Rheum palmatum
Synonyms: China Rhubarb, East India
Rhubarb.

Identification: This species of rhubarb

resembles the common garden variety. It
is cultivated outside of its native habitat —
Tibet and China — primarily for decorative
purposes. The rootstock is conical, fleshy,
and has a yellow interior. The large leaves
are cordate (heart-shaped) to orbicular,
have seven lobes, thick petioles, and are
twelve to eighteen inches in length. The
hollow flower stem stands five to ten feet
tall and is topped by a leafy panicle of
greenish or whitish flowers.

Part Used: The dried rhizome, but mostly the root bark.

Solvents: Water and alcohol.

Chemical Constituents: Chrysophanic acid, methyl chrysophanic acid,

emodin, rhein, gallic acid, cathartic acid, calcium oxalate.

Therapeutic Action: Cathartic (aperient to brisk purgative according to

dose), Hepatic, Cholagogue, Astringent, Tonic, Stomachic, Anthel–
mintic, Peristaltic.

Uses: Turkey Rhubarb is a simple and safe purgative. It is valuable for a

quick emptying of the bowels and does not clog or produce an after-
constipation as many cathartics do. Surprisingly, Turkey Rhubarb
moderates the colon in two ways, as a laxative in cases of constipation
and as an astringent in cases of diarrhea. The former activity is caused

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Textbook of Modern Herbology, Second Revised Edition

by the cathartic glycosides and the astringent effect is due to the gallic
acid. Turkey Rhubarb in small doses is stomachic and tonic. It also
increases salivary and gastric flow, improves appetite, and promotes
healthful action of the liver and bile flow. The urine of individuals
taking large quantities of Turkey Rhubarb might turn red. There is no
cause for alarm — it is just a by-product of excessive use.

Mandrake Sc Ad

Podophyllum peltatum

Synonyms: May Apple, Raccoon Berry,

Low Apple, Devil’s Apple.

Identification: This perennial herb grows

in rich wood thickets in Canada and
United States. The stem can be 1 foot
tall, pale green, divided near the top into
2 petioles, each with 5 - 7 deeply lobed
palmate leaves, 4 - 6 inches wide,
coarsely toothed at the end. Mandrake’s
white flowers appear in May, borne on
forked petioles, with 6 - 9 petals, 12 - 18
stamens, 2 inches wide. The fruit is an
ovoid yellowish berry, 1 - 2 inches long
and fleshy. The rhizome is horizontal
creeping, subcylindrical, jointed.

Part Used: Root.

Solvents: Alcohol, partially boiling

Water.
Chemical Constituents: ligan glycoside, resin and gallic acid. The resin
contains podophyllotoxin (C 15H14O6) 40-60% (sometimes called
Podophyllin), podophyllinic acid and podophylloquercetin. Podophyl-
lotoxin is a very active cathartic which will change to podophyllinic
acid in the presence of water. The latter is much milder.

Therapeutic Action: Hydragogue, Cholagogue, Hepatic, Alterative,

Tonic, Emetic, Vermicide and diaphoretic.

Uses: As a cathartic agent, mandrake is a rather slow but certain

purgative. Its influence will continue for hours and extend sometimes
into the day after it is ingested. It acts mainly on the duodenum, and
increases intestinal secretion and bile flow, when taken in very small
doses. This makes it very functional in formulas. In large doses it
produces a copious watery stool, griping and nausea. Mandrake is
rarely used alone due to its strong effect. It is usually combined with
less active and corrective laxatives. Mandrake appears to retard the
growth of warts, especially venereal warts.

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 The Colon, Cathartics and Anthelmintics

☞ NOTE: Large doses of mandrake should never be given. Also,

mandrake should not be mixed with other strong cathartics. It
should not be used during pregnancy.

Balm Of Gilead Sc Ad Ed

Populus balsamifera & spp.

Synonyms: Balsam Poplar, Cottonwood,
Poplar, Tacamahac.

History: The name for this herb comes from

the Bible where Moses found the buds of
the poplar tree in the Gilead mountains to
be very soothing as a pain reliever and for
wound healing.

Identification: Balsam Poplar is a deciduous

tree that grows up to twenty-five meters tall
with a broad crown and dark furrowed
bark when mature. The twigs are brown
and have gummy buds. The leaves are
ovate, silvery-white or pale brown beneath,
and green above. It can hybridize with
many other poplars. All contain populin
except aspen.

Parts Used: Bud and bark.

Solvents: Oil and alcohol.

Therapeutic Action: Cathartic (simple), Tonic, Stimulant, Diuretic,

Antiscorbutic, Stomachic, Emollient, Demulcent, Nervine.

Uses: The Cree Indians called Balsam poplar “metoos” and shredded
the bark, from which they obtained a liquid extract used for coughs.
They also listed it as a wood that burns better than others while still
green. The Blackfoot Indians called it “as-si-tsix-in”, and used the inner
bark in smoking mixtures and as emergency horse food. Franklin
reported that some Indians used the resinous bud to cure snow
blindness. The treatment wasn’t always successful and the application
was extremely painful.

Balm of Gilead is made from the bark of winter buds of the P.

balsamifera and several other poplar species. Dr. Christopher lists this
oily resin as a major cathartic. The bark he lists as cathartic, tonic,
stimulant, diuretic, alterative and expectorant. The virtues of the buds
are the same, according to him but with additional usage as a ne-
phritic, demulcent, emollient, vulnerary, counter-irritant, antirheu-
matic and nutritive.

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Textbook of Modern Herbology, Second Revised Edition

It is greatly laxative, powerfully peristaltic, lubricating, nourishing,

diuretic and healing. For old people, and those whose mucous
membranes have become dry, we know of no remedy that is better or
more promptly beneficial than this one.

In chronic constipation, Balm of Gilead is cleansing, soothing, stimu-

lating, and toning to the lower bowel area. It will be found to be a
most reliable agent in regenerating and healing the intestines. For
internal inflammation it is very soothing and healing to dry and in-
flamed parts. As a soothing expectorant, Balm of Gilead is very effec-
tive in bronchitis.

Made into a compounded ointment or oil, it is extremely valuable for

any skin disease. It is also effective in cleansing the blood and eliminat-
ing the cause of scurvy. The fragrant resinous matter that covers the
buds of this balsam (and other balsams) are easily separated in boiling
water. It is soluble in alcohol, olive, and other oils, but not in cool
water. As is the case with most cathartics, if the expulsive action
comes about too fast, griping pains may result. If this should happen,
ginger root should be added to the mixture.

Many solid testimonials are available in support of Balm of Gilead’s use

for pain relief and the healing of wounds. A “firsthand” example:

I was at a party where cheese was provided as one of the

snacks. I took out a very sharp hunting knife and began to
slice some cheese. Instead of cutting the cheese on the
table, I held it in my hand and sliced through it widthwise.
The cheese cut more easily than I had anticipated and I
accidentally cut deeply into my ring finger. The pain was
excruciating and I quickly shoved the finger into my mouth,
closing the gash with my tongue. I then temporarily left the
party. Fortunately, we were by the river where there was an
abundance of cottonwood poplar. I asked a friend to pick
some winter buds and squeezed the resin from the buds
onto my finger. The pain dissipated almost immediately. This
pain relief was due mostly to the populin.

For a dry cough or sore throat, mix one-half teaspoon of the oil or
ointment with honey and lemon juice, and drink. The oleoresin can be
used internally or externally. When used internally, only small amounts
should be taken. Externally, the balm is soothing to any skin irritation,
cuts, bruises, rashes and pimples.

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 The Colon, Cathartics and Anthelmintics

To make Balm of Gilead take: ➊➊-➋

4 oz. of winter buds of poplar
8 fl. oz. of olive oil

Place it in a Mason jar and set the Mason jar in a pot of

water, simmer for 20 min. or until the buds open up and
rise to surface, whichever is first. Strain. This can be used
as an oil or as an ointment (add beeswax as a thickening
agent.)

I have found Balm of Gilead to be a valuable massage oil

— it is soothing and has the fragrance of a fresh spring
day. For a massage oil, use almond or cocoa butter oil as
the base, as they make it a little less greasy.

Senna Sc Ad

Cassia senna and spp.

Synonyms: Purging Cassia, Ringworm Bush.

Identification: Senna is a small shrub .6-1m

tall, with erect woody, branching stem
which is usually whitish. The leaves are
pinnate with 5-8 pairs of leaflets, 2-3.5 cm
long, 6-10mm wide, lancelate to lance-
ovate, short stout petioles, brittle, pale
grayish-green; order characteristic; taste
mucilaginous, bitter. The flowers are large,
yellow, auxiliary in racemes. The fruit are
few, legumes, 5cm long, 18mm wide,
elliptical, reniform, dark green,
membraneous, smooth, 6-7 celled, ash
coloured seeds.

Parts used: The leaves and seed

pods.

Solvents: Water or alcohol.

Chemical Constituents: The major active ingredient are a group of

glycosides (1.5-3% in leaves; 2-5% in pods) consisting mostly of
sennoside A and B.

Therapeutic Action: Laxative, Vermifuge, Cathartic, antibilious, tonic.

Uses: Senna is a fairly strong cathartic, often causing griping of the

intestinal tract when used. We most often mix three parts senna with
one part ginger when used, other aromatic herbs like anise, caraway or

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Textbook of Modern Herbology, Second Revised Edition

fennel also work. Senna is more likely to become habit-forming than

other cathartics and therefore should only be used for short periods
of time (as in cleansing). Because of its cathartic and vermifuge
qualities it is often used in parasite cleansing programs. The dosage is
10 - 20 grains of powder, 1 - 2 tablespoons of tincture and 1/2-1 cup of
common infusion.

Anthelmintics
Anthelmintics destroy and expel worms from the body. The four
categories of anthelmintics are vermifuges which expel worms from
the body. Vermicides which destroy worms in the body. Taenifuges
which expel tapeworms. Taenicides which kill tapeworms.

Anthelmintics are strong herbal preparations and should be treated as

such by both practitioners and users. For getting rid of pinworms or
other small worms, several days of fasting are appropriate. But when
dealing with tapeworms, or large, deeply imbedded parasites, the story
is different. Dr. Shook suggests eating foods that they don’t “like”, which
will weaken the worms and not the patient. Some of these foods are
onions, garlic, pickles, pumpkin seeds and salt fish.

A Program for Parasites:

The program that I have employed with the most success

employs two major herbs — wormwood and malefern root.
Both of these medicinal herbs are as unpalatable as it is pos-
sible to imagine. Nevertheless, an optimum anthelmintic herb
formula consists of equal parts of wormwood and malefern.
One teaspoon of the mixture should be simmered in a cup of
water for ten minutes. It should be consumed three times per
day for four to six days. It will work in capsule form, but with
only about one-fourth the effectiveness. The formula works
best if taken two days prior to a full moon until four days after.

The afflicted individual should, each night before going to bed,

peel a clove of garlic, coat it with a heavy oil (e.g. olive oil) and
use it as a anal suppository. For the last two days of the pro-
gram, the individual should drink three cups of fennel seed tea
per day. A fennel seed enema is also helpful. Fennel intoxicates
many parasites and in this inebriated state they often leave their
protective “homes” to be annihilated by the wormwood,
malefern or garlic.

It is also advisable to drink two cups of senna and ginger tea

(three parts senna and one part ginger) for the first three days,
and three cups daily for the last three days (prepared as a

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 The Colon, Cathartics and Anthelmintics

common infusion). It is also advisable to eat large amounts of

pumpkin seeds. This program should be repeated for three
successive months. Although this program sounds like some-
thing out of the Dark Ages, it is, in fact, very effective.

Now, with respect to how many people have worms... some herbalists
estimate that 80 - 95% of the population are plagued by parasites. An
unclean colon is a breeding ground for parasites.

Wormwood Sc Ad Ed

Artemisia sp.

Synonyms: Pasture Sagewort.

Identification: Wormwood is an aromatic
dwarf shrub standing ten to forty cm. tall.
The entire plant is silvery-grey and turns
brownish with age. Its leaves are alternate
and deeply pinnate. There are many
species in the Artemis genus which have
similar medicinal effects.

Part Used: whole herb.

Solvents: Water, Alcohol.

Uses: Artemisia frigida — The fruit

seed of all species may be dried
and pounded into meal to make
“pinal” (a North American Indian
bread) or eaten raw. The Hopi
Indians used to roast the leaves
with corn to impart flavour to
them. The crushed leaves of
Artemisia can be mixed with stored meat to maintain a good odour
and the tea made from the leaves is regarded as a remedy for colds,
sore eyes and as a hair tonic.

Leaves of wormwood were chewed by the Blackfoot Indians and

applied to wounds to lessen swelling. Bleeding nostrils were some-
times stuffed with soft leaves by these same Indians to stop the flow of
blood. This herb, which often had the honour of being used as toilet
paper (especially by children), was also used as a foot deodourant.
One of the most important uses of wormwood by the Indians, was its
ritual application. It was used as incense, was put on the floor of sweat
lodges and was added to pemmican to strengthen preservation.

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 Textbook of Modern Herbology, Second Revised Edition

A. absinthium — This herb is valuable for symptoms of internal

bleeding, worms and bad breath. It is also employable as an antidote
for many poisonous mushrooms. In this application, it is usually
combined with vinegar (4 ozs. herb per quart of vinegar.)

The oil of this and other sages is used to make absinthe. Hutchens lists
this herb as a tonic, stomachic, febrifuge, anthelmintic and narcotic. It
will tone digestion and augment liver and gall bladder function. It is
often given to those suffering from travelling sickness (five to thirty
drops of the tincture should be administered three to four times daily.)
Overdose causes stomach irritation. A. absinthium can also be infused
(one teaspoon in one cup of boiling water).

For external use, the oil is good as a liniment for sprains, bruises and
lumbago. Fomentations are excellent in applications for rheumatism,
swellings, sprains and local inflammation. The benefit is partially
derived from the absentin, anabentin, vitamin C and volatile oil con-
tent.

A. vulgaris — a decoction can be made for colds, colic, bronchitis,

rheumatism and fever. The decoction is also safe for suppressing
menstruation and is useful in many female ailments. Dose is one
teaspoon of the herb to one cup boiling water. Steep for twenty
minutes.

A. campestris — Blackfoot women would make a decoction of the

leaves to abort difficult pregnancies. Others would chew the leaves for
stomach troubles. An infusion of the herb was used for coughs. It was
usually dried and stored in rawhide bags until needed. An infusion of
the leaves was sometimes applied for eczema. When this herb was
chewed, the resulting spittle was applied to rheumatic parts. An
infusion of the root was applied to back sores. The leaves were
sometimes chewed for their mentholating properties by runners. This
herb was also sometimes rubbed on hides while tanning.

A. ludoviciana was primarily a ritual herb. The herb itself and the smoke
resulting from burning, were often used for cleansing the body. Sweat
lodges were often lined with this herb which was sometimes rubbed
onto the body. While sweating, Indians would often chew this herb,
and drink an infusion of it to relieve chest and throat constriction.
Because of its cooling effect, the leaves can be applied to blisters and
ruptured boils.

☞ Note: All Artemisia spp. should be avoided during pregnancy.

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 The Colon, Cathartics and Anthelmintics

Malefern Sc Ad

Aspidium filix-mas or Dryopteris filix-mas

Synonyms: Filixmas, Bear’s Paw Root, Male Shield
Fern, Sweet Brake, Knotty Brake.

Identification: This plant has a large perennial,

tufted, scaly rhizome with a 3 - 4 foot fiddlehead
type fern. It becomes erect with oval-lanceolate
pinnates, bright green. The sori are circular in
simple short rows near the midrib.

Part Used: Roots.

Solvents: Water.

Chemical Constituents: Filicin (an oleo-

resin), filicic acid (the chief active prin-
ciple), tannic acid and resin.

Therapeutic Action: Anthelmintic

(taenifuge and vermifuge), astringent,
tonic, and vulnerary.

Uses: Malefern root is very bitter tasting but

is a very effective anthelmintic and espe-
cially as a taenifuge (getting rid of tapeworms). It is most often mixed
with Artemisia, both herbs assisting each other.

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Textbook of Modern Herbology, Second Revised Edition

Pumpkin Seeds
Cucurbita pepo

Therapeutic Action: Anthelmintic

(taenifuge, vermifuge)

Uses: Most worms detest pumpkin

seeds. The part of the seeds most
detrimental to them is the green
coating of the embryo. This
means that they should be eaten
raw. Squash Seeds also work, but
they are not quite as effective.

Summary of Chapter 11
In this chapter we have reviewed the function of the colon and its
typical abnormalities. The five types of cathartic herbs were examined
followed by the four types of anthelmintics.

Recommended Readings
Jensen, B., Tissue Cleansing through Bowel Management, Bernard Jensen Publ.,
Escondido, CA: 1981.
Crook, W.G., The Yeast Connection, Professional Books, Jackson, TN: 1984.
Truss, C.O., The Missing Diagnosis, P.O. Box 26508, Birmingham, AL: 1983.

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 The Nervous System, Nervines and Antispasmodics

The
Nervous
System, 12
Nervines
and
Antispasmodics
Synopsis:

In this chapter, the basic unit of the nervous system (the neuron) is introduced
and the three types are defined. The nervous system is separated into the
central, peripheral and autonomic systems. Each is reviewed and the role of the
brain and spinal cord are discussed. The most common nervine and antispas-
modic herbs are examined in detail: Skullcap, Hops, Valerian, Black Cohosh,
Cramp bark, Lady Slipper Root and Arnica.

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Textbook of Modern Herbology, Second Revised Edition

Table of Contents

Introduction
The Neuron
The Synapse
The Three Subdivisions of the Nervous System
1. Central Nervous System
The Brain
The Spinal Cord
Reflex Action
2. Peripheral Nervous System
3. Autonomic Nervous System
Nervines and Pain
Antispasmodics and Clinical Muscle Flexibility Formula
Skullcap
Hops
Valerian
Black Cohosh
Cramp Bark
Lady Slipper Root
Arnica

List of Tables and Figures

12.1 The Neuron

12.2 The Synapse
12.3 The Brain
12.4 Cross-section of Spinal Cord
12.5 Skullcap
12.6 Hops
12.7 Valerian
12.8 Black Cohosh
12.9 Cramp Bark
12.10 Lady Slipper root
12.11 Arnica

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 The Nervous System, Nervines and Antispasmodics

Introduction

T
he nervous system, and ‘master controller’ of the body, is a
network of specialized tissue that controls the actions and reac-
tions of the body and its adjustment to the environment. It is
adapted for complex behaviour and is responsible for keeping the
various parts of the body and the organs controlling body functions in
touch with each other. The system is affected by events occuring in the
various parts of the body (the internal environment) and also by the
external environment (for example high temperature on a hot day). A
response to any change in either of these two environments will cause
the nervious system to initiate impulses or refrain from initiating im-
pulses.

The Neuron
The smallest structural and functional unit of the nervous system is the
nerve cell or neuron. Neurons are highly specialized and exhibit the
properties of irritability and conductivity, characteristics which relate to
their function of receiving and transmitting messages.

A nerve cell (supported and protected by other cells called neuroglia) is

made up of three parts, each of which has a special function. (see Fig.
12.1.)

➊ Cell Body is irregular in shape, with branches leading from it. Its
function is to regulate the activities of the entire nerve cell.
➋ Axon is a single, long, “insulated” fiber leading from the cell body
and branching at its end. Its function is to relay messages to the
next neuron.
➌ Dendrites are small branches radiating from many sides of the
cell body. They receive stimuli.
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Textbook of Modern Herbology, Second Revised Edition

cell body — controls metabolism of whole unit

dendrite — incoming impulses

axon — main conducting fiber carries outgoing

impulses

nerve ending — motor end-plate

Figure 12.1
The Neuron
Neurons are of various shapes and sizes. Some of them are the largest
cells in the body. If a nerve cell receives considerable damage, it is
typically unable to grow back as other body cells can. Only if the
nucleus remains intact will it be able to regenerate its damaged por-
tions.

The dendrite portion of the nerve cell receives incoming information

while the axon portion transmits information. Messages are transmitted
along a nerve cell by means of Sodium (Na) and Potassium (K) ex-
change. Information “jumps” with the aid of certain minerals and under
hormonal guidance (neural transmitters), from one nerve cell to
another at a point called the synapse. The fastest nerve impulse reaches
a speed of just under 400 feet per second. (see Fig 12.2)

The structural unit of the nervous system is the neuron. Neurons are linked together in the
nervous system.
Nerve process to nerve cell
body at synapse axon — fiber carrying
impulses away from
nerve cell body
dendrites carrying
impulses to nerve
cell body

Nerve process to nerve

process at a synapse

Axon ends in small swellings — end feet — which merely touch the dendrites or body of
another nerve cell, i.e., there is no direct protoplasmic union between neurons at the synapse.

Figure 12.2
The Synapse

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 The Nervous System, Nervines and Antispasmodics

The Synapse
Each neuron usually connects with a great many others, forming a
nerve network, which serves as a “station” for incoming and outgoing
information.

Types of Neurons

There are three types of neurons, each adapted for a particular

function.

Sensory neurons are also called afferent neurons. They receive

stimuli and send a message to the central nervous system.
Motor neurons are also called efferent neurons. They convey
messages away from the central nervous system.
Associative neurons are found in the brain. They interpret the
message and decide what action is to be taken. In other words,
they conduct impulses from sensory neurons to motor neurons.
Some responses are voluntary. Others are involuntary.

The Three Subdivisions of the Nervous System

➊ Central Nervous System (CNS)
➋ Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
➌ Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)
➊ Central Nervous System
The central nervous system is the supervisor of the body’s nervous
activity and is composed of billions of nerve cells and supporting hair-
like glial cells. The glial cells are ten times more numerous than the
nerve cells. The central nervous system is divided into two major parts,
the brain and spinal cord. We will take a brief look at both.

The Brain

The brain, weighing from 2 1/2 to 3 1/4 pounds in adults, and enveloped
within 3 membranes called the meninges, is the mass of nerve tissue
situated in the skull. It is a collection of nerve centres, each a "central
station" for some part of the body. Nerves connect the parts of the body
with their particular centres. Leaving the brain, the individual nerves are
bundled together into the spinal cord, which passes down through the
opening in the center of the spinal column, branching off to all parts
and organs of the body. Sensory nerves feed information electrochemi-
cally to the brain from every external and internal part of the body. The
brain then evaluates the data and sends directives via the motor nerve
cells to muscles and glands, causing them to take the appropiate action.
The brain is able to control both conscious activity (such as walking a
tightrope) and unconscious activity (e.g., breathing).
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Textbook of Modern Herbology, Second Revised Edition

cerebral hemisphere
parietal lobe
thalamus — relay centres for corpus callosum
sensation, pain appreciated fornix
here.
occipital lobe

cerebellum — centres concerned

with balance and equilibrium.
Important tracts link it with other parts
of brain and spinal cord.
corpora quadrigemina
pons
frontal lobe medulla oblongata

hypothalamus — contains centres for

autonomic nervous system, e.g. control
of
heart, blood pressure, temperature,
metabolism, etc.

Figure 12.3
Brain

The nerve fibers of the brain are sheathed in myelin and form the grey
matter. The convoluted and lobed brain is divided into three areas. The
forebrain, midbrain and hindbrain are, in turn, subdivided. Neuro-
anatomy is an extremely complex subject at the advanced levels but is a
fascinating study if you have interest.

The Spinal Cord

The 1/2 inch thick and 17 inch long spinal cord is the second compo-
nent of the CNS and is continuous with the medulla oblongata. It
passes within the hollow interior of the series of vertebrae that form the
spinal column. Enclosed by three protective meninges and bathed by a
fluid called the cerebrospinal fluid (like the brain), the spinal cord
extends from the first cervical vertebra (the atlas) to roughly the first
lumbar vertebra, at which point it begins to taper off into a threadlike
structure called the cauda equina.

The double-layered spinal cord (the outer layer consisting of white

matter and the inner of grey matter) can be compared to an electric
cable containing many wires (nerves) which connect the parts of the
body to each other and to the brain. Messages are constantly relayed to
and from the brain via this “cable”.

Observe in Figure 12.4 a cross-sectional diagram of the various parts of

the spinal cord. As mentioned earlier under our discussion on neurons,
nerves going towards the CNS are afferent (or sensory) nerves. They

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 The Nervous System, Nervines and Antispasmodics

come in through the posterior root. Nerves going away from the CNS
are efferent (or motor) nerves. They leave via the anterior root.

Reflex Action

The knee-jerk phenomenon is a well-known example of reflex action.

The patella tendon (below the kneecap) is tapped and a message is
relayed via an afferent nerve to the grey matter of the spinal cord. From
there a message is sent via an efferent nerve, causing the leg to jump.

Basically, the CNS is under conscious control and simple reflexes such
as the one just cited are mediated directly by the CNS. Many reflexes can
be overridden by the brain. A good example of this is getting a needle.
We consciously control our reflex action because we know that the
needle is important and worth the pain.

white matter — contains ascending descending posterior horns — contain

nerve fibers travelling to nerve tract nerve tract cells which synapse with
and from brain and also (to brain) (from brain) ingoing (afferent) nerves whose
linking various parts of the cell bodies lie in the posterior
cord itself root ganglia outside the cord.
sensory
central canal nerve
posterior root
ganglia
grey matter —
contains nerve cell
bodies
motor
spinal nerve
anterior horns — cord
contain cell bodies
whose fibers carry connector
outgoing (efferent) or nerve
motor messages to The posterior sensory fibers travel
voluntary muscles. with the anterior or motor fibers in the
same spinal nerve.

Figure 12.4
Cross-Section of the Spinal Cord

➋ The Peripheral Nervous System

The peripheral nervous system consists of a series of nerves — some
sensory, some motor, and some mixed (both sensory and motor) —
extending from the brain and spinal cord. It is the means by which the
CNS is linked with all parts of the body.

There are twelve paired cranial nerves (the olfactory, optic, oculamotor,
trochlear, trigeminal, abducent, facial, auditory, glosso-pharyngeal,
vagus, spinal accessory and hypoglossal) — the first four issuing from
the cerebrum and the last eight from the hindbrain — and the thirty-one
paired spinal nerves (eight cervical, twelve thoracic, five lumbar, five

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Textbook of Modern Herbology, Second Revised Edition

sacral and one coccygeal) which branch and branch further until all the
tissues of the body are reached.

The cranial nerves primarily control the activities of the structures of

the head and neck. The vagus nerves control the organs. The oculomo-
tor nerves serve the skeletal muscles and skin of the trunk and limbs of
the body.

➌ The Autonomic Nervous System

When we climb stairs our muscles are under conscious control and
receive orders from the brain via the nerves of the peripheral nervous
system. We are not conscious, however, of what our pancreas, liver or
spleen is doing while we are climbing. The autonomic nervous system,
then, is that part of the nervous system that (normally) operates without
voluntary control. It is comprised of efferent (motor) neurons which
transmit directions to glands, certain organs, and smooth muscles — in
short, the viscera. It affects secretion of digestive juices, gastrointestinal
motility, constriction of blood vessels, urinary output, body temperature
and heart rate. Its main function is to maintain a homeostasis of the
internal environment.

The autonomic nervous system has two major divisions: the sympa-
thetic nervous system and the parasympathetic nervous system. The
sympathetic nervous system arises from all the thoracic segments and
from the first three lumbar segments of the spinal cord and consists of a
double chain of ganglia running down both sides of the spinal column
from the base of the skull to the coccyx. The ganglia are joined to one
another and to the spinal cord by nerves and are the source themselves
of nerves to all of the internal organs. The sympathetic nervous system
forms three main plexi: the cardiac plexus, the solar plexus and the
hypogastric plexus.

The parasympathetic nervous system arises from specific cranial nerves

(the third, seventh, ninth, and tenth) and from the second, third, and
fourth segments of the spinal cord. A given structure or organ is sup-
plied by both the sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions, and, with
only a few exceptions, the effects of one system tend to counteract the
effects of the other.

Generally, the sympathetic nervous system stimulates organic activity,

preparing the body for “flight or fight” (by increasing the heart rate and
causing adrenalin release), while the parasympathetic nervous system
checks activities, counteracting the effects of the former, and is involved
in “repose and repair”. This dual innervation is analogous to having a
car with both brakes and an accelerator. Greater control is the result.

224 Copyright © 1993, Wild Rose College of Natural Healing Ltd.

 The Nervous System, Nervines and Antispasmodics

Some examples:

➊ The sympathetic nervous system innervates the heart and is

responsible for decreasing its rate of action.
➋ The sympathetic nervous system innervates the small intestine,
reducing contraction of smooth muscles within the intestinal
wall. The parasympathetic nervous system has the opposite
effect - it innervates to stimulate contraction.

As we have seen, the basic relationship between elements of the

nervous system is as follows: sensory nerve, synapsing with a connector
nerve, synapsing with a motor nerve to cause an action on an area of
tissue (a simple reflex arc). There are three areas to consider in
“troubleshooting” a problem in the nervous system.

➊ The threshold level of sensory reception,

➋ synaptic transmission from one nerve to the next, and
➌ how the stimulated tissue functions.
All involve electrolyte balance and neurotransmitters. An adequate
supply of calcium ions are necessary and a good balance between
potassium and sodium. Determining overall contraction and relaxation
is also useful for determining which type of nervine should be used. This
can usually be determined by muscle state (i.e., if the muscles are too
tense or too relaxed). The intestinal tract is one of the clearest indicators
of the state of the autonomic nervous system. A spastic colon means
that the sympathetic is overfiring (and/or parasympathetic underfiring)
and a ballooned colon means the opposite.

Nervines and Pain

The thing we must keep in mind when dealing with nervines and pain is
that pain exists for a reason. Taking a botanical for pain relief contrib-
utes more to the body than use of a substance like aspirin.

We should seek the cause of this pain and do what we can to relieve it
in more direct ways. For example, if a large foreign object gains entry
into the bowel and becomes a cause of inflammation there, a demul-
cent and a diffusive relaxant are indicated. As another example, if a
kidney stone is present, the appropriate means of dissolving and
eliminating it should be employed.

Nervines

Nervines are natural substances which work to tone and strengthen the
nerves. Their function is to feed, regulate, strengthen and rehabilitate
nerve cells. There are two types of nervines — stimulant nervines and
sedative nervines.

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Textbook of Modern Herbology, Second Revised Edition

A good general rule in using nervines for pain is as follows:

➊ For pain from acute irritation, use remedies of a relaxing nature.

➋ For pain resulting from a sudden accumulation of blood in a
congested area, use remedies combining relaxing and stimulat-
ing properties.
➌ For pain from the approach of gangrene, use stimulating rem-
edies of a powerful nature, both internally and externally.

Antispasmodics and Clinical Muscle Flexibility Formula

Antispasmodics are herbal agents indicated where there is excessive
contraction (spasm) of voluntary or involuntary muscles: cramps,
convulsions, etc. These agents are useful in all situations when the
nerves fail to function with freedom and regularity. Antispasmodics
work by stimulating the higher nervous co-ordinating centre or by
depressing nerve flow to the area. They also act to strengthen deranged
nerve condition.

Clinical Muscle Flexibility Formula ➊➋-➊

4 pts. Kava kava root Piper methysticum
2 pts. Cramp bark Viburnum opulus
2 pts. Cayenne Pepper Capsicum minimum
1 pt. Ginger root Zingiber sp.
1 pt. Lobelia herb Lobelia inflata
1 pt. Red Clover blossoms Trifolium pratense

The primary ingredient in this formula is kava kava root, the most
powerful herbal muscle relaxant known. Working on the motor units
(the point of muscle-nerve coordination), kava kava increases general
flexibility, releasing soft tissue tension and helping to maintain correct
structural alignment. Cayenne increases blood flow to speed healing of
injured tissues while cramp bark is specific for cramping of any kind.
Ginger combines antispasmodic and stimulant characteristics to carry
the active ingredients to the afflicted area. Lobelia is a powerful nervine
and antispasmodic which reduces pain and alleviates tension due to
overexertion or injuries. Red clover blossoms help to clean impurities
from the blood and tissues while acting as a light stimulant and antis-
pasmodic.

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 The Nervous System, Nervines and Antispasmodics

Skullcap Sc Ed

Scutellaria lateriflora and S.

galericulata
Synonyms: Scullcap, Pempernel,
Helmet Flower, Maddog,
Madweed.

Identification: Skullcap is a
perennial herb with rhizomes. It
has a slender square stem 1 to 8
cm. tall. The flowers are blue
and, rarely, pink or white, and
have a helmet-like appearance.
S. galericulata has a solitary
flower on the leaf axil whereas S.
lateriflora (preferred by most
practitioners) has axillary
racemes. The leaves are oblong-
lanceolate to ovate.

Parts Used: The entire herb,

which is best picked and
dried in June.
Solvents: Dilute alcohol, boiling water.

Chemical Constituents: Scutellarin (C 10H8O3), scutellarein, volatile oil,

tannin, sugar, calcium phosphate, potassium phosphate, magnesium
phosphate and the sulphates of each.

Therapeutic Action: Nervine, Tonic, Antispasmodic, slightly astringent

and somewhat diuretic.

Uses: Skullcap is considered by many practitioners to be the best

nervine. It acts principally through the cerebrospinal centres and
sympathetic nervous system to control most nervous irritations. It is
reported in many published works to be a specific for hydrophobia
(rabies).

Skullcap is quite remarkable for its effects in spasmodic afflictions

such as St. Vitus’s Dance (involuntary jerking motion), epilepsy, etc. It
quiets the nerves in neurasthenia (a disease following depression in
which the individual suffers from chronic exhaustion). Skullcap is also
used in cases of insomnia, excitability, restlessness, hysteria, rickets
and poisonous bites (both insect and snake). Skullcap will strengthen,
support and quiet the entire nervous system. Skullcap is often used for
nervous headache, especially if it arises from incessant coughing. For
severe hiccups, 1 to 3 grains of the dried extract is effective. Reports
indicate that skullcap has antiarthritic and anti-inflammatory effects as
well.

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 Textbook of Modern Herbology, Second Revised Edition

Overdose of the tincture causes giddiness, stupour, confusion and

twitching of the limbs (proper dose is 1/2 to 1 teaspoonful). Aging
degrades skullcap preparations quickly. They should be discarded
after each year. Here are some excellent formulas using skullcap.

For weakness of the heart: ➊➋-➋

Tincture of Skullcap 3 to 15 drops
Tincture of Goldenseal 7 to 10 drops
Tincture of Capsicum 2 to 4 drops
Tincture of Reishi 10 to 20 drops

Take in warm water as often as required.

➊➋-➌
For insomnia or exhaustion whether due to overwork
or alcoholism, the following formula is recommended:

Tincture of Skullcap 2 to 12 drops

Tincture of Passion Flower 15 to 40 drops
Tincture of Valerian 5 to 10 drops

Take in water every 3 hours.

☞ IMPORTANT: Skullcap should never be boiled.

Hops Sc Ad

Humulus lupulus

Synonyms: Humulus, Lupulus.

Identification: Hops is a dioecious

perennial. The stem is rough, very long
and twists around supports. The leaves
are opposite, serrated and cordate. The
flowers are yellowish green.

Parts Used: The fruit, strobiles

(cone-like catkins) and flowers.

Solvents: Boiling water, diluted

alcohol.

Chemical Constituents: Lupulic

acid, (C 22H50O7); lupuline, humulol,
choline (C 5H15NO2), flavonoids and
others.
Therapeutic Action: Nervine (sedative), Tonic, Diuretic, Hypnotic and
anthelmintic.

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 The Nervous System, Nervines and Antispasmodics

Uses: Hops has the ability to increase the heart action and capillary
circulation but at the same time induce sleep. It is a soothing nerve
tonic, especially for excited cerebral conditions. It is often used to
soothe throat and stomach areas, relieving pain and also acting as a
tonic to these areas.

Hops acts on calculi, dissolving them and also increasing urine

production. For some types of liver problems (such as jaundice), hops
augments bile secretion, which is relaxing to both the liver and gall
bladder. The fluid extract has often been added to or used as a cough
syrup.

For nervous exhaustion the tincture has been found to be of great

value. A pillow of hops, sprinkled with alcohol, has been used very
successfully in insomnia. Both tea and tincture of hops seem effective
for such cases. To help in cases of swelling, hops, chamomile and
poppy heads are mixed into a poultice which is effective even for
rheumatism. To allay excessive sexual desire (as in nymphomania),
hops has been known to be very effective. Hops is also often used as a
relaxing enema.

Valerian Sc Ad Ed

Valeriana officinalis

Synonyms: Setwell, Capon’s Tail, All-heal.

Identification: There are many species

in the Valeriana genus. The conical
rootstock or erect rhizome will often
develop for several years before the
plant sends up a flowering stem. The
stem has slender horizontal branches
with terminal buds that have aerial
shoots or stolons which can produce
(asexually) new plant roots (like
spider plants or strawberries). The
main stem attains a height of 3 - 4 feet,
is round, hollow, grooved and hairy,
especially at the base. The inflores-
cences are terminal with two or more
pairs of flowing stems, each pair
placed at right angles to those above
and below them in cymes. The flowers
are pink-blue appearing from June to
September. The leaves are arranged in
pairs, united at the base, with a series
of lance-shaped pinnate segments 2 -
3 inches long. The margins have a few
coarsely cut teeth.

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 Textbook of Modern Herbology, Second Revised Edition

Parts Used: The Root.

Solvent: Water, alcohol.

Chemical Constituents: The chief chemicals are valerianine and

chatarine, valepotriates, valeric acid, volatile oils, beta-sitosterol and
tannins.

Therapeutic Action: Antispasmodic, Nervine, stimulant, tonic, carmina-

tive and anti-diuretic.

Uses: Valerian has a marked influence on the cerebrospinal system and

is employed as a sedative of the higher nerve centres for afflictions
such as St. Vitus’s Dance, nervous unrest, neuralgic pain, epileptic fits,
hysteria (especially female), restlessness and wakefulness.

It is suggested for cases of heart palpitation because it slows down the

heart rate while increasing the strength of the beats. It also is used for
circulatory problems and to stimulate the stomach and intestinal
motility. Valerian is often used for hypochondria. It has an unpleasant
odour which is often masked by essence of aniseed.

For children with measles, scarlet fever, and other diseases which
induce restlessness, a simple infusion of 2 tablespoons taken 2 to 3
times daily will be of benefit. Valerian is also antibacterial.

☞ NOTE: Though small ordinary doses of valerian root are good, large
doses taken over a period of time cause headache, heaviness and
stupour. Valerian root should never be boiled.

Black Cohosh Sc

Cimicifuga racemosa
Synonyms: Black Snake Root, Squaw Root,
Rattle Root, Bugbane.

Identification: Black Cohosh is a perennial

plant growing in eastern North America and
is cultivated in Europe. The dark brown roots
are attached to underground rhizomes that
are bluntly quadrangular and furrowed. The
stem is slender and unbranched, 1.5 - 2.5 m
tall. The palmately compound leaves have
incised leaflets. It flowers from June to July
with regular, numerous, small white
racemes 20 - 50 cm long, having a peculiar
scent.

Parts Used: The Root.

Solvents: Boiling Water, alcohol.

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 The Nervous System, Nervines and Antispasmodics

Chemical Constituents: Cimicifugin, a volatile oil, triterpenes, tannin,

phosphates and sulphates.

Therapeutic Action: Nervine, Emmenagogue, Tonic, Antispasmodic,

alterative, diuretic, expectorant.

Uses: Black Cohosh is well regarded as both a nervine and as a specific

for female problems. Its roots are often used for their antispasmodic
and alterative properties. They are employed in many nerve formulas,
for epilepsy, for soothing local pain, for headaches and for alleviating
nervous excitement.

A very famous formula is B&B tincture, which is ➊➋-➍

regarded as one of Dr. Christopher’s best:

Equal Parts
Blue Vervain }
Black Cohosh } Nervines & Antispasmodics
Blue Cohosh }
Skullcap — for the central nervous system
Lobelia — The “thinking” herb

Take four ounces of the above and make a tincture in 1

quart of alcohol.

I have found this formula valuable for hiccups, ear infections and
medulla oblongata damage, and especially when medulla damage is
caused by abuse of hallucinogenic drugs. It is also useful for asthma,
whooping cough and chorea.

Black Cohosh is no doubt a most valuable agent for pelvic distur-

bance. For female problems it is one of our best emmenagogues (an
emmenagogue is a herbal agent which is effective for female com-
plaints).

In uterine troubles it is effective in relieving a delayed menstrual flow.

Both the infusion and decoction of black cohosh have been success-
fully used for treating rheumatic pain, especially in the pelvic area. The
root was used by the Indians as an antidote for poison and snake bite.

Black cohosh is a mild cardiac tonic, especially for fatty hearts. It

slightly lowers the heart rate while it increases the force of the pulse
and equalizes the circulation. Black Cohosh has a stimulating effect on
the secretion of the liver, spleen and lymphatic system. It has often
been employed for nervousness and the afterpains of delivery.

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 Textbook of Modern Herbology, Second Revised Edition

Dosage:

Fluid extract: 5 - 30 drops

Infusion: 1 teaspoon every 30 minutes to 3 tablespoons every 3
hours.
Powder: 5 grains — 3 times daily
Solid extract: 1 - 3 grains
Syrup: 1 dessert - teaspoonful to 1 tablespoon, 3 - 4 times daily.
Tincture: 1/2 - 1 fluid dram

☞ Note: Large doses of black cohosh produce vertigo, tremours,

vomiting, prostration and reduced pulse.

Cramp bark Sc

Viburnum opulus
Synonyms: Highbush Cranberry, Guelder
Rose, Snowball Tree.

Identification: Cramp bark is a small tree

or shrub 1 - 4 m high. It has grey bark.
The trilobed leaves are ovate and
coarsely toothed. The flowers manifest in
flat-topped cymes. The fruit is orange to
red (sometimes white) and quite acidic.

Parts Used: The bark, with the inner

bark being preferable.

Solvents: Water, dilute alcohol.

Chemical Constituents: The berries

are rich in vitamin C, vitamin K and
viburn. The bark contains viburnine, vibutnin, tannin and valerianic
acid.

Therapeutic Action: Antispasmodic, Nervine, Tonic, Relaxant, diuretic,

expectorant, astringent.

Uses: Cramp bark is esteemed for its ability to relieve abdominal cramps
due to intestinal disturbance. It is also one of the best relievers of
cramps due to female problems - it relaxes the uterus and quiets
excessive ovarian action. It is often used to prevent abortion due to
nervous afflictions. Cramp bark has general application in all spas-
modic conditions and is recognized in the National Formulary as a
specific antispasmodic for asthma and hysteria.

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 The Nervous System, Nervines and Antispasmodics

Cramp bark has been successfully used in cases of fits, convulsion,

fainting, neuralgia and lockjaw.

For relieving cramps in pregnancy, the following ➊➋-➎

formula is recommended:

2 parts Cramp bark

1 part Squaw Vine
1 part Wild Yam
1 part Blue Cohosh

Thoroughly mix one ounce of the ingredients in one

quart of boiling water. Infuse for 20 minutes tightly
covered, strain, and sweeten if necessary.

Externally, the berries can be used to control a local inflammation

accompanied by a high fever. The following program has been highly
successful in the treatment of menstrual cramps. We start the pro-
gram as soon as it is known that menses is about to occur. If we can
start it a day early, all the better.

➊ 200-400 mg. of calcium with 100-200 mg. of magnesium taken 2

or 3 times daily.
➋ Multi-mineral -- 2 tablets twice daily
➌ Mag. Phos. tissue salt (5 drops- 4x daily or 4 tablets-4x daily)
➍ The following formula:

3 parts Cramp Bark

2 parts Blessed thistle
2 parts Ginger

This formula can be taken either as an infusion (the dosage being

1 teaspoon per cup and 2 to 10 cups daily), or in capsule form
(the dosage here being 2 capsules - 2 to 10 times daily).
➎ Apply pressure to a pressure point located four finger’s width
above the inside ankle bone (3 Yin point) on either leg; press
firmly for 2 to 5 minutes.

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Textbook of Modern Herbology, Second Revised Edition

Lady Slipper root Sc Ed

Cypripedium pubescens
A Blackfoot Legend

Once upon a time there was a young, lively daughter of a great

Indian chieftain. One day while playing far away from her camp,
she chanced upon a rabbit. She quickly noticed that the rabbit was
sobbing, for it had injured its foot and was unable to make the long
journey home. Feeling sorry for one of God’s little creatures, she
took off her moccasins and gave them to the rabbit, knowing that it
could now make its long journey without discomfort.

As it was now growing late, the child herself also had to return
home. Not long after she started, she realized that the sharp stones
of the path were the cause of the rabbit’s pain. Her own tender feet
became torn and bleeding now that she no longer had her
moccasins to protect them. Tiring quickly from the pain, she soon
sank to the ground in exhaustion and entered into a deep sleep.
Before long a songbird came by. Seeing the girl’s bleeding feet, he
sorrowfully petitioned the Great Spirit in the sky to come to the aid
of the young maiden, and then vanished into the forest.

Upon awakening, the little Indian princess saw hanging on two

slender stems beside her the most beautiful pair of lady slipper
moccasins you’ve ever seen. She slipped her bleeding feet into
them and quickly made her way home, running along so happily.
She told her fascinating story to her mother and father, who
believed her every word — and they all lived happily ever after.

And just in case you have trouble

believing this story, take a peek inside
a Yellow Lady Slipper orchid some-
time. You’ll see a reddish purple spot
and a few scarlet lines. Undoubtedly,
the marks left from our little
princess’s injured feet.
Synonyms: Nerve Root, Noah’s Ark, Yellow
Lady Slipper Root, American Valerian,
Moccasin Flower.

Identification: These orchids are 15 to 25 cm

tall with variously coloured, very beautiful
flowers. The leaves are alternate and sheath
the stem. The roots are thick, creeping and
fibrous. This rare plant is found deep in
somewhat moist wooded areas. It is rapidly
becoming an endangered species primarily
due to its popularity as a bouquet flower. In
the wild, it is definitely endangered so don’t
pick it unless necessary.

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 The Nervous System, Nervines and Antispasmodics

Parts Used: The root and rootlet.

Solvents: Boiling water and dilute alcohol.

Chemical Constituents: Cypripedin, tannic and gallic acids.

Therapeutic Action: Nervine, Tonic, Antispasmodic, Relaxant, stimulant,

diaphoretic, diuretic.

Uses: Because of the endangered status of this herb, we don’t use it

except for the few rare cases where we can assure the source of the
herb is a cultivated crop. I have kept this herb in this edition for
historical reasons and in the hope that more cultivation will reduce
the pressure on the wild plants.

The root of Lady Slipper is “Nature’s Tranquillizer”, calming and easing

one’s mind. It has been used with good results for reflex functional
disorders, cholera, hysteria, nervous headache, insomnia, low fevers,
nervous unrest, undernutrition of nerve centres, hypochondria and
the nervous depression accompanying stomach disorders.

For the treatment of depression, it is best combined with chamomile

(Anthemis nobilis). It is also valuable for headache, St. Vitus’s Dance
and other nervous disorders. To make an effective infusion, pour one
pint of boiling water over five tablespoons of Lady Slipper Root, pour it
off and steep for one hour.

Lady Slipper Root was an official drug in the USP 1916 - 1963, and the
NF (1916-36). As Lady Slipper is non-poisonous and perfectly safe, it
may be taken in larger doses when necessary.

This valuable herb is employed in many formulas because of its

benefical effects.

At the commencement of labour, if the nervous ➊➋-➏

system is tired, Lady Slipper Root, raspberry leaves
and ginger will relieve the rigidity of the uterus and
calm nervous irritability. The following formula should
be employed:

3 parts Lady Slipper root

2 parts Raspberry
1 part Ginger powder

Infuse one ounce of the mixture in one pint of boiling

water and administer a wineglassful every hour. If
more stimulation is needed, add one-half part
Capsicum (cayenne).

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Textbook of Modern Herbology, Second Revised Edition

Arnica Sc Ad Ed

Arnica montana

Synonyms: Leopardsbane, Mountain

Arnica, Mountain tobacco, Wolfbane.

Identification: This common perennial

herb is typically from 30 to 60 cm tall
and has bright yellow flower heads
which can manifest singly or in
numbers. The leaves are opposite,
simple and can be either entire or
toothed. The root stalk is ascending or
horizontal. The stalkless pappus is hair-
like with white or brown bristles.

Part Used: Flower head.

Solvents: boiling water and

alcohol.
Chemical Constituents: volatile oil, arnicin, helenalin, steroids, luteine
and carotenoids.

Therapeutic Action: Lust lists arnica as diaphoretic, emollient, diuretic,

expectorant, stimulant and vulnerary.

Uses: Large amounts of this herb taken internally may be poisonous. So,
although a small amount can be taken internally, one should be
cautious. Internally, it is valuable for mental and physical shock, pain
and swelling, dental extraction, sprain of joints, fractured bones,
headache and concussion. Recovery from these problems is better
with arnica than with morphine. Take no more then five drops of
tincture every three to four hours. Some doctors have used arnica for
internal bleeding and inflammation of the mouth and throat. Except in
emergencies, arnica should not be used internally without medical
direction. Note, however, that homeopathic arnica is quite safe for
internal use.

Externally, arnica is used as a tincture or salve, and promotes the

healing of wounds, bruises, sprains and irritation. When the surface
skin is broken, it will stop pain but should be diluted tenfold. The strong
tincture can cause blistering if applied. As a poultice or compress, the
infusion is useful and the compress can be placed on the stomach to
successfully relieve abdominal pains.

While feeding some Clydesdale draft horses one day, a friend of mine
was kicked in the leg. These horses are a famous breed known for their
strength and size. Their hooves are the size of a big dinner plate and a
kick from them is very severe. On applying arnica tincture, the swell-
ing, pain and much of the bruising was relieved. It was necessary to

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 The Nervous System, Nervines and Antispasmodics

apply the tincture every two to three hours. A salve can be made by
heating one ounce of the flower with one ounce of cold-pressed olive
oil in a water bath (i.e., double-boiler) for a few hours. Strained, it is
good for chapped lips, inflamed nostrils, bruises, joint pain, skin rash
and acne.

Dosage:

Tincture Preparation — 250 gm. (flowers) It is best if fresh flowers are

used. If they are, increase the amount to 500 gms. 1000 ml. Ethyl
Alcohol (45%). Use 1 to 6 drops to a cup of water, 2 to 3 times daily.
Tincture of the root contains 50 gm root with 1000 ml. Ethyl Alcohol
(70%).

A Liniment: Tincture of Arnica (250 ml.)

200 gm of hard soap
50 gm camphor
1000 ml of alcohol (90%)

Infusion: Infuse one teaspoon of the flowers to one-half cup of

boiling water. Administer three times a day for diaphoretic,
diuretic and expectorant action.

External Wash: Steep two heaping teaspoons of flowers in one cup

of boiling water. Use cold.

Summary of Chapter 12
The basic unit of the nervous system, the neuron, has three major types,
afferent, efferent and associative. The major physical units of the
nervous system are the brain and the spinal cord. The nervous system is
divided into three functioning units: the central nervous system, the
peripheral and the autonomic nervous system (containing the sympa-
thetic and parasympathetic subsystems). The chapter concluded with
herbs noted for their qualities as nervines and antispasmodics.

Recommended Readings

Williams, R.J. and D.K. Kalita, A Physician's Handbook on Orthomolecular Medicine,

Pergamon Press, NY: 1977.

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 Defence Systems, Alteratives and Antiscorbutics

The Defence
Systems of
the Body, 13
Alteratives and
Antiscorbutics
Synopsis:

In this chapter, we will examine the four first-line defence mechanisms of the
body and the six secondary defence mechanisms of the body. The natural healing
principles behind alteratives are discussed and a list of alterative and antiscor-
butic herbs are reviewed in detail: Chapparal, Sassafras, Burdock, Red Clover,
Garlic, Echinacea.

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Textbook of Modern Herbology, Second Revised Edition

Table of Contents

Introduction
The Body’s Four Primary Defence Mechanisms
The Epithelium/Skin
Coughing and Sneezing
Stomach Acidity
The Body's Flora and Fauna
The Body’s Six Secondary Defence Mechanisms
Phagocytes
Lymphatic blood cleansing
Immune System
Fever
Pain
Coagulation
Alteratives and Antiscorbutics
Clinical Cleansing Formula
Chapparal
Sassafras
Burdock Root
Red Clover Blossoms
Garlic
Echinacea

List of Tables and Figures

13.1 Phagocytosis
13.2 Schematic of Antigens-Antibodies
13.3 Chapparal
13.4 Sassafras
13.5 Burdock Root
13.6 Red Clover Blossoms
13.7 Garlic
13.8 Echinacea

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 Defence Systems, Alteratives and Antiscorbutics

Introduction

T
he human body has a multifaceted defence system. The four “First
Line” defence mechanisms are:

➊ The epithelium/skin
➋ the coughing and sneezing response
➌ stomach acidity
➍ the body’s internal natural flora and fauna.

The Epithelium/Skin
The skin acts as a solid protective barrier between the unpredictable
outside world and the internal machinery of the body.

In defining the skin, we include the “skin” covering the outer body as
well as the “skin” (epithelial tissue) lining the entire intestinal tract. The
intestinal tract is also a barrier against the outside world (substances,
whether food or otherwise, which are in the intestinal canal, are still
external to the body proper).

This defence mechanism is usually a good barrier unless it becomes

either cut or perforated allowing “intruders” entry into the venous or
lymphatic system. Our skin harbours many “friendly” bacteria, some of
which act to protect us while others assist nutrient creation (such as
vitamin D).

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Coughing and Sneezing

We discussed coughing and sneezing briefly under “The Respiratory
System”. Dust and bacteria that enter via the nose and/or mouth and
that gain even further penetration into the respiratory system become
entrapped within the mucus, which serves as their prison while the cilia
slowly lash them upward and outward. If more dramatic remedial
action is required, the body may trigger a cough or sneeze. It is interest-
ing to note that the velocity of a sneeze may peak at 75 - 100 mph.
Continued, persistent coughing will eventually reduce the effectiveness
of this defence mechanism.

Stomach Acidity
Bacteria and some viruses that are swallowed are subject to the acidic
environment of the stomach. If all is functioning well, the hydrochloric
acid (HCl) will quickly kill most of them.

The Body’s Flora and Fauna

We have a normal flora throughout the body as protection. It is found
within the mouth, ears, vagina, colon, urinary system and on the skin.
Under healthful conditions, one or more normal bacterial types are in
each of these areas, imparting their protection. In the mouth alone,
there are over fifteen! Strong broad–spectrum antibiotics destroy these
helpful flora while attacking an infection. The result may be a serious
“rebound” infection afterwards.

Herpes simplex (cold sores around the mouth and genital areas)
furnish a good example of this phenomenon. The traditional allopathic
approach in treating herpes is to administer an antibiotic. The patient
will typically find, to their regret, that this therapy is of very limited benefit
(and the medical doctors will usually account for this poor result by
stating that “this particular strain must be immune to antibiotics”).
Bacteria and viruses (micro-organisms) grow, reproduce and die very
quickly. Sometimes the entire life cycle will last twenty minutes. This
brief life cycle allows micro-organisms to mutate variations within a
population which are resistant to antibiotics. Some species have even
evolved into forms which can feed on antibiotics.

Antibiotic treatment is the wrong approach. Broad-spectrum antibiotics

destroy virtually all micro-organisms, both helpful and harmful. The
herpes simplex virus can often be checked if a healthy floral environ-
ment (made up of normal, natural bacteria) are present. For example,
Lactobacillus acidophilus will create an acidic environment and in so
doing, create an environment in which herpes finds it impossible to
multiply. Rather than antibiotics, the patient is far wiser to take two to six
acidophilus tablets daily, and do an acidophilus enema and/or douche.

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 Defence Systems, Alteratives and Antiscorbutics

In addition, plenty of physical exercise (e.g., jogging) will also tempo-

rarily increase the acidity (lactic acid) of the groin area, thereby decreas-
ing the prospect for herpes expansion. Concurrently, yogurt acidophi-
lus cream can be used as a surface ointment on sores. This natural
healing approach is a form of “biological warfare”. We employ the
services of organisms that maintain a healthy environment for one type
of life, while at the same time keeping it unhealthy for another.

This defence mechanism, as it operates in our body, is truly something

to behold. In fact, cells in the human body that are of non-human origin
outnumber those that are. In other words, the combined total of the
cells of both helpful and non-helpful organisms is greater than the
number of cells produced by our own body!

The Body’s Six Secondary Defence Mechanisms

The body’s second line of defence is made up of:

➊ Phagocytes ➍ Fever
➋ Lymphatic blood cleansing ➎ Pain
➌ The Immune System ➏ Coagulation

Phagocytes
Phagocytes are specialized cells that ingest harmful particles, such as
bacteria or pollutants (see Fig. 13.1), and then excrete enzymes that
destroy them. Although there are many types of phagocytes, the two

In this diagram, the phagocytes are seen ingesting and breaking down particles and bacteria in
the body fluids. Notice that the cell nuclei in phagocytic cells are often broken up because of the
constant ingestion of these particles and shifting of the cell wall.

Figure 13.1
Phagocytosis

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Textbook of Modern Herbology, Second Revised Edition

main types are ➊ Neutrophils and ➋ Macrophages.

Certain phagocytes are mobile within the bloodstream, exhibiting

amoeboid action. Others, typically the macrophages, maintain con-
stant vigilance from the walls of the veins and arteries (though prima-
rily in the lymphatic system) and especially at the site of the lymph
nodes. After the intruder has been destroyed, its “debris” is removed
from the blood system and eliminated from the body. Phagocytes are
destroyed by many pharmaceutical drugs.

Lymphatic Cleansing of the Blood

There are several stationary phagocytes which line the lymphatic
system. These protectors are also found in high concentration in the
liver, spleen (both specialized lymphatic tissue) and lymph nodes.

The liquid or plasma portion of the blood, plus many foreign bodies
(either floating free or entrapped with phagocytes), are routed into the
lymphatic system at the capillary level. The lymphatic vessel then
collects this material. En route to the bloodstream, the lymph goes
through many nodes which act as filters.

When the lymph nodes are infected, they enlarge. We are sometimes
able to see infection spreading via the lymphatic system — an infec-
tion in the hand may be the source of a “red stripe” which radiates up
the arm, extending into the axillary area where we may witness its
result: swollen glands.

The Immune System

The body’s immune system is truly amazing and so complex that we
will just touch the surface of it in study. The immune system illustrates
the remarkable ability of the body to distinguish the self from the non-
self. It is able to accomplish this by virtue of complex protein mol-
ecules called antibodies. Exactly how antibodies work is not yet
completely understood. Essentially, they function like pieces in a jig-
saw puzzle. By virtue of their shape, they are able to couple with the
intruder, thereby rendering it harmless. (see Fig.13.2)

Substances which activate antibodies are called antigens and these

include bacteria, viruses, drugs, pollen, insect venom, chemicals, etc.
Antibodies have the ability to attack two or more antigens of the same
type at a time. Antibodies are formed through a complex process. In
summary, when an antigen which has not been encountered before
enters the body, it is consumed by a macrophage, broken down and
analyzed. The resulting information is transferred to a lymphocyte,
which in turn converts itself into a plasma cell which is able to manu-
facture both the antibody and the necessary plasma cells required to
produce more antibodies according to a unique specification. The
entire metamorphosis takes place within the lymph nodes. Antibodies,

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 Defence Systems, Alteratives and Antiscorbutics

Antigen Antibody

The antibody system of body defence works by chemically binding the antigens which make
them unable to reproduce or damage the body. Note how the formation of the antibody allows it
to bind more than one antigen and work in concert with other antibodies to physically restrict
damage and antigen movement.

Figure 13.2
Schematic of Antigens-Antibodies

as one might guess, are highly specific, reacting with one and only one
type of antigen.

Initially, this process takes about a week. But if the particular antigen is
encountered again, the “blueprint” is retrieved from storage (theoreti-
cally the thymus) and antibody reaction is much quicker. Antibodies, by
virtue of their ability to incapacitate two antigens, are also able to form
linked barriers which confine the antigen to a particular area where
phagocytes may go to work. Once an antigen has been bound by an
antibody it is unable to infect cells — it is destroyed and eliminated.

Fever
We have already discussed this defence mechanism, both in its capac-
ity as a warning system and as a form of heightened elimination (under
diaphoretics).

Pain
Pain is the primary alarm system of the body, but it may also serve a
protective function, i.e., we favour an injured leg or are forced to avoid
touching an injured and tender part of the body.

Coagulation
Clotting is important. It results in a physical barrier. The clotting process
has recognizable symptoms. We generally remain unaware of the
marvellous working of our body’s natural defence mechanism. The

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Textbook of Modern Herbology, Second Revised Edition

duty of a natural healer is to assist all these systems, and not to try and
overpower the antigen with dangerous chemicals. We must assist the
body in its own natural process of cleansing. The herbal group of
natural blood cleansers are the alteratives and antiscorbutics.

Alteratives and Antiscorbutics

Alteratives and antiscorbutics are herbs which gradually alter and
correct an impaired condition of the blood without necessarily produc-
ing the exaggerated bowel evacuation of the cathartics.

Alteratives alter the process of nutrition and excretion and restore the
morbid organs of the system to healthy action. They promote absorp-
tion of inflammatory deposits primarily by stimulating the lymphatic
glands. The purification of the entire bloodstream through improved
digestion and secretion requires the use of a mild alterative influence for
some time.

The concept of blood cleansing is a hard one for a person with a

medical or pharmaceutical background to understand or agree with.
Though a widespread theoretical tool in traditional physiomedical
thought, it has little acceptance in the orthodox medical community.

Alterative means the following:

➊ nutrient herbs that aid in balancing electrolytes, trace minerals,

hormones, enzymes and catalysts influencing the body in un-
known ways.
➋ As Thurston states, ‘eliminative vasotonics’, cleansing the blood
by acting on the liver and spleen.
➌ herbs that act on the lymphatic system in an eliminative way.
➍ herbs that influence the endocrine glands to balance the body
chemistry.

The use of alteratives should be light, slow but persistent. Cleansing too
fast is not always beneficial as it can cause reactions such as rashes or
symptoms like flu. This will often send patients away. Cleansing does
not have to have these reactions to be effective. Often “less is more”. In
this case, slow is often most effective.

It should be remembered that the goal of cleaning the blood or the

"lifeline" as we described it, is to clean out the tissue. The blood is
relatively remote from many tissue cells. The blood acts on tissue
through the lymphatic system and extracellular fluid.

The area that alteratives influence is the blood plasma which is 5% of the
body’s weight. To get to the tissue level it has to influence the interstitial
fluid which is 15% of body weight. This in turn influences intracellular
fluid which is 50% of body weight. At the cellular tissue level there is also

246 Copyright © 1993, Wild Rose College of Natural Healing Ltd.

 Defence Systems, Alteratives and Antiscorbutics

the dynamics of crossing the cellular membrane. The concentration in

the 15% (interstitial fluid) must be high enough to influence the 50%
(intracellular fluid), at least on a local level.

This illustrates the important point of intensity of alteratives. From the

above discussion it is easy to see that the bottleneck in cleansing action
is the 5% blood plasma. No matter how hard you push the alterative
agents, they still have to make it through this 5% bottleneck to influence
the 50% intracellular level. Much more importantly, we have to consider
the history of the patient when deciding on intensity. If we know that
the person does have lots of toxicity at the tissue level, it will have to be
passed from the interstitial to the plasma level. In a detoxifying stage
there will be a concentration of toxins as the levels are crossed (50% to
5%). Very little release from the cellular level will have a tenfold effect at
the plasma level. This is why there are “healing crises”: rashes, flus, etc.
in the cleansing phases. Therefore, the higher the toxicity of the patient,
the less intensity in the program. Slow but persistent is the motto.
Another old adage is “Cleanse a little, build a little, cleanse a little, build a
little”. The elimination of heavy metals too quickly or the re-emergence
of something like pneumonia that has been suppressed with antibiotics
is a real possibility.

When using alteratives it is very important to remember that the toxins

have to be converted and eliminated. The conversion (if applicable)
most often takes place in the liver. The elimination is done through one
of the four eliminative organs but most often the kidney. The organs
must be strong and healthy before major alterative action is considered.
These areas often need support during the elimination phases.

When using alteratives to cleanse the blood, it is necessary to ensure

that the cause of the blood toxicity is found. It is foolish to cleanse a
polluted bloodstream without recognising its cause. Often a toxic bowel
or improper digestion is the source of the problem. Alteratives are often
called blood purifiers or blood ‘sweeteners’.

Antiscorbutics are also categorized in this group. Antiscorbutics are

“scurvy-preventing”. By definition, then, all antiscorbutics will contain

Clinical Cleansing Formula ➊➌-➊

2 pts. Red Clover blossoms Trifolium pratense
1 pt. Echinacea leaves Echinacea angustifolium
1 pt. Mullein leaves Verbascum thapsus
1 pt. Uva ursi leaves Arctostaphylos uva-ursi
1 pt. Parsley leaves Petroselinum sativum
1 pt. Marshmallow root Althaea officinalis
1 pt. Burdock root Arctium lappa

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Textbook of Modern Herbology, Second Revised Edition

moderate to high amounts of vitamin C, or promote the absorption and

utilization of this vitamin.

In our clinic we use a cleansing formula. The formula is not only cleans-
ing but diuretic, emptying the toxins from the body through the kidneys.
It has remarkable and restorative cleansing properties. In cases of a
toxic bowel, add .5 pts of Cascara sagrada (Rhamnus purshiana).

Grind the ingredients and prepare an infusion — one teaspoon per cup
of boiling water. Take one cup daily for a week, increasing the dosage
by one cup every week until three cups daily are being taken. The three
cups daily should be taken for a period of six months or longer, as
needed. When using tablets, start with two per day, increasing by two
each following week until the person is taking two tablets three times
per day (in other words by the end of three weeks!). This level is main-
tained for a six month period. This gradual increase in dosage ensures
that the body will not detoxify too fast and thereby avoids the hazards
associated with overburdening the eliminative organs.

The key actions of the formula are cleansing the bloodstream, and the
muscle and lymphatic tissue of toxic waste material and metabolic
byproducts. These wastes are moved out of the body via the urinary
system. The formula has been used by many people as an adjunct to
fasting and other cleansing programs. Red clover is a strong herbal
alterative and has been used successfully in many cases of physiological
congestion and toxicity. Mullein and marshmallow both work on the
lymphatic system, soothing the mucous membranes specifically, while
working as a demulcent throughout the whole system. Uva-ursi and
parsley are diuretics which collect and eliminate excess body fluids
through the urinary tract. Burdock is an effective alterative, hepatic and
tonic. Echinacea is alterative, diaphoretic, immune stimulant and tonic.

The cleansing program we use most often is called D-Tox. It is based on

an alkaline diet and includes four herbal products:

➊ Cleansing formula mentioned above.

➋ Intestinal formula (Clinical Lower Bowel Tonic in Chapter 11)
➌ Biliherb (reviewed in Chapter 9)
➍ C.L. (Cleansing diuretic liquid)
Take two tablets of each, twice daily and 20 drops of C.L., twice
daily. A digestive enzyme is often also used in a cleansing program.
Further detail is available in the course workbook used with this
text.

248 Copyright © 1993, Wild Rose College of Natural Healing Ltd.

 Defence Systems, Alteratives and Antiscorbutics

Chaparral Sc

Larrea tridentata, L. divericata

Synonyms: Creosote Bush, Grease-
wood, Black Bush, Grease Bush.

Identification: Chaparral belongs to the

desert group of Artemisia. It grows in
the southwestern U.S.A. The plant
stands four to eight feet tall and the
stems and leaves are dark green (but
pale or yellow green in drought). The
strong scented leaves are opposite
and divided into two leaflets. The
flower is bright yellow, five petalled, 1/
2 inch or greater in diameter, and
appears in the spring and winter. The
fruit is rounded, covered with white
pubescent hair and attains a length of
about four inches.
Parts Used: The leaves and stems.

Solvent: Hot water.

Chemical Constituents: The major constituents are NOGA (nordihydro-

guaiaretic acid) and 18 flavonoids. The leaves and stems contain a
generous supply of gums and resins, proteins, partially characterized
esters, acids, alcohol, and a small amount of sterols and sucrose.
Traces of volatile oils are also present. No alkaloids have been de-
tected.

Therapeutic Action: Antiseptic, Alterative, Diuretic (lithotriptic), Tonic,

Expectorant.

Uses: As of the writing of this edition, chaparral has come under

considerable pressure in the marketplace. In 1992, six cases of liver
toxicity were potentially associated with chaparral use. It is under
investigation in the United States by government agencies and trade in
the botanical was voluntarily stopped. A solid link between physical
problems and chaparral has not been established. Consumption has
taken place over the last century with several tons of the herb sold
annually. The appearance of six cases in 1992 attributed to chaparral's
inherent properties therefore seems rather unusual. Was there some
sort of adulterant spray or other contaminant in one particular batch
of chaparral? Studies conducted on animals for chaparral indicates
very low toxicity. I’ve decided to keep this herb in the text for historical
and reference purposes. Further research will dictate whether this
herb is returned to “active” status or flagged permanently as a herb to
stay away from. Please refer to the current workbook that is a com-
panion to this textbook for the latest word on chaparral.

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Textbook of Modern Herbology, Second Revised Edition

Chaparral was made familiar to the U.S. medical profession in 1848 in

the U.S./Mexican Boundary Commission Report. Nevertheless, it is still
not found in many herbals. It was used by the Mexicans for rheuma-
tism and in combination with sarsaparilla as an antagonist to sexually
transmitted diseases and cancer. The Indians of the area used it often.
Alma Hutchens tells of an 85-year old man who had three growths
successfully removed by surgery. Upon later examination in October
of 1967, he was found to have four recurrent growths, each of which
was the size of a large lemon. They were diagnosed as malignant
melanomas. He refused surgery and instead drank two to three cups
of chaparral tea each day. By September of 1968, the growths had
been reduced to the size of a dime. He had gained forty-five pounds
and was quite healthy. Chaparral has been used for acne, skin condi-
tions (e.g. warts and blotches), arthritis, cancer, chronic backache,
kidney infections, leukemia, prostate gland trouble and weight reduc-
tion. It has also been used to increase hair growth, improve eyesight
and increase bowel elimination (although it is not a laxative). Chapar-
ral slows down production of LDL cholesterol and inhibits lipid
peroxidation in the liver.

Chaparral is a potent healer of the urethral tract and lymphatics. The

herb is semi-palatable but the following is a fine formula that does not
have a strong bitter taste and can be used for all chaparral needs:

2 tbsp. chaparral
4 tbsp. elder flowers
2 tbsp. peppermint
1 quart water

Place the chaparral in a Mason jar with the water, cap, and put in the
oven for five to six hours at a temperature of 180 - 200 degrees F. Then
strain, and mix it with the other herbs, pouring the chaparral over the
three ingredients. Allow to stand for two hours, shaking the bottle
occasionally. Strain (pour the tea over strainer several times), sweeten
to desire, and store in a cool place. Dose is 1 teacup three times daily.

Chaparral Ointment: Used for skin cancer or ➊➌-➋

rashes.

1 oz. Chaparral
1 oz. lanolin or olive oil
Beeswax

Place in the oven for one hour at temperature of

180 degrees F., strain, cool and use.

250 Copyright © 1993, Wild Rose College of Natural Healing Ltd.

 Defence Systems, Alteratives and Antiscorbutics

Sassafras Ad

Sassafras officinalis, S. albidum

Synonyms: Saloop, Saxafrax, Ague Tree.

Identification: There are two species

native to Europe and one native to
eastern North America. Sassafras may
attain a height of one hundred feet and a
diameter of six feet, but typically, it is
smaller. In Ontario, it is somewhat
shrubby. The soft, brittle bark is a dark
red-brown, and deeply furrowed, with
short, corky, layered fractures.

Parts Used: The bark of the root

and sometimes the bark of tree,
the oil.

Solvents: Boiling water, Alcohol,

Oil.

Chemical Constituents: volatile oil (6-9%), sassafrid (9%), tannin (6%),

starch, gum, resin, wax. Oilum Sassafras, a yellowish liquid obtained
by steam distillation, contains safrol (C 10H10O2) — 80%, eugenol
(C 10H12O2) — 0.5% and cadinene, pinene and phellandrene.

Therapeutic Action: Alterative, Stimulant, Diaphoretic, Aromatic, tonic,

diuretic.

Uses: Sassafras is probably most noted for its spring tonic effect. In fact,
it cleanses the blood so well that the U.S. F.D.A. has placed it on the
restricted list since large doses of it will thin the blood due to the
chemical safrol.

Sassafras has been used to treat syphilis, skin disease, as an antidote

for poisonous oil and to alleviate drunkeness. It has also been used for
rheumatism, varicose ulcers, painful menstruation and the afterpains
of childbirth. The oil of this herb has special application for counter-
acting tobacco poisoning.

Safrol (obtained by steam distillation of sassafras) absorbs slowly into

the alimentary canal, and if taken in large doses, most of the unused
portion will be thrown off by the lungs and kidneys. Large doses of it
are considered poisonous, causing fatty degeneration and even death
in some cases. Refer to the companion workbook for the latest
information on this plant.

☞ Note: This herb, especially the oil, should not be taken in the early
stages of pregnancy.

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Textbook of Modern Herbology, Second Revised Edition

Burdock Sc Ad Ed

Arctium lappa
Synonyms: Beggar’s Button, Burr Seed,
Clotbur, Cocklebur, Hardock, Turkey
Burseed.

Identification: Burdock is a biennial found

throughout North America and Europe. Its
root is long, fleshy, grey-brown on the
outside and white inside. Being biennial,
the root is best picked in the spring of the
second year, or in the fall of the first.
Basal leaves only are found during the
first year. Stem leaves and flowers
emerge in the second. Both basal and
stem leaves are oblong-cordate to
cordate, green and hairy on top, and
downy-gray beneath. The flowers are
purple and appear in loose corymbose
clusters from July to September.

Parts Used: The root and seeds.

Solvents: Alcohol and, to a limited

extent, boiling water.
Chemical Constituents: inulin, actiin (a bitter glycoside), volatile oil,
ligans, resins and mucilage.

Therapeutic Action: Alterative, Diaphoretic, Cholagogue, diuretic, tonic.

Uses: Burdock root is noted primarily for its ability to neutralize most
poisons. Even though the leaves are not often used they do contain a
substance that promotes bile secretions and they are therefore
sometimes included in liver and gall bladder formulas. The root
soothes the kidney and lymphatic system. The shredded root applied
to a bruise will assuage the pain, while the decoction or infusion will
assist in healing, especially if mixed with a stiffly-beaten egg white. As a
blood cleanser, burdock root has been used for pimples, boils, scurvy
and eczema. It can also be found in many anti-cancer formulas.

Dose: One teaspoon in a cup of cold water. Allow to stand for one to
five hours and then boil. Take one cup daily.

252 Copyright © 1993, Wild Rose College of Natural Healing Ltd.

 Defence Systems, Alteratives and Antiscorbutics

Red Clover Sc Ed

Trifolium pratense
Synonyms: Wild Clover, Trefoil, Purple Clover,
Meadow Clover.

Identification: This very common plant is

found in meadows and pastures throughout
Europe and North America. It is often used for
fodder. The flower head is ovoid, 1/2 - 1" long
and broad, is purplish in color becoming
brownish on drying. The leaves are trifoliate.
The plant has a faint aromatic scent and the
tea is slightly bitter.

Parts Used: The blossoms and some-

times the leaves.

Solvents: Boiling water or alcohol.

Chemical Constituents: volatile oil,

sitosterol (trifolianol), pterocarpin.

Therapeutic Action: Tonic, Deobstructant, Nutritive, Alterative, persis-

tent and mild stimulant.

Uses: Red Clover is often used in bronchitis. It should be taken as a

warm infusion (which will help cleanse and soothe the bronchial
nerves). The blossoms stimulate the liver and activate the gall bladder,
and therefore have a slight cathartic effect. Red Clover taken by itself
and also in the Clinical Cleansing Formula has eased the arthritic pain
of many and helped to remove the arthritis itself from the body.
Antiviral and antifungal properties have also been reported for Red
Clover.

Red Clover sends roots far into the ground. This enables it to fix an
abundance of nitrogen for itself and for other plants as well. Red
Clover contains large amounts of the trace minerals. It is a herb that is
usually taken over a long period of time.

Sc Ad
Garlic
Allium sativum
Synonyms: Poorman’s Treacle.

Part Used: The bulb (and preferably the fresh bulb).

Solvent: Oil

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Textbook of Modern Herbology, Second Revised Edition

Chemical Constituents: volatile oil

(25%), mucilage (35%), albumin,
allysin and many sulphides and
sulphates.

Therapeutic Action: Alterative,

Diaphoretic, Diuretic, Tonic,
Expectorant, Antiseptic, Anthelm-
intic, stimulant, antispasmodic.

Uses: Garlic has innumerable

applications. Personally I have
used it primarily as an alterative —
simply take two half-cloves of
garlic and put one in each cheek,
then suck on them for several
hours. One of the biggest prob-
lems with garlic is its odour. Most
people don’t want to be around a
person that smells of garlic.
However, this does not have to be
a problem. One can easily cover
the odour of “garlic breath” by
sucking on cloves. Garlic is also
excreted by the skin pores. To stop
this excretory odour, simply eat parsley or take chlorophyll or wheat-
grass juice.

Garlic has a great drawing power and is therefore used as a poultice

to draw infection out of wounds and boils, and to even draw out
slivers. We suggest that you first cover the area with heavy oil, such as
olive oil, so that the crushed garlic does not sting or burn the skin
itself. As an anthelmintic, garlic is excellent for ridding the body of
pinworms and other similar parasites. Garlic’s cleansing properties are
due primarily to its high concentration of sulphur, which is considered
to be a universal antiseptic. Garlic is specific against Candida albicans,
with antibacterial properties against Gram-positive and Gram-negative
organisms.

Garlic can relieve lung congestion. It acts as an excellent expectorant,

causing the person to expel excess phlegm from the lungs. To make
garlic oil, which is excellent for internal use besides being good on
salads, take eight ounces of peeled garlic cloves, crush, cover with
olive oil, and let stand for two to three days. Strain and use. Significant
positive effects on blood cholesterol and the regulation of triglycerides
are reported for garlic.

254 Copyright © 1993, Wild Rose College of Natural Healing Ltd.

 Defence Systems, Alteratives and Antiscorbutics

Echinacea Sc Ad Ed

Echinacea angustifolia, Echinacea

purpurea
Synonyms: Purple cone flower, cone
flower, black sampson.

Identification: Echinacea is a herbaceous

plant that grows from a thick, black
pungent root. The stem is slender but
sometimes stout, 2 to 3 feet tall, with
bristly hairs. The leaves have three
permanent veins, varying from broad
lanceolate to lance-linear becoming very
slender at the petiole. The flower disk
starts off concave but becomes ovoid with
the recepticle taking on a sharply conical
shape. The rays-flowers are narrow, from
1-2 inches in size, coloured rose - purple
and rarely white.

Parts used: rhizome and root.

Solvents: Alcohol, and to a degree,

water.
Chemical Constituents: Echinacoside, echinacein, isobutylamides,
echinacin, echinaodise, polyacetylenes, essential oils, betaine, inulin,
tannins and vitamin C.

Therapeutic Action: Alterative, Diaphoretic, Sialagogue, Immune system

stimulant.

Uses: Since the time of the Thomsonians, echinacea has been recog-
nized as one of the best alteratives for detoxifying the blood. It works
on the lymphatic system and building the immune system. The Indians
used it as an antiseptic, analgesic and for snake bites. It is presently
being used to increase resistance to a large variety of infections,
especially bronchitis. Other areas of use are typhoid fever, cellular
abscesses, carbuncles and cancer.

Extensive scientific research has been undertaken on this plant in the

last twenty years. The results have indicated an antibiotic activity,
cortisone-like activity, assistance in synovial membrane healing,
support of collagen through hyaluronic acid protection, promotion of
wound healing, production systemic interferon, stimulation of T-cell
lymphocytes and (Walker-256) tumour suppression.

Dosage: Steep 1 teaspoonful of powdered root in one cup of boiling

water for 1/2 hour. Tincture dosage is 5 - 10 drops.

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Textbook of Modern Herbology, Second Revised Edition

Summary of Chapter 13
In this chapter, we reviewed the role of the skin, the cough/sneeze
mechanism, the digestive acids and the natural flora and fauna as first
line of defence in the body. As secondary defences we noted the
phagocytes, lymphatic blood cleansing, the immune system, fever, pain
and coagulation. The nature of alterative and antiscorbutic herbs was
reviewed.

Recommended Readings
Priest, A.W. & L.R. Priest, Herbal Medication: A Clinical and Dispensary Handbook,
L.N. Fowler & Co., Romford, Eng.: 1982.
Jensen, B., Tissue Cleansing Through Bowel Management, Bernard Jensen Publ.
Escondido, CA: 1981.
Hobbs, Christopher, Echinacea! The Immune Herb, Botanica Press, Capitola, CA.
Willard, Terry L., Reishi Mushroom: Herb of Spiritual Potency and Medical Wonder,
Sylvan Press, Issaquah, WA: 1990.

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 The Lymphatic System, Astringents

The
Lymphatic
14
System and
Astringents

Synopsis:

This chapter reviews the elements of the lymphatic system including the lymph
vessels, the mechanism of lymphatic fluid movement and the lymph nodes.
Astringent herbs are examined in detail: Bayberry, White Oak, Red Raspberry,
Cranesbill Geranium, Bistort, White Pond Lily.

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Textbook of Modern Herbology, Second Revised Edition

Table of Contents

Introduction
The Lymphatic System
Astringents
Bayberry
White Oak
Red Raspberry
Cranesbill Geranium
Bistort
White Pond Lily

List of Tables and Figures

14.1 Lymphatic Vessels

14.2 Lymph system
14.3 Bayberry
14.4 White Oak
14.5 Red Raspberry
14.6 Cranesbill Geranium
14.7 Bistort
14.8 White Pond Lily

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 The Lymphatic System, Astringents

Introduction

T
o learn about the lymphatic system, first we must look at the
capillaries. The lymphatic system starts as blind tubules at the
capillaries to the lymphatic vessel (See Fig.14.1). Most of this fluid
reabsorbs back into the capillaries after it has bathed the tissue. The
fluid that does not reabsorb, flows along the tube. Sometimes the
reabsorption process is not complete and there is fluid retention or
edema. There are many reasons for fluid retention and therefore many
types of edema. Some are as simple as a protein blocking reabsorption,
others are caused by blocked lymphatic nodes and still others by
improper kidney functioning.

Edema is a common problem, especially in females. It often goes in

cycles, along with their menstrual periods, triggered by female hormone
imbalance. This can often be adjusted by Vitamin B6 and an emmenag-
ogue like dong quai. The fluid in the lymphatic vessels eventually moves
to the venous system. These small lymphatic vessels merge to become
larger tubes with special valves to stop back flow, quite similar to the
veins. The lymphatic system doesn’t have a pump or heart as such, so it
relies almost completely on external pumping mechanisms similar to
the veins.

Muscle Pump: This is the action of the muscles pushing against the
vessels, forcing the flow along the vessels.
Thoracic Pump: Acts as a negative pressure during respiration,
moving fluid along the vessels (similar to sucking on a straw).

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All cells are bathed by tissue fluids. This diffuses from capillaries. Some returns to capillaries.
Some drains into blind-ending, thin-walled lymphatics. It is then known as lymph (similar to
plasma but less protein). A network of lymphatic vessels drains tissue spaces throughout the
body (except in central nervous system). They unite to form larger and larger vessels. Right
lymphatic duct and left thoracic duct drain into subclavian veins (i.e., lymph is returned to the
bloodstream here). lymphatic vessel (note
blood vessel
capsule of fibrous tissue "pores" which allow fluid
passage)
In the course of
larger vessels,
lymph is filtered
through lymph
nodes.

afferent lymphatics — pour their lymph into reticular

framework of loose sinus tissue.
macrophage cells — ingest foreign material
(e.g. carbon in lungs) or harmful bacteria.
lymph nodules produce lymphocytes and
efferent lymphatic — receives lymph plasma cells, which are important in antibody
after its slow passage through node. formation and immunological functions.

Figure 14.1
The Lymphatic Vessels

As might be guessed, aerobic exercise is a useful means of stimulating

lymphatic flow and reducing many forms of edema. Using a rebounder
or small trampoline has been shown to be the most effective means of
stimulating the muscle pump to clear the lymphatic system.

Some of the main functions of the lymphatic system are to supply

nutrients to the cellular level, clean up toxins and act as one of the
major defence mechanisms of the body. All along the lymphatic system
there are many nodes called lymph nodes (see Fig.14.2).

There are major groupings of lymph nodes in the neck, armpits, breast
area (in fact, the breasts are specialized lymphatic nodes) and groin
area. Theses nodes work as cleaning or filtering stations along the
lymphatic system. If the lympathic system gets toxic it starts backing up.
If it backs up too much, death follows. Although many functions are
known for the lymphatic system, little attention is paid to it by the
healing professions. I feel great importance will be placed on this
system in the future by health practitioners.

Lymph (the fluid flowing in this system) moves from the left side of the
head to the neck, chest, left arm, abdomen and lower limbs where it is
collected into the thoracic duct. In turn, the duct empties into the left
innominate vein of the venous system. There is a much smaller right
lymphatic duct receiving lymph from the right side of the head flowing
to the neck, chest and right arm. This pours into the right innominate
vein.
260 Copyright © 1993, Wild Rose College of Natural Healing Ltd.
 The Lymphatic System, Astringents

Lymph nodes

Figure 14.2
Lymph System
As you may remember, the lacteals in the intestines collect selected fats,
which are called chyle. This process occurs via the lymphatic system.
This chyle is collected in the lower part of the thoracic duct called
receptaculum chyli.

Astringents
Astringents are herbal agents which draw together soft organic tissue.
They bring about contraction, firm and dry up secretions and generally
make tissues more dense. Most astringents harbour either tannic or
gallic acid. Astringents are often used to treat cankers, to diminish
excessive mucous secretions, to strengthen and contract a relaxed or
weakened condition of muscle fiber and to treat diarrhea and hemor-
rhoids.

Sc Ad
Bayberry

Myrica cerifera
Synonyms: Wax Myrtle, Waxberry Myrtle.

Identification: Bayberry is a dense evergreen

shrub and stands two to four feet tall. The
greyish bark peels away to reveal an
underlying reddish-brown layer. The shiny,
dark green leaves are lanceolate entire. The
flowers are borne in catkins.

Parts Used: The bark and sometimes

the leaves.

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Textbook of Modern Herbology, Second Revised Edition

Solvent: Boiling Water.

Chemical Constituents: The root bark contains acrid and astringent

resins. The above ground plant contains tannic/gallic acid as well as
palmitin-containing wax, myricic acid, saponin triterpenes, flavonoids
and gum.

Therapeutic Action: Astringent, Alterative, stimulant, tonic, slight

diuretic.

Uses: Bayberry has been considered by many (notably by Dr. Nowell) to

be one of the most useful herbs in botanical medicine. Bayberry’s
major effect is on the mucous accumulation in the alimentary and
respiratory tracts. It is also good for broncho-pulmonic diseases, sore
throat, scarlet fever and chronic catarrhal diarrhea. For hemorrhage,
especially of the uterus (whether due to miscarriage or other causes)
bayberry is highly effective. The vagina should be packed with cotton
which has been saturated with a strong bayberry tea solution. This
same therapy is also successful in decreasing excessive menstrual
flow. Bayberry inhibits bacteria.

Dr. Nowell’s Composition Powder ➊➍-➊

Bayberry’s most famous use is in Dr. Nowell’s “Composi-
tion Powder”:

4 ozs. Bayberry bark powder

2 ozs. ginger powder
1 oz. Pinus spruce
1 tbsp. cloves powder
1 tbsp. cayenne pepper

Mix the ingredients and then pass them through a fine

sieve at least twice. Use one teaspoon of the formula to
one cup of boiling water. Allow the infusion to steep and
then drink. If prepared in capsule form, take two “0”
capsules, three to four times daily.

Composition Powder can be used in all cases of the flu, colds, or

fevers, helping to promote free perspiration. I personally have wit-
nessed it clear up many cases of the flu in a twenty-four hour period.
No household should be without this remarkable formula. Bayberry’s
ability to heal the mucous membranes and to stimulate circulation has
made it applicable for cleaning out the liver and promoting glandular
activity. Bayberry is also used in cases of cankers, both internal and
external, for “spongy” gums and for diarrhea.

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 The Lymphatic System, Astringents

White Oak Sc Ad

Quercus alba
Synonyms: Tanner Oak.

Identification: The white oak, a native

of North America, grows southward
from Canada to the Gulf of Mexico and
as far west as Texas. This stately tree
usually grows 60 to 100 feet high but
may reach heights of 150 feet with an
eight foot diameter trunk. The bark is
pale grey and the leaves have rounded
or finger-shaped lobes.

Parts Used: The bark and acorns.

Solvents: Alcohol, Water.

Chemical Constituents: tannins,

gallotannic and quercitannic
acid.

Therapeutic Action: Strongly Astringent, Hemostatic, tonic, slowly

antiseptic, anthelmintic.

Uses: There are many varieties of oaks used by herbalists but white oak
is usually prefered. A decoction of acorns and/or bark added to milk is
one of white oak’s more common uses. It is taken to reduce the
deleterious effects of “poisonous” medicines, especially if ulceration
of the bladder and bloody urine occurs.

Because of oak’s strong astringency, it is used for both external and

internal hemorrhage. It also has an excellent cleansing effect on
inflamed surfaces of the skin or mucous membranes. The bark is
often used for chronic diarrhea, chronic mucous discharges and
passive hemorrhage. An infusion of white oak bark is well-known as a
goiter remedy. A decoction of it is often used to treat leucorrhea and
applied to the vaginal or uterine area, alleviating uterine prolapsus or
tipped uterus.

The decoction of white oak bark not only expels pinworms but also
assists in cleansing the entire gastrointestinal tract. It is often used to
treat hemorrhoids, both as an ointment and as an anal injection. It is
also used internally and externally for varicose veins. Tannins have
been shown to be antiviral and antimicrobial.

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A useful formula for ulcerated tonsils is: ➊➍-➋

1 tsp. White oak inner bark
1 tsp. persimmon bark
1 tsp. goldenseal

Steep the three ingredients in one-half pint of boiling

water for twenty minutes and gargle with the clear liquid,
leaving the sediment behind.

Raspberry Sc Ad Ed

Rubus ideaus or Rubus strigosus

Synonyms: Red Raspberry, Garden

Raspberry, Wild Raspberry.

Identification: Surely everyone knows

this plant. The garden and wild varieties
are similar and also have similar
therapeutic properties. Raspberry has a
durable root which produces a biennial
stem with alternate, pinnate leaves
which consist of three to five narrow,
oblong-ovate, acuminate leaflets. The
flowers are white and appear in the
summer of the second year, producing
the familiar, succulent red fruit which
ripens in late July or August.

Part Used: Leaves.

Solvents: Water, Alcohol.

Chemical Constituents: Greater than 1.5% citric acid, some tannins,

calcium fluoride, fragerine and ferric citrate.

Therapeutic Action: Astringent, Antiemetic, Parturient, Emmenagogue,

stimulant, tonic, stomachic.

Uses: The first thing most people learn about raspberry leaves are the
benefits during pregnancy. Every expectant mother should drink at
least one cup of raspberry leaf tea daily. This helps make for easier
pregnancy, delivery and recovery. Most of all, it helps prevent tearing
of the vaginal orifice during parturition.

Raspberry leaves are also excellent for helping to cleanse excess

mucus from the body. In cases of the flu, we often suggest one
teaspoon of raspberry leaves and one teaspoon of parsley leaves be

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 The Lymphatic System, Astringents

infused in one cup of boiling water, steeped five to ten minutes and
taken in one cup dosages several times per day. This tea is also
☞ excellent for minor kidney congestion but the parsley should not be
used in the first three months of pregnancy.

Raspberry leaves have been used to clean cankerous conditions of the

mucous membranes throughout the body. Because of their iron
citrate content, raspberry leaves are a great blood builder. Raspberry
has been a long-established remedy for dysentery and diarrhea,
especially in infants. A gentle eyewash, prepared and administered as
follows, can be made using red raspberry leaves.

1 tsp. raspberry leaves

1 tsp. eyebright leaves

Steep in two cups of boiling water until cool enough for application to
the eye but still warm. After straining the liquid through filter paper
(coffee drip filter paper is adequate) pour it into an eye cup. Rinse
each eye three times using fresh tea each time and rotating the eyeball
in every direction while rinsing. Drink what is left over.

This preparation is beneficial in treating dry eyes, eyes that have been
irritated by the use of contact lenses and mild eye infections. It’s
reportedly helpful for vision.

Cranesbill Geranium Sc Ed

Geranium maculatum

Synonyms: Crowfoot, Cranesbill, Wild

Geranium, Wild Alum Root, Storkbill.

Identification: Cranesbill is a perennial

plant common in woodlands throughout
North America. The root-stock is stout,
horizontal and produces a hairy stem
which grows from one to two feet high
with long, petioled basal leaves. The basal
and stem leaves are deeply parted with
five to seven coarse, toothed, pointed
lobes. The white-rose-purple flower grows
in pairs on axillary peduncles from April
to July.

Parts Used: The root-stock and

sometimes the leaves.

Solvents: Water, alcohol.

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Chemical Constituents: Tannins, a gallic acid, pectin, gum, resin, starch

and calcium oxalate.

Therapeutic Action: Astringent, Tonic, Diuretic, styptic.

Uses: Cranesbill is a powerful astringent. As a regular infusion or infused

with milk, it is used to treat dysentery, diarrhea and cholera. Cranesbill,
like all other good astringents, is also beneficial for canker sores, light
hemorrhage, hemorrhoids, an atonic vagina and indolent ulcers.

Cranesbill has a specific ability to draw mercury out of the body, so it

is often given if mercury toxicity is suspected (commonly the case with
“silver amalgams”). For diabetes and Bright’s Disease, a decoction of
equal parts of unicorn root (Aletris farinosa) and cranesbill has been
reported to be effective in slowing down disease progression.

The Blackfoot Indians used to keep powdered cranesbill in pouches

as a basic first-aid remedy to stop bleeding from cuts. The powder
aids in blood coagulation. Cranesbill astringent action is less than
white oak bark but stronger than witch hazel. Dr. Shook used cranes-
bill as an external astringent for the removal of wrinkles and to close
large pores. It has been used for centuries to firm up sore and tender
nipples. Only the nipple should be massaged with the decoction. If the
whole breast is massaged with this herb, it might dry up the milk
supply.

The First Nations peoples used this plant for birth control. A woman
would soak in a pit of cranesbill, wood ash and water for half an hour
within the first month after delivery. This would reportedly prevent
childbirth for a year. Drinking cranesbill tea on a regular basis was said
to prevent pregnancy.

A good hemorrhoid ointment using cranesbill is ➊➍-➌

prepared as follows:

1 oz. Collinsonia root

1 oz. Cranesbill root
1 oz. bistort root
8 ozs. beeswax
14 ozs. olive oil

Heat the ingredients (except the olive oil) in the oven

for one hour at 125 degrees F. Add the olive oil and
mix thoroughly. Place in container and store in a
cool place. Apply as needed.

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 The Lymphatic System, Astringents

Bistort Ed

Polygonum bistorta
Synonyms: Snakeweed, Adderwort,
Patient Dock, Dragonwort.

Identification: Bistort is a mountain or

northern perennial found west of the
Rocky Mountains, in Europe and in the
Arctic. It grows in damp or wet mead-
ows. The root-stock is thick, knobby, and
twisted into “s” or double “s” shapes up
to 3.5 feet long. It is black on the outside
and red on the inside. The blueish-green
basal leaves are on long petioles and
oblong-lanceolate. The few slim leaves
are on short petioles and lanceolate to
linear. The flowers are rose red, borne in
dense racemes and appear in May to
August.

Parts Used: The root and leaves.

Solvents: Water, Alcohol.

Chemical Constituents: Tannins.

Therapeutic Uses: Astringent, Diuretic, Styptic, alterative, anthelmintic.

Uses: The powdered root is used to stop bleeding and minor hemor-
rhages. A decoction is used as a remedy for diarrhea, dysentery and as
a mouthwash for gum problems. It is said to firm up the tissue of the
kidney. Bistort, being an alterative, cleanses the entire body but
primarily purges the alimentary canal.

White Pond Lily Ed

Nymphaea odorata
Synonyms: American Pond Lily, Water Nymph, Water Cabbage.

Identification: This aquatic perennial is found in ponds throughout North America. The
branched rootstocks produce large orbiculate to oblong-orbiculate entire leaves that
float on the surface of the water. They are dark on top and purplish underneath. The
many-petalled, fragrant white flowers bloom from June to September and open in the
forenoon.

Part Used: The root.

Solvent: Water.

Therapeutic Action: Astringent, Demulcent, alterative.

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Textbook of Modern Herbology, Second Revised Edition

Uses: White pond lily is most famous

for two popular uses. The first is its
application as a soothing skin
astringent, providing a more
youthful appearance. Use a decoc-
tion of the root as a facial wash. The
second use is as a vaginal douche. It
is sometimes used in bolus form to
tone up the uterus and remedy
vaginal infections.

It is also used internally, like all

astringents, for cankers, hemor-
rhoids and ulceration.

Summary of Chapter 14
In this chapter, the function and components of the lymphatic system
are reviewed. The role of astringent herbs in drying up secretions is
highlighted with formulas such as Dr. Nowell's Composition Powder.

268 Copyright © 1993, Wild Rose College of Natural Healing Ltd.

 The Reproductive System and Emmenagogues

The
Reproductive
15
System and
Emmenagogues

Synopsis:

In this chapter, the functioning and anatomical divisions of the male and female
reproductive systems are discussed. In the case of the female reproductive
system, the menstrual cycle, fertilization, pregnancy and menopause are
reviewed in more detail. The emmenagogues (herbs influencing female hormonal
levels) and the five ailments for which they are commonly used are examined.
The herbs are: Dong Quai, Squaw Vine, Tansy, Pennyroyal, Blue Cohosh,
Motherwort.

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Textbook of Modern Herbology, Second Revised Edition

Table of Contents

Introduction
The Male Reproductive System
The Female Reproductive System
The Menstrual Cycle
Pregnancy
Menopause
Clinical Female Formula
Emmenagogues
Dong Quai
Squaw Vine
Tansy
Pennyroyal
Blue Cohosh
Motherwort

List of Tables and Figures

15.1 Male Reproductive System

15.2 The Testes
15.3 Female Reproductive System
15.4 Menstrual Cycle
15.5 Fertilization / Pregnancy
15.6 Menopause
15.7 Dong Quai
15.8 Squaw Vine
15.9 Tansy
15.10 Pennyroyal
15.11 Blue Cohosh
15.12 Motherwort

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 The Reproductive System and Emmenagogues

Introduction

T
he reproductive system consists of the organs concerned with the
creation of a new human being.

The Male Reproductive System

Most of the male reproductive system lies outside of the abdominal
cavity and consists of:

➊ The Testes.
➋ A Series of Ducts.
➌ Various Glands.
➍ The Penis.

The two testes, the primary male gonads (sex cell-producing organs),
are ovoid bodies enclosed in a pouch of skin called the scrotum.
Continuous production of sperm (spermatozoa) takes place within the
numerous long coiled tubes of the two testes. (See Fig. 15.2) It takes 1 1/
2 seconds for a male to produce the same number of sex cells (ga-
metes) as a woman produces in her entire lifetime.

There are three ducts leading from each testis: the epididymis, the vas
deferens and the ejaculatory duct. The epididymis is a c-shaped
elongated mass at the back of the testis. The sperm that are produced
by the testis are stored here until they are emitted. The vas deferens is a
continuation of the epididymis. It enters the abdominal cavity and joins
the duct of the seminal vesicles to form the ejaculatory duct. The
ejaculatory duct, in turn, opens into the urethra (after passing through
the prostate gland). By traversing these ducts, the spermatozoa are able
to reach the exterior.

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Textbook of Modern Herbology, Second Revised Edition

These are the organs adapted for transfer of live spermatozoa from male to
female.

Smooth muscle wall of vas deferens contracts

to propel spermatozoa into urethra.

seminal vesicles (two) expel a viscous

secretion to keep spermatozoa alive and motile.

prostate gland and bulbourethral glands

(two) add a thin lubricant secretion.

smooth muscle of urethra and striated muscle

of perineum contract to eject this seminal fluid
from the urethra.

In the act of ejaculation, penis (its meshwork of

blood spaces fills with blood to make it firm and
erect) — deposits 2 - 4 ml of seminal fluid
containing several hundred million spermatozoa
in female vagina.

Figure 15.1
The Male Reproductive System

There are three glands which contribute secretions to the seminal fluid.
The prostate gland is about the size of a chestnut, lying just below the
urinary bladder, and surrounds approximately the first inch of the
urethra. The seminal vesicles are two accumulative pouches that pro-
duce a large part of the seminal fluid (semen is the fluid composed of
sperm cells and the secretions from the various associated glands.) The
two pea-shaped, yellowish bulbourethral glands, or Cowper’s glands as
they are sometimes called, merge into the urethra just as it is about to
enter the penis. They produce a slightly alkaline lubricant during sexual
arousal which facilitates entry of the penis into the vagina and also helps
the secretions of the prostate gland and seminal vesicles in neutralizing
the acidity of the urine which would normally kill the sperm as they pass
through the penis.

The penis is the male organ of copulation, averaging about six inches
long and one inch in diameter when erect, and consists primarily of
three elongated cylinders of specialized erectile tissue — two corpora
cavernosa and a middle corpora spongiosum. These are bound to-
gether by connective tissue and covered by a layer of elastic skin. These
tissues become engorged with blood upon sexual arousal. The end of
the penis (part of the corpora spongiosum) is called the glans. The
spermatozoa are conveyed from the testicles to a storage point within
the prostate gland by the vas deferens. Here they ripen or mature.

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 The Reproductive System and Emmenagogues

There are two testes. These produce the male germ cells.

Spermatogenesis.

The production of spermatozoa occurs in the seminifer-

ous tubules.
Vas deferens
Spermatogonia divide (by mitosis) to form primary
spermatocytes which divide (by meiosis) into
secondary spermatocytes which divide (by mitosis) into
spermatids changing gradually (without further division)
into spermatozoa (approximately 0.1 mm long).

Interstitial cells of Leydig produce the male sex hormone

— testosterone — which passes directly into blood-
stream to control development and activity of secondary
sex organs. It is responsible for appearance and
maintenance of secondary sex characteristics.
Cross Section of
testicle
Events occuring in the testes are under control of hormones, chiefly those of anterior
pituitary and the hypothalamus.Each lobule contains 1-3 seminiferous tubules.

Figure 15.2
The Testes

If a male undergoes an operation called a “vasectomy”, the vas deferens

is cut. This will mean the sperm will not be able to travel to their matur-
ing location. They are therefore doomed to degenerate and be ab-
sorbed into the blood. Obviously, the man having this operation will
become functionally sterile, although the sensation of ejaculation will
not be altered — this shows there is a “vast difference” between the
fertile and non-fertile male.

The vasectomy is now a fairly popular form of male birth control. The
operation used to be irreversible, but now with the development of
modern surgery, a man may be rendered fertile again with the flip of a
simple valvular “switch”. Statistics have shown in the last few years a
marked increase in prostate problems including cancer among males
who have had a vasectomy performed. No physiological basis for this
has yet been established. Many, including myself, feel the connection
might be as much emotional as physical. It is my personal belief that
many types of cancer are caused by emotional conditions.

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The Female Reproductive System

The female reproductive system is contained almost wholly within the
abdominal cavity and consists of the following:

➊ Two Ovaries
➋ Two Uterine Tubes (Fallopian tubes)
➌ A uterus
➍ A vagina
➎ The external genital organs

The two ovaries, the primary sex organs of the female, are almond-sized
and almond shaped bodies located at the outer end of the Fallopian
tubes. The ovaries have two functions, they produce ova (the female
gametes) and produce hormones. A woman produces about four
hundred ova during her lifetime, only a few of which are likely to be
fertilized (united with a male sex cell) and go on to become human
beings.

The Fallopian tubes are two very small tubes, each about 10 cm long,
curving away from the upper corners of the uterus. Each leads further
up into the abdominal cavity — one going to the right and one to the left.
At the outer end, each spreads out like an umbrella close to the ovaries.
Ova are produced in the ovaries, and conveyed from these organs to the
Fallopian tubes. Sperm are carried in the opposite direction by the
Fallopian tubes. Fertilization usually occurs within a Fallopian tube.

In preparing to receive and nourish the fertilized ovum, the lining of the
uterus, the endometrium, becomes swollen and soft and has much
more blood in it than usual. If the ovum is not fertilized, the en-
dometrium gradually stops growing and comes loose. The excess blood
and part of the swollen membrane is sloughed off and discharged from
the uterus through the vagina. This discharge usually occurs every
twenty-eight days and is known as menstruation. In pregnancy, the
uterus stretches to accomodate the size of the growing child and attains
a weight of about two pounds. It takes approximately six weeks for it to
return to its normal size and shape after delivery.

The vagina is the female organ of copulation, receiving the penis during
sexual intercourse. It also makes up a portion of the birth canal, along
with the uterus, during childbirth. It is a tubular structure about five
inches deep and is situated behind the bladder and in front of the
rectum. It is continuous with the neck of the uterus (called the cervix)
and consists chiefly of smooth muscle lined with mucous membrane.

The external genital organs of the female are known collectively as the
vulva and form the entrance into the vagina. These include the labia
majora — large, fleshy liplike structures bounding the outer parts of the
vulva; labia minora — much smaller liplike structures bounding the
remaining structures of the vulva; the clitoris — a tiny body composed
274 Copyright © 1993, Wild Rose College of Natural Healing Ltd.
 The Reproductive System and Emmenagogues

Partial cross-section of Uterus and Vagina The External Genitalia

pubic hair
labia majora
ovary clitoris
Fallopian tube urethral
uterus opening
cervix labia minora
broad ligament vaginal
vagina opening
anus

In the diagram on the left, one side of the internal female organs is shown in normal
anatomical position, while the other is exposed to indicate the movement of the egg
from the ovary across to the Fallopian tubes. Where fertilization does not take place,
the mature egg passes into the uterus and out of the body through the vagina.

Ordinary Female Cycle

The Fallopian tube receives ovum shed from ovary at ovulation. The uterus has an
outer smooth muscle layer, the myometrium, and a specialized inner mucous
membrane, the endometrium. The membrane shows cyclical changes during each
ordinary menstrual cycle (see diagram in Figure 15.4). It degenerates and is shed at
menstruation. Rhythmic changes also occur in the uterus and Fallopian tubes and
vagina under action of ovarian hormones.

Figure 15.3
The Female Reproductive System
of highly sensitive tissue situated at the front junction of the labia minora
and homologous to the penis of the male; the mons pubis — a rounded
area over the symphysis pubis (and much more prominent in women
than in men); the vestibule — the space between the labia minora; and
the hymen — a thin mucous membrane stretching across the opening
of the vagina. This is usually ruptured during a female’s first copulation
or during some forms of exercise. Recently, public attention has been
drawn to a “nerve plexus” that physiologists locate on the anterior
surface of the vagina behind the symphysis pubis. This so-called “G” or
Graffenburg spot can contribute to sexual release in some women and
is considered similar to the nerve plexus in the male prostate. In some
women there may also be a prostatic-like fluid ejected from the urethra
during orgasm.

The mammary glands are regarded as accessories to the reproductive

system and become functionally active during the later stages of
pregnancy. They are composed of glandular tissues embedded in fat.
The glandular tissue is organized into globules, each of which gives rise
to a lactiferous duct which opens at the nipple on the body surface.
The secretion of milk is stimulated by the pituitary hormone prolactin,
which is released around the time of delivery.
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Textbook of Modern Herbology, Second Revised Edition

The Menstrual Cycle

Now examine Figure 15.4 in this chapter, in order to gain an under-
standing of the female menstrual cycle. Day one commences with the
degeneration of the uterine wall, resulting in menstruation, which
normally lasts for one to five days. During this time, the blood estrogen
levels are quite low and blood progesterone is non-existent. We also
have, at this time, formation of the egg in the primordial follicle of the
ovary. Around the seventh to tenth day the blood estrogen level rises
rapidly and is accompanied by a slow rise in blood progesterone. On
approximately the fourteenth day the follicle ruptures, releasing its egg.
At this time, the estrogen level drops slightly while the progesterone level
shows a rapid increase. The follicle degenerates into a corpus luteum (a
reddish-yellowish mass of endocrine tissue in the ovary), while both
estrogen and progesterone blood levels increase, up until about the
seventeenth or eighteenth day, at which time they peak and then start
their decline. On the twenty-eighth day the female bloodstream shows
no progesterone and only very small amounts of estrogen. The men-
strual cycle begins anew.

Often the menstrual cycle will not run smoothly, resulting in a variety of
physical, mental and emotional aberrations. The emotional upset often
characterizing the first few days before the period is due to a hormonal
imbalance (premenstrual syndrome). This problem can often be
alleviated with the use of Vitamin B6. The individual should take 50-500
mg of B6 in addition to other B vitamins for these few days. A helpful
herb for this troublesome time is dong quai. Two capsules should be
taken twice daily. Dong quai will help balance the hormones in the
body. It also contains Vitamins B6 and B12.

Pregnancy
Figure 15.5 shows fertilization taking place far up the Fallopian tubes
adjacent to the ovary. The female gamete is fertile for a mere seven
hours, while the male gamete retains its potency for about forty-eight
hours, increasing the fertile period substantially. The fertilized ovum
(now called a zygote) travels down the uterus, where it grows and
develops by a process of mitosis into an embryo and then into a fetus. It
is called an embryo up until the eight weeks after conception. Birth
takes place almost exactly nine months after conception.

Menopause
Menopause (see Fig. 15.6) often called the “Change of Life”, takes place
in a woman between the ages of forty-two and fifty-five. During this time
there is a dramatic hormonal change which brings about atrophy of the
Fallopian tubes, diminished breast size, cessation of menstruation and
even redistribution of body fat. It is a time of tremendous change!
However, not all of the changes are physical. The woman often goes

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 The Reproductive System and Emmenagogues

There are two ovaries. These produce the female germ cells. The production of ova is a
cyclical process called oogenesis.

(1) Formation Germinal epithelium: in

development groups of cells migrate into
stroma.
(2) Growth Central oogonium enlarges in
primordial follicle to become primary oocyte
surrounded by follicular cells which multiply to Blood vessels
become cumulus oophorus (attaching ovum to
wall of follicle) and membrana granulosa Corpus
which together with cells of Theca interna, luteum
secrete hormone estrogen — partly stored in
liquor folliculi in enlarging cavity of developing
Graafian follicle — partly absorbed into blood
vessels of Theca interna.
(3) Ovulation About 14th day of normal 28 day
menstrual cycle, a mature Graafian follicle
ruptures to expel ovum.
(4) Corpus luteum Remaining membrana granulosa and The corpus luteum shrinks and
Theca interna cells multiply to replace blood clot and its output of progesterone falls
secrete hormone progesterone. about 24th day if fertilization of the
shed ovum does not occur.
For simplicity the development of only one Graafian follicle is shown here. Several grow in each
cycle but in humans, only one follicle ruptures. The others atrophy, i.e., one mature ovum is shed
each month.

Schematic of Endometrial Change over the course of the menstrual cycle.

growing follicles Graafian Corpus luteum

follicles

Blood
progesterone
Blood level
estrogen
level

Day 1 Day 14 Day 28

Menstrual phase Follicular phase Ovulatory phase Luteal phase

Figure 15.4
The Menstrual Cycle

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Textbook of Modern Herbology, Second Revised Edition

Three Stages in a cycle ending in pregnancy

The fimbriated end of the uterine tube receives ovum at ovulation. The uterine tube also
transmits spermatozoa toward the ova.

1. Fertilization or fusion of ovum

and sperm — occurs in outer
third of uterine tube.

2. Cleavage After fertilization in

Fallopian tube, the fertilized
ovum (zygote) undergoes
several divisions.
Fallopian tube
Ciliary currents and peristaltic
contractions in Fallopian tube carry
blastocyst into uterine secretions
about fourth to seventh day.

Uterus
3. Implantation For a few days embryo gets oxygen and nutrients by diffusion from the
uterine glandular secretions. The embryo sticks to the lining of womb. Its surface
trophoblast cells fuse with, destroy and finally penetrate the endometrium (now called
the desidua). The embryo now absorbs tissue fluids and cellular debris. Chorionic villi,
finger-like projections from the embryo, invade the mother's endometrial blood vessels.
The endometrium is in luteal phase and continues to grow. No menstrual degeneration
occurs. Glands are actively secreting mucus.

Figure 15.5
Fertilization and Pregnancy

through a stormy psychological adjustment. She may at times exhibit

hysteria, and not infrequently, women are actually admitted to mental
hospitals because they have a “physical problem” — a hormone
imbalance — which manifests in emotional and mental turmoil. Old
herbals will often deal with these problems under the heading of
“hysteria”. Hysterectomies (surgical removal of the uterus, and often the
ovaries) was considered a “cure” for hysteria by medical doctors at the
turn of the 20th century.

The herb that I have found best for menopausal problems is, again,
dong quai. It helps stop cold sweats, hot flashes, and relieves mental
and emotional upset. The following is an account of the remarkable
effectiveness of Dong Quai:

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 The Reproductive System and Emmenagogues

Between the ages of 45 and 55 years, ovarian tissues gradually cease to respond to
stimulation by anterior pituitary gonadotrophic hormones. After menopause, a woman is
unable to bear children.

During and after menopause, the secondary sex organs atrophy. The Fallopian tubes
become smaller, while the uterine cycle and menstruation cease. The muscles and lining
of the uterus, as well as the vaginal epithelium, reduce in thickness, while the external
genitalia shrink.

Ups and downs in emotions are partly related to the fact that the ovaries cease to respond
to follicle-stimulating hormone. This results in the reduction of estrogen and progesterone
levels in the body. Vasomotor phenomena such as "hot flashes" (vasodilation) can
produce excessive sweating and giddiness. The ovary becomes small and fibrosed and
no longer produces ripe ova. There can also be a reversal of typically female secondary
sex characteristics: body fat may be redistributed, the breasts may shrink along with the
internal ducts and hair may become sparse in the axillary area (armpit) and the pubis.

Figure 15.6
Menopause

Mrs. H. came into my office complaining of breaking into hot

flashes while going through her change of life. She said that during
her younger years she had never had any problems with her
menstrual cycle. I told her that it was quite normal to have hot
flashes during this stage of life and not to be overly concerned
because we had herbs that could help this condition.

Coincidentally, Mrs. H. broke into a sweat in my office, thoroughly

soaking her wool suit. She literally lost five pounds of sweat right in
front of me. This was the worst case I had seen of menopausal
sweating. I put her on two capsules of dong quai three times daily
plus the Clinical Female Formula listed in this chapter (2 tablets —
three times daily). Within three weeks her problem was under
control. Due to the severity of her case, this dosage was a bit
higher than we normally recommend. The normal dosage is one to
two capsules of dong quai, twice daily. Normal length of the
program is 1-1/2 - 6 months.

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Textbook of Modern Herbology, Second Revised Edition

Emmenagogues
Emmenagogues are herbal agents that are female correctives. They
stimulate and promote menstrual flow. Properly used, they readjust the
entire reproductive area. They are used in the following ways:

➊ For menstrual obstruction resulting in absence, delay, retardation

or suppression of menstruation. (In other words, amenorrhea.)
➋ For delayed menstruation at puberty (associated with the anemia
called chlorosis or “green sickness”).
➌ For profuse menstruation (called menorrhagia).
➍ For painful menstruation (called dysmenorrhea).
➎ For leucorrhea (whitish viscous discharge from the vagina
resulting from inflammation or congestion of the mucous
membrane).

Menstrual problems often arise from other problems such as colds,

emotional upsets or even from travelling. One should consider possibili-
ties such as these first before assuming there is anything directly wrong
with the reproductive system. It is unwise to administer strong drastic
cathartics wherever there is menstrual difficulty. A good lower bowel
tonic (see Chapter 11) is permissible.

Clinical Female Formula ➊➎-➊

2 pts. dong quai Angelica sinensis
1 pt. Black cohosh Cimicifuga racemosa
1 pt. Blue cohosh Caulophyllum thalictroides
1 pt. Blessed thistle Cnicus benedictus
1 pt. Cramp bark Viburnum opulus

This formula has been used very successfully to correct hormonal

imbalances which can occur at puberty, after pregnancy, menopause,
upon the cessation of birth control pill usage or after a hysterectomy. In
cases of discomfort due to menstrual cramps or edema and depression
which is associated with the menstrual cycle, the Clinical Female Formula
is also recommended. The formula may also strengthen the female
organs and is useful in cases of hormonal upsets in men, especially in the
first stages of hormone-related balding. Dong quai, a major Chinese herb
for thousands of years, is by far the most important herb in this formula.
This herb is often considered ‘female ginseng’ as it builds up the female
organs and regulates hormones the way ginseng does in males. Black
cohosh and Blessed Thistle are emmenagogues used both to build up
and regulate the female reproductive system. Cramp bark’s specific
function is to reduce cramping in the female organs.
280 Copyright © 1993, Wild Rose College of Natural Healing Ltd.
 The Reproductive System and Emmenagogues

Dong quai Sc

Angelica polymorpha and related

spp.
Synonyms: female ginseng, female tonic,
woman’s herb, tang-kuei.

Identification: This fragrant, perennial herb

has a lightly striated, glabrous stem. The
lower leaves are tripinnate whereas the
upper leaves are simple pinnates. The
leaflet is oval or oval-lanceolate, dentate-
incised, the teeth obtuse. Petioles are
sheathed and long, bracts rudimentary
and not prominent. The flowers are in
umbels, 9-13, radiate with irregular rays
while the pedicel is slender. The roots are
divided into numerous rootlets, the
exterior is brownish, the interior is white.
The taste is bittersweet with a highly
aromatic odour.

Part used: root.

Solvents: water, alcohol.

Chemical Constituents: .2 - .7% volatile oil (made up of carvacrol, safrol,

isosafrol, sesquiterpenes, dinene, n-dodecanol, n-tetradecanol,
butylphalid), sucrose, ferulic acid, succinic acid, beta-sitosterol,
vitamin E, B3, B6, B12, beta-carotene, angelic acid, angeol, myristic acid.

Therapeutic Action: Emmenagogue, sedative, analgesic, blood tonic.

Uses: We have found this herb to be the most valuable when it comes
to adjusting sexual hormones in either the female or male. In China
and Japan this herb is held in very high repute, being second only to
licorice root in sales. It has been used since 588 B.C. for dysmenorrhea
and has been used extensively for many female complaints, particu-
larly for ailments affecting the smooth muscles of the uterus. Dong
quai is also used as a blood builder especially after delivering a child.
Dong quai has been shown to increase oxygen utilization in the liver
(enhancing glutamin and cysteine oxidation.)

Dong quai is also used to strengthen the heart and aid in circulation,
being shown to prevent atherosclerosis. This herb has been reported
to have antibiotic effect on Bacillus sp. and Escherichia coli as well as
other Gram-positive bacteria. Donq quai retards platelet aggregation. It
is effectively employed in cases of flus and colds.

We use the preceding Clinical Female formula first of all, often adding
straight dong quai if more potency is necessary. A tea mixture with
Chinese dates and an egg is often used to adjust the menstrual cycle.

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Textbook of Modern Herbology, Second Revised Edition

Dong quai is also used as the base of some Chinese chicken soups. A
traditional soup that is used by a very large percentage of women in
China after delivering a child is made with chicken and lamb and thirty
grams of dong quai (with no toxic effect). Some scientific groups are
concerned about toxicity due to the safrol oil, but with hundreds of
millions of women taking these large amounts for weeks (through
centuries of history) I feel we have no need to consider toxicity within
therapeutic range.

Dosage: 1 -10 grams

Squaw vine Sc

Mitchella repens

Synonyms: Partridge Berry, Checker-

berry, Winter Clover, Squawberry.

Identification: Squaw vine is a

perennial, evergreen herb, usually
seen growing under trees and
stumps in thick woodland areas
eastward from Ontario to Nova
Scotia and southward to Florida and
Texas. The root-studded stem is
either trailing or creeping and grows
up to one foot. The shiny, dark-green
leaves are opposite, orbicular-ovate
and often streaked with white. The
white flowers are funnel shaped and
grow in pairs from April to July.
Squaw vine’s fruit is a scarlet berry-
like drupe with a diameter of up to
1/3 inch.

Part Used: The entire herb.

Solvents: Dilute Alcohol, Boiling

Water.
Chemical Constituents: tannin, saponin, resin, wax, mucilage, dextrin.

Therapeutic Action: Emmenagogue, Parturient, Tonic, Diuretic, astrin-

gent.

Uses: Squaw Vine’s most common use is as a parturient, which is how

the First Nations peoples used to use it. Mixed in equal parts with red
raspberry leaves and in infusion form, it is taken two to four weeks
before expected delivery date to ensure a safe and easy delivery.

The dosage is one teacupful, two to three times daily. For any urinary
disease, squaw vine is a valuable diuretic, tonic and alterative. It is also

282 Copyright © 1993, Wild Rose College of Natural Healing Ltd.

 The Reproductive System and Emmenagogues

used in several female corrective tonics. A formula for sore nipples

associated with breastfeeding is as follows:

2 oz. Squaw Vine (as fresh as possible)

1/2 pint Olive oil

Decoct the herb in one pint of water, strain, add oil and some bees-
wax, and slowly reduce until the consistency is that of a soft salve.
Apply.

Dr. Christopher’s Female Tonic: ➊➎-➋

1 part Squaw vine herb
1 part Blessed thistle
1 part cayenne
1 part cramp bark
1 part False unicorn root
1 part ginger
1 part red raspberry leaves
1 part uva ursi leaves
3 parts goldenseal

Mix thoroughly and encapsulate in “00” capsules. The

recommended dosage is two capsules, twice daily.

Tansy Sc Ad

Tanacetum vulgare
Synonyms: Bitter Buttons, Parsley Fern,
Bachelor’s Button.

Identification: Tansy is an aromatic perennial

herb that has escaped domestication and has
its wild varieties. It is cultivated throughout
North America. The roots are short and
creeping. The nearly round stem is often
purplish-brown and stands up to five feet tall.
The dark green leaves are alternate, smooth,
lanceolate, and pinnate. The golden-yellow
flower blooms from July to September in flat
terminal cymes.

Parts Used: The herb and seed.

Solvents: Water, Alcohol.

Chemical Constituents: Tanacetin (C 11H16O4, which is found primarily in

the flower); tanacetumtannic acid (C 23H29O31); gallic, citric, malic,
oxalic and arabinic acid.

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 Textbook of Modern Herbology, Second Revised Edition

Therapeutic Action: Emmenagogue, Anthelminthic (the seeds are a

vermifuge), tonic, diaphoretic and stimulant.

Uses: The seeds, steeped in one-quarter ounce to one pint of boiling

water is an effective vermifuge. One-half to one teacupful should be
taken in the morning and while fasting. The digestive tract should first
be emptied with the aid of a herbal laxative. One ounce of the herb to
one pint of water will also work but not as effectively.

Tansy and elder leaves mixed together serves as an effective fly

repellent and also as a valuable local pain reliever. Small doses of a
cold infusion have been used in convalescence for dyspepsia and
jaundice, while a warm infusion has application as a diaphoretic and
emmenagogue. Tansy is a useful agent for delayed menstrual flow
(especially if it results from a cold). It is also used for treating painful
menstruation. For hysteria in women’s disorders, one tablespoon of
the infusion should be taken when needed. The leaves are sometimes
used as a flavouring agent, especially for eggs.

Dosage: Powdered herb — 1/2 - 1 tsp.

Fluid extract — 1/2 - 2 dram
Solid extract — 5 - 10 gram
Essential oil — 1 - 4 drops

Potency and qualities of this herb vary considerably from location to

location due to tansy's habit of interlocking its roots with surrounding
species. This often causes it to take on the characteristics of those
neighbours. Some herbalists, such as Michael Moore, consider the
plant useless because of this "acquisitive behaviour".

☞ NOTE: Large doses cause vomiting, convulsions, coma, feeble

respiration and increased pulse. Some books list this plant as toxic
and poisonous.

Pennyroyal Sc Ad

Mentha pulegium

Synonyms: European Pennyroyal, Pudding Grass, Run-By-The-Ground, Lurk-In-The-

Ditch, American Pennyroyal Hedeoma pulegioides.

Identification: The stem is square, erect, branching, and about six to eighteen inches
tall. The leaves are opposite, thin, ovate and sparingly toothed. The flowers emerge
in June to October and form axillary clusters. They are tubular and lavender to rich
purple. The entire plant has a very pleasant aromatic fragrance.

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 The Reproductive System and Emmenagogues

Part Used: The entire herb and oil.

Solvents: Alcohol, Boiling Water

(partially), Apple Cider Vinegar
(Don’t Boil).

Chemical Constituents: volatile oil

(pulegium oil), diosmin and hesperi-
din.

Therapeutic Action: Emmenagogue,

diaphoretic, diuretic, stimulant,
carminative. American Pennyroyal
has similar but weaker properties.

Uses: As an emmenagogue it is
especially effective for delayed
menstruation. It should be taken
warm and in conjunction with a
vapour bath. Some suggest the taking of warm foot baths for a few
days prior to the onset of menstruation.

For feverish conditions, pennyroyal has a marked beneficial effect due

to its diaphoretic and stimulant properties. For gas, spasm, colic, pain
and restlessness in children, it has also been used successfully. It has a
reputation for being able to purify water, and in days of old, it was
hung in the sleeping room to induce sleep and keep insects out.

Pennyroyal is added to many insect repellents. An especially potent

insectifuge is prepared as follows:

2 oz. Pure Pine Tar

3 oz. Castor Oil

Simmer for one-half hour, and when finally cool, add one ounce of Oil
of Pennyroyal. Apply to all exposed areas, and do not remove until
leaving the insect-ridden area.

Where the insects are in fewer numbers, Oil of Pennyroyal, Citronella,

Vervain, or Lemon Grass, mixed with Vaseline® will suffice. However,
these preparations have to be applied frequently. Pennyroyal pre-
pared in apple cider vinegar can be used as a healing wash. It has a
cleansing, detergent action, even on leprosy. A wash of the infusion is
useful for fleas.

☞ Note: Pennyroyal should never be used during pregnancy.

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Textbook of Modern Herbology, Second Revised Edition

Blue Cohosh Sc

Caulophyllum thalictroides
Synonyms: Papoose, Squaw Root, Blue
Ginseng.

Identification: Blue Cohosh is a perennial.

It grows abundantly along streams and in
moist places. The stem is round, erect
and grows from a knotty rootstock. The
leaves emerge sessile and tri-pinnate.
The yellow-green flower is six petaled
and arranged in racemes or panicles.
The pea-sized berrylike fruit is a dark
blue.

Part Used: The root and rhizomes.

Solvent: Water.

Chemical Constituents: caulo-

phylline, leontin, saponin, silicon,
iron, calcium, potassium, magne-

sium, sodium.

Therapeutic Action: Emmenagogue, Antispasmodic, Nervine, Parturi-

ent, tonic, diuretic, diaphoretic, anthelmintic.

Uses: Blue cohosh, nicknamed “a woman’s best friend”, is one of the

best herbs that can be used to assist in childbirth when the labour is
slow, very painful and where fatigue has set in. It is sometimes taken
for a week prior to birth. It is best taken either as an infusion or
decoction a few hours before parturition.

For delayed menstruation, a cold or hot infusion or decoction has

been found beneficial. Blue cohosh is also an excellent nervine and is
applicable in cases of hysteria, spasms, epilepsy and uterine inflamma-
tion.

Dr. Christopher formula for Menopause: ➊➎-➌

1 part Blue cohosh root
1 part Lady slipper root
1 part hyssop herb
1 part chestnut leaves

Simmer one teaspoon of the ingredients in one cup of

water for five minutes. The dosage is one-half cup, three
to six times daily.

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 The Reproductive System and Emmenagogues

Motherwort Ad

Leonurus cardiaca
Synonyms: Roman Motherwort, Lion’s
Tail, Throwwort, Lion’s Ear.

Identification: This perennial mint

comes from Eurasia where there are
about ten inter-related species. Three
of them have been brought to North
America. Motherwort is found in fields
and pastures with dense axillary
whorls of pink or white flowers seen
from May to September. The upper lip
of the corolla is shaggy. The calyx has
stiff teeth. The stem grows 2 - 5 feet in
length. The leaves are closely set on
long petioles with toothed ovate lobes.
The lower leaves are more roundish
with 5 lobed palmate shape.

Parts Used: The top and leaves.

Solvents: Water, alcohol.

Chemical Constituents: alkaloids, tannins, saponins, carotene and rutin.

Therapeutic Action: Antispasmodic, Emmenagogue, Cardiac, nervine,

laxative.

Uses: Motherwort is one of the best heart tonics. It calms the heart and
nerves and may be given in large doses. It is especially strengthening in
cases of heart palpitations.

As a gastric and intestinal tonic, the following ➊➎-➍

formula is effective:

1 oz. motherwort
1/2 oz. goldenseal
1 oz. dandelion
1/2 oz. centuary
1/4 oz. ginger root

Simmer the ingredients in three pints of water and

then reduce down to one quart. Strain, take three
tablespoons, three to four times daily. This formula
is also effective for getting rid of the blues that
characterize “that time of the month” (premen-
strual syndrome).

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Textbook of Modern Herbology, Second Revised Edition

It is excellent for delayed menstruation and other female troubles

such as hysteria. It is also of value in treating bladder cramps, albumin
in the urine and the scanty, clouded urine of typhoid. Alma Hutchens
uses it for rheumatism, sciatica, neuritis, sleeplessness, convulsions,
delerium and chest cold. It eliminates unwanted catarrh that is
causing discomfort.

Summary of Chapter 15
In this chapter we reviewed the four parts of the male reproductive
anatomy and the five major parts of female anatomy. Menstruation,
fertilization, pregnancy and menopause are briefly outlined. The six
most common emmenagogic herbs are examined in detail.

Recommended Readings

Diagram Group, Man’s Body, Bantam, New York: 1977.

Diagram Group, Woman’s Body: An Owner’s Manual, Bantam, New York: 1978.
Parvati, J., Hygieia: A Woman’s Herbal, Freestone Publ. Co., Monroe, Utah : 1979.
Green, James, The Male Herbal: Health Care for Men & Boys, The Crossing Press,
Freedom,CA: 1991.
Airola, Paavo, Every Woman's Book, Health Plus, Phoenix, AZ:1979.
Durden-Smith, J. and D. deSimone, Sex and the Brain, Warner Books, NY: 1983.
Rayburn, W.F et al., Every Woman's Pharmacy: A Guide to Safe Drug Use, C.V. Mosby,
St. Louis, MO: 1983.
Thompson, D.S., EveryWoman's Health (3rd Ed.), Doubleday & Co., NY: 1985.
Boston Women's Health Collective, The New Our Bodies, Ourselves, Simon & Shuster,
Inc., NY: 1984.
Sloane, Ethel, Biology of Women, (2nd ed.), John Wiley & Sons, NY: 1985.

288 Copyright © 1993, Wild Rose College of Natural Healing Ltd.

 The Endocrine System and Flower Essence Systems

The
Endocrine
System and 16
Flower Essence
Systems

Synopsis:

In this chapter we look at the master control system of the body, the endocrine
system. It consists of the hypothalamus, pituitary, thyroid, adrenals, parathy-
roid, thymus, Pancreatic Islets, pineal body, ovaries, testes and placenta. The
effects of gland malfunction are also dealt with. The role of the Bach Flower
Remedies in healing emotional issues is discussed followed by detailed descrip-
tions of Rescue Remedy and several other Flower Essence Systems.

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Textbook of Modern Herbology, Second Revised Edition

Table of Contents

Introduction
The Endocrine Glands
The Pituitary
The Thyroid
The Parathyroids
The Adrenals
The Pancreatic Islets
The Pineal Gland
The Gonads or Sex Glands
Proper Function and Malfunction in the Endocrine System
The Thyroid
The Parathyroids
The Adrenal Cortex
The Adrenal Medulla
The Pituitary
The Pancreatic Islets
The Thymus
The Bach Flower Remedies and Other Flower Essences
Introduction
Preparing the Bach Flower Remedies
Administering the Dose
Rescue Remedy
Other Flower Essence Systems
Aromatherapy
Summary
Recommended Readings

List of Tables and Figures

16.1 Endocrine Glands

16.2 Table of Endocrine System

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 The Endocrine System and Flower Essence Systems

Introduction

I
nside the body there are a number of aggregations of cells called
glands. They produce one or more specific chemical compounds
that are passed to the outside of the gland. These glands are divided
into two types: exocrine glands and endocrine glands.

Exocrine glands secrete their substances (for example, sweat, lubri-

cants like mucus and tears, and digestive juices) to a specific location,
usually onto an external or internal body surface. They do this, in most
instances, by means of a duct (a tube which conveys liquid). The
lacrimal glands secrete tears onto the surface of the eye. The salivary
glands secrete their substances into the mouth. However, some exo-
crine glands open directly (without a duct) onto a body surface. The
sebaceous glands of the skin and the digestive glands of the intestinal
mucosa are examples. Other exocrine glands include the liver, the
kidneys and certain cells in the pancreas.

Endocrine glands are glands that are ductless and deliver their secre-
tions (called hormones in this instance) directly into the bloodstream or
lymphatic system. Via the bloodstream, the hormones travel to the
organ or parts they are designed to affect. Note in Figure 16.1 that the
liver and pancreas belong to both the endocrine and exocrine class. We
will now look at the endocrine class in greater detail.

The Endocrine Glands

The endocrine system, made up of various endocrine glands, is vitally
important because it is the second great regulatory system of the body.
The first is the nervous system. The endocrine tissues assist the nervous
system in coordinating and integrating the activities of the trillions of

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Textbook of Modern Herbology, Second Revised Edition

pituitary

parathyroid

thyroid

adrenal
thymus

Islets of
Langerhans
liver (pancreas)

testis
ovary

Figure 16.1
The Endocrine Glands

cells in the body, thereby contributing to homeostasis of the internal

environment. The nervous system presides over fast-moving events, such
as throwing a ball. The endocrine system governs processes that require
much longer periods of time — body growth and sexual maturation, for
example (although there are exceptions, e.g., adrenaline production by
the adrenals). From birth until death, the hormones of the endocrine
system play vital roles in metabolism. They do this by acting on the body
tissues and also upon each other, in a manner that is incredibly complex.

The hormone-producing endocrine glands are the hypothalamus,

pituitary, thyroid, adrenals (also called the superadrenals), parathy-
roids, thymus, the Pancreatic Islets, the pineal body, the ovaries and
testes (and also the placenta, temporarily).

The Pituitary
The bi-lobed pituitary gland, about the size of a pea and located at the
base of the brain, is the master gland of the endocrine system. The
anterior lobe produces several hormones, all called tropic hormones
because they act mainly on other endocrine glands — the thyroid,
adrenals and sex glands. It is also the source of somatotropin, or growth
hormone, which promotes growth, especially of bones and muscles up

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 The Endocrine System and Flower Essence Systems

until puberty. Excessive secretions of this hormone in the young results

in giantism, while hyposecretion results in dwarfism. The posterior lobe
secretes two hormones. The first, called oxytocin, stimulates the
smooth muscle of the uterus to contract during childbirth and stimu-
lates the mammary glands during nursing after the baby is born. The
second hormone, called vasopressin, acts on the kidneys to control the
body’s water content.

The Thyroid
The thyroid is a bi-lobed, butterfly-shaped gland situated at the front of
the neck just below the larynx. Its function is to absorb iodine and other
materials from the bloodstream to produce a hormone called thyroxin,
which controls the rate of metabolism of the body and maintains levels
of heat production. The metabolic action of thyroid hormones is
extremely important during growth and development. A deficiency in
the early growing years results in a condition known as cretinism,
characterized by retardation and stunted physical growth. Goiter, or
enlarged thyroid, is caused by a dietary deficiency of the chemical
element iodine.

The Parathyroids
The parathyroids are four small, round glands that are attached to the
rear surface of the thyroid. They secrete a hormone called parathor-
mone which is vital to the metabolism of calcium and phosphorus in
the body.

The Adrenals
The adrenal glands are a pair of glands, one situated on top of each
kidney. Each gland is about the size of a pea and is made up of two
distinct parts, the inner and outer, with each part having a distinct
function. The outer part of the gland, called the cortex, is essential to life,
and secretes hormones called corticoids, which are important in
protein and sugar metabolism. It also secretes aldosterone, which
regulates the amount of mineral salts excreted by the kidneys. Insuffi-
cient secretion of the adrenal cortex may result in low blood sugar and
low blood pressure. The inner portion of the gland, called the medulla,
important though not essential to life, secretes a hormone called
epinephrine (also called adrenalin). It is a neural transmitter stimulat-
ing the sympathetic nervous system, and does so at a much faster rate
than usual when the individual is frightened or angered. Epinephrine
increases the heart rate, dilates the bronchial tubes and raises blood
pressure and blood sugar level. It prepares the individual for “flight or
fight”.

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The Pancreatic Islets

The islets of Langerhans are discrete clusters of specialized cells
dispersed throughout the substance of the pancreas and represent the
endocrine portion of this organ. Islet cells are two types: alpha cells and
beta cells. The beta cells are the smaller of the two types and produce
an extremely important hormone called insulin. Insulin is needed for
the proper utilization of sugar by body tissues. Lack of sufficient insulin
secretion causes diabetes. The large alpha cells secrete another hor-
mone, glucagon, which also helps to regulate the blood sugar level.

The Pineal Gland

The pineal gland, also called the pineal body, is a small organ about the
size of a pea situated in the brain. Scientists speculate that this body
exerts some influence on sexual development by secreting a substance
called melatonin. Some psychics also consider it the site of the “Third
Eye” of clairvoyance.

The Gonads or Sex Glands

The sex glands — the testes in the male and the ovaries in the female —
produce hormones as well as sex cells. These hormones control
secondary sex characteristics, for example, the beard and deepening of
the voice in men, and the development of breasts and the onset of
menstruation in women. The hormones produced by the testes are
called androgens, the principal androgen being called testosterone.
Production of testosterone is under the influence of a hormone se-
creted by the pituitary glands. The ovaries produce four principal
hormones. Three belong to a class of compounds called estrogens and
are important in regulating the menstrual cycle. The fourth, progester-
one, influences the development of the placenta and the mammary
glands during pregnancy.

During pregnancy, the placenta acts as an endocrine gland, producing

estrogens and progesterone.

Function & Malfunction

in the Endocrine System
There is a very complex balancing mechanism between all of the
endocrine glands. If one is not functioning properly, the others are
affected. Let’s look at normal and abnormal function in each of them.

The Thyroid
Function:

➊ It extracts iodine from the blood, which it uses to prepare its

hormones.
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 The Endocrine System and Flower Essence Systems

Table of the Endocrine System

Glands Hormones Produced Secretions Controlled

Gonads:
Ovaries (female) estrogen FSH & LH
progesterone LH
Testes (male) testosterone LH

Pancreas insulin & glucagon Plasma Glucose level

Adrenal cortex cortisone & aldosterone angiotensin & K+

Adrenal medulla epinephrine (adrenalin) preganglionic

norepinephrine (noradrenalin) sympathetic neurons

Thymus thymosin immune system

Thyroid thyroxine & calcitonin TSH plasma & Ca+

Parathyroid parathyroid hormone (PH) plasma & Ca+

Anterior pituitary growth hormone hormone level in blood

& hypothalamus

Figure 16.2
Table of Endocrine System

➋ Its hormones act as catalysts, hastening oxidation in tissue

cells throughout the entire body.
➌ It influences metabolic processes and growth.
➍ It lowers blood calcium by suppressing calcium mobilization
from the bones.

Underactivity:

➊ Tissue oxidation is depressed.

➋ The basal metabolic rate drops.
➌ Less heat is produced.
➍ Body temperature falls (as a result of “3” above).
➎ Energy stores are increased (i.e., fat and glycogen).

Blood cholesterol increases, appetite is reduced, weight increases and

intestinal sluggishness (constipation) results. Heart and respiration rate
as well as blood pressure are all reduced, while the individual becomes
lethargic and apathetic. The skin becomes thick, leathery and puffy. The
hair becomes brittle, sparse and dry. Underactivity of the thyroid in the

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Textbook of Modern Herbology, Second Revised Edition

child will result in dwarfing and failure of skeletal, sexual and mental
growth.

Overactivity:

➊ Oxidation speeds up.

➋ The basal metabolic rate is increased.
➌ The body produces more heat.
➍ Energy stores are decreased (i.e., glycogen and fat).

Appetite will increase, but weight will fall. There will be increased
motility of the digestive tract with diarrhea resulting. Heart and respira-
tory rates increase and blood pressure rises. Muscular tremors and
nervousness result. The person becomes excitable and apprehensive.
Protrusion of eyeballs (exophthalmos) is due to pituitary hormone
imbalance and not a thyroid imbalance, as is commonly believed.

Goiter (often caused by lack of iodine in the system) causes production

of more TSH (thyroid stimulating hormone), which in turn will cause
the thyroid to enlarge. This is simply a compensation. The thyroid
increases in size in an attempt to work harder. Increasing dietary iodine
to normal levels will reduce the size of the thyroid.

Note: TSH is produced by the pituitary. Many apparent thyroid problems

originate in the pituitary.

The Parathyroids
Function:

They play an important role in calcium and phosphorus me-

tabolism. They maintain blood calcium levels by acting on the
kidney, bones, and intestines.

Underactivity:

Blood calcium level drops and there is increased neuromuscu-

lar transmission — tetany (intermittent spasm) results, with the
following symptoms: twitching, nervousness and occasional
spasms of face and limb muscles. Since there is an inverse
relationship between calcium and phosphorus levels, phospho-
rus levels are increased.

Overactivity (usually due to tumour):

➊ Blood calcium level rises.

➋ Osteitis Fibrosa Cystica sets in.
➌ There is a softening and deformation of the bones.
➍ After a while, there is increased calcium and water loss and
also a great loss of phosphorus.

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 The Endocrine System and Flower Essence Systems

The Adrenal Cortex

Function:

➊ It acts on the kidney tubules.

➋ It is concerned with retention of sodium and excretion of
potassium (both via the kidneys).
➌ It stimulates the formation of sugar from protein and thereby
is instrumental in raising the blood sugar level.
➍ It is allied with both male and female hormones.

Underactivity (as in tuberculosis):

➊ There is inadequate reabsorption of sodium.

➋ There is excess reabsorption of potassium.
➌ Body fluid show serious electrolytic imbalance, and normal
osmotic relation is not maintained.
➍ Blood volume, blood pressure falls, along with a drop in
blood sugar.

The result for an individual is profound muscular weakness, emaciation

(weight loss), gastrointestinal disturbance (i.e., vomiting and diarrhea)
and anemia. Normally, the tissue salt Sodium Chloride (3-6x) will restore
a balance, normalizing the adrenal cortex function.

Overactivity:

➊ Excessive reabsorption of sodium and water (resulting in

edema).
➋ Disequilibration in osmotic pressure.
➌ Excess production in glucose from protein.
➍ High blood sugar level.
➎ Obesity, especially of the face and trunk.

There is sometimes also:

➏ Over-production of androgen (a male sex hormone).
➐ Premature development of both male and female sexual
characteristics in the young female (i.e., “beard” emergence
and early development of the breasts.) In the adult female
there is balding as well as growth of facial hair.
➑ In young children, excessive muscular development but on a
smaller body (the individual becomes a “pocket Hercules”).

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Textbook of Modern Herbology, Second Revised Edition

The Adrenal Medulla

The medulla arises from the same tissue as does the sympathetic
nerves. It produces nor-epinephrine and epinephrine.

Function:

To reinforce sympathetic nerve activity, especially in emergency

and stress situations. The adrenal medulla is concerned with
“fight or flight”.

The Pituitary
Anterior:

This part of the gland activates and controls most of the other endo-
crine glands of the body, including the gonads. It is controlled by the
hypothalamus and also by blood hormone levels. Underactivity of the
pituitary results in dwarfism, while overactivity produces giantism.

Malfunction of various parts of the anterior pituitary will result in:

➊ A condition similar to that stemming from adrenal

overactivity.
➋ Premature senility and deterioration in all body functions.

Posterior:

The posterior pituitary appears to store hormones but does not act as a
secreting tissue as do other endocrine glands. Its main actions are:

➊ Antidiuretic.
➋ Vasopressor.
➌ Through its oxytocic effect, control of smooth muscles of
contraction in the uterus after childbirth and lactation.
➍ Underactivity of the posterior portion results in diabetes
insipidus, which is characterized by excessive thirst and the
production of dilute urine.

The Pancreatic Islets

One to two percent of total pancreas mass (the islets) manufactures
insulin, which lowers blood sugar levels. Malfunction in the islets can
result in either high or low blood sugar.

The Thymus
The thymus is an irregularly-shaped organ posterior to the sternum. It
plays an important immunological role:

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 The Endocrine System and Flower Essence Systems

➊ It forms T-lymphocytes and induces the development of

lymphoid tissue.
➋ It is theorized to store “blueprints” for antibodies.

The Bach Flower Remedies and Other Flower

Essence Systems
Many flower essences are currently available to modern herbalists. Some
of the ones we use in our clinic are:

➊ Bach Flower Remedies

➋ California Essences
➌ Australian Bush Remedies
➍ Pacific Essences

I am going to concentrate my discussion on the Bach Flower Remedies

as they were the first and I have the most clinical experience with them. I
will follow with a brief discussion of some of the other essence systems.

I will begin my discussion of Bach Flower Remedies citing the introduc-

tion to a book called the “Twelve Healer Remedies” by Edward Bach.

Introduction

“This system of treatment is the most perfect which has been given to
mankind within living memory. It has the power to cure disease; and,
in its simplicity, it may be used in the household.

It is its simplicity, combined with its all-healing effects, that is so

wonderful.

No science, no knowledge is necessary, apart from the simple

methods described herein; and they who will obtain the greatest
benefit from this God-sent Gift will be those who keep it pure as it is;
free from science, free from theories, for everything in Nature is
simple.

This system of healing, which has been Divinely revealed unto us,
shows that is is our fears, our cares, our anxieties and such like that
open the path to the invasion of illness. Thus by treating our fears, our
cares, our worries and so on, we not only free our-selves from our
illness, but the Herbs given unto us by the Grace of the Creator of all,
in addition take away our fears and worries, and leave us happier and
better in ourselves.

As the herbs heal our fears, our anxieties, our worries, our faults and
our failings, it is these we must seek, and then the disease, no matter
what it is, will leave us.

There is little more to say, for the understanding mind will know all
this, and may there be sufficient of those with understanding minds,
unhampered by the trend of science, to use these gifts of God for the
relief and the blessing of those around them.
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Textbook of Modern Herbology, Second Revised Edition

Thus, behind all disease lie our fears, our anxieties, our greed, our
likes and dislikes. Let us seek these out and heal them, and with the
healing of them will go the disease from which we suffer.

From time immemorial it has been known that Providential Means

has placed in Nature the prevention and cure of disease, by means of
divinely enriched herbs and plants and trees. The remedies of Nature
given in this book have proved that they are blest above others in
their work of mercy; and that they have been given the power to heal
all types of illness and suffering.

In treating cases with these remedies no notice is taken of the nature

of the disease. The individual is treated, and as he becomes well the
disease goes, having been cast off by the increase in health.

All know that the same disease may have different effects on
different people; it is the effects that need treatment, because they
guide to the real cause.

The mind being the most delicate and sensitive part of the body,
shows the onset and the course of disease much more definitely than
the body, so that the outlook of mind is chosen as the guide as to
which remedy or remedies are necessary.

In illness there is a change of mood from that inordinary life, and

those who are observant can notice this change often before, and
sometimes long before, the disease appears, and by treatment can
prevent the malady ever appearing. When illness has been present
for some time, again the mood of the sufferer will guide to the
correct remedy.

Take no notice of the disease, think only of the outlook on life of one
in distress.

Thirty-eight different states are simply described: and there should be

no difficulty either for oneself, or for another, to find that state or a
mixture of states which are present, and so to be able to give the
required remedies to effect a cure.

The title, The Twelve Healers, has been retained for this book, as it is
familiar to many readers.

The relief of suffering was so certain and beneficial, even when there
were only twelve remedies, that it was deemed necessary to bring
these before the attention of the public at the time, without waiting
for the discovery of the remaining twenty-six, which complete the
series.”

Bach Flower Remedies have their action on an altogether different

system than other healing approaches and even herbal therapies. Bach
Flower Remedies may be compared to a homeopathic approach and
certain schools of homeopathy have even taken it over as part of the
medicine. One of the first things to be understood with the Bach Flower
Remedies is that no consideration is given to the specific nature of the
disease. The goal is to treat the individual’s emotions, thereby making

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 The Endocrine System and Flower Essence Systems

him healthy — his body will then throw off the illness by virtue of
improved health.

Proponents of Bach Flower Remedies and other Flower Essences feel

that the centre of gravity of many ailments is emotional. When there are
problems in the emotional body, weak links in the physical body get
affected. Physical symptoms are often just that, symptoms of a deeper
emotional cause. The various Flower Essences are designed to work on
the anomalies in the emotional body.

There are no less than thirty-eight Bach Flower Remedies and they are
categorized under seven headings, with each heading standing for one
of the seven major emotions:

➊ Fear
➋ Uncertainty
➌ Insufficient interest in present circumstances
➍ Loneliness
➎ Over-sensitivity to outside influences and ideas
➏ For despondency or despair
➐ For over-care for welfare of others

Each of the seven categories have from three to eight flower remedies
which are specific for that particular emotional issue. Because there are
so many Bach Remedies, I will deal with only a few of the more impor-
tant ones and leave it up to you to pursue further this fascinating
subject. First let’s deal with their method of preparation.

Preparing the Bach Flower Remedies

There are two ways to prepare the Bach Flower Remedies:

➊ The Sunshine Method

A thin glass bowl is filled with the purest water obtainable (spring
water is best). The blooms of the Bach plant (immediately after
picking) are then floated on the surface of the water, such that they
cover entirely the water surface. They are then allowed to stand in the
sunshine for three to four hours, or for a shorter time should the
blooms begin to show signs of fading. The blossoms are then carefully
lifted out and the water is poured into bottles, making them half full.
The remainder of the bottles are then filled with brandy to preserve
the resulting remedies. This is called the Mother Tincture. From the
Mother Tincture take two to four drops and put them in another bottle
filled with equal parts of brandy and spring water. These last bottles
are referred to as the “stock bottles”. From them, remove a few drops
and put them in yet another bottle, filled with water and brandy. It will
be from this final bottle that the patient is treated. He should take two
to four drops, two to three times daily, in a liquid, (i.e., juice or water).

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Textbook of Modern Herbology, Second Revised Edition

Nineteen of the thirty-eight remedies are prepared in this manner. The

remaining are prepared by the second method.

➋ The Boiling Method

The plants are boiled for one-half hour in clean water in exactly the
same proportions as above. The fluid is then strained off and poured
into bottles until they are half full. When the preparation has cooled,
brandy is added. In this second method the blossoms should be used
together with small pieces of the stem or stalk and, when possible, the
young fresh leaves.

Administering the Dose

The Bach Remedies are harmless and there is no fear of overdose,
whether in terms of individual dose quantity or number of doses. Note,
however, that only very small dosage quantities are necessary. Also,
note that a remedy can do no harm even if it is not the one that is
actually needed in the case.

Take two or three drops from the stock bottle and put into a one ounce
bottle which is not quite filled with pure water. If you need to keep the
remedy some time (more than a week), a brandy (40% alcohol — 80
proof) should be added as a preservative. From this last bottle a few
drops should be taken straight into the mouth or in a little water or
juice.

In urgent cases the doses may be given every few minutes until im-
provement is noticed. In severe cases every half hour. In long standing
cases, every two to three hours. Moisten the lips frequently with the
remedy in those that are unconscious. The Bach Flower Remedies can
be added to lotions and washes when desired.

Rescue Remedy
The different Bach Flower Remedies can be mixed, if mixing is called
for. The Rescue Remedy is, undoubtedly, the most famous of the Bach
Remedies. It is the only mixed remedy which is prepared ahead of time.
The reason for this, of course, is that it is a “life-saver” and must there-
fore be available immediately, upon emergency. It is said that every
practitioner should have it on hand. Some people even carry a small
bottle of it around with them at all times. It can actually save a life when
there is no medical care and every second counts. In fact, there is an old
saying: “Always have the Rescue Remedy on hand — the life you save
may be your own!”

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 The Endocrine System and Flower Essence Systems

The Rescue Remedy is comprised of five Bach Remedies:

➊ Star of Bethlehem — for shock

➋ Rock Rose — for terror and panic
➌ Impatiens — for mental stress and tension
➍ Cherry Plum — for desperation
➎ Clematis — for the bemused

Put two drops of each individual remedy into one ounce (30cc) bottle
which is filled with equal parts of water and brandy. Cork well, and
label. Dosage is three drops in an eight ounce glass of water. The
individual should sip slowly.

Let’s take a closer look at the five Rescue Remedy ingredients, again as
taken from the “Twelve Healers”:

➊ Star of Bethlehem
For those in great distress under conditions which for a time produce
great unhappiness. The shock of serious news, the loss of someone
dear, the fright following an accident, and such like. For those who for
a time refuse to be consoled, this remedy brings comfort.

➋ Rock Rose
The rescue remedy. The remedy of emergency for causes where there
even appears no hope. In accident or sudden illness, or when the
patient is very frightened or terrified, or if the condition is serious
enough to cause great fear to those around. If the patient is not
conscious the lips may be moistened with the remedy. Other rem-
edies in addition may also be required. For example, if there is uncon-
sciousness (which is a deep, sleepy state) clematis. If there is torture,
agrimony, and so on.

➌ Impatiens
Those who are quick in thought and action and who wish all things to
be done without hesitation or delay. When ill they are anxious for a
hasty recovery.

They find it very difficult to be patient with people who are slow as
they consider it wrong and a waste of time, and they will endeavour to
make such people quicker in all ways.

They often prefer to work and think alone, so that they can do every-
thing at their own speed.

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Textbook of Modern Herbology, Second Revised Edition

➍ Cherry Plum
Fear of the mind being over-strained, of reason giving away, of doing
fearful and dreaded things, not wished and known wrong, yet there
comes the thought and impulse to do them.

➎ Clematis
Those who are dreamy, drowsy, not fully awake, no great interest in
life. Quiet people, not really happy in their present; living in hopes of
happier times, when their ideals may come true. In illness some make
little or no effort to get well, and in certain cases may even look
forward to death, in the hope of better times; or maybe, meeting again
some beloved one whom they have lost.

Other Flower Essence Systems

For a long time after Edward Bach’s death there was a very conservative
and rather reverent feeling about the Bach flower remedies. The sheer
strength of effectiveness of the remedies had an impact. “If it ain’t
broke, why fix it?” The Bach Remedies do a lot to move and heal the
emotions. The development of the Bach Flower Remedies was a matter
of great timing. It preceded a time of emotional openness in the 60’s
and 70’s. Bach’s understanding of how plant essences could help the
emotions of an individual was described just long enough before the
age of ‘flower power’ to establish an independent authenticity. Some
conservative people feel that the Bach Remedies are the only true
essences. When you think about it, however, it seems rather unlikely
that thirty-five English plants, one Tibetan, one Swiss and one Italian
flower represent the total available essence qualities.

There is evidence that flower essences have been used for a long time.
Esoteric scholars say they were heavily used in Lemuria and Atlantis. We
certainly have evidence that they were used in Egypt, Malaya and Africa.
The Australian Aborigines were also known to draw benefit from the
flower essences. We can note Paracelsus, the mystic, healer and
alchemist, collecting the dew from flowers, to treat patients for emo-
tional imbalances. Though Edward Bach had incredible insight and
pioneered modern use of plant essences, he was neither the first nor
the only practitioner to be drawn to the subtler elements of the plant
world.

Though the practitioners in our clinics rely heavily on the Bach rem-
edies, we have been employing several of the other essence systems in
the last decade. Some of these remedies deal with issues that seem to
be more relevant to our current patients. Questions of sexuality, inter-
and intra- personal development, spiritual evolution have been closely

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 The Endocrine System and Flower Essence Systems

matched to these new systems -- a much broader range of human

experience than that covered in the original 38 Bach Remedies. We have
found particular clinical benefit from the Australian Bush Remedies, the
extended California Remedies, the Pacific essences and a few lesser
known essences.

We encourage people to experiment with these remedies or even work

with flowers in your own area to discover the remedy essences.

Aromatherapy
Another area of herbal use getting quite a bit of attention these days is
the field of aromatherapy. Aromatherapy uses the volatile oils (scents)
of the plants in external applications (in massage oils, bath water,
humidifiers, vaporizers, diffusors, etc.). The various scents have different
attributed healing powers. These volatile oils often work primarily on the
emotions and mental processes but can also have very strong physical
effects.

A more detailed review of this expanding, dynamic use of plants can be

found in the Textbook of Advanced Herbology. It should be noted that
the major form of communication among most mammals is scent. Most
mammals send out, or excrete in urine, groups of hormone-like scents
called pheromones. When you see a dog sniffing away at a post he is
literally reading the local dog newspaper. It keeps him in touch with the
neighbourhood. It has been shown that humans also communicate via
scent, either at the conscious or subconscious level. As the beauty
industry has known for a long time, various scents can represent or
invoke various moods.

Many of the volatile oils have antibiotic qualities. Aroma effects vary from
improvement of mental clarity to aphrodisiac or relaxant properties.
Volatile oils influence the body through the olfactory bulb in the nasal
passage and the influences go straight to the limbic system, hypothala-
mus and pituitary gland. Scent is the fastest, most direct message sent to
the brain.

If you are interested in further study in this area, I have listed a few
additional books on the subject in the Recommended Readings section
of this chapter.

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Textbook of Modern Herbology, Second Revised Edition

Summary of Chapter 16
This chapter reviewed the endocrine glands of the body, their function
and malfunction. The use of the Bach Flower Remedies and other
herbal essences is described.

Recommended Readings

Bach, E., Bach Flower Remedies, Keats Publ. Co., New Canaan, CT: 1979.
White, Ian, Australian Bush Flower Essences, Bantam Books, NY: 1991.
Tisserand, R.B., The Art of Aromatherapy: the healing and beautifying properties of
essential oils of flowers and herbs, Destiny Books, Rochester, VT: 1977.
Davis, P., Aromatherapy: an A-Z, Saffron Walden, Essex, UK: 1988.
Lavabre, M., The Handbook of Aromatherapy, self-published, Culver City, CA: 1986.
Arctander, S., Perfume and Flavor Materials of Natural Origin, Steffen Arctander
Publication, Elizabeth, NJ: 1960.

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 Additional Herbs

Additional
17
Herbs

Synopsis:

This chapter examines a number of important herbs which are not easily placed
within specific categories.

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Textbook of Modern Herbology, Second Revised Edition

Table of Contents

Introduction
Lobelia
Ginseng
Aloe Vera
Astragalus
Ginkgo
Lapacho
Milk thistle
Chlorella
St. John's Wort

List of Tables and Figures

17.1 Lobelia
17.2 Ginseng
17.3 Aloe Vera
17.4 Ginkgo
17.5 Milk thistle

308 Copyright © 1993, Wild Rose College of Natural Healing Ltd.

 Additional Herbs

Introduction

T
here are a number of herbs which we haven't tried to force into
previous categories. These plants often affect more than one
organ system. Nonetheless, these herbs are central to any prac-
tice of modern herbology. In this introductory text we have chosen nine
herbs for general review.

Lobelia Sc Ad

Lobelia inflata

Synonyms: Puke Weed, Emetic Herb, Indian

Tobacco, Asthma Weed, Gag Root, Vomit
Wort. It is found primarily in the U.S.A.

Identification: Lobelia is an erect annual or

biennial herb standing 1 - 2 feet tall, lower
leaves petioled. The flowers are pale violet-
blue, tinted pale yellow inside.

Parts Used: Herb and Seed (The Seed

being more potent).

Solvents: Water, Alcohol, Apple Cider

Vinegar.

Chemical Constituents: lobeline,

lobelic acid, lobelanine, resin, gum,
chelidonic acid and a pungent
volatile oil.

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Textbook of Modern Herbology, Second Revised Edition

Therapeutic Action: Diaphoretic, Relaxant, Nauseant, Sedative, emme-

nagogue.

Uses: There has been much debate about lobelia over the years, and
even many herbalists are against its use including Joseph E. Meyers,
author of “The Herbalist”. I feel the opposition is due to the many
rumours spread in allopathic reports. I personally have used lobelia in
numerous cases and have witnessed no ill effects. There are several
records of herbalists administering as much as three fluid ounces of
Lobelia tincture in a twenty-four hour period for four to seven days in
succession, without problems for the patient.

Many consider Lobelia “the thinking herb” because of its strong

influence on the autonomic nervous system. Recall that the auto-
nomic nervous system, consisting of the parasympathetic and sympa-
thetic nervous systems, plays a major part in controlling the activities
of the visceral organs and even the glandular system. Lobelia is able to
balance the influence of these two systems. Because of this balancing,
it appears to "think" of the way best to solve the problem by itself. The
result is that lobelia acts in different ways in cases that seem similar. Its
use always ends with the results that are best given the internal
situation.

The North American Indians have used lobelia benefically for many
centuries. They do not consider it poisonous, but rather a great sacred
medicine. In your readings you will often hear mention of “acid
tinctures”. These tinctures have been prepared with apple cider
vinegar. The following are two common acid tinctures:

Acid Tincture #1 ➊➐-➊

lobelia seed 2 oz.
lobelia herb 1/2 oz.
cayenne 1 tsp

Grind the ingredients and mix into one pint of apple cider
vinegar. Allow to stand for ten days.

Acid Tincture #2 ➊➐-➋

lobelia seed 2 oz.
lobelia herb 2 oz.

Mix the ingredients into one pint of apple cider vinegar

and allow to stand for ten days. Use the tincture in the
same way as Lobelia inflata, but keep in mind that it is
much stronger in force and action than the latter.

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 Additional Herbs

Antispasmodic Tincture ➊➐-➌

lobelia seed 1 oz.
skullcap 1 oz.
Skunk cabbage root 1 oz.
myrrh 1 oz.
Black cohosh 1 oz.
cayenne 1/2 oz.

Infuse one week in one quart of brandy.

This formula is used for treating lockjaw and convul-

sions in infants.

Many authorities consider Lobelia to be the most important herb!

☞ NOTE: The lobelia you use as a border plant in your flower garden
is a relative of Lobelia inflata, but does not have the same medici-
nal properties.

Ginseng Sc Ad

Panax schin-seng and Panax

quinquefolium

Panax americana
Synonyms: Wonder-of-the-World, Red Berry,
Five finger root, Grantogen, Ninsin, Sang,
Garantogen, Ninsin Root, Tartar Root, Man’s
Health.

History: There is considerable debate over

which of the three varieties are the best. It is
held by many that the Manchurian ginseng
from the mountains of China is best and
some old roots sell for as much as
$20,000.00. In 1976 a four hundred year old
root from this variety was found on an island
off the shore of Korea — it sold for an
incredible $10,000 an ounce. Its total weight
was fourteen and one-half pounds, which meant that its total value was no less then
1.32 million dollars! So, from the cost standpoint, it is obvious that Korean ginseng
root is undoubtedly the most expensive. Why such a phenomenal price-tag? To
answer that we must discuss the reputed ability of ginseng to increase life span. It is
on record that several Chinese herbalists have reached an age of over two hundred
years through the use of ginseng. True? Who knows.

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Textbook of Modern Herbology, Second Revised Edition

American ginseng is preferred by the majority of the common people in both China
and Japan, while the Korean and Chinese variety is prefered in North America. An
interesting switch.

Identification: This plant grows in rich soil in the shade (often birch stands.) Ginseng is
a perennial herb with a large root. The stem is simple and erect, standing a foot tall
with three leaves, each divided into five finely-toothed leaflets. The flower head is a
single terminal umbel of yellowish flowers. The fruit are bright red berries.

Parts Used: Roots and Leaves.

Solvent: Water.

Chemical Constituents: several glycosides, pantothenic acid, volatile oils,

panacene, potassium, calcium, iron, silicon, magnesium, phosphorus,
sodium, aluminum, strontium, manganese, Vitamins B1 and B2.

Therapeutic Action: An “adaptogen” (whole body invigorator).

There are three major varieties of Ginseng:

Panax schin-seng and quinquefolium — found in the Far East

Panax quinquefolium and P. americana — found in the U.S.A. and

Canada.

Eleutherococcus senticosus — (also called Siberian ginseng) is found, of

course, in Siberia but is not a member of the Ginseng family and has
different properties.

Uses: When shopping for ginseng, you will notice that there is “red”
ginseng and “white” ginseng. This does not refer to their natural colour.
It is an indication of product quality. Red ginseng is dyed to indicate the
highest quality while white ginseng is more of a commercial grade. The
age of the ginseng root is of utmost importance. The older the root, the
greater the reputed medicinal properties and the price. It is said that
extremely old roots glow in the dark, giving off a rather peculiar type of
illumination. The shape of the root is another important factor accord-
ing to ancient Chinese lore. It is held that a superior root has the shape
of a man walking at a comfortable gait.

What does ginseng do? Dr. Lakhousky of Russia (the Russians have
studied ginseng extensively), states that it produces an “M-ray”, which
is a force similar to the force generated during mitosis (cell division).
Ginseng is thereby considered to be influential in bringing about a more
perfect cell division. Faulty cell division is held to be one of the causes of
aging. Other Russian scientists feel that it helps in the transfer-RNA
mobility and DNA coding during protein synthesis. This, too, may be an
important factor in promoting longevity.

Ginseng has a special influence on the endocrine system. It tones the

glands and increases their power of influence and control. This may be
one of the reasons why it is esteemed as an aphrodisiac. The Panax

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 Additional Herbs

variety of ginseng has a unique effect on the potency of the male

hormone (considered to increase the androgens) and also strengthens
the male sexual glands (the testes). It thus, of course, becomes of value
in cases of impotency — the increase in hormone level might very well
increase the sexual appetite.

Because the Panax variety of ginseng does in fact increase male hor-
mone production, its long term use is not suggested for the female.
Over a two month period it may bring about the emergence of second-
ary male sexual characteristics. Many herbalists suggest that females
should use the Panax variety for no more than six weeks at a time, with
a six month break between. All varieties of ginseng do endow an
individual with much more energy and help to improve brain function
and build up cells throughout the body. Ginseng is also good for
regulating blood pressure. It raises it when it is too low, and lowers it
when it is too high.

Panax ginseng should never be allowed to come in contact with metal

as this will apparently decrease its strength. This is the reason that we
have special ginseng cookers as well as plastic or bamboo spoons
included as part of the ginseng extract purchase.

Eleutherococcus senticosus, as mentioned above, is substantially differ-

ent from the Panax variety. In fact, it is not a true ginseng at all. One of
the best attributes of “Siberian Ginseng” is that it can be taken by both
males and females for extended periods of time. The extract prepared
from Eleutherococcus has been studied extensively in Russia by Drs. Z.I.
Gutnikova, P.P. Vorobyeva, N.I. Guprunow of the Institute of Biological
Active Compounds, and Professor I.I. Brekham of the Siberian Depart-
ment of the U.S.S.R. Academy of Sciences.

From these studies it has been shown that Eleutherococcus is a superla-

tive “adaptogen”, imparting resistance to a large range of physical,
chemical and biological stresses. It helps both physical and mental
work. It improves appetite, sleep and reflex action, and is beneficial in
many nervous disturbances (for example, chronic irritability, depres-
sion, nervous exhaustion, hypochondria and menopausal neurosis). It
also hastens recovery after illness, chronic ailments, or surgery in
addition to affording protection against the danger of radiation, includ-
ing x-rays, microwaves and atomic fallout.

Not only does it improve the circulation, heighten visual and auditory
acuity, prove to be of value in certain cases of acne and initial stages of
atherosclerosis, it also develops the memory, endowing it with a healthy
retentiveness. Eleutherococcus is also an excellent normalizer. It reduces
a high cholesterol level, increases a low hemoglobin level, lowers
increased sugar content in the blood (in mild and moderate cases), and
normalizes low blood pressure and moderate forms of high blood
pressure. What is remarkable is that in effecting these beneficial

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Textbook of Modern Herbology, Second Revised Edition

results, in no way does it disturb or cause values to exceed normal

ranges.

I know that this all seems a bit much for one herb but the Russians are
so convinced of its benefits that they issue it to Olympic contenders
and the aging senior officers in the Russian army. They, at least, are
convinced it can be beneficial.

Aloe vera Sc Ad

Aloe socatrina or Aloe vera

Synonyms: Aloe

Parts Used: The juice of the

leaves.

Solvent: Water.

Chemical Constituents: Aloins

(the most important ingredi-
ent), barbaloin, isobarbaloin,
potassium and magnesium.

Therapeutic action: Bitter tonic,

Laxative (or purgative), Demul-
cent, Emollient, emmenag-
ogue, stomachic, hepatic,
vermifuge.

Uses: The aloe is one of the sovereign healing agents among herbal
medicine. It cleanses morbid matter from the stomach, liver, spleen,
kidney and bladder, usually soothing all tissue, even blood and lymph.
For those few that experience griping, ginger should be added to the
aloe. Aloe in powdered form is a much more potent cathartic and can
cause severe griping. One should begin aloe therapy with one-quarter
of a tablespoon and work up to a suitable dosage. Aloe vera is often
used for suppressed menstruation, being soothing and cleansing.
Aloe's griping laxative effect is caused by constituents in the "skin" of
the plant. Manufacturing companies filet the "skin" off to decrease the
effect when aloe is used in the cosmetic industry.

I have used aloe primarily in external application. It is a remarkable

agent for soothing sunburn and preventing peeling. Aloe juice or salve
will take the heat and sting out of a sunburn. It will also stop blistering
and help convert the sunburn into a tan. Aloe is no less excellent as a
remedy for burns and scalds. The juice from the leaves is beneficial for
small burns, while the gel or juice available commercially is suggested
for larger burns.

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 Additional Herbs

The aloe juice should be kept cool and the affected area should be
immersed entirely in the juice. Fill a large canning pot with crushed ice
and place another bowl in it, filled with aloe juice. The burned area
(e.g., a hand) is then immersed as much as possible into the juice. The
patient will soon realize and appreciate the very remarkable healing
power of Aloe vera. I have had people report that this juice was so
soothing to their painful burn that they found it difficult to remove
their hand from the juice. Aloe can also be applied very effectively to
cuts, as it cleanses them and assists in healing. Nursing mothers can
apply aloe to their nipples to dry up milk supply and thereby diminish
the desire of the infant to suck, aiding weaning. In case of exposure to
x-ray radiation, aloe is held to be very beneficial (used topically and
internally).

Aloe is also useful as a cosmetic aid. There are many soaps, ointments,
skin refreshers and burn ointments presently on the market, and for
the most part, the ones containing large amounts of aloe are the best.

☞ IMPORTANT: Aloe vera should not be taken internally in large doses

if the preparation includes the "skin" (i.e. in quantities greater than
one teaspoon of powder or 1/2 cup of juice.) Neither should it be
taken internally during pregnancy or externally applied to acute
hemorrhoids. Some preparations are diluted with juices and water.
In these cases, larger doses can be taken.

The following herbs have great usefulness in my practice and are being
employed heavily in modern herbal clinics throughout Europe and
North America. The descriptions are necessarily brief. Further informa-
tion on identification and usage can be found in the materia medicas
mentioned in the Recommended Readings.

Astragalus Ad Ed

Therapeutic Action: adaptogen, immune stimulant, tonic, diuretic,

cardio-tonic.

This Oriental herb, called Huang Qi (Yellow energy) works as a mild

antibiotic, influencing the lung and digestive tract. Astragalus is very
useful for regulating the immune system. It has been shown to increase
energy, reduce toxicity in the liver, act as a heart tonic, lower blood
pressure, dilate blood vessels and increase endurance to fatigued
hearts. Astragalus also increases urine flow and aids recovery from
bladder infection.

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Textbook of Modern Herbology, Second Revised Edition

Ginkgo Sc Ad

Therapeutic Action: Nervine,

Stimulant, astringent.

This herb is presently being used

more as a natural pharmaceuti-
cal than as a herbal remedy.
Extensive extraction and
concentration is applied to
commercial products. It is
usually sold as a 75 to 1 extract
(with 75 pounds of ginkgo
leaves to produce 1 pound of
extract). Its most significant
action is on the brain. Ginkgo
has been shown to increase
mental alertness and memory
significantly. It significantly increases dopamine synthesis in the brain,
increases catecholamine neurotransmitters, increases cholinergic
receptor sites in the brain, thus making brain neural transmissions
faster and better. It also aids in circulation problems, inhibiting platelet
aggregation, reducing arterial blockage and restricting free radicals.

Lapacho Sc Ad

Therapeutic Action: Anti-inflammatory, antibacterial, antiviral, anti-

neoplastic, fungicidal.

Lapacho (also known as Pau D’Arco, Ipe Roxo, and Tahebo) has a
significant antibiotic effect, especially against fungus. This makes the
herb useful in ridding the body of Candida. I have had several patients
who had great results in reducing yeast problems by drinking Lapacho
tea. Vaginal douches, suppositories or tampons soaked in Lapacho tea
have been successful in cases of vaginitis. Its antibiotic effect is matched
by an antiviral action. Several studies have tested lapacho’s effectivenes
in treating cancer patients.

316 Copyright © 1993, Wild Rose College of Natural Healing Ltd.

 Additional Herbs

Milk thistle Sc Ad

Therapeutic Action: Hepatic

tonic, promotes lactation, demul-
cent.

Milk thistle is very beneficial for

the liver, both protecting and
rejuvenating it. It has also be
shown to protect kidneys, brain
and other tissue from chemical
toxins. Milk thistle can help in
strengthening the liver when
recovering from alcohol toxicity,
especially cirrhosis. It has signifi-
cant anti-oxidant effect on free
radicals. This herb has also been
used for varicose veins, menstrual
problems and for snake bites.

Chlorella Sc Ad

Therapeutic Action: Alterative, immunostimmulant, adaptogen.

Chlorella stimulates macrophage activity, the production of interferon

and is generally immuno-stimmulatory. It has been used in the Orient
for cancerous growths and against viruses (especially Epstein–Barr and
herpes viruses). It is specific for inflammation of the pancreas, loose
teeth and toxicity. Chlorella can pull toxic chemicals such as cadmium,
uranium, mercury, copper, lead, pesticides, insecticides and P.C.B.’s out
of the body. There is additional evidence for its usefulness in the preven-
tion of bowel toxicity, ulcers, skin problems, allergies, arthritis, athero-
sclerosis, high cholesterol levels, hypertension and heart problems.

St. John’s Wort Sc

Therapeutic Action: Aromatic, astringent, resolvent, expectorant and

nervine.

St. John’s Wort is known to be anti-depressant and calming. Its calming

effect apparently increases blood supply to stressed tissue. This reduces
blood vessel fragility and, in specific cases, increase uterine tone. St.
John’s Wort is antiviral, antibacterial and has shown potential activity
against cancer in tests by the U.S National Cancer Institute.

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Textbook of Modern Herbology, Second Revised Edition

Summary of Chapter 17
Chapter 17 provides a closer look at several important herbs in modern
clinics which can't easily be placed into a particular category. The value
of lobelia, ginseng and aloe vera are reviewed in detail and a brief
examination of "up and coming" herbs concludes the chapter.

Recommended Readings
Hobbs, Christopher, Milk Thistle — The Liver Herb, Botanica Press, Capitola, CA: .
Willard, T., Tabebuia avellanedae in A Textbook of Natural Medicine, John Bastyr
College Pub., Seattle, WA, p. V:Tabeb, 1987.
Jensen, B., Chlorella: Gem of the Orient, Bernard Jensen Publ, Escondido, CA: 1987.
Coats, B.C., The Silent Healer: A Modern Study of Aloe Vera, self-published, Garland,
TX: 1979.
Fulder, Stephen, The Tao of Medicine: Ginseng, Oriental Remedies & the Pharmacol-
ogy of Harmony, Destiny Books, NY: 1980.
Steenblock, D., Chlorella: Natural Medicinal Algae, Aging Research Institute, El Toro,
CA: 1987.
Halstead, B.W. & L.L. Hood, Eleutherococcus senticosus: Siberian Ginseng, An
Introduction to the Concept of Adaptogenic Medicine, Oriental Healing Arts Institute,
CA: 1984.

318 Copyright © 1993, Wild Rose College of Natural Healing Ltd.

 Your Own Herbal Formulations, Drying and Collecting Herbs

Your Own
Herbal
Formulations, 18
Collecting and
Drying Herbs

Synopsis:

In this chapter the rules of herbal formulation are listed and a sample kidney
formula is assembled to illustrate each rule. There are a number of guidelines
for collecting herbs and for collecting specific plant parts. These guidelines are
discussed followed by the three methods of herb drying.

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Textbook of Modern Herbology, Second Revised Edition

Table of Contents

Introduction
The Use of Proven Formulas
The Rules of Formulation
Collecting and Drying Herbs
General Gathering Rules
Roots
Tubers
Bulbs
Leaves
Herbage
Flowers
Fruits and Seeds
Bark
Buds
Drying
Outdoor
Indoor
Artificial
Summary
Recommended Readings

320 Copyright © 1993, Wild Rose College of Natural Healing Ltd.

 Your Own Herbal Formulations, Drying and Collecting Herbs

Introduction

P utting a herbal formula together is analogous to bringing together

a group of people in the hopes of forming an integrated, coopera-
tive and harmonious whole. If each member of the group has an
overbearing and egocentric nature, each would try to force his point of
view on the others. The result? Little would be accomplished because
there would be no spirit of cooperative interaction. In preparing herbal
formulas, a systemic approach is far more conducive to revitalizing the
mind and body.

The Use of Proven Formulas

Many herbal formulas that are already on the market, or in books, have
been tested by time and have been used successfully for decades,
centuries or even a thousand years. There is nothing wrong with relying
on formulas that have stood the test of time and proven themselves in
the process.

The Rules of Formulation

When you do prepare your own formulas, the following rules are
important to consider:

➊ Three parts of the formula should consist of the herb(s)

actively working to correct the specific disorder.
➋ One part of the formula should be soothing to the impaired
tissue (demulcent).
➌ One part should be nourishing and strengthening.
➍ One part should have eliminative properties.

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Textbook of Modern Herbology, Second Revised Edition

➎ One part should be concerned with proper nerve supply (if

needed).
➏ One part should be stimulating (if needed) to the blood
supply.
➐ One or more parts are put into a formula to neutralize
unwelcome attributes or chemicals in other more primary
herbs. This rule is often not needed.

Remember these rules are merely guidelines and can be broken on

occasion. Nonetheless, they are an excellent place to begin.

Example:

Let’s assume that you wish to prepare a good general formula for the
kidneys.

RULE #1 states that you should have three parts of the formula
made up of a herb (or herbs) which are specific for correcting the
particular disorder.

As we mentioned earlier, each herb has its specific sphere of

influence. Therefore take three parts of one or more herbs
which have their specific influence on kidney functioning.
Because we are preparing a general formula, we will allow
ourselves to choose three individual herbs, namely:

1 Part Uva Ursi leaves

1 Part Juniper berries
1 Part Buchu leaves

RULE #2 states that one part of the formula should be soothing to

the improperly functioning or damaged tissue (demulcent).

This part of the formula serves to “smooth out the rough edges”
of the other herbs. For example, ginger will assuage the griping
in a senna-containing cathartic formula. Since our kidney
formula will induce the elimination of concentrated urine and
possibly calculi (stones or gravel), we would incorporate one
part marshmallow root as an effective demulcent.

RULE #3 states that one part of the formula should be nourishing

and strengthening.

This component of the formula is often made up of the same

herb(s) that we employ in applying Rule #1 (their concentration
becomes increased). In this particular example, though, we will
employ another herb, specifically:

1 Part Parsley leaves

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 Your Own Herbal Formulations, Drying and Collecting Herbs

RULE #4 states that one part of the formula should have eliminative
action.

This component of the herb is needed to help rid the

byproducts that result from building, toning and strengthening
the impaired area and/or to eliminate excess morbid and
useless material present in the afflicted area.

In preparing our formula, we will want to eliminate calculi by

slowly dissolving them. Our indicated herb is therefore:

1 Part Gravel root

RULE #5 states that one part of the formula should enhance nerve
supply to the affected area (if needed).

Usually with the visceral area (which includes, of course, the

kidneys) we are concerned with a proper nerve supply from the
autonomic nervous system. Lobelia is our choice:

1 Part Lobelia inflata herb

RULE #6 states that one part of the formula should be a stimulant

(if needed).

In applying this rule, we try to increase circulatory supply to the

specific area, both to bring in the needed nutritive material of
the herbs and also to help eliminate toxic material. Cayenne is
the herb that is often used for this purpose (for example, in
stomach formulas it is employed to increase circulation to the
parietal cells of the stomach, which will in turn increase hydro-
chloric acid production).

In our kidney formula, however, we don’t want a stimulant as

you will recall that it is best not to push the kidneys too hard.

RULE #7 states one or more herbs, if necessary, for neutralization.

This is not needed in this formula as the marshmallow under rule #
2 satisfies the requirement.

Our formula, then, is now complete and consists of:

Equal parts:

Uva Ursi
Juniper berries
Buchu leaves
Marshmallow root
Parsley leaves
Gravel root
Lobelia inflata

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Textbook of Modern Herbology, Second Revised Edition

When devising a herbal formula, never take a “shotgun” approach. A

formula consisting of a large number of herbs is seldom as effective as
one consisting of a fewer number — the formula simply becomes “too
confusing” and its effectiveness is lost! After preparing the formula we
test it. In this case, after testing this formula on several hundred patients,
we found that about 1% started to eliminate kidney stones prematurely.
This meant we followed up with dissolving the stones in the bladder
with hydrangea and juniper tincture. In subsequent production of this
formula, the gravel root was eliminated, making it a much better
formula for the general public.

Collecting and Drying Herbs

It is difficult to lay down hard and fast rules on collecting herbs for the
simple reason that there are many exceptions to the rules. Consider the
following points as general guidelines. Implement them with an open
mind and don’t be afraid to learn from your own experience.

When collecting herbs, it is seldom necessary to pick the entire plant

since the active principles are usually concentrated in specific plant
parts or, rather, organs. The medicinal qualities also vary with the
season, so this too should be considered when gathering herbs. It can
be said that, as a general rule, the wild varieties are more potent than
the cultivated ones, but the potency will vary from season to season and
from place to place.

Often, though not always, the fresh leaves have a similar value to the
root. Replacing a root product with a leaf product results in less de-
struction of the plant stock and is more environmentally friendly.
Goldenseal is an excellent example of this possibility. Pressure to
harvest goldenseal root is rapidly pushing the plant into endangered
status. By carefully harvesting only the leaves, the medicinal effects can
be achieved but a crop is then available year after year. A warning about
this practice is necessary. In the case of the rhubarb plant, the root is
cathartic and useful but the leaf is highly toxic and quite lethal. Make
sure of your plant before substituting the medicinal parts described in
herbal texts.

When circumstances render it impractical or impossible to follow the

rules, use other plant parts (unless they are specified as dangerous) or
use out-of-season and cultivated herbs.

Some herbs are better fresh, others dried. The circumstances will
determine the wisest or most practical choice. Ecological conscious-
ness is important when picking wild herbs. Do not pick an entire herb
population from one area. Pick here and there. Do not pull the entire
plant unless the roots are required. Remember also that in much of the
country there are laws protecting some wildflowers and other plants.

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 Your Own Herbal Formulations, Drying and Collecting Herbs

General Gathering Rules

The medicinal qualities of herbs are affected by the weather, the time,
the place, and the method of picking.

Weather: It is best to collect herbs in dry weather. Their medicinal

principles are diminished by rain (and also affected by soaking them
in water or by placing their stems in water). Wet herbs are likely to
spoil more quickly. In dry periods, herbs contain more oily and
resinous particles, which means they will keep better.

Time of Day: The best time of the day to collect herbs is in the early
morning, after the dew has evaporated, or in the evening, before the
dew begins to form. When the sun is high and hot, the leaves tend to
droop, releasing some of their principles into the atmosphere and
therefore decreasing their medicinal qualities.

Locality: It is best to collect wild varieties from high, dry soil, where
there is lots of fresh, clean air. Herbs should be picked at least 20 - 30
feet away from roads to reduce contamination.

Roots:

Annuals — The roots of annuals are seldom collected, but when they
are, the root should be collected shortly before the flowering period.
This is because the medicinal principles will tend to gravitate toward
the sexual parts when they develop. The plant will soon deteriorate
after the seeds are produced and then the roots will die.

Biennials — These roots are best harvested in the autumn of the first
year or in the spring of the second. The roots, being storage organs,
accumulate active principles during the summer months. In the
second year, most of the strength of the root has migrated into the
above-ground parts - it now becomes woody, hollow, and more or
less worthless as a herbal medicine.

Perennials — The roots and rhizomes are picked simultaneously and

are best selected in the fall after the sap has returned to the root, or in
the spring before it has risen. Root bark should be removed (if not
needed) soon after picking, as it is easier to remove at this time and
makes for a more rapid root-drying time. Most wild perennials are
better after two years of growth, getting richer in quality as they
mature. This isn’t always the case, however, as some roots will tend to
rot after several years, rendered useless.

Tubers: Tubers should be collected in or just after flowering season to

help identify the plants. They should not be damaged in selection
since their medicinal qualities may be lowered greatly if they are
deeply gashed.

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Textbook of Modern Herbology, Second Revised Edition

Bulbs: Gather after the leaves of the plant begin to wither.

Leaves: Young leaves and basal leaves are generally considered the
best. Leaves can be collected throughout the season, but are best
selected before flowering and after fruiting. The active principles tend
to migrate from the leaves into the flowers and fruit and then back
into the leaves after the fruit has matured. Some prefer to pick leaves
from sterile stems (stems that do not have any flowers or fruit on
them).

Make sure you do not strip any branch or plant entirely of its leaves as
this will probably kill the plant. Select some here and a few there and
you will soon have all you need.

Herbage: (Aerial or top parts of the plants). It is best to pick herbage

while the flower buds are forming, before the flowers open. When the
flowers open, the medicinal qualities of the plant begin to move into
the flowers and into seed production.

Flowers: The commencement of the flowering period is the optimum

time for picking flowers. Flowers rapidly deteriorate after this time.

Fruits and Seeds: These should be picked just before or at the time of
ripeness. They will ripen off the plant, and will not deteriorate (over-
ripen). They should be picked before they are ready to fall off.

Bark: The sap flow is most active in the spring, just before the buds
open, and in the fall, just after or even as the leaves are falling. The
bark is most saturated with the medicinal qualities at these times.

When collecting bark, remember that if a strip is taken 360 degrees

circumferentially from the trunk, the entire tree will die. It is best to
remove it in little patches; better yet, take it from the smaller side
branches.

Buds: Buds are to be gathered when formed and before they start to
open.

Drying
Proper drying is crucial in retaining the active ingredients of the herb for
long periods. When done properly, the herb will usually retain its
original color. Plants that become moldy, musty smelling, much lighter,
or browner from too much heat, have lost much of their medicinal
qualities in the drying process.

Plants may be dried in three ways:

➊ Outdoors
➋ Indoors
➌ Artificially

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 Your Own Herbal Formulations, Drying and Collecting Herbs

Outdoor Drying: The herb should be spread thin on a drying screen.

The drying screen can be rust-free steel mesh, (e.g., a new window
screen, stretched cheese cloth or fiber mesh screen). The drying
screen should be mounted to ensure good air circulation. I accom-
plish this by setting the screen on the edges of chairs, sawhorses, or
by suspending it from strings. I have also found it useful to cover the
area with mosquito netting to keep insects away.

Drying must be done in a well ventilated, shady place. Food can be

dried in the sun, but herbs cannot. One should turn the herbs a few
times, checking to see if they are ready. The herbs will probably take
two to four days to dry properly.

Indoor Drying: Indoor drying must be done in a dust-free, well venti-

lated room. The herb can be dried as if outdoors, on a drying screen.
Some people prefer to dry leafy foliage in bunches. The bunches
should be tied together and hung with the flower-heads down or
more properly, the roots up. Keep the herbs out of direct sunlight (i.e.,
from windows).

Artificial Heat: Although it might be hard to control heat in an oven,

which may destroy the plant’s medicinal qualities, this quick drying
process is best. The heat should be kept under 40 degrees C (100
degrees F). Commercial oven dryers have fans that aid ventilation.

If you are drying several different herbs together, make sure they are
properly labelled. After they are dried, store them in an air-tight,
lightproof container. I have found that if you take a gallon mayonnaise
jar, paint the outside a dark color, you have a nice airtight container
for the herbs.

Summary of Chapter 18
In this chapter, seven rules for herbal formulation are listed and an
example of a kidney formula is presented. General guidelines for
collecting and drying herbs are reviewed.

Recommended Readings
Tierra, M., The Way of Herbs, Orenda/Unity Press, Santa Cruz, CA, 1980.
Priest, A.W. & L.R. Priest, Herbal Medication: A Clinical and Dispensary Handbook,
L.N. Fowler & Co., Romford, Eng: 1982.
Green, J., Herbal Medicine Maker's Handbook, Simpler's Botanicals, Forestville, CA:.
Willard, T.L., Textbook of Advanced Herbology, Wild Rose College of Natural Healing,
Ltd., Calgary, AB: 1992, Chp. 12.

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Textbook of Modern Herbology, Second Revised Edition

328 Copyright © 1993, Wild Rose College of Natural Healing Ltd.

 Appendices

Appendices

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Textbook of Modern Herbology, Second Revised Edition

Table of Contents

Introduction
1: Herbal Preparations
2: Weights and Measures
3: List of Associations and Contacts
4: First Steps in Herbal Research
5: Glossary of Botanical Terms
6: Summary of Herbal Therapeutic Groups
7: Bach Flower Questionnaire

List of Tables and Figures

A1.1 Soxhlet Extraction Apparatus

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 Appendices

Appendix 1
Herbal Preparations
This appendix briefly reviews the basic methods of herbal preparation.
Many of the old herbals and herb texts have methods which vary slightly.
Working directly with herbs is the first and best way of developing
effective preparation methods.

Herbs are medicinal plants and the preparations made from herbs can
be taken internally or used externally. In the case of internal application,
the choice of delivery method includes infusions, decoctions, macera-
tions, juices, tinctures, extracts, powders, etc. External use can involve
poultices, lotions, compresses, dressings, eyebaths, gargles, enemas and
boluses.

An alphabetical list of preparations follows:

Bolus is a suppository - shaped poultice intended for internal use. It is

used internally in the rectum or vagina either to draw out toxic poisons
or as a carrier for healing agents. A bolus for the vagina is usually about
the thickness of the middle finger and about one inch in length. They
are usually used in a series of three (which is more comfortable for the
patient than the single three-inch bolus). Boluses are typically prepared
warm and then allowed to cool to the point where they can be easily
shaped. They generally contain a powdered herbal agent(s) mixed with
a base. A base of slippery elm and cocoa butter is one of the oldest
forms and seems to work best.

Boluses containing a herbal mixture of slippery elm and cocoa butter

oil are prepared as follows:

Heat cocoa butter over hot water (not over direct heat,
as it burns rapidly) and then stir in the slippery elm and
other desired herbs. Allow the preparation to cool and
then roll it into several boluses about the width of your
middle finger, cutting into one inch pieces. Set them
aside and allow to harden. They are now ready for
vaginal insertion, one after the other. Because the
boluses will melt at body temperature, it is advisable to
introduce a tampon after their insertion. The boluses
should be inserted fresh every day. After 6 days a
cleansing douche or rectal wash is used to cleanse the
area.

Capsules are easy to make. Simply take ground herbs and insert them
into soluble hard gelatin capsules. Capsules come in various sizes —
“000” to “5” — to permit easy swallowing. The “5” is the smallest size
while “000” is the largest. Why do we encapsulate herbs? One reason is

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Textbook of Modern Herbology, Second Revised Edition

to improve palatability (since some herbs taste indescribably bad). A

second reason is convenience, since less water and no special equip-
ment is needed. A final reason is compliance. Recall from an earlier
chapter that herbal effectiveness is a function of compliance and the
appropriateness of the herb! Keep in mind that people vary widely in
their ability to swallow capsules or tablets. Some prefer capsules to a
tea. Others require a liquid because of a individual problem with
swallowing capsules.

Compound is a herbal formula. It is a preparation made up of two or

more herbal agents which are organically compatible. Not all com-
pounds are effective. We can’t always say that because one herb has
property A and another has property B that the two of them together
will give us properties A+B. Some of the ingredients contained in one
may negate the value of some of the ingredients contained in the other.
“Special Combinations”, like many formulas in this text, are often the
result of many years of painstaking research and development.

Concentrate is a fluid extract strengthened through evaporation of fluid.

Alcohol concentrates are produced by allowing the alcohol to evapo-
rate without in any way decreasing the strength of the herb. Water
concentrates are usually made by slowly simmering the herbs until the
volume of the extractive agent is reduced.

Decoction is a water solution of plant extracts. They are prepared at a

boiling temperature. Decoctions differ from infusions in that coarse
and brittle plant structures (the roots, bark and chips) are the base.
Because of their volatile nature, decoctions are intended for immediate
use, and should typically be put to use within twenty-four hours. Some
authorities state that they should not be kept longer then six hours
before application. The longevity of decoctions may be increased by the
use of certain preserving agents, such as glycerin, or refrigeration. A
standard decoction consists of fifty grams of closely ground plant
material in 1000 cc of cold water. The procedure of preparation is as
follows:

The ground plant (approximately 50 gms) should be placed into a

vessel which has a lid. Never use aluminum or iron cookware. Stainless
steel, porcelain or Pyrex® cookware is suitable. One quart (1000 cc) of
cold water should be added. Mix and then place the vessel over heat
and bring to a boil and simmer for fifteen to twenty minutes. Remove
from the heat and cool to about body temperature. Then pour the
decoction into a jar through a suitable strainer. Since some of the fluid
will have evaporated during boiling, you will end up with less than one
quart of fluid.

Enema is the introduction of a large amount (three to eight cups) of

liquid into the bowel via an enema tube. An enema is carried out to
disencumber an obstructed bowel, to cleanse it, or to serve as a means
of introducing nutrition into the body when an individual is unable to

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 Appendices

take nourishment otherwise. A good cleansing enema consists of

warm (not hot) water and nothing else, although herbs (like coffee)
can be used for special purposes.

Extract is a solution of the essential constituents of a herbal agent. It is

prepared by boiling the plant material in water and then evaporating
the strained decoction to a desired concentration. Extracts harbour
the more active principles of the medicinal plants, allowing the less
active principles to be removed as a dross. Various solvents may be
used including alcohol, water and glycerin. Extracts should always be
prepared at the lowest temperature possible that is compatible with
good extraction of the healing principles. If care is not taken, some of
the lighter and more volatile oils and other important ingredients may
be lost. In addition, the vessel in which the extract is prepared should
always be tightly covered until such time as the extract has reached a
sufficiently cool temperature (i.e., body temperature).

Fluid Extract is an alcohol or glycerin preparation of herbal extract

containing the active constituents in a definite ratio of plant material to
solvent. There are several types of fluid extracts.

Heated extracts are prepared by boiling (but preferably simmering) a

herbal agent in water and then evaporating the strained decoction to
a desired concentration — this yields a more concentrated herbal
remedy.

A fluid extract is made by evaporating an already prepared fluid (such

as an infusion or decoction) to the desired concentration.

A cold extract is similiar to an infusion. It is prepared by taking twice as

much herb as is desired for an infusion and then letting it sit in an
enamel or non-metallic pot for eight to twelve hours. It is then strained
and taken as one would take an infusion.

Glycerin is often used as a preserving agent in extracts. Glycerin can be

derived from a vegetable or petroleum base. Preferably, use only the
glycerin which has come from a vegetable base.

Fomentation is a herbal preparation used to draw out poison, allay

irritation, reduce inflammation or relieve pain. To make a fomentation,
prepare the herb as a tea (as either an infusion or decoction), strain
and then absorb it into a piece of muslin, cotton wool, towel, flannel
or gauze (natural fiber material). Wring out the cloth sufficiently so
that it is not dripping and then place it on the affected area. Fomenta-
tions are usually applied as hot as can be tolerated and then reapplied
as they cool or dry. The fomented area is often covered with a sheet of
plastic and then a towel to keep it moist and hot. A hot apple cider
vinegar fomentation is excellent for arthritis, rheumatism and other
types of aches.

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Textbook of Modern Herbology, Second Revised Edition

Infusion is prepared by steeping a herbal agent in liquid, usually water.

Domestic teas are usually prepared this way — herbs are submerged in
hot or boiling water and allowed to steep for a certain length of time.
Cold infusions are made in a similar manner, the only difference being
that cold water is used, often dripping the water slowly over the herb.
Generally, infusions are made from the more delicate parts of the plant,
such as the buds, leaves, or flowers (you will recall that decoctions are
prepared from the coarser parts, such as the roots, bark or chips).

Injection is a small 1 - 2 cup enema or vaginal douche (obviously, the

term is not synonymous with the hypodermic needle injection of
allopathic medicine).

Juice, also called an “express”, is prepared by juicing a fresh herb, with

great emphasis on the word “fresh”. The juicing can be done with
either an electric juicer, or hand juicer, or a press. Juices are typically
the best embodiment of the active ingredients of a herb. Juices may
also be extracted by placing the herbs, wrapped in muslin cloth, in a
mortar and then crushing them with a pestle.

Liniment is a liquid or semi-liquid preparation of a herb. Liniments are

applied to relieve skin irritation and muscle pain and include herbal
oils, tinctures or liquids. They are intended for application to the skin by
gentle friction or massage. Liniments are thinner than ointments and
have application primarily as anodynes (pain relievers) or counterirri-
tants.

Maceration is a term synonymous with cold infusion. The herb (approxi-

mately 50 gms) is placed in a 1000 cc menstruum (usually alcohol but
potentially water).

Oils are prepared by taking a specified amount of herbs and mixing

them, crushed or whole (depending on the herbs), with a botanical oil.
The amount of oil used depends on the herb and the desired strength
of the final preparation, but two parts of oil for each part of herb is
regarded as an ideal ratio. Some oils, such as Balm of Gilead, are best
heated (but not boiled) for a given length of time (e.g. 20 minutes),
while others, such as garlic oil, are best steeped for several days, and
then strained. Always use an oil of high quality, such as a cold-pressed
olive or almond oil. Essential oils differ from oil preparations as these
are the volatile oils present in the herb (e.g. clove oil, cinnamon oil.)

Ointment, sometimes called salve, is a soft, semi-solid herbal prepara-

tion, prepared as follows:

A herbal preparation (i.e. an infusion or decoction) is placed in an oil

and the water is evaporated. The result is then mixed with heated
lanolin or lard. Melted beeswax is subsequently mixed in until the
desired consistency is obtained. And there is your ointment! A little
gum benzoin or a drop of tincture of benzoin is a helpful preservative.

334 Copyright © 1993, Wild Rose College of Natural Healing Ltd.

 Appendices

In hotter climates, more beeswax is necessary to maintain stiffness. In

general, salves tend to have less beeswax than ointments.

Poultice is a soft, usually heated, semi-liquid herbal mass which is

spread on a cloth and then applied to an area of the body. A bruised
herb is mixed with water, heated, applied to a cloth and placed on the
appropriate area. The poultice is easily applied if heaped onto a cloth
and then wrapped or placed on the desired area. The cloth should be
moistened frequently to keep it wet and heated. Non-irritating herbs
come in direct contact with the skin. While most poultices can be left
in contact with skin for a long time, those that can act as irritants
should be applied for short periods only (a mustard plaster or this
type of poultice needs a layer of wax paper between the poultice and
skin). After removing the poultice, it is advisable to wash the treated
area, using water or a herbal tea (such as chamomile or mugwort).
Covering the area with plastic will keep the water from evaporating
and permit its absorption into the skin. The area may also be covered
with a towel to keep the heat in.

Sohxlet Extraction apparatus allows us to get many of the benefits of a

decoction, fluid extract or tincture. The additional advantage is speed,
thoroughness and the capture of the volatile oils. The menstruum

Sohxlet extraction takes advantage of several simple principles of nature.

The goal is to capture the delicate elements of a herb which are destroyed Water
or lost through open-air boiling. A Sohxlet extraction process finishes with collar
a pure liquid extract which contains the great majority of the active
ingredients of a herb. Alcohol is heated in beaker A. Pure alcohol vapour
travels directly
up glass tube (E) towards the condensing chamber (C). Cool water is
pumped through the collar of the condensing chamber. When the alcohol
vapour reaches the condensing chamber, it condenses and drips back
down onto the thimble (B) which contains the herb. The thimble is usually C
made out of laboratory filter paper. As the chamber containing the thimble
fills with condensed (and still relatively hot) alcohol, the active ingredients
are leached out. As the liquid level rises, it also climbs the tube (F) at the
side of
the chamber. The tube is shaped to act as a one-way siphon.When the G
liquid level in the siphon reaches the top (point G), the siphon acts to draw
all the fluid out of the thimble chamber and back into beaker A. The siphon E
B
otherwise provides an airlock which prevents vapour from escaping
(except through tube E). This filling and siphoning process repeats over F
and over. With each repetition, pure hot alcohol is passed over the herbal
material, draws further constituents from the herb and increases the
concentration of constituents in the beaker. The entire system is enclosed
so that only the most volatile components of the herb escape up tube E. A
The temperature of the liquid in the beaker never rises much above the
boiling point of alcohol (which is much lower than the boiling point of
water). Caution is always necessary to make sure that the beaker is not
exposed to too much heat, too quickly.

Figure A1.1
Sohxlet Extraction Apparatus

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Textbook of Modern Herbology, Second Revised Edition

(usually alcohol) is boiled in Chamber A. (see Figure A1.1). The herb is

contained in a filter-like thimble (B). The menstruum evaporates going
up to the condensing chamber (C).

The condensing chamber, like a still, cools the vapour which drips
onto the herb in the thimble. When the herbs are completely covered
in menstruum, the tube (F) is filled and automatically empties itself.
This process repeats itself until the vital essences of the herb are
removed (usually 1 - 2 hours) and the liquid passing through tube F is
clear. The result is a very strong and pure extract in a very short time.

Syrup is a thick, sticky, liquid-like preparation. A herbal syrup is made by

taking a herbal agent and boiling, simmering, or heating it in honey
and/or glycerin, and then straining it through cheese cloth. Often a tea
is made first then strained, concentrated and then the syrup or glycerin
or honey is added. Syrups are especially useful for administering
medicines to children or fussy adults. Some syrups are made in a
vegetable base.

Tablets are prepared by compressing herbal material under high

pressure and often with high-speed machinery. Tablets are very
convenient for people to consume but cannot be easily made at home.

Tincture is, technically, a fluid extract but in this case the medicinal
virtues are withdrawn into an alcohol, glycerin, or vinegar solution
(acid tincture) since water alone, for some herbs, will not retrieve
some of the medicinal principles. The menstruum (the alcohol,
glycerin, etc.) also acts as a preservative. A typical tincture is prepared
by steeping one part herb in two parts of alcohol for ten to fourteen
days (maceration.) The resulting mixture is then strained, poured into
a sealed jar, stored in a dark place, and shaken twice daily. It has been
found that tinctures increase in potency during the first ten to fourteen
days after macerating and then decrease slightly in strength subse-
quently. A herb prepared in tincture form will last virtually forever.

Astrologers and alchemists have discovered that beginning prepara-

tion of the tincture at the time of the new moon and carrying it through
to the full moon will result in a stronger tincture.

There are several other “high tech” ways to make botanical prepara-
tions. Hypercritical carbon dioxide is used as a pure “solvent” for very
expensive volatile oil extraction. This technique is further discussed in
the Textbook of Advanced Herbology. Freeze drying is also used to get
active ingredients out of plants and preserve them. The technique is
used in the coffee industry as well as for herbs. Fresh plant extracts are
becoming commercially popular. In these cases, fresh plants are used
to make the tincture rather than dried material. Sometimes this results
in a more potent preparation, other times less potent. The properties

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 Appendices

of a fresh plant extract will also vary from dried plant extracts, both
positively and negatively.

Recommended Readings

Priest, A.W. & L.R. Priest, Herbal Medication: A Clinical and Dispensary Handbook,
L.N. Fowler, Romford, Eng.: 1982.
Christopher, J.R., School of Natural Healing, Biworld Publ., Provo, Utah: 1976.
Tierra, M., The Way of Herbs, Orenda/Unity Press, Santa Cruz, CA: 1980.
Green, J., Herbal Medicine Maker's Handbook, Simpler's Botanical, Forestville, CA:

Copyright © 1993, Wild Rose College of Natural Healing Ltd. 337

Textbook of Modern Herbology, Second Revised Edition

Appendix 2
Weights and Measures

Apothecary system

The basic unit of mass is the grain:

20 grains = 1 scruple = 1.33 gm

60 grains = 1 dram = 4 gm
437.5 grains = 1 ounce = 27.8 gm
7000 grains = 1 pound (avoirdupois) = 454 gm

The basic unit of capacity is the minim:

60 minims = 1 fluid ounce = 30 cc

7680 minims = 16 fluid ounces (1 pint) = 1 litre

Metric-Apothecary Equivalents

1 milligram = 1
/65 grains
1 gram = 15.43 grains
1 kilogram = 2.20 pounds (avoirdupois)
1 milliliter = 16.23 minims
1 grain = 0.065 gram
1 ounce = 31.1 grams
1 minim = 0.062 ml
1 fluid ounce = 29.57 ml
1 pint = 473.2 ml
1 quart = 946.4 ml

Household-Metric Equivalents

1 drop (1 minim) = 1
/20 ml
1 teaspoon = 5 ml
1 dessertspoon = 8 ml
1 tablespoon = 15 ml
1 wineglass = 60 ml
1 glass = 250 ml

338 Copyright © 1993, Wild Rose College of Natural Healing Ltd.

 Appendices

Appendix 3
List of Associations and Contacts
Canadian Association of Herbal Practitioners
921-17 Ave. S.W.
Calgary Alberta T2T 0A4

Ontario Herbalists Association

P.O. Box 253, Station “J”
Toronto, Ontario M4T 4Y1

HerbalGram (journal)
P.O. Box 12006
Austin, Texas 78711

Oriental Healing Arts Institute

1945 Palo Verde Ave, Suite 208
Long Beach, CA 90815

American Homeopathy (magazine)

6560 Backlick Rd. Suite 211
Springfield, VA 22150

Lawrence Review of Natural Products

922 Woodbourne Rd., Suite 324
Levittown, PA 19056

American Herbalists Guild

Box 1683
Soquel, CA 95073

American Herbal Products Association

Box 2410
Austin, TX 78768

Herb Research Foundation

1007 Pearl St.
Boulder, CO 80302

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Textbook of Modern Herbology, Second Revised Edition

Appendix 4
First Steps in Herbal Research
This textbook is not meant to be the final word on modern herbology. It
is an introduction to a rapidly growing and changing field of health care.
As a result, most readers will need to do research on their own. You
may be tracking down more information on a herb, looking for a
therapeutic agent for a particular ailment, checking recent legislation for
your country, etc. Research of any sort has recently become an easier
task but also a daunting one.

A great deal of information on herbs is contained in computer data-

bases which record articles on medicine, physiology and plant science.
These databases can be searched by a local library or university for you
but you will be asked to give specific “key words” such as the scientific
or common name of a plant to direct the computer research. You may
have the equipment yourself or perhaps a local hobbyist can conduct a
database search for you. These searches are fairly expensive but they
also can locate modern research information far faster.

The tried and true method of research is to go to the library. Larger

libraries will have reference works such as Index Medicus or Chemical
Abstracts. Citation references are like encyclopedias of topics listing
articles or books published during a specific time. Books in Print is a
publisher’s listing which is organized by subject. This reference is better
for building a library initially.

You may also want to consider membership in an on-line service such

as Compuserve, Genie or Prodigy which often have gateways into
medical databases or discussion “forums” on New Age or nutritional
topics.

The fastest way to get information is by phone. Calling an expert is not

such an impossible task! Major publications, some listed in Appendix 3,
often contain advertisements for people who specialize in research on
herbs and natural healing topics. A letter or phone call to herbal maga-
zines will often cut short months of wandering through the literature.
While most offices will be glad to provide quick help at no fee, courtesy
and a thank-you are appropriate. People involved in research can do
each other favours and as your work progresses you may find ways of
helping those who helped you.

The Herb Research Foundation (HRF), (303)449-2265, FAX (303) 449-

7849, 1007 Pearl St., Suite 200, Boulder, CO, 80302 USA, offers commer-
cial rates for detailed herbal research. A more detailed review of re-
search techniques is offered in the Textbook of Advanced Herbology.

If you are serious about doing the best quality research possible, read a
copy of Jacques Barzun and Henry Graff’s The Modern Researcher. Now

340 Copyright © 1993, Wild Rose College of Natural Healing Ltd.

 Appendices

in its fourth edition, this book will outline how to make your research
efforts more effective. It also indicates methods to make your work
more useful for other people who come along after you.

Recommended Bibliographies
Andrews, T., A Bibliography on Herbs, Herbal Medicine, “Natural” Foods, and
Unconventional Medical Treatment, Libraries Unlimited Inc, Littleton, CO: 1982.
Simon, J. et. al., Herbs: An Indexed Bibliography 1971- 1980. The Scientific Literature
on Selected Herbs, and Aromatic and Medicinal Plants of the Temperate Zone,
Archon Books, The Shoe String Press Inc., Hamden, CT: 1984.
West, R. & J. Trevelyan, Alternative Medicine: A bibliography of books in English,
Mansell Publishing Ltd., London/New York: 1985.
Willard, T.L., Textbook of Advanced Herbology, Wild Rose College of Natural Healing,
Ltd., Calgary, AB: 1992, Ch. 13.

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Textbook of Modern Herbology, Second Revised Edition

Appendix 5
Glossary of Botanical Terms

Adventitious root: a root which grows from a plant stem or leaf rather
than from a true root system (e.g. strawberry or spider plants).
Alternate leaves: one leaf growing from each node.
Androecium: the collective name for the stamens.
Annuals: plants which complete their life cycles in a season. They live
through the winter as a seed, come up each year as a seedling, flower,
bear fruit, and then die (e.g., strawberry blite). A special type of annual
is an ephemeral, which has its entire life cycle in a month, a week, or
even a few days. It then reproduces. Many common weeds fall within
this category.
Anther: small compartment at the top of the stamen that produces the
pollen and harbours the pollen sacs.
Apetalous: a flower that is missing the petals and may be missing the
sepals.
Basal leaves: leaves which grow at the base of the plant. Also known as
rosettes.
Biennials: have a two year cycle, producing leaves and stems the first
year, with flower and fruit in the second year (e.g., burdock).
Bisexual: plants containing both sexes in the same flower.
Bract: special leaves which grow right at the base of the flower or
inflorescence.
Bulb: a short thickening of an underground stem with many fleshy or
scale-like leaves.
Calyx: the name given to the collection of sepals growing at the base of
many flowers.
Carpel: a pistil (female sexual part) in a flower when there is more than
one per flower.
Cauline leaves: leaves which grow on the stem, above the base and
below the bracts.
Coalescent: when parts of the structure, particularly the series of flower
parts, are united (e.g., bluebell).
Compound leaves: leaves made up of several leaflets (see pinnate and
palmate).
Corolla: the collective name for the petals of a flower.
Corymb: an inflorescence of the raceme type (see raceme) which has a
rounded or flat top.
Cyme: a determinate inflorescence.
Dicot (dicotyledon): a flowering plant with two seed leaves in the
embryo of the seed. They have broad leaves with netted veins, tap or
fibrous roots, and vascular bundles organized in concentric rings.
Dioecious: species which have distinct female and male plants.
Fibrous root: a mass of thin spreading roots of fairly uniform size (e.g.,
grasses).

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 Appendices

Herbaceous: a plant which has soft-tissued stems and does not live
from year to year.
Inflorescence: a grouping of flowers. They are split into two types:
indeterminate (the terminal flower on the stem grows last) and
determinate (the terminal flower on the stem grows first).
Internode: the space between the nodes (see nodes).
Leaflet: appears to be a leaf, but is really a part of a compound leaf
(see pinnate and palmate).
Leaf blade: the main body of a leaf, whether a blade of grass or the
body of a maple leaf.
Leaf margin: the edge of a leaf. If the margin is smooth and normal,
the leaf is said to be entire. If the margin is more or less regular with
shallow indentations, the leaf is said to be toothed. If the indentations
are numerous and deep they are said to be lobed. See page 46 for
diagrams of leaf margins.
Leaf shape: see page 47 for diagrams of the various leaf shapes.
Midrib: the main or middle vein in a leaf. It is usually larger than the
rest of the veins.
Monocot (monocotyledon): a flowering plant which has one seed
leaf, parallel veins in the leaves and fibrous roots. The vascular
bundles are randomly organized.
Monoecious: a plant which is bisexual but has individual flowers
which are either female or male.
Node: a junction on a stem from which a leaf grows.
Ovary: structure at the base of the pistil which produces the seeds.
Ovules: parts of the ovary in the base of the female sexual parts of a
plant.
Opposite leaves: two leaves growing out of the same node.
Palmate: a leaf made up of several leaflets. It resembles the shape of a
hand or palm (e.g., geranium).
Panicle: a compound raceme, spike or corymb inflorescence.
Perianth: when it is difficult to distinguish the sepals from the petals,
the entire cluster is called the perianth.
Perennial: a plant which lasts for many years, surviving the dry or
winter season not only as a seed but as a root system. You can
usually find dead stems from previous years’ growth at ground level
(e.g. ginseng).
Petals: usually the coloured part of the flower which attracts insects.
Collectively they are called the corolla.
Petiole: the ‘stem’ of a leaf.
Pedicel: the first internode in the receptacle of a flower.
Peduncle: the second internode in the receptacle of a single flower.
Phloem: part of the plant’s vascular distribution system. It consists of
tubes which transport food nutrients.
Photosynthesis: the process of making carbohydrates in the presence
of sunlight by chlorophyll-containing plants.
Pinnate: a leaf which has many leaflets forming along the midrib. It
resembles a feather (e.g., rose).

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Textbook of Modern Herbology, Second Revised Edition

Pistil: the female sexual part of a flower. If there is more than one they
are known as carpels.
Prickle: a sharp, pointed growth on the side of a stem (e.g., rose).
Raceme: an inflorescence consisting of a main stem axis bearing single
flowers alternately or spiraling on the stalk.
Receptacle: found at the base of the flowering part, made up of a series
of crowded internodes.
Rhizome: a horizontal underground stem which serves as a means of
food storage and asexual reproduction.
Runners: horizontal shoots of stems which produce adventitious roots
(e.g., strawberries).
Sepals: the outermost parts of a flower. They often look like small leaves
at the base of a flower, but can be coloured and petal-like. Collectively
sepals are called the calyx.
Sessile: a leaf which appears to be attached directly to the stem.
Sheath: a sessile leaf appears to surround or sheath the stem.
Shrub: a woody-stemmed plant with no main trunk but, instead, many
major branches of similar size rising from ground level.
Spike: a raceme-like inflorescence with sessile flowers.
Spine: a sharp specialized stem which emerges from the ground (e.g.
yucca).
Stamens: the male sexual parts of the flower. Collectively they are called
the androecium.
Stigma: the top of the pistil (female sexual part of a flower) which
receives the pollen from the male part.
Stolon: a long stem that produces an adventitious root (e.g. blackber-
ries).
Taproot: a single enlarged primary root, such as a carrot.
Thorn: a specialized sharp pointed woody branch (e.g. buckthorn).
Tree: a woody-stemmed plant with a main trunk rising from ground
level. A tree is usually over 3 metres tall when mature.
Tuber: a thickening of a portion of a rhizome for food storage (e.g., a
potato).
Veins (leaf): a network of tubes on the blade of a leaf. The main vein is
a midrib.
Whorled leaves: three or more leaves growing from a node.
Xylem: part of a plant’s vascular distribution system, consisting of tubes
of water-conducting cells. The xylem transport water up the stems.

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 Appendices

Appendix 6
Summary of Herbal Therapeutic Groups
Alteratives — cleaners of the blood system, tonics for the blood, gradu-
ally alter and correct impure blood conditions. Modify nutrition, clean
lymphatic glands, overcome morbid processes.
Anodynes — alleviate pain by reducing the sensitivity of the nerves. Can
be used locally or on the whole body.
Antacids — neutralize the acid in the stomach and intestines.
Anthelmintics — vermifuges cause the expulsion of worms from the
stomach and intestines. Vermicides destroy or kill intestinal worms,
without necessarily causing expulsion.
Antiarthritics — relieve problems of gout and other arthritic conditions.
Antiemetics — prevent or relive vomiting.
Antihydropics — give relief from dropsy. Aid in voiding or evacuating
urine.
Antilithics — relieve problems with calculi (“stones”), such as kidney
stones, gallstones and deposits in joints and muscles.
Antiscorbutics — prevent or cure scurvy. Sometimes classified as alter-
atives.
Antiseptics — prevent putrification, cell decay, formation of pus or
gangrene. Inhibit growth of intruding organisms. Herbal antiseptics do
not destroy tissue.
Antispasmodics — reduce or prevent involuntary muscle contraction
(spasm) and relieve nervous irritation.
Antisyphilitics — relieve and cure venereal disease.
Aperients — mildly purgative to the bowels.
Aphrodisiacs — increase sexual power or excitement.
Aromatics — usually fragrant or spicy-tasting herbs which stimulate the
gastrointestinal mucous membranes. Used to cover strong, bitter and
unpleasant-tasting herbs.
Bitters (simple) — stimulate the gastrointestinal mucous membrane
without affecting the general system.
Carminatives — contain a volatile oil which excites peristalsis and
promotes the expulsion of gases. Prevent griping pains while using
cathartics.
Cathartics — purgatives which clean waste material from liver, gall ducts
and alimentary canal, and excrete waste through the bowels.
Cholagogues — stimulate the secretion and flow of bile.
Convulsants — cause convulsions. Stimulants such as cayenne or
peppermint should always be used before convulsants.
Correctives (Corrigents) — render more pleasant the strong action of
other remedies, especially purgatives.
Counterirritants — cause irritation or inflammation of the skin to relieve
a deeper-seated problem (e.g. a mustard plaster).
Demulcents — soothe, soften and allay irritation of mucous membranes
by mucilaginous and slippery properties. In poultices, they retain
warmth and moisture while absorbing the pus discharge from the skin.
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Textbook of Modern Herbology, Second Revised Edition

Deobstructants — overcome obstruction in the alimentary canal.

Deodourants — cover up or destroy foul odours.
Depressants — sedatives.
Detergents — used for cleaning wounds, ulcers, boils, etc. Different
from commercial detergents.
Diaphoretics — promote sweating.
Disinfectants — destroy noxious properties of decaying organic matter.
Diuretics — cause a general increase of urine flow.
Ecbolics — induce abortions.
Emetics — evacuate stomach contents by inducing vomiting.
Emmenagogues — promote menstrual flow and discharge. Regulate
menstruation to normal minimum instead of excessive or lacking.
Emollients — used to soften and protect tissue.
Evacuants — chiefly purgatives.
Expectorants — act on the lungs to promote discharge of mucus.
Febrifuges — dissipate fever by enhancing evaporation of perspiration.
Also known as antipyretics.
Galactagogues — increase secretion of milk.
Hemostatics — stop or prevent bleeding.
Hepatics — increase flow of bile and influence liver.
Hypnotics — relax and promote sleep.
Laxatives — mild purgatives.
Local anesthetics — locally stop sensation to an area of the body.
Narcotics — powerful anodynes and/or hypnotics.
Nephritics — influence nephrons (unit of kidney function).
Nervines — nerve tonics.
Nutritives — substances which nourish the body and assist in assimila-
tion of food.
Pectorals — relieve problems of the chest or lungs.
Peristaltics — increase peristalsis (the wave-like muscular contraction
of the bowels).
Prophylactics — prevent disease.
Purgatives — cause powerful discharge from the bowels. Stronger than
cathartics.
Refrigerants — cool the body temperature by promoting free perspira-
tion. Also known as febrifuges and antipyretics.
Sedatives — calm or tranquilize by lowering functional activity.
Sialogogues — excite the salivary glands to secretion.
Soporifics — cause sleep. Also known as somnifacients.
Sorbefacients — cause absorption.
Specifics — direct curative powers to certain tissues thereby aiding in
certain diseases.
Stimulants — increase functional activity.
Stomachics — stimulate and tone action of the stomach.
Styptics — externally astringent, causing contraction of the blood
vessels and thereby stopping bleeding.
Sudorifics — produce profuse and visible sweating when taken hot. Act
as a tonic when taken cold.

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 Appendices

Taenicides — kill tapeworms.

Tonics — permanently increase systemic tone by stimulating nutrition.
Vermicides — kill intestinal worms.
Vermifuges — cause expulsion of intestinal worms.
Vulneraries — promote healing of cuts and wounds.

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Textbook of Modern Herbology, Second Revised Edition

Appendix 7

Bach Flower Questionnaire

The following is a questionnaire I use in the clinic to aid in determining
which remedies are the best. We get the person to rate the strength of
their feelings on a scale of 1 - 10 (10 being strongest). I mix the remedies
from the 5 - 7 highest scores together.
Rock Rose
_____ Do you suffer from extreme terror or panic?
_____ Do you often have nightmares?
Mimulus
_____ Do you have known fears that you would like to overcome, though often keeping
them to yourself?
Cherry Plum
_____ Do you have a fear of losing control, or doing something wrong?
Aspen
_____ Do you have a vague or unknown fear that is a foreboding problem?
Red Chestnut
_____ Are you excessively concerned for others, with little concern for yourself?
Cerato
_____ Do you have a hard time making decisions, often seeking advice from others?
Scleranthus
_____ Do you have a hard time deciding between two things but prefer to keep your
indecision to yourself without asking others for advice?
Gentian
_____ Are you easily discouraged when things go wrong?
_____ Do you have a feeling of hopelessness as if there is nothing to be done?
Gorse

_____ Do you feel discouraged or even depressed?

_____ Do you feel it is useless to try anymore?
Hornbeam
_____ Do you feel more tired getting up in the morning than when you went to bed?
_____ Do you feel you are easily fatigued mentally or physically?
Wild Oats
_____ Are you disatisfied with your current position in life?
Clematis
_____ Do you feel spaced out, a daydreamer, or withdrawn into your own world?
_____ Do you fall asleep easily during the day?
Honeysuckle
_____ Do you live in the past?
Wild Rose
_____ Do you feel apathetic?
Olive
_____ Do you feel burnt-out, or exhausted after some ordeal?
White Chestnut
_____ Do you have persistent thoughts going over and over in your head, perhaps
waking you in the night?
Mustard
_____ Do you ever feel that gloom or depression descend on you like a dark cloud?
Chestnut Bud
_____ Do you feel that you have repeated behaviour, making the same mistakes and
not learning your lesson from the “last time”?

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 Appendices

Water Violet
_____ Do you feel that people shouldn’t interfere with you if you do not interfere with
them (aloofness)?
Impatiens
_____ Do you find everything around you moves too slowly, that you are impatient with
yourself and others?
Heather
_____ Do you like to talk to others about your problems and find yourself self-absorbed
with the thought of being alone?
Agrimony
_____ Do you hold your own problems and worries inside in order to “keep the
peace”?
Centaury
_____ Are you a person easily influenced by others?
Walnut
_____ Do you feel that it is time to take a new step in your life?
_____ Do you feel that you need protection from outside influence while changing the
circumstances of your life?
Holly
_____ Do you easily get jealous or suspicious of others or suffer unduly?
Larch
_____ Do you lack the self-confidence to try something new?
Pine
_____ Do you lack self-confidence but give new things a try anyway, feeling less
satisfied with the results than others might?
Elm
_____ Do you feel overextended?
Sweet chestnut
_____ Do you feel that you have reached your limit of endurance?
Star of Bethlehem
_____ Are you suffering from the shock of serious news?
Willow
_____ Do you feel hurt as if someone had done something unfair to you?
Oak
_____ Do you struggle to face a task though the odds may be against you?
Crab Apple
_____ Do you feel unclean mentally or physically?
Chicory
_____ Do you want to keep your loved one near you so that you can direct their life?
Vervain
_____ Do you have strong beliefs that you feel you should share with others?
Vine
_____ Do you feel you are a domineering person who likes to lead others?
Beech
_____ Are you very critical and judgmental of others?
Rock Water
_____ Do you have strong opinions about religion, politics or other aspect of life,
making it difficult to live up to your own ideals?

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350 Copyright © 1993, Wild Rose College of Natural Healing Ltd.

 Index

Index

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Textbook of Modern Herbology, Second Revised Edition

Abdominal problems Alchemy 83

ginger 127 Alcohol addiction
Abducent nerves 223 cayenne 125
Aborigines 304 Alcoholism
Abscesses, external skullcap formula 228
chickweed formula 190 Aldosterone 293
Absentin 214 kidney influence 164
Acetate of potash 127 Aletris farinosa 266
Acetates of calcium 129 Algae 60
Acetic acid 127, 168 Alimentary inflammation
Aches, muscle marshmallow 192
marshmallow formula 192 All-heal 229
Achillea millefolium 134, 149 Allantoin 185
Achilleic acid 149 Allergies
Achillein 149 chlorella 317
Acid tinctures 310 reishi 135
Acid-alkaline balance 29 Allergies, airbourne
Acidophilus clinical respiratory formula 185
herpes program 242 Allium sativum 253
Acne 9, 142 Allysin 254
arnica salve 237 Aloe 314
chaparral 250 Aloe socatrina 314
Siberian ginseng 313 Aloe vera 314
Aconitum 65 Aloins 314
Acupuncture 81 Alpha islet cells 294
Adaptogen Alterative 246, 345
astragalus 315 bayberry 262
chlorella 317 bistort 267
ginseng 312 black cohosh 231
reishi 135 burdock 252
Siberian ginseng 313 cascara sagrada 205
Adderwort 267 cayenne 125
Addison’s disease chaparral 249
licorice 6 chickweed 190
Adenosine 135 chlorella 317
Adrenal Cortex 297 cleaver 172
Adrenal Medulla 298 echinacea 255
Adrenalin 293 garlic 254
Adrenals 292, 293 goldenseal 103
cleaver influence 172 mandrake 208
Adrenergic poplar bark 209
ma huang 194 red clover 253
Adventitious roots 41, 342 reishi 135
Aerial roots 41 sassafras 251
Aerobic exercise squaw vine 282
lymphatic flow 260 white pond lily 267
Afferent 222 Alternate branching cyme 52
African Birdseye Cayenne 124 Alternate leaves 49, 342
African medicine 82 Althaea officinalis 164, 184, 191, 247
African Pepper 124 Alveoli 178
Agrimony 349 Alveoli sacs 179
Ague Tree 251 Amalgam fillings
AIDS 2 cranesbill geranium 266
reishi 135 Amenorrhea 280
Albumin 129, 254 pleurisy root formula 196
Albumin in urine American Aspen 107
motherwort 288 American Medical Association 17

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 Index

American Pennyroyal 284 Anthemis nobilis 150, 235

American Pond Lily 267 Anther 50, 342
American Valerian 234 Anti-allergic
Amino acids 27, 144 licorice 6
Ammonia 144, 160 Anti-biliary
Amoracia lapathifolia 129 gentian 105
Ampulla of Vater 96 senna 211
Amygdalin 136 Anti-inflammatory
Amylase 96 chamomile 151
Anabentin 214 gentian 105
Anal canal 90 lapacho 316
Anal itch licorice 6
gentian 105 skullcap 227
Anal sphincter, internal 201 yarrow 149
Analgesic Anti-neoplastic
dong quai 281 lapacho 316
echinacea 255 Anti-tumor
meadowsweet 111 reishi 135
Ancholannic acid 106 Antiallergenic
Androecium 50, 342, 344 reishi 135, 136
Androgens 294 Antiarthritic 345
Anemia skullcap 227
barberry 101 Antibacterial
Anemones 65 lapacho 316
Anesthetics, local 346 licorice 6
Anethum foeniculum 99 st. john’s wort 317
Angelic acid 281 Antibiotic
Angelica polymorpha 281 astragalus 315
Angelica sinensis 280 dong quai 281
Angeol 281 juniper berries 170
Angiospermae 60 lapacho 316
Anise myrrh 110
senna combination 211 yarrow 149
Aniseed Antibodies 115, 244
valerian mask 230 Anticatarrhal
Annuals 44, 342 mountain flax 206
gathering 325 Anticonvulsive
Anodyne 345 licorice 6
juniper 168 Antidepressant
mullein 188 st. john’s wort 317
pleurisy root 195 Antidiarrheal
ANS 221 licorice 5
Antacids 345 Antidote
Anthelminthic black cohosh 231
tansy 284 wormwood 214
Anthelmintic 212, 345 Antiemetic 345
bistort 267 cloves 132
blue cohosh 286 raspberry 264
garlic 254 Antigens 244
gentian 105 Antihepatotoxic
hops 228 licorice 6
malefern 215 Antihydropics 345
pumpkin seed 216 Antilithic diuretics 163
Turkey rhubarb 207 Antilithics 345
white oak 263 Antimicrobial
wormwood 214 oak bark 263
Anthemic acid 150 reishi 135

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Textbook of Modern Herbology, Second Revised Edition

Antineoplastic Aphrodisiacs 345

licorice 6 Apiin 165
Antioxidant Apiol 165
milk thistle 317 Apiolin 165
reishi 135 Apocrine sudoriferous glands 143
Antirheumatic Apothecary system 338
poplar buds 209 Appendix 90
Antiscorbutic 246, 247, 345 Appetite
Balm of Gilead 209 Siberian ginseng 313
cleaver 172 Turkey rhubarb 208
Antiseptic 345 Appetite, loss of
barberry 101 chamomile 151
buchu 173 Apple 64, 66
chaparral 249 Apple Cider vinegar 100, 102
clinical renal formula 164 Apuin petroselinum 165
cloves 132 Arabinic acid
echinacea 255 tansy 283
garlic 254 Arbutin 164, 166
gentian 105 Arbutus 166
juniper 168 Arctium lappa 247, 252
juniper berries 170 Arctostaphylos uva-ursi 108, 164, 166, 247
prickly ash 132 Arnica 236
role of diuretic 163 Willard liniment 126
white oak / slow 263 Arnica montana 236
Antispasmodic 226, 345 Arnica tincture
black cohosh 231 deodourant 144
blue cohosh 286 Aromatherapy 305
chamomile 150 Aromatic 345
cloves 132 buchu 173
cramp bark 232 cloves 132
garlic 254 meadowsweet 111
ginger 127 peppermint 134
lady slipper root 235 sassafras 251
motherwort 287 St. john’s wort 317
mullein 188 Arrow wounds
skullcap 227 goldenseal 103
spearmint 155 Artemisa vulgaris 214
valerian 230 Artemisia absinthium 214
Antispasmodic Tincture 311 Artemisia campestris 214
Antisyphilitics 345 Artemisia frigida 168, 213
Antitrichomonas Artemisia ludoviciana 214
licorice 6 Artemisia sp. 213
Antitussive Artemisia spp.
licorice 6 malefern combination 215
Antiviral Arterial blockage
chlorella 317 ginkgo 316
lapacho 316 Arteries 115
licorice 6 pleurisy root 195
oak bark 263 Arterioles 115
reishi 135 Arthritic pain
St.John’s wort 317 red clover 253
Aperient 203, 345 Arthritic symptoms
cleaver 172 digestive tonic 100
parsley 165 Arthritis 9
Turkey rhubarb 207 chaparral 250
Apetalous 342 chlorella 317
Apetalous flower 50 rheumatic fever 147

354 Copyright © 1993, Wild Rose College of Natural Healing Ltd.

 Index

Artichokes 68 Atherosclerosis
Articulatory (joint) system 29 chlorella 317
As-si-tsix-in 209 dong quai 281
Asarum canadense 126 Siberian ginseng 313
Ascending Colon 90 Athlete’s foot
Asclepiadin 195 cloves 132
Asclepias tuberosa 195 Atlas 222
Ascorbic acid 144 Aubretia 65
Asmazone 127 Auditory acuity
Asparagin 192 Siberian ginseng 313
Aspargine 185 Auditory nerves 223
Aspen 65, 107, 348 Australian Bush Remedies 305
Aspidium filix-mas 215 Autonomic nervous system 97, 141,
Aspirin 107 221, 224
contraindicated in fever 146 lobelia 310
Associations and Contacts 339 Axillary flower 51
Associative neurons 221 Axon 219
Asteraceae 68 Ayurveda 3
Asthma Ayurvedic medicine 81
B&B tincture 231 B Vitamins
cramp bark 232 intestinal manufacture 202
hyssop 152 B&B tincture 231
licorice 5 Bach Flower Remedies 35, 299
ma huang 194 Bach, Edward 35
myrrh 110 quotation 299
reishi 135 Bachelor’s Button 283
role of childhood eczema 183 Back pain, lower
Asthma Weed 309 buchu 173
Astragalus 2, 315 Back sores
Astringent 118, 123, 261 Artemisia campestris 214
bayberry 262 Backache, chronic
bearberry 167 chaparral 250
bistort 267 Backaches
buchu 173 juniper/poplar formula 169
cayenne 125 Bacteria 60
cloves 132 bakim 82
comfrey 185 Bald cypress 61
cramp bark 232 Ballooning of colon 200
cranesbill geranium 266 Balm Mints 133
ginkgo 316 Balm of Gilead 209
gravel root 170 Balmony 107
hawthorn 136 Balsam Poplar 209
malefern 215 Balsamodendron Myrrh 109
meadowsweet 111 Banana 62
mullein 188 Barbaloin 314
myrrh 110 Barberry 100, 102
Peruvian Bark 106 clinical laxative formula 204
raspberry 264 kidney application 163
skullcap 227 reishi formula 136
squaw vine 282 Bark
St. John’s wort 317 gathering 326
Turkey rhubarb 207 Barley 62
white oak /strong 263 Barosma betulina 172
white pond lily 267 Barosma crenata 164
yarrow 149 Barzun, Jacques
Astringent, slight The Modern Researcher 340
poplar 107 Basal leaves 48, 342

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Bayberry 261 Bitters (simple) 345

cardiac astringent 123 Black Bush 249
Bayriff 171 Black Cohosh 230
Be your own Doctor 203 antispasmodic tincture 311
Beach, Wooster 16 clinical female formula 280
Beans 64 Black mustard 129
Bear’s Paw Root 215 Black Mustard Seed 130
Bearberry 67, 166 Black sampson 255
juniper combination 170 Black Snake Root 230
juniper/leucorrhea 170 Bladder
Bed-wetting 168 gravel root 171
poplar 108 Bladder cramps
Bedstraw 171 motherwort 288
juniper/leucorrhea 170 Bladder infection
Beech 349 astragalus 315
Beggar’s Button 252 parsley 166
Benzoates 110 Blanket Herb 188
Benzoic Acid 107 Bleeding
Berbamine 101 licorice 5
Berberine 101, 103, 132 Bleeding, bowel
Berberis repens 100 chickweed 190
Berberis vulgaris 100, 107, 204 Bleeding, internal
Beta islet cells 294 A. absinthium 214
Beta-carotene 281 arnica (M.D. use) 236
Beta-sitosterol 281 yarrow 150
Betaine 255 Blemishes
Betula 65 horseradish formula 130
Bibliographies, herbal 341 Blessed thistle 108
Biennials 44, 342 clinical female formula 280
gathering 325 cramp bark program 233
Bile 96 menstrual cramp formula 127
Bile flow squaw vine formula 283
mandrake 208 use with marshmallow 192
Turkey rhubarb 208 Blistering
Binomial system 59 arnica cause 236
Birch Blisters
cleaver combination 172 Artemisia ludoviciana 214
Willard liniment 126 Blood 30, 115, 116
Birches 65 Blood accumulation
Bird Pepper 124 use of nervines 226
Birth control Blood cholesterol
cranesbill 266 garlic 254
Birth control pill Blood cleanser
clinical female formula / cessation 280 Balm of Gilead 210
Birzneck, Ella 18 hops decoction 229
Bisexual 342 Blood clots
Bisexual flowers 50 reishi 135
Bistort 267 Blood corpuscles, white
Bites myrrh 110
skullcap 227 Blood disorders
Bitter cascara sagrada 206
aloe vera 314 Blood plasma 26
barberry 101 Blood poisoning
gentian 105 chickweed formula 190
Bitter Buttons 283 Blood pressure 113, 119
Bitter Tonics 99 astragalus 315
Bitters 99 ginseng 313
reishi 135

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 Index

Blood pressure, high 121 Breastfeeding

clinical respiratory formula aloe vera 315
WARNING 185 squaw vine formula 283
ma huang contraindication 194 Breath, bad
Blood pressure, low A. absinthium 214
adrenals 293 myrrh 110
Blood purification formula 133 Breath, shortness of
Blood regulator hyssop 152
hyssop 152 Brekham, Dr. I.I.
Blood sugar ginseng 313
Siberian ginseng 313 Bright’s Disease 162
Blood sugar, low cranesbill geranium 266
adrenals 293 Bronchial tubes 179
Blood tonic Bronchials
dong quai 281 clinical respiratory formula 185
Blood vessels 30 Bronchiodilator
Blue Cohosh 286 ma huang 194
black cohosh formula 231 Bronchioles 179
clinical female formula 280 Bronchitis
cramp bark formula 233 Artemisia vulgaris 214
pleurisy root formula 196 Balm of Gilead 210
Blue Ginseng 286 echinacea 255
Blue vervain hyssop 153
black cohosh formula 231 licorice 5, 6
Blueberry 67 red clover 253
Body composition 24 reishi 135
Bogbean Broncho-pulmonic disease
prickly ash formula 133 bayberry 262
Boiling method Broom
Bach Flower preparation 302 cleaver combination 172
Boils Bruises
burdock 252 arnica salve 236, 237
garlic 254 Balm of Gilead 210
mountain flax 206 burdock root 252
Boils, ruptured cayenne liniments 126
Artemisia ludoviciana 214 hyssop 152
Bolus 93, 331 marshmallow formula 192
Boluses wormwood liniment 214
slippery elm 193 Bruisewort 185
Bone, fractured Bryophyta 60
arnica 236 Bucco 172
Boneset 170, 185 Buchu 172
Books in Print 340 clinical renal formula 164
Bowel elimination Buckbean
chaparral 250 mountain flax formula 207
Bowel toxicity prickly ash formula 133
chlorella 317 Buckthorn
Bowman’s capsule 160 clinical laxative formula 204
Bract 342 Buds
Bracts 48 gathering 326
Brandy Mint 133 Bugbane 230
Brassica alba 130 Buku 172
Brassica nigra 130 Bulb 342
Bread and Cheese tree 136 Bulbourethral glands 272
Breast tumours Bulbs 43
cleaver 172 gathering 326

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Bulrush 62 Capillaries 115, 259

Burdock 252 pleurisy root 195
clinical cleansing formula 247 Capillary bed congestion 120
kidney application 163 Capillary blood flow
Burns myrrh 110
aloe vera 314 Capillary circulation
cleaver 172 hops 229
Burr Seed 252 Capillary contraction 118
Buttercup 65 Capillary relaxation 118
Buttercups 65 Capitulum 68
Butterfly Weed 195 Capon’s Tail 229
Butylphalid 281 Capridium 125
C.L (Cleansing diuretic liquid) 248 Caproic acid 155
Cadinene 168, 251 Caprylic acid 155
Calcium 286 Capsicum 103, 106, 110
thyroid function 295 gravel root combination 171
Calcium chloride 183 lady slipper root formula 235
Calcium fluoride 264 skullcap formula 228
Calcium metabolism Capsicum annuum 124
parathormone 293 Capsicum fastigiatum 124
Calcium oxalate 106, 207 Capsicum minimum 99, 124, 184, 204, 226
Calcium phosphate 185, 188, 192, 227 Capsules 331
Calcium sulphate 129 Caraway
Calculi senna combination 211
hops 229 Carbenia benedicta 108
Calendula tincture Carbohydrates 27
deodorant 144 Carbon dioxide 27, 115
California Buckthorn 205 Carboxyl group 96
California Remedies 305 Carboxypeptidases 96
Calyx 49, 342, 344 Carbuncles
Campions 65 chickweed formula 190
Canada Snakeroot 128 echinacea 255
Cancer 2 Cardiac
chaparral 250 hawthorn 136
chlorella 317 motherwort 287
echinacea 255 Cardiac output 119
lapacho 316 Cardiac pain
reishi 135 hawthorn 137
St. John’s wort 317 Cardiac plexus 224
Cancer, mouth Cardiac tonic
goldenseal 104 black cohosh 231
Cancer, skin Cardiac weakness
chaparral formula 250 hawthorn 137
cleaver 172 Cardin 108
Candida 203 Cardiotonic
lapacho 316 astragalus 315
Candida albicans Cardiovascular Index 121, 122
garlic 254 Carduus 108
Candida overpopulation Carminative
cloves 132 catnip 154
Candidiasis 9 cayenne 125
Cankers chamomile 150
astringents 261 cloves 132
bearberry 167 ginger 127
composition powder 262 hyssop 152
poplar 108 juniper 168
white pond lily 268 pennyroyal 285

358 Copyright © 1993, Wild Rose College of Natural Healing Ltd.

 Index

peppermint 134 Cayenne 99, 103, 124

pleurisy root 195 antispasmodic tincture 311
spearmint 155 cardiac stimulant 123
valerian 230 clinical laxative formula 204
wild ginger 128 clinical muscle flexibility formula 226
Carminative, slight clinical respiratory formula 184
parsley 165 comparison with prickly ash 133
Carminatives 345 composition powder formula 262
Carnation 65 lady slipper root formula 235
Carnegie Foundation 17 lobelia tincture 310
Carpel 50, 342 mullein formula 189
Carrier herb 125 pleurisy root formula 196
Carrier herbs 184 prickly ash formula 133
Carrione 155 squaw vine formula 283
Carrots 41, 64, 67 Cecum 90
Carum petroselinum 165 Cedar 61
Carvacrol 281 Celandine 195
Caryophyllaceae 65 Cell proliferant
Caryophyllin 132 comfrey 185
Caryophyllus aromaticus 131 Cells 25
Cascara sagrada 205 Cellular abscesses
clinical cleansing formula 248 echinacea 255
clinical laxative formula 204 Centaurea benedicta 108
Cassia senna 211 Centaury 349
Castle metaphor 8 Central Nervous System 221
Catabolism 145 Cerato 348
Catalysts 246 Cerebral functions
Catarrh, chronic Peruvian Bark 106
hyssop 152 Cerebral hemorrhage 122
Cathartic 203, 345 Cerebral ischaemia 121
aloe vera 314 Cerebrospinal fluid 222
Balm of Gilead 209 Cervicitis, chronic
Blessed thistle 109 meadowsweet 111
cascara sagrada 205 Cervix 274
menstruation contraindication 280 Chamomile 150
mountain flax 206 hives bath 128
pleurisy root 195 hops formula 229
podophyllotoxin 208 lady slipper root combination 235
poplar bark 209 use with peppermint 134
red clover (mild) 253 Change of Life 276
senna 211 Chaparral 249
Turkey rhubarb 207 clinical cleansing formula 247
use with ginger 127 Chatarine 230
Cathartic acid 207 Checkerberry 282
Cathartic, mild Chelidonic acid 309
licorice 5 Chemical Abstracts 340
Catkins 65 Cherries 66
Catmint 153 Cherry Plum 303, 304, 348
Catnip 153 Chest afflictions
Catswort 153 hyssop 152
Cauda equina 222 myrrh 110
Cauline leaves 48, 342 Chest cold
Caulophyllin 286 motherwort 288
Caulophylline 286 Chest pains
Caulophyllum thalictroides 280, 286 licorice 6

Copyright © 1993, Wild Rose College of Natural Healing Ltd. 359

Textbook of Modern Herbology, Second Revised Edition

Chestnut Chronic Fatigue Syndrome 2

blue cohosh formula 286 reishi 135
Chestnut Bud 348 Chrysanthemums 68
Cheyenne Chrysophanic acid 204, 207
licorice 5 Chyle 261
Chi 3 Chyme 93, 201
Chicken soup 183 Chymotrypsin 96
dong quai 282 Cilia 182
Chickweed 65, 189 Cimicifuga racemosa 230, 280
Chicory 349 Cimicifugin 231
Childbirth Cinchona spp. 105
blue cohosh 286 Cinchonichoniden 106
lady slipper root formula 235 Cinnamon
poplar 108 spearmint formula 155
sassafras / afterpains 251 Circulation
yarrow 150 ginkgo 316
Childbirth afterpains Siberian ginseng 313
black cohosh 231 Circulation, peripheral
Children’s diseases ginger 164
catnip 154 Circulatory problems
China Rhubarb 207 valerian 230
Chinese dates Circulatory System 30
dong quai formula 281 Circulatory tension 122
Chinese medicine, traditional 3 Cirrhosis
Chiron 149 milk thistle 317
Chlorella 317 Citric acid 172, 264
Chloride of potash 149 tansy 283
Chlorophyll 45, 57, 172 Clairvoyance 294
garlic odour mask 254 Class 58
Chloroplast 45 Cleaver 171
Chlorosis 280 Clematis 303, 304, 348
Chokecherry 102 Clinical Cleansing Formula 247
Cholagogue Clinical Female Formula 280
burdock 252 Clinical Lower Bowel Formula 99
mandrake 208 Clinical Lower Bowel Tonic 248
Turkey rhubarb 207 Clinical Muscle Flexibility Formula 226
Cholagogues 204, 345 Clinical Stomach Formula 99
Cholera Clitoris 274
cranesbill geranium 266 Clivers 171
lady slipper root 235 Clotbur 252
Choleretic Clover, red
licorice 6 clinical cleansing formula 247
Cholesterol 96 Cloves 131
chlorella 317 composition powder formula 262
reishi 135 spearmint formula 155
Cholesterol, high Clubmosses 60
Siberian ginseng 313 Cnicus benedictus 108, 280
Choline 228 CNS 221
Chorea Coagulation 243
B&B tincture 231 Coalescent 342
Christopher, Dr. J.R. 18 Coalescent flowers 51
B&B Tincture 231 Cochlearia amoracin 129
Black Healing Ointment 191 Cocklebur 252
cayenne usage 125 Coffin, Dr.
Female Tonic 283 dropsy formula 130
Menopause formula 286 Cold
wet sheet treatment 148 Chinese ginger remedy 127

360 Copyright © 1993, Wild Rose College of Natural Healing Ltd.

 Index

Cold extract 333 Confusion

Colds skullcap tincture 228
Artemisia vulgaris 214 Congestion
catnip 154 White Flower herbal oil 156
chamomile 151 Congestion, sinus
chamomile vapour bath 151 clinical respiratory formula 185
Chinese use of kidneys 183 Conifers 61
Christopher sheet treatment 148 Constipation
composition powder 262 gentian 105
dong quai 281 Constipation, chronic
goldenseal 103 Balm of Gilead 210
hyssop 152 Constipation, mild
licorice 5 licorice 6
menstrual problems 280 Consumption
myrrh 110 comfrey formula 187
wormwood 213 licorice 6
Colic mullein 188
Artemisia vulgaris 214 Contraceptive
pennyroyal 285 juniper 169
Colic, flatulent Convulsants 345
chamomile 151 Convulsions
Colitis antispasmodics 226
reishi 136 cramp bark 233
Collecting herbs 324 motherwort 288
Collinsonia 123 tansy overdose 284
cardiac astringent 123 Convulsions, pediatric
cranesbill geranium formula 266 antispasmodic tincture 311
Colomba 106 Cook, W.H. 16, 142
intestinal gas formula 128 Copernicus 83
Colon 34, 92, 142 Cordate leaf 48
Colon, prolapsed 200 Cornus stolonifera 168
Coltsfoot Corolla 50, 342
clinical respiratory formula 184 Coronary blood vessels
mullein formula 189 dilation/hawthorn 137
Coma Corpora spongiosum 272
tansy overdose 284 Corpus luteum 276
Comfrey 185 Corpuscles 118
chickweed formula 191 Correctives 345
mullein formula 189 Corrigents 345
Commiphora myrrh 109 Cortex, adrenal 293
Common Mint 133 Corticoids 293
Complete flower 50 Corymb 51, 342
Compositae 68 Cottonwood 209
Composition powder Cough
catnip formula 154 Balm of Gilead combination 210
Composition Powder, Dr. Nowell’s 262 nervine syrup 187
Compound 332 Cough syrup
Compound leaf 46 hops extract 229
Compound leaves 342 Cough, tickling
Compuserve 340 hyssop 153
Concentrate 332 Coughing and sneezing response 241
Concussion Coughing headache
arnica 236 skullcap 227
Condiment Coughs
cayenne 125 Artemisia campestris 214
horseradish 129 chamomile vapour bath 151
Cone flower 255 comfrey formula 187

Copyright © 1993, Wild Rose College of Natural Healing Ltd. 361

Textbook of Modern Herbology, Second Revised Edition

licorice 6 Cysteine oxidation 281

mullein 188 D-Tox program 248
Coumarin 135 Daffodil 62
Counterirritant Dahlias 68
poplar buds 209 Daisies 68
Counterirritants 345 Dakota Indians
Countess’s Powder 105 licorice 5
Cow parsnip 67 Dandelion 39, 53, 68
Cowper’s glands 272 motherwort formula 287
Crab Apple 349 Dates, Chinese
Cramp bark 232 dong quai formula 281
clinical female formula 280 Davenport, H.
clinical muscle flexibility formula 226 A Digest of Digestion 112
menstrual cramp formula 127 De Cinchon, Countess 105
neuromuscular treatment 123 Deafness
squaw vine formula 283 quinine 105
Cramps Declining stem 42
antispasmodics 226 Decoction 332
Cramps, abdominal Decumbent stem 42
cramp bark 232 Delerium
Cramps, bladder motherwort 288
motherwort 288 Deltoid leaf 48
Cramps, female Demulcent
cramp bark 232 aloe vera 314
Cramps, menstrual Balm of Gilead 209
clinical female formula 280 chickweed 190
ginger 127 comfrey 185
Cramps, muscle licorice 6
chickweed formula 190 marshmallow 164, 192
Cramps, pregnancy milk thistle 317
cramp bark formula 233 mountain flax 206
Cranesbill 265 mullein 188
Cranesbill Geranium 265 poplar buds 209
Cranial nerves 224 use with diuretics 163
Crataegin 136 white pond lily 267
Crataegus oxyacantha 136 Demulcents 184, 345
Cratagolic acid 136 Dendrites 219
Creeping stem 43 Dental extraction
Creosote Bush 249 arnica 236
Cretinism 293 Deobstructant
Crowfoot 265 red clover 253
Cruciferae 65 Deobstructants 346
Cucumber 64 Deodourants 346
Cucurbita pepo 216 Thai crystals 144
Culpepper 83 Depressants 346
Cuneate leaf 48 Depression 121
Curled Mint 133 clinical female formula 280
Currant 66 lady slipper root formula 235
Cuts Siberian ginseng 313
Balm of Gilead 210 Descending Colon 90, 201
cranesbill geranium 266 Dessertspoon 338
CVI (Cardiovascular Index) 122 Detergents 346
Cyme 52, 342 Determinate Inflorescences 52
Cyperaceae 63 Devil’s Apple 208
Cypripedin 235 Dextrin 282
Cypripedium acaule 226 Dextrins 93
Cypripedium pubescens 234

362 Copyright © 1993, Wild Rose College of Natural Healing Ltd.

 Index

Diabetes 294 Diffusive diaphoretics 123

bearberry 167 Diffusive stimulant 118, 123, 124
cascara sagrada 205 ginger 127
cleaver CONTRAINDICATION 172 kidney application 164
cranesbill geranium 266 prickly ash 132
Diabetes insipidus wild ginger 128
pituitary function 298 Digestion 89
Diaphoresis 122 wormwood 214
Diaphoretic 148, 346 Digestion, impaired
arnica 236 juniper berries 169
Blessed thistle (hot) 108 Digestive
blue cohosh 286 cloves 132
buchu 173 horseradish 130
burdock 252 peppermint 134
catnip 154 Digestive glands 291
cayenne 125 Digestive system 30
chamomile 150 Dihydrocarveol acetate 155
echinacea 255 Dinene 281
garlic 254 Dioecious 342
ginger 127 Dioecious flowers 50
hyssop 152 Diosphinol 172
lady slipper root 235 Direct stimulants 124
lobelia 310 Disease 32
mandrake 208 Disinfectants 346
pennyroyal 285 Distinct flowers 51
pleurisy root 195 Diuretic 162, 346
prickly ash 132 arnica 236
role in fevers 146 astragalus 315
sassafras 251 Balm of Gilead 209
spearmint 155 bearberry 167
tansy 284 bistort 267
use with diuretics 163 black cohosh 231
wild ginger 128 blood pressure 121
yarrow 149 blue cohosh 286
Diaphragm 180 buchu 173
Diarrhea burdock 252
astringents 261 chaparral 249
bearberry 167 cleaver 172
bistort 267 clinical renal formula 164
composition powder 262 cramp bark 232
cranesbill geranium 266 cranesbill geranium 266
gentian 105 garlic 254
marshmallow 192 gravel root 170
meadowsweet 111 hawthorn 136
mullein formula 189 hops 228
poplar 108 juniper 168
raspberry 265 lady slipper root 235
Diarrhea, chronic meadowsweet 111
bayberry 262 mullein 188
white oak 263 parsley 165
Diastolic 119 pennyroyal 285
Dicot 41, 342 poplar 107
Dicotyledon 64, 342 poplar bark 209
Diffuse stem 42 sassafras 251
Diffuse stimulant skullcap 227
ginger 127 spearmint 155
Diffusion 41 squaw vine 282

Copyright © 1993, Wild Rose College of Natural Healing Ltd. 363

Textbook of Modern Herbology, Second Revised Edition

use of marshmallow 192 Dysmenorrhea 280

wild ginger 128 dong quai 281
yarrow 149 pleurisy root formula 196
Diuretic, slight Dyspepsia
bayberry 262 tansy formula 284
Diverticuli 200 Ear infections
Division 58 B&B tincture 231
Dock, Yellow Earaches
cascara sagrada formula 206 licorice 5
Dominion Herbal College 18 East India Rhubarb 207
Dong quai 281 Ecbolics 346
clinical female formula 280 Eccrine sudoriferous glands 143
edema 259 Echinacea 2, 255
menopausal problems 278 clinical cleansing formula 247
Dopamine synthesis reishi formula 136
ginkgo 316 Echinacea angustifolia 247, 255
Douche Echinacein 255
bearberry 167 Echinacin 255
Dr. Christopher’s Black Healing Ointment Echinacoside 255
191 Echinaodise 255
Dr. Coffin’s Famous Formula 130 Eclectic medicine 83
Dr. Nowell’s Composition Powder 262 Eclectic School of Medicine 16
Dr. Nowell’s Liniment 126 Eczema
Dragonwort 267 Artemisia campestris 214
Dram 338 burdock 252
Drastic 204 poplar 108
cascara sagrada 205 Eczema, childhood
menstruation contraindication 280 role in adult lung problems 183
Drop Edema 259
unit of measure 338 clinical female formula 280
Dropsical problems licorice 6
juniper 169 Efferent 223
Dropsy Ejaculatory duct 271
Dr. Coffin’s formula 130 Elder flower
gravel root 171 peppermint 134
hawthorn 137 Elder flowers
Drunkeness chaparral formula 250
sassafras 251 Elder leaves
Dry fruits 53 tansy formula 284
Drying Elecampane
artificial heat 327 comfrey formula 187
indoor 327 Electrolyte balance 225
outdoor 327 Electrolytes 246
Drying herbs 324 Eleutherococcus senticosus 312,313
Dryopteris filix-mas 215 Eliminative vasotonics 246
Duckweed 61 Elliptic leaf 48
Duodenum 90 Elm 349
Dwarf Flax 206 Embryo 276
Dwarfism 293 Emetic 184, 346
Dye Blessed thistle 108
goldenseal 102 mandrake 208
Dysentery pleurisy root 195
barberry 101 Emetic Herb 309
bearberry 167 Emmenagogue 280, 346
bistort 267 aloe vera 314
cranesbill geranium 266 black cohosh 231
marshmallow 192 Blessed thistle 108
raspberry 265

364 Copyright © 1993, Wild Rose College of Natural Healing Ltd.

 Index

blue cohosh 286 Ergosterol 135

chamomile 150 Ericaeae 67
dong quai 281 Ericolin 166
juniper 168 Escheria coli 203
lobelia 310 ESCOP 80
motherwort 287 Esophagus 90
pennyroyal 285 Essential oils 334
poplar 107 Esters of acetic 155
raspberry 264 Estrogenic
squaw vine 282 licorice 6
tansy 284 Estrogens 294
Emmenagogue, slight Eucalyptus 61
catnip 154 Eugenia caryophyllata 131
Emodin 204, 205, 207 Eugenol 132, 251
Emollient 184, 346 Eupatorium perfoliatum 170
aloe vera 314 Eupatorium purpureum 170
arnica 236 European Pennyroyal 284
Balm of Gilead 209 European Scientific Co-operative of
chickweed 190 Phytomedicines 80
licorice 6 Eurporin 170
marshmallow 192 Evacuants 346
poplar buds 209 Evening Primrose 66
Emphysema Excitability
ma huang 194 skullcap 227
role of childhood eczema 183 Excretory System 30
Endocrine glands 291 Exhaustion
alteratives 246 licorice 5
Endometrium 274 skullcap formula 228
Enema 332 Exocrine glands 291
Enema, relaxing Exophthalmos 296
hops 229 Expectorant 184, 346
Enterokinase 96 arnica 236
Entire leaf 46 black cohosh 231
Entries 18 chaparral 249
Enuresis, nocturnal comfrey 185
ma huang 194 cramp bark 232
Enzymes 115, 246 garlic 254
Ephedra 194 hyssop 152
clinical respiratory formula 184 licorice 6
Ephedra sinica 184, 194 ma huang 194
Ephedrine 185 parsley 165
Ephemeral 342 pleurisy root 195
Ephemerals 43 poplar bark 209
Epididymis 271 St. John’s wort 317
Epigynous ovary 51 Expectoration
Epilepsy myrrh 110
black cohosh 231 pleurisy root 196
blue cohosh 286 Express 334
ma huang 194 External respiration 177
skullcap 227 Extract 333
valerian 230 Eye inflammation
Epinephrine 194, 293, 298 marshmallow 193
Epithelial glands 182 Eyebright
Epithelium 241 raspberry formula 265
Epstein-Barr Eyes, dry
chlorella 317 raspberry formula 265
Erect stem 42 Eyes, sore
wormwood 213

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Textbook of Modern Herbology, Second Revised Edition

Eyesight Fevers, lingering

chaparral 250 hyssop 153
licorice 5 Fevers, low
Eyewash lady slipper root 235
raspberry 265 Fevers, malarial
Facial nerves 223 ma huang 194
Facial wash Fibrin 183
white pond lily 268 Fibrous root 41, 342
Fainting Filament 50
cramp bark 233 Filicic acid 215
Fairy Flax 206 Filixmas 215
Fallopian tubes 274 Filmaron 215
Fallout, atomic Fir 61
Siberian ginseng 313 First Nations medicine 82
False unicorn root Fits
squaw vine formula 283 cramp bark 233
Family 58 Five finger root 311
Fatigue Flatulence
licorice 5, 6 catnip injection 154
Fats 27 Flavinoid glycosides 136
Fatty acid 96 Fleas
Febrifuge 346 pennyroyal 285
cascara sagrada 205 Fleshy fruits 53
poplar 107 Flexibility
wormwood 214 clinical muscle flexibility formula 226
Feedforward system 201 Flexner Report 17
Feet, tender Flora and Fauna 242
bearberry 167 Florets 68
Female ginseng 280, 281 Flower 40, 49
Female problems gathering 326
black cohosh 231 Flower Essence Systems 304
ginger 127 Flu
Female tonic 281 alteratives 246
Fennel 99 catnip 154
clinical laxative formula 204 chamomile vapour bath 151
senna combination 212 Chinese ginger remedy 127
Fennel seed tea Chinese use of kidneys 183
parasite program 212 Christopher cold sheet treatment 148
Fenugreek 99 composition powder 262
Ferns 60 dong quai 281
Ferulic acid 281 goldenseal 103
Fetus 276 healing crises 247
Fever 243, 245 peppermint 134
Artemisia vulgaris 214 raspberry formula 264
catnip 154 Fluid Extracts 333
cramp bark 233 Fly repellent
licorice 5 pennyroyal 285
pennyroyal 285 tansy formula 284
Fever, bilious Fomentations 333
chamomile 151 comfrey use 186
Fever, puerperal marshmallow leaves 192
chamomile 151 Food combination 97
Fever, remittent Food poisoning (slight)
chamomile 151 goldenseal 103
Fevers Forebrain 222
composition powder 262 Forgetfullness 121
Formic acid 168

366 Copyright © 1993, Wild Rose College of Natural Healing Ltd.

 Index

Formulation, herbal 321 Gastric ulcers

Fox Indians meadowsweet 111
licorice 5 Gastritis
Foxglove 64 gentian 105
Fragerine 264 Gastrointestinal problems
Freckles licorice 5
cleaver 172 Gastrointestinal tract 97
Freeze drying 336 Gathering herbs 325
Fresh plant extracts 336 Gazel 136
Fruit 40, 52 Genera 58
gathering 326 General of Respiration 194
Fumigant Genie 340
juniper 170 Genitourinary inflammation
Fundus 93 marshmallow 192
Fungi 60 Genitourinary organs
Fungicidal bearberry 167
lapacho 316 Genitourinary tract
G spot 275 gravel root 171
Gag Root 309 Gentialutine 105
Galactagogues 346 Gentian 104, 106, 348
Galitannic acid 172 cardiac tonic 123
Galium aparine 171 Gentiana lutea 104
Gall Bladder 91 Gentianine 105
burdock 252 Gentianose 105
cascara sagrada 205 Gentiopicrin 105
red clover 253 Genus 58
wormwood 214 Geranium 46, 104
Galla tannic acid 132 Geranium maculatum 265
Gallic acid 111, 166, 207, 208, 266 Germanium 135
astringents 261 Germicide
tansy 283 cloves 132
Gallic acids 235 Giantism 293
Gallstones Giddiness
parsley root 166 skullcap tincture 228
Gametes 271 Ginger 123, 126
Ganglia 224 aloe vera griping 314
Gangrene Balm of Gilead amelioration 210
use of nervines 226 Blessed thistle association 109
Ganoderma applanatum 135 Christopher sheet treatment 148
Ganoderma lucidum 135 clinical laxative formula 204
Garantogen 311 clinical muscle flexibility formula 226
Garden Mint 155 clinical renal formula 164
Garden Raspberry 264 composition powder formula 262
Garden sage 152 cramp bark program 233
Gargle kidney application 163
hyssop/sage 152 lady slipper root formula 235
Garlic 253 motherwort formula 287
parasite program 212 mountain flax formula 207
Gas parasite program 212
gentian 105 pleurisy root formula 196
pennyroyal 285 reishi formula 136
peppermint 135 squaw vine formula 283
Gastric flow use with barberry 101
Turkey rhubarb 208 use with chamomile 151
Gastric membrane use with senna 211
peppermint 134
Gastric tonic
motherwort formula 287

Copyright © 1993, Wild Rose College of Natural Healing Ltd. 367

Textbook of Modern Herbology, Second Revised Edition

Ginger remedy, Chinese Grantogen 311

pneumonia 123 Grapes 64
Ginger, Jamaican Grasses 62
pleurisy root formula 196 Gravel
Ginkgo 316 gravel root 171
Ginseng 44, 311 juniper 169
Ginseng, Siberian Gravel root 170
ginseng 313 Gravel, kidney
Glands 291 bearberry 167
Glands, swollen Grease Bush 249
goldenseal 103 Greasewood 249
Glandular problems Great Adjunct 4
mullein 188 Great Detoxifier 4
Glandular System 30 Great Railfort 129
Glans 272 Green sickness 280
Glaultherin 111 Grieve, M. 18
Glial cells 221 Griping
Glomerlus 160 ginger 127
Glosso-pharyngeal nerves 223 mandrake 208
Glucagon 294 Ground Raspberry 102
Glutamin 281 Guelder Rose 232
Glycerides 96 Gum Myrrh 109
Glycerin 102, 333 Gum problems
Glycerol 96 bistort 267
Goiter 293, 296 Gums
white oak formula 263 myrrh 110
Goldenrod Gums, sore
pleurisy root formula 196 bearberry 167
Goldenseal 99, 102, 110, 123 goldenseal 104
cardiac tonic 123 Gums, spongy
chickweed formula 191 composition powder 262
clinical laxative formula 204 Guprunow, Dr. N.I.
clinical respiratory formula 184 ginseng 313
gravel root formula 171 Gutnikova, Dr. Z.I.
motherwort formula 287 ginseng 313
mullein formula 189 Gymnospermae 60
skullcap formula 228 Gynecological problems
squaw vine formula 283 licorice 5
white oak formula 264 Hagthorn 136
Gonads 294 Hair growth
Gonorrhea chaparral 250
gravel root formula 171 Hair rinse
Gonorrhea, chronic chamomile 151
poplar 108 Hair tonic
Gooseberries 66 wormwood 213
Goosebill 171 Halitosis
Goosegrass 171 myrrh 110
Gorse 348 Hallucinogenic drugs
Gout B&B tincture 231
gravel root 171 Halves 136
Graffenburg spot 275 Hardock 252
Grain Hastate leaf 48
unit of measure 338 Haw 136
Grains 53 Hawthorn 136
Gram 338 Hay fever
Gramineae 62 ma huang 194
Grandfather of Chinese herbs 4 White Flower herbal oil 156

368 Copyright © 1993, Wild Rose College of Natural Healing Ltd.

 Index

Hazel 136 Hemorrhage, bowel

HCl 95, 242 yarrow enema 150
juniper berries 170 Hemorrhage, lung
Headache comfrey 186
arnica 236 ginger 128
black cohosh 231 mullein 188
lady slipper root 235 Hemorrhage, uterine
Headache, coughing bayberry 262
skullcap 227 Hemorrhoid ointment
Headache, hyperaemic 123 cranesbill geranium formula 266
Headache, nervous Hemorrhoids
catnip 154 astringents 261
lady slipper root 235 cranesbill geranium 266
Headache, sinus white oak 263
yarrow 150 white pond lily 268
Heal-All 68 Hemorrhoids, acute
Healing crises 247 aloe vera WARNING 315
Health, origin of word 32 Hemostatic 346
Heart 30, 115 white oak 263
dong quai 281 Hepatic 346
pleurisy root 195 aloe vera 314
Heart action cascara sagrada 205
hops 229 mandrake 208
Heart disease mountain flax 206
clinical respiratory formula prickly ash 133
WARNING 185 Turkey rhubarb 207
Heart palpitation Hepatic tonic
valerian 230 milk thistle 317
Heart problems Hepatitis
chlorella 317 gentian 105
ma huang contraindication 194 Herb 42
rhematic fever 147 Herbaceous 343
Heart tonic Herbage
motherwort 287 gathering 326
Heart, feeble Herbal Research 340
hawthorn 137 Herbalist, The
Heart, rapid Meyers, Joseph E. (author) 310
hawthorn 137 Herpes simplex 242
Heartburn barberry 101
chamomile 151 chlorella 317
gentian 105 licorice 6
poplar 108 Hiccups
Heartstrain B&B tincture 231
hawthorn 137 licorice 5
Heated extracts 333 Highbush Cranberry 232
Heath 67 Hindbrain 222
Heather 349 Hives
Hedeoma pulegioides 284 ginger bath 128
Hellebores 65 Hoarseness
Helmet Flower 227 hyssop 153
Hemmorhage, pelvic licorice 5
goldenseal 104 Holly 349
Hemoglobin, low Holy thistle 108
Siberian ginseng 313 Homeopathic remedies
Hemorrhage parsley extracts 165
bistort 267 Homeopathy 16, 35
cranesbill geranium 266 Homeostasis 28
white oak 263

Copyright © 1993, Wild Rose College of Natural Healing Ltd. 369

Textbook of Modern Herbology, Second Revised Edition

Homocinchonidise 106 Hyssop 152

Honesty 65 blue cohosh formula 286
Honey 100 Hyssopus officinalis 152
Honeysuckle 348 Hysterectomy
Hops 104, 228 clinical female formula 280
Horehound Hysteria 278
comfrey formula 187 blue cohosh 286
hyssop combination 153 catnip 154
Hormonal imbalances chamomile 151
clinical female formula 280 cramp bark 232
Hormones 30, 115, 246, 291 lady slipper root 235
Hornbeam 348 motherwort 288
Horseradish 129 skullcap 227
Horsetails 60 tansy 284
Household-Metric Equivalents 338 valerian 230
Huang Lian Su 102 I Ching 149
Huang Qi 315 Ileum 90
Humulus 228 Immune stimulant
Humulus lupulus 228 astragalus 315
Hutchens, Alma 18 Immune System 30, 243
cayenne commentary 125 Immunostimulant
chaparral comments 250 chamomile 151
motherwort formula 288 chlorella 317
wormwood uses 214 echinacea 255
Hydragogue 204 Impatiens 303, 349
mandrake 208 IN - DO - OUT 33
Hydrangeas 66 Incomplete flower 50
Hydrastine 103 Indeterminate Inflorescences 51
Hydrastis canadensis 99, 102, 184, 204 Index Medicus 340
Hydrochloric acid 92, 242 Indian Elm 193
Hydrokinone 167 Indian Ginger 128
Hydrophobia Indian Tobacco 309
skullcap 227 Inferior ovary 51
Hydroquine 106 Inflammation
Hydroquinone 164 pleurisy root 196
Hydrotherapy 17 Inflammation, local
Hygienic philosophy 16 wormwood fomentation 214
Hymen 275 Inflammation, uterine
Hyperaemic headache 123 blue cohosh 286
Hypercritical carbon dioxide 336 Inflorescence 51, 343
Hypertension 121 Influenza
chlorella 317 peppermint formula 134
Hypnotic Infusion 334
hops 228 Injection 334
Hypnotics 346 Inorganic, definition of 24
Hypochondria Insect bites
lady slipper root 235 skullcap 227
Siberian ginseng 313 Insect repellent
valerian 230 pennyroyal 285
Hypogastric plexus 224 Insectifuge 285
Hypoglossal nerves 223 Insomnia
Hypoglycemic hops 229
reishi 135 lady slipper root 235
Hypogynous ovary 51 reishi 135
Hypotensive skullcap 227
yarrow 149 skullcap formula 228
Hypothalamus 292

370 Copyright © 1993, Wild Rose College of Natural Healing Ltd.

 Index

Institute of Biologically Active Jelly

Compounds 313 barberry 101
Insulin 95, 294 Jesuit’s Bark 105
cleaver influence 172 Jesuits 105
Integumentary System 29, 143 Joe Pye 170
Intercellular Fluid 26 Joint pain
Intercellular matrix 26 arnica salve 237
Intercostal muscles 181 Juice 334
Interferon Jung, Carl 83
chlorella 317 Juniper
echinacea 255 clinical renal formula 164
licorice 6 gravel root combination 171
Interleukin-1 146 Juniperus communis 164, 168
Internal respiration 177 Juniperus horizontalis 168, 169
Internode 48, 343 Ka Ka Kau-mini 169
Intestinal gas Kapha 81
Capt. Roberts formula 128 Kava kava
Intestinal inflammation clinical muscle flexibility formula 226
marshmallow 192 Kefir 202
Intestinal motility Ketones 160
valerian 230 Ki 3
Intestinal problems Kidney congestion 120
ginger 127 Kidney infections
Intestinal secretion chaparral 250
mandrake 208 Kidney inflammation
Intestinal tonic bearberry 167
motherwort formula 287 parsley 166
Intestinal wall tone Kidney problems
clinical laxative formula 204 hawthorn 137
Intestines 115 Kidney root 170
Inulin 255 Kidney stones
Involucre 68 clinical renal formula 164
Iodine 293 parsley root 166
Ipe Roxo Kidneys 34, 115, 142
lapacho 316 gravel root 171
Iris 62 Kilogram 338
Iron 286 King of the Mucous Membranes 100, 103
Iron citrate 264 Kingdom 58
Irritability, chronic Kinnikinnick 166, 168
Siberian ginseng 313 Kino
Irritation chickweed formula 191
arnica salve 236 Kneipp, Father 17
Irritation, acute Knitback 185
use of nervines 226 Knitbone 185
Ischaemia, cerebral 121 Knotty Brake 215
Islets of Langerhans 294 La grippe
Isobarbaloin 314 hyssop 152
Isobutylamides 255 pleurisy root formula 196
Isosafrol 281 Labia majora 274
Jarvis, D.C. 100, 112 Labia minora 274
Jaundice Labiatae 68
gentian 105 Labrador Tea 168
hops 229 Lacrimal glands 291
tansy 284 Lactation
Jaundice Berry 100 milk thistle 317
Jaundice Root 102 Lacteal 96
Jejunum 90 Lactic acid 115, 144

Copyright © 1993, Wild Rose College of Natural Healing Ltd. 371

Textbook of Modern Herbology, Second Revised Edition

Lactiferous duct 275 chaparral 250

Lactobacillus acidophilus 202 Licorice 4, 106
herpes program 242 kidney application 164
Ladies meat 136 ma huang antidote 194
Lady Slipper root 234 Lignin 127
blue cohosh formula 286 Ligule 48
clinical muscle flexibility formula 226 Liliaceae 63
kidney application 163 Lily 62, 63
neuromuscular treatment 123 Lima beans 53
Lakhousky, Dr. Limonene 155
ginseng research 312 Linamarin 206
Lamb Mint 155 Linear leaf 48
Lanceolate leaf 48 Ling zhi 135
Langerhans, islets of 294 Liniment 334
Lanostans 135 arnica 237
Lapacho 316 Linnaeus, Carolus 59
Larch 61, 349 Linum catharticum 206
Large Intestine 90 Linum usitatissimum 206
Larrea divaricata 247, 249 Lion’s Ear 287
Larrea tridentata 249 Lion’s Tail 287
Larynx 179 Lipase 95, 96
Latent rheumatic fever 147 Lips, chapped
Laurel 67 arnica salve 237
Laxative 346 Lithothropic diuretic
aloe vera 314 gravel root 170
cascara sagrada 205 Lithotriptic
gentian 105 chaparral 249
goldenseal 103 cleaver 172
motherwort 287 Lithotriptic diuretics 163
senna 211 Liver 91, 159
Laxative, mild black cohosh 231
barberry 101 burdock 252
Leaf 40, 44 composition powder 262
Leaf base 45 dong quai 281
Leaf blade 45, 343 milk thistle 317
Leaf margin 343 red clover 253
Leaf node 48 Turkey rhubarb 208
Leaf shape 343 wormwood 214
Leaflet 343 Liver problems
Leaflets 46 bearberry 167
Leaves Liver secretions
gathering 326 barberry 101
Lecithin 96 Liver toxicity
Ledum groenlandicum 168 astragalus 315
Leguminoseae 66 chaparral 249
Leonurus cardiaca 287 licorice 6
Leopardsbane 236 Liver, engorged
Leprosy cascara sagrada 206
pennyroyal 285 Liverworts 60
Lettuce 68 Lobed leaf 46
Leucorrhea 280 Lobelanine 309
juniper formula 170 Lobelia 99, 309
meadowsweet 111 black cohosh formula 231
poplar 108 cardiac relaxant 123
white oak 263 catnip formula 154
yarrow 150 chickweed formula 191
Leukemia 2 clinical laxative formula 204

372 Copyright © 1993, Wild Rose College of Natural Healing Ltd.

 Index

clinical muscle flexibility formula 226 Malaria

clinical respiratory formula 184 gentian 105
Dr. Nowell’s Liniment 126 Malarial fevers
mountain flax formula 206 ma huang 194
mullein formula 189 Malates 110
Lobelia inflata 99, 184, 226, 309, 310 Male Shield Fern 215
Lobelic acid 309 Malefern 215
Lobeline 309 Malefern root
Locality parasite program 212
effect on herb gathering 325 Malic acid 188
Lockjaw tansy 283
antispasmodic tincture 311 Malnutrition
cramp bark 233 barberry 101
Lomatium 67 Maltose 93, 96
Longevity Man’s Health 311
licorice 5 Mandrake 208
Low Apple 208 Manganese 312
Low blood sugar 9, 120 Maple 53
adrenals 293 March 165
parsley 166 Marotin 231
Lumbago Marshmallow 191
wormwood liniment 214 chickweed formula 191
Lung bleeding cleaver combination 172
chickweed 190 clinical cleansing formula 247
Lung hemorrhage 128 clinical renal formula 164
Lung problems clinical respiratory formula 184
chamomile vapour bath 151 use with diuretics 163
Lungs 34, 115, 142, 179 Massage oil
clinical respiratory formula 185 Balm of Gilead 211
pleurisy root 196 Mastication 92
Lupulic acid 228 May Apple 208
Lupuline 228 Mayblossom 136
Lupulus 228 Meadow Clover 253
Lurk-In-The-Ditch 284 Meadow Queen 110
Lust, Benedict 16, 17 Meadow-wort 110
Lust, John 18 Meadowsweet 99, 110
Lyle, T.J. 16 mountain flax formula 207
Lymph 30 Measles
Lymph nodes 30, 260 hyssop/marigold 153
Lymph vessels 30 pleurisy root formula 196
Lymphatic blood cleansing 243 valerian 230
Lymphatic problems Measures and Weights 338
mullein 189 Medulla oblongata 118, 222
Lymphatic system 30 Medulla oblongata damage
alteratives 246 B&B tincture 231
black cohosh 231 Medulla, adrenal 293
chaparral 250 Melatonin 294
mullein 188 Memory
Lymphocyte 244 ginkgo 316
M-ray 312 Siberian ginseng 313
Ma Huang 184, 194 Meninges 221
Maceration 334 Menopausal neurosis
Macrophages 244 Siberian ginseng 313
Maddog 227 Menopause 276
Madweed 227 clinical female formula 280
Magnesium 286, 314 Dr. J.R. Christopher formula 286
Magnesium phosphate 227 Menorrhagia 280

Copyright © 1993, Wild Rose College of Natural Healing Ltd. 373

Textbook of Modern Herbology, Second Revised Edition

Menstrual cramps Midbrain 222

clinical female formula 280 Midline ovary 51
cramp bark program 233 Midrib 45, 343
ginger 127 Milk thistle 317
Menstrual cramps, severe Mill Mountain 206
formula 127 Milligram 338
Menstrual cycle 276 Milliliter 338
adjustment 281 Mimulus 348
edema 259 Minerals 27
Menstrual flow Minims 338
delayed / black cohosh 231 Mint 68
Menstrual flow, excessive Miscarriage suppression
bayberry 262 cramp bark 232
Menstrual problems Mitchella repens 282
milk thistle 317 Mitosis 276
Menstruation 274 Mitral regurgitation
myrrh 110 hawthorn 137
Menstruation, delayed mizaj 82
blue cohosh 286 Moccasin Flower 234
motherwort 288 Molates 168
pennyroyal 285 Monocot 41, 343
tansy 284 Monocotyledon 62, 343
Menstruation, painful Monoecious 343
chamomile 151 Monoecious flowers 50
poplar 108 Mons pubis 275
sassafras 251 Moose Elm 193
tansy 284 Morning cough 182
Menstruation, profuse Morning sickness
bearberry 167 spearmint 155
Menstruation, suppressed Morphine
aloe vera 314 arnica comparison 236
Artemisia vulgaris 214 Mortification Root 191
Menstruation, to suppress Mosses 60
peppermint 135 Mother Cloves 131
Menstruum 335 Mother Tincture 301
Mental alertness Motherwort 287
ginkgo 316 Motor neurons 221
Mentha piperita 133 Mountain Arnica 236
Mentha pulegium 284 Mountain flax 206
Mentha spicata 134 Mountain Radish 129
Mentha virides 155 Mountain tobacco 236
Menthol 134 Mouth 90
Mercury toxicity Moxi, Dr. 18
cranesbill geranium 266 Mucilage of Comfrey Root 186
Metals, heavy mucin 93, 95, 182
release during healing crisis 247 Mucous discharges
Methyl chrysophanic acid 207 white oak / chronic 263
Methyl salicylate 107, 111 Mucous secretions, excessive
Methyl-arbutin 166 astringents 261
Methylhydrokinone 167 Mucus 93
Metric-Apothecary Equivalents 338 Mucus accumulation
Meyers, Joseph E. bayberry 262
lobelia commentary 310 Mucusless diet 183
Microwaves Mule deer 101
Siberian ginseng 313 Mullein 188
Micturition, painful clinical cleansing formula 247
gravel root 171 clinical respiratory formula 184

374 Copyright © 1993, Wild Rose College of Natural Healing Ltd.

 Index

Muscle cramps chamomile 150

chickweed formula 190 cramp bark 232
Muscle Pump 259 ginkgo 316
Muscular system 29 gravel root 170
Mushrooms, poisonous hops 228
wormwood antidote 214 lady slipper root 235
Mustard 65, 348 ma huang 194
bath treatment 148 motherwort 287
Mustard oil 129 reishi 135
Mustard plaster 123 skullcap 227
Mustard, black 129 St. John’s wort 317
Myasthenia gravis 194 valerian 230
ma huang 194 Nervine cough syrup
Myelin 222 comfrey 187
Myers, Norma 18 Nervous depression
Myrica cerifera 261 lady slipper root 235
Myricinic acid 262 Nervous excitement
Myristic acid 281 black cohosh 231
Myristicin 165 Nervous exhaustion
Myrosin 129 Siberian ginseng 313
Myrrh 103, 109 Nervous headache
antispasmodic tincture 311 lady slipper root 235
goldenseal 103 Nervous irritability
Myrrhin 110 lady slipper root formula 235
N-dodecanol 281 Nervous irritations
N-tetradecanol 281 skullcap 227
Narcotic 346 Nervous System 30
mullein 189 Nervous unrest
wormwood 214 lady slipper root 235
Nasal, congestion valerian 230
goldenseal 104 Nervousness
Nature’s Tranquillizer 235 black cohosh 231
Naturopathy 16, 17 Neural transmitters 220
Nausea Neuralgia
cloves 132 cayenne liniments 126
gentian 105 cramp bark 233
mandrake cause 208 Neuralgic pain
spearmint 155 valerian 230
Nauseant Neurasthenia
lobelia 310 hawthorn 137
Nauseating expectorants 184 skullcap 227
Navaho Neuritis
licorice 5 motherwort 288
Nepeta cataria 153 Neuroglia 219
Nephritic 346 Neuron 219
poplar buds 209 Neurotransmitters 225
Nerve centres, undernutrition Neutrophils 244
lady slipper root 235 New Guide to Health 16
Nerve depression Newton, Isaac 83
hawthorn 137 Nightmares
Nerve Root 234 chamomile 151
Nerve tonic Ninsin 311
goldenseal 104 Ninsin Root 311
Nervine 142, 225, 346 Nipples
Balm of Gilead 209 aloe vera 315
black cohosh 231 Nipples, sore
blue cohosh 286 cranesbill geranium 266
squaw vine formula 283

Copyright © 1993, Wild Rose College of Natural Healing Ltd. 375

Textbook of Modern Herbology, Second Revised Edition

Nitrates 149 Orchid 62, 64

Noah’s Ark 234 Orchidaceae 64
Node 343 Order 58
Nor-epinephrine 298 Oregon grape 100
Nosebleeds Organic, definition of 24
yarrow 150 Osmosis 41
Nostrils, bleeding Osteitis Fibrosa Cystica 296
wormwood 213 Oti-to-gue 101
Nostrils, inflamed Ounce 338
arnica salve 237 Our Lady’s Mint 155
Nowell, Dr. H. 18 Ova 274
bayberry comments 262 Ovaries 274, 292
cayenne usage 125 Ovary 50, 343
Composition Powder 262 Ovate leaf 48
poplar 107 Ovules 343
Nucleases 96 Oxalic acid
Nucleotides 96 tansy 283
Nutmeg Oxycanthine 101
myristicin 165 Oxytocin 293
Nutrients 89 Oz
Nutrition 32 motherwort formula 287
Nutritive 346 Pacific essences 305
poplar buds 209 Pain 243, 245
red clover 253 arnica 236
Nuts 53, 64 black cohosh 231
Nymphaea odorata 267 hops 229
Nymphomania pennyroyal 285
hops formula 229 Pain relief
Oak 349 cloves 132
Oats 62 Pain, abdominal
Obcorate leaf 48 arnica compress 236
Obdeltoid leaf 48 Pain, local
Oblanceolate leaf 48 tansy formula 284
Oblong leaf 48 Pain, neuralgic
Obvate leaf 48 valerian 230
Oculamotor nerves 223 Palm 62
Oil of juniper 168 Palmate 343
Oils 334 Palmate leaf 46
Oilum Sassafras 251 Palmitic acid 125
Ointment 334 Palmitin-containing wax
Old Lady’s Thistle 108 bayberry 262
Oleanolic acid 136 Palpitations
Oleic acid 125 motherwort 287
Olfactory nerves 223 Panax americana 311
Olive 348 Panax quinquefolium 311
Onagraceae 66 Panax schin-seng 311
Onion 62 Pancreas 91, 96
Onions, green cascara sagrada 205
Chinese pneumonia remedy 123 chlorella 317
Opposite branching cyme 52 Pancreatic activity
Opposite leaves 49, 343 prickly ash 133
Opthalmia, purulent Pancreatic Islets 292, 294, 298
poplar 108 Pancreatic problems
Optic nerves 223 bearberry 167
Orange 64 Panicle 51, 343
Orange Peel 106 Papoose 286
Orbiculate leaf 48 Paracelsus 304

376 Copyright © 1993, Wild Rose College of Natural Healing Ltd.

 Index

Paralysis Pennyroyal 68, 284

prickly ash 133 Pepperidge Bush 100
Paranoia Peppermint 133
reishi 135 chaparral formula 250
Parasites use with chamomile 151
treatment program 212 White Flower ingredient 156
Parasympathetic nervous system 97, 119, Pepsinogen 95, 98, 100
201, 224 Peptide bonds 96
Parathormone 293 Perennials 44, 343
Parathyroids 292, 293, 296 gathering 325
Parietal cell regulation Perianth 50, 343
meadowsweet 111 Perigynous ovary 51
Parietal cells 100 Peripheral circulation
Parotid glands 90 ginger 164
Parsley 165 Peripheral Nervous System 221, 223
clinical cleansing formula 247 Peripheral resistance 120
clinical renal formula 164 Peristalsis 106
diuretic formula 163 Peruvian Bark 106
garlic odour mask 254 Peristalsis, mass 201
raspberry formula 264 Peristaltic
role in lung problems 183 Turkey rhubarb 207
Parsley Fern 283 Peristaltics 346
Parsnips 41 Persel 165
Partridge Berry 282 Persely 165
Parturient Persimmon
blue cohosh 286 white oak formula 264
raspberry 264 Persistent
squaw vine 282 red clover 253
Passion flower Perspiration
skullcap formula 228 catnip 154
Pasture Sagewort 213 composition powder 262
Patient Dock 267 pleurisy root 195
Pau D’Arco prickly ash 133
lapacho 316 Peruvian Bark 105
Pawnee Indians poplar replacement 107
licorice 5 Petals 50, 343
Pea 66 Petiolate leaf 46
Peaches 66 Petiole 45, 343
Pectin 266 Petroselinum sativum 164, 165, 247
Pectoral 346 pH 29
chickweed 190 Phagocyte 145, 243
hyssop 152 role in fever 145
licorice 6 Phagocytosis 244
mullein 188 Pharynx 90, 179
pleurisy root 196 Phelladrine 155
Pediatric problems Phellandrene 251
licorice 5 Phenolic acids 105
Pedicel 49, 343 Pheromones 305
Peduncle 49, 343 Philosophy of Physiomedicalism 17
Peltate leaf 48 Phloem 42, 343
Pelvic Colon 90 Phosphates 149, 206, 231
Pelvic disturbance Phosphoric acid 188
black cohosh 231 Peruvian Bark 106
Pelvic viscera tone Phosphorus metabolism
gravel root 171 parathormone 293
Pempernel 227 Photosynthesis 42, 343
Penis 271 Phyla 58

Copyright © 1993, Wild Rose College of Natural Healing Ltd. 377

Textbook of Modern Herbology, Second Revised Edition

Phylum 58 burdock 252

Physio-medicalism 15 sassafras 251
Physiological functioning 27 Poison oak
Physosteria 101 bearberry 167
Phytolacca deo 191 Poisonous bites
Piles skullcap 227
bearberry 167 Poke root
catnip tea 154 chickweed formula 191
chickweed formula 190 Polyacetylenes 255
yarrow enema 150 Polygonum bistorta 267
Pimples Polysaccharides 135
Balm of Gilead 210 Poorman’s Treacle 253
burdock 252 Poplar 65, 107, 209
horseradish formula 130 juniper root formula 169
Pine 349 Poppy
Pineal body 292 hops formula 229
Pineal gland 294 Populin 107
Pineapple 62 Populus 65, 209
Pinene 168, 251 Populus tremuloides 107
Pinks 65 Porphyria, acute intermittent
Pinnate 46, 343 licorice 6
Pinus canadensis Potash 129
cranesbill geranium formula 266 Potassium 93, 160, 220, 286, 314
Pinworms 203 Potassium acetate 110
garlic 254 Potassium chloride 183
white oak 263 Potassium phosphate 227
Piper methysticum 226 Poultices 335
Piperonal 111 comfrey use 186
Pipmenthol 134 marshmallow leaves 192
Pistil 50, 344 slippery elm 193
Pitta 81 Pound 338
Pituitary 292, 298 Prairie wormwood sage 168
Placenta 292 Prana 3
Plasma 118 Pregnancy
Platelet aggregation aloe vera WARNING 315
dong quai 281 Artemisia spp. WARNING 214
ginkgo 316 clinical female formula / after 280
Platelets 118 cramps / cramp bark 233
Pleura 180 juniper WARNING 170
Pleurisy Root 195 mandrake WARNING 209
catnip formula 154 nausea/ cloves 132
mullein 189 parsley WARNING 265
Plexi 224 parsley root WARNING 166
Plums 66 pennyroyal WARNING 285
Pneumonia raspberry 264
Chinese ginger remedy 123 sassafras WARNING 251
re-emergence 247 squaw vine formula 282
PNS 221 Premenstrual syndrome
Poaceae 62 motherwort formula 287
Pocket Hercules 297 Preparations, herbal 331
Podophyllin 208 Prickle 43, 344
Podophyllinic acid 208 Prickly ash 132
Podophylloquercetin 208 Cardiac stimulant 123
Podophyllotoxin 208 Prickly Ash Berry 132
Podophyllum peltatum 208 Pride of the Meadow 110
Poison Primary root 41
arnica overdose 236 Primary roots 41
black cohosh antidote 231

378 Copyright © 1993, Wild Rose College of Natural Healing Ltd.

 Index

Procumbent stem 42 Purple thorough weed 170

Prodigy 340 Pussy willows 65
Progesterone 276, 294 Pyloric sphincter 201
Prophylactics 346 Pylorus 93
Prostate Pyorrhea
buchu 164, 173 goldenseal 104
Prostate gland 271 Pyrogen 145
Prostate problems Pyrrolizidine alkaloid 186
chaparral 250 Qi 3, 81
gravel root 171 Quaking Aspen 102, 107
Prostate, enlarged Queen of the Meadow 110, 170
meadowsweet 111 Quercitannic acid 263
Prostrate stem 42 Quercus alba 263
Prostration Questionnaire, Bach Flower 348
black cohosh overdose 232 Quick Thorn 136
Proteases 96 Quinamine 106
Protists 58 Quinic acid 106
Pseudoaldosteronism Quinine 106
licorice 6 poplar replacement 107
Psyllium Quinsy
mountain flax formula 206 hyssop 152
Pteridophyta 60 Rabies
Pterocarpus marsupium 191 skullcap 227
Ptyalin 93 Raccoon Berry 208
Pudding Grass 284 Raceme 51, 344
Puerperal fever Radiation
chamomile 151 Siberian ginseng 313
Puke Weed 309 Ranunculaceae 65
Pulmonary afflictions Rasa 5
comfrey 187 Rash
Pulmonary complaints alteratives 246
chickweed 190 Balm of Gilead 210
Pulmonary disease chamomile 151
mullein 188 chaparral formula 250
Pulse 122 chickweed 190
Pulse index 121 healing crises 247
Pulse wave 120 Raspberry 66, 108, 264
Pulse, increased clinical laxative formula 204
tansy overdose 284 diuretic formula 163
Pulse, reduced lady slipper root formula 235
black cohosh overdose 232 role in lung problems 183
Pulse, weak squaw vine formula 282, 283
pleurisy root contraindication 196 use with marshmallow 193
Pumpkin 216 Rattle Root 230
Pumpkin seeds Receptacle 49, 344
parasite program 213 Receptaculum chyli 261
Pupil dilation Rectal Canal 90
ma huang 194 Rectal hemorrhages
Purgative 346 barberry 101
aloe vera 314 Red Berry 311
mandrake 208 Red Chestnut 348
mountain flax 206 Red Clover 253
Turkey rhubarb 207 clinical cleansing formula 247
Purging cassia 211 clinical muscle flexibility formula 226
Purging Flax 206 Red Cole 129
Purple Clover 253 Red Elm 193
Purple cone flower 255 Red osier dogwood 168

Copyright © 1993, Wild Rose College of Natural Healing Ltd. 379

Textbook of Modern Herbology, Second Revised Edition

Red Pepper 124 Rheumatism

Red Raspberry 264 Artemisia campestris 214
Redwood 61 Artemisia vulgaris 214
Reflex action 223 cayenne liniments 126
Siberian ginseng 313 chaparral 250
Reflex functional disorders gravel root 171
lady slipper root 235 hops formula 229
Refrigerant 346 licorice 5
barberry 101 motherwort 288
catnip 154 rheumatic fever 147
chickweed 190 sassafras 251
cleaver 172 wormwood fomentation 214
Reishi 2, 135 Rheumatism, muscular
Relaxant 123 hyssop 152
catnip 154 Rhinitis
cramp bark 232 ma huang 194
gravel root 170 Rhizome 43, 344
lady slipper root 235 Rhombic leaf 48
lobelia 310 Rhubarb
reishi 135 spearmint formula 155
Relaxant nervine 163 Rickets
Relaxing diaphoretic skullcap 227
pleurisy root 196 Ringworm
Relaxing diaphoretics 118 hops 229
Renal tubule 162 Ringworm bush 211
Reniform leaf 48 Roberts, Capt. Frank 104, 111
Rennin 95 gas formula 128
Reproductive system 29 Rock Rose 303, 348
Rescue Remedy 302 Rock Water 349
Research, herbal 340 Rockefeller Foundation 17
Resolvent Roman Motherwort 287
St. John’s wort 317 Root cap 41
Respiration 177 Root hairs 41
Respiration, feeble Root tip 41
tansy overdose 284 Roots 40
Respiration, sighing Roripa amoracia 129
hawthorn 137 Rosa pendulina 66
Respiratory inflammation Rosaceae 66
marshmallow 192 Rose 64, 66
Respiratory System 29 Rosemary
Respiratory tonic Dr. Nowell’s Liniment 126
hyssop 153 Rosettes 48
Restlessness Roughage 90
skullcap 227 Roundworms 203
valerian 230 Rubichloric acid 172
Restlessness (children) Rubus idaeus 204, 264
pennyroyal 285 Rubus strigosus 264
Rhamnol arachidate 205 Run-By-The-Ground 284
Rhamnus purshiana 204, 205, 248 Runners 43, 344
Rhein 207 Sacred Bark 205
Rheum palmatum 204, 207 Safrol 251, 281
Rheumatic fever Sage
prickly ash tonic 133 hyssop combination 152
Rheumatic formula 133 Sagittate leaf 48
Rheumatic pain Saliceae 65
black cohosh 231 Salicin 107
Salicylate
meadowsweet 111

380 Copyright © 1993, Wild Rose College of Natural Healing Ltd.

 Index

Salicylic acid 107, 111 Seed 40

Salicylic aldehyde 111 Seeds 52
Salicylic glycosides 111 gathering 326
Saliva 93 Semen 272
Salivary flow Seminal fluid 272
Turkey rhubarb 208 Senna 211
Salivary glands 90, 291 intestinal gas formula 128
Salix 65 parasite program 212
Saloop 251 Sennoside A 211
Salve 334 Sennoside B 211
Sambucus canadensis 134 Sensory neurons 221
Sang 311 Sepals 49, 344
Sanicle Sequoias 61
mullein formula 188 Serous 93
Saponin 286 Sesquiterpenes 281
Sasparilla Sessile 344
chaparral combination 250 Sessile leaf 46
Sassafras 251 Setwell 229
Sassafras officinalis 251 Sexual desire, excessive
Sassafrid 251 hops 229
Saxafrax 251 Sexually transmitted diseases
Saxifragaceae 66 hops 229
Scalds Shaman 82
aloe vera 314 Sheath 48, 344
cleaver 172 Shen Nung 4
Scarlet fever Shepherd’s Purse 43
bayberry 262 Shepherd’s Staff 188
hyssop/marigold 153 Shief Root 215
valerian 230 Shock
Scarwart 189 arnica 236
Scheel, Dr. John 17 Shook, Dr.
Sciatica cascara sagrada commentary 205
motherwort 288 cranesbill geranium 266
Sciatica case study 35 parasite commentary 212
Science and Practice of Medicine 17 Shrub 42, 344
Scleranthus 348 Sialagogue
Sclerotic circulation 121 echinacea 255
Scrotum 271 Sialogogues 346
Scruple 338 Siberian Department of the
Scullcap 227 U.S.S.R. Academy of Sciences 313
Scurvy Siberian ginseng 312
Balm of Gilead 210 kidney application 164
burdock 252 Sigmoid Colon 90, 201
Scutellaria galericulata 227 Sik-Si-nou-Koo 169
Scutellaria lateriflora 227 Silicon 286
Scutellarin 227 Simple leaf 45
Sebaceous glands 291 Sinews
Secondary roots 41 chickweed formula 190
Sedative Sinigrin 129
chamomile 150 Sinus headache
dong quai 281 yarrow 150
hops 228 Sinus problems
lobelia 310 horseradish formula 130
ma huang 194 Sinuses
Sedative nervines 225 clinical respiratory formula 185
Sedatives 346 Skeletal system 29
Sedge 63 Skin 34, 115, 142

Copyright © 1993, Wild Rose College of Natural Healing Ltd. 381

Textbook of Modern Herbology, Second Revised Edition

Skin abnormalities Sohxlet Extraction 335

hops 229 Solar plexus 224
Skin astringent Solitary flower 51
white pond lily 268 Somatotropin 292
Skin conditions Soporifics 346
chaparral 250 Sorbefacients 346
Skin disease Sores
Balm of Gilead 210 Tincture of Myrrh 110
sassafras 251 Sores, canker
Skin infection cranesbill geranium 266
chickweed 190 Sores, mouth
Skin inflammation prickly ash 132
white oak 263 Sores, syphilitic
Skin irritation poplar 108
Balm of Gilead 210 Sow thistles 68
Skin problems Spasms
chlorella 317 blue cohosh 286
Skin rash pennyroyal 285
arnica salve 237 Spasticity
Skin temperature reishi 135
pleurisy root 195 Spasticity of colon 200
Skin thickness Spatulate leaf 48
thyroid underactivity 295 Spearmint 68, 134, 155
Skin tone 147 Dr. Nowell’s Liniment 126
Skin ulcers 142 Willard liniment 126
Skin, cold Species 58
pleurisy root contraindication 196 Specifics 346
Skullcap 103, 104, 227 Spermatophyta 60
antispasmodic tincture 311 Spermatozoa 271
black cohosh formula 231 Spike 51, 344
kidney application 163 Spikenard
Skunk cabbage comfrey formula 187
antispasmodic tincture 311 Spinal accessory nerves 223
comfrey formula 187 Spinal cord 222
Sleep Spinal meningitis
hops 229 goldenseal 104
Siberian ginseng 313 Spine 43, 344
Sleeplessness Spiraea ulmaria 99, 110
motherwort 288 Spiraein 111
Slime Molds 60 Spire Mint 155
Slippery elm 193 Spirea 110, 170
Slivers, wood Spiroaic acid 111
garlic 254 Spleen 30
Small Intestine 90 black cohosh 231
Smoker’s cough 182 fever influence 145
Snake bite Spleen problems
black cohosh antidote 231 bearberry 167
echinacea 255 Sprain, joint
milk thistle 317 arnica 236
skullcap 227 Sprains
Snakeweed 267 arnica salve 236
Snow blindness cayenne liniments 126
Balm of Gilead 209 marshmallow formula 192
Snowball Tree 232 wormwood fomentation 214
Sodium 93, 220, 286 wormwood liniment 214
Sodium chloride 144 Spring tonic
Sodium phosphate 185 sassafras 251

382 Copyright © 1993, Wild Rose College of Natural Healing Ltd.

 Index

Spruce 61 Stimulant, mild

composition powder formula 262 catnip 154
Squash red clover 253
pumpkin seed alternative 216 Stimulating expectorants 184
Squaw Root 230, 286 Stipule 45
Squaw vine 282 Stitchwort 189
Blessed thistle 109 Stolon 43, 344
buchu combination 173 Stomach 90
cramp bark formula 233 hops 229
gravel root formula 171 valerian 230
Squawberry 282 Stomach acidity 241
St. Benedict’s Thistle 108 Stomach disease
St. Vitus’s Dance prickly ash 133
lady slipper root 235 Stomach flu
skullcap 227 goldenseal 103
valerian 230 Stomach gas
Stamens 50, 344 Capt. Roberts formula 128
Star of Bethlehem 303, 349 Stomach problems
Starch 96 Artemisia campestris 214
Starweek 189 cayenne 125
STD (sexually transmitted disease) spearmint 155
chaparral 250 Stomach secretions
Stearic acid 125 horseradish 130
Stellaria media 189 Stomach ulcers
Stem 40 meadowsweet 111
Stems 42 Stomach, feeble
Sterols 249 hyssop/horehound 153
Stigma 50, 344 Stomach, upset
Stimulant 113, 123, 346 licorice 5
arnica 236 Stomach, weak
Balm of Gilead 209 juniper 169
barberry 101 slippery elm 193
bayberry 262 Stomachic 346
buchu 173 aloe vera 314
cayenne 125 Balm of Gilead 209
chamomile 150 cascara sagrada 205
cloves 132 chamomile 150
garlic 254 cloves 132
ginkgo 316 gentian 105
gravel root 170 goldenseal 103
hyssop 152 juniper 168
juniper 168 meadowsweet 111
lady slipper root 235 peppermint 134
myrrh 110 raspberry 264
pennyroyal 285 Turkey rhubarb 207
peppermint 134 wormwood 214
poplar 107 Stomas 45
poplar bark 209 Stomatitis, vesicular
prickly ash 132 licorice 6
raspberry 264 Stones, kidney
reishi 135 cleaver 172
sassafras 251 clinical renal formula 164
spearmint 155 Storkbill 265
tansy 284 Strangury
valerian 230 gravel root 171
yarrow 149 Strawberry 41, 66
Stimulant nervines 225 Strawberry blight 44

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Textbook of Modern Herbology, Second Revised Edition

Strontium 312 Syrup 336

Stupour Systolic 119
skullcap tincture 228 T-cell lymphocytes
Style 50 echinacea 255
Styptic 346 Tablespoon 338
bistort 267 Tacamahac 209
comfrey 185 Taenicides 212, 347
cranesbill geranium 266 Taenifuge 212
Sublingual Glands 90 malefern 215
Submandibular Glands 90 pumpkin seed 216
Subspecies 58 Tahebo
Subtending bract 48 lapacho 316
Subulate leaf 48 Tall boneset 170
Succinic acid 281 Tanacetin 283
Sucrose 281 Tanacetum vulgare 283
Sudorific Tanacetumtannic acid 283
hyssop oil 152 Tang-kuei 281
pleurisy root 195 Tanner Oak 263
Sudorifics 346 Tannic acid 111, 150, 166, 215, 235
Sugar metabolism 95 astringents 261
Sulfa drugs 144 Tannin 101, 132, 149, 232, 251, 266, 267
Sulfonamide 144 Tansy 283
Sulphate of calcium 129 Tapeworms 203
Sulphates 110, 160, 231, 254 malefern 215
Sulphides 254 Taproot 41, 344
Sulphur 127 Tartar Root 311
Sumach 168 Taxonomy 58
Sun Szu-miao 1 TCM 3, 81
Sunburn Teaspoon 338
aloe vera 314 Teeth 90
cleaver 172 Teeth, loose
Sunflower 68 chlorella 317
Sunshine method Terminal flower 51
Bach Flower preparation 301 Terpene 111
Superadrenals 292 Testes 271, 292
Superior ovary 51 Testicles, swollen
Suterberry 132 chickweed formula 190
Swallow-wort 195 mullein formula 188
Sweat Glands 143 Testosterone 294
Sweet Brake 215 Tetany 296
Sweet chestnut 349 Thai crystals 144
Sweet Meadow 110 Thallophyta 60
Sweetweed 191 The Modern Researcher
Swelling Barzun, Jacques and Henry Graff
arnica 236 (authors) 340
chamomile 151 The Naturopathic and Herald of Health 17
hops formula 229 Thinking Herb, The
wormwood fomentation 214 lobelia 310
Symbiosis 41 Third Eye 294
Symbiote 41 Thirst
Sympathetic nervous system 97, 119, 224 licorice 5
parsley 166 Thistles 68
Symphysis pubis 275 Thomson, Samuel 16, 83
Symphytum officinale 184, 185 poplar formula 107
Synapse 220 Thomsonian herbal tradition 13
Syphilis Thoracic Pump 259
sassafras 251 Thorn 43, 344

384 Copyright © 1993, Wild Rose College of Natural Healing Ltd.

 Index

Throat malefern 215

hops 229 mandrake 208
Throat astringent meadowsweet 111
Peruvian Bark 106 mountain flax 206
Throat inflammation myrrh 110
myrrh 110 parsley 165
Throat irritation pleurisy root 196
licorice 5 poplar 107
Throat, sore poplar bark 209
Balm of Gilead combination 210 prickly ash 132
bayberry 262 raspberry 264
hawthorn 137 relaxing 99
hyssop 152 red clover 253
licorice 5 sassafras 251
Throwwort 287 senna 211
Thurston, J.M. 16, 17 skullcap 227
eliminative vasotonics 246 squaw vine 282
Thymus 292, 298 stimulating 99
Thyroid 292-294 tansy 284
Thyroid stimulating hormone 296 Turkey rhubarb 207
Thyroxin 293 valerian 230
Time of day white oak 263
effect on herb gathering 325 wormwood 214
Tincture 336 yarrow 149
Tobacco poisoning Tonic, blood
sassafras 251 dong quai 281
Tone Waves 201 Tonic, heart
Tongue 90 motherwort 287
Tonic 99, 123, 347 Tonsils, ulcerated
aloe vera 314 white oak formula 264
astragalus 315 Tooth powder
Balm of Gilead 209 Peruvian Bark 106
barberry 101 Toothache
bayberry 262 cloves 132
bearberry 167 licorice 5
black cohosh 231 prickly ash 132
Blessed thistle (cold) 108 Toothache Tree 132
blue cohosh 286 Toothed leaf 46
burdock 252 Toxemia 201
cascara sagrada 205 Toxic chemicals
catnip 154 chlorella 317
cayenne 125 Trachea 178
chamomile 150 Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) 3, 81
chaparral 249 Transverse Colon 90, 201
cleaver 172 Travel sickness
comfrey 185 wormwood 214
cramp bark 232 Travelling
cranesbill geranium 266 menstrual problems 280
garlic 254 Tree 42, 344
gentian 105 Trefoil 253
goldenseal 103 Trembling Aspen 107
gravel root 170 Tremors
hawthorn 136 black cohosh overdose 232
hops 228 Tridosha 81
juniper/Blackfoot 169 Trifolium pratense 226, 247, 253
lady slipper root 235 Trigeminal nerves 223
ma huang 194 Triglyceride regulation
garlic 254

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Textbook of Modern Herbology, Second Revised Edition

Trigonella foenum 99 Urethra

Triterpene acid 136 chaparral 250
Triterpenes 135 Uric acid 27, 144, 160
Trochlear nerves 223 Peruvian Bark 106
Tropic hormones 292 Urinary complaints
Trypsin 96 licorice 5
Trypsinogen 96 Urinary disease
TSH 296 squaw vine 282
Tuber 43, 344 Urinary system catarrh
Tuber Root 195 poplar 108
Tuberculosis Urinary tract
myrrh 110 buchu 173
Tubers Urinary tract irritation
gathering 325 gravel root 171
Tumours Urine 30
chickweed 190 Urine flow
cleaver 172 juniper 169
Turkey Burseed 252 Urine production
Turkey Rhubarb 207 hops 229
clinical laxative formula 204 Urine retention
comfrey formula 187 juniper 169
Tussilago farfara 184 Urine, albumin
Typhoid fever motherwort 288
echinacea 255 Urine, bloody
gravel root 171 gravel root 171
motherwort 288 white oak 263
Ulceration Urine, red
white pond lily 268 Turkey rhubarb 208
Ulceration, bladder Urogenital irritation
white oak 263 meadowsweet 111
Ulceration, urinary tract Ursolic acid 136
bearberry 167 Ursone 166
Ulcers Uterine inflammation
cayenne 125 blue cohosh 286
chlorella 317 Uterine prolapsus
goldenseal 103 white oak 263
licorice 6 Uterine tone
reishi 136 st. john’s wort 317
Tincture of Myrrh 110 Uterus 274
Ulcers, indolent gravel root 171
cranesbill geranium 266 lady slipper root formula 235
prickly ash 133 white pond lily 268
Ulcers, skin Uterus, tipped
chickweed formula 190 white oak 263
Ulcers, varicose Uva ursi 67, 108, 164, 166
sassafras 251 cleaver combination 172
Ulmus fulva 193 clinical cleansing formula 247
Umbel 52 squaw vine formula 283
Umbelliferae 67 Vaccinia
Umbilical cord licorice 6
myrrh application 110 Vagina 274
Unani medicine 82 Vagina, atonic
Unicorn root cranesbill geranium 266
buchu combination 173 Vaginal douche
cranesbill geranium formula 266 white pond lily 268
Unisexual flowers 50 Vaginal infections
Urea 27, 115, 144, 160 white pond lily 268

386 Copyright © 1993, Wild Rose College of Natural Healing Ltd.

 Index

Vaginal rashes Villi 96

gentian 105 Vine 349
Vaginitis Vinule 161
lapacho 316 Vipaka 5
Vaginitis, chronic Virginia Snake Root
meadowsweet 111 Peruvian Bark 106
Vagus nerves 223, 224 Virya 5
Valerian 229 Visual acuity
Valeriana officinalis 229 Siberian ginseng 313
Valerianic acid 228, 232 Vital Energy 3, 7
Valerianine 230 Vital force 16
Valvular murmurs Vitamin A
hawthorn 137 parsley 165
Vanillin 111, 132 Vitamin B complex
Varicose veins parsley 165
milk thistle 317 Vitamin B1
white oak 263 ginseng 312
Variety 58 Vitamin B12
Vas deferens 271, 272 dong quai 281
Vasectomy 273 Vitamin B2
Vasoconstrictor ginseng 312
ma huang 194 Vitamin B3
Vasopressin 293 dong quai 281
Vasotonics, eliminative 246 Vitamin B6
Vata 81 dong quai 281
Veins 115, 116 edema 259
Veins (leaf) 344 menstrual difficulties 276
Veins, varicose Vitamin C 183, 214, 232
white oak 263 antiscorbutics 248
Venereal warts echinacea 255
mandrake 208 parsley 165
Veninga, L. & B.R. Zaricor 112 Vitamin E
Venules 115 dong quai 281
Verbascum thapsus 184, 188, 247 Vitamin K 232
Vermicide Vitamins 27
mandrake 208 Vogel, Virgil
Vermicides 212, 347 wormwood usage 213
Vermifuge Vomit Wort 309
aloe vera 314 Vomiting
malefern 215 black cohosh overdose 232
pumpkin seed 216 cloves 132
senna 211 spearmint 155
tansy 284 tansy overdose 284
Vermifuges 212, 347 Vorobyeva, Dr. P.P.
Vertebrae 222 ginseng 313
Vertigo 121 Vulneraries 347
black cohosh overdose 232 Vulnerary
Vervain 285, 349 arnica 236
Vesicular stomatitis malefern 215
licorice 6 poplar buds 209
Vestibule 275 Vulva 274
Veterinary Wakefulness
licorice 5 valerian 230
Viburn 232 Walker-256 tumour suppression
Viburnine 232 echinacea 255
Viburnum opulus 226, 232, 280 Wall-flower 65
Viburnun 232 Walnut 349

Copyright © 1993, Wild Rose College of Natural Healing Ltd. 387

Textbook of Modern Herbology, Second Revised Edition

Warnero 102 Woman’s herb 281

Warts Wonder-of-the-World 311
chaparral 250 World Health Organization 1, 80
cloves 132 Wormwood 213
mandrake 208 Dr. Nowell’s Liniment 126
Water Cabbage 267 parasite program 212
Water Nymph 267 Wounds
Water retention arnica salve 236
mullein 189 cayenne 125
parsley 166 echinacea 255
Water Violet 349 garlic 254
Wax Myrtle 261 goldenseal 103
Waxberry Myrtle 261 wormwood 213
Weaning Wounds, old
aloe vera 315 prickly ash 133
Weather Wrinkles
effect on herb gathering 325 cranesbill geranium 266
Weight reduction X-ray radiation
chaparral 250 aloe vera 315
Weights and Measures 338 X-rays
Westcot, Dr. Samuel Siberian ginseng 313
Blessed thistle advice 109 Xanthones 105
Wheat rust 100 Xanthopuccine 103
Wheatgrass juice Xanthoxylin 132
garlic odour mask 254 Xanthoxylum americanum 132
White Chestnut 348 Xanthoxylum clavaherculis 132
White Flower 156 Xanthoxylum fraxineum 132
White Oak 263 Xylem 42, 344
White Pond Lily 267 Yarrow 148, 149
White poplar 107 bed-wetting formula 168
White tail deer 101 peppermint 134
Whiteroot 195 pleurisy root alternate 196
Whitethorn 136 tea for Christopher sheet
WHO 1 treatment 148
Whooping cough Yellow Dock 206
B&B tincture 231 Yellow flow 194
Whorled leaves 49, 344 Yellow Lady Slipper Root 234
Wigmore, Ann Yellow river 194
wheatberry process 203 Yellow Root 102
Wild Alum Root 265 Yellow Wood 132
Wild Clover 253 Yogurts 202
Wild Geranium 265 Young, Dr.
Wild Oats 348 black cohosh introduction 231
Wild Raspberry 264 Zaricor, B.R. 112
Wild Rose 348 Zinc oxide ointment
Wild Yam deodorant 144
cramp bark formula 233 Zingibar officinale 126
pleurisy root formula 196 Zingiber sp. 164, 204, 226
wildcrafting 80 Zygote 276
Willow 65, 349
Willows 65
Wind
peppermint 135
Windroot 195
Wineglass 338
Winter Clover 282
Wolfbane 236

388 Copyright © 1993, Wild Rose College of Natural Healing Ltd.