Lab 7

Introduction to Mechanical Testing & Identifying Unknown Samples

GOAL
To become familiar with the stress-strain behavior of materials.

OBJECTIVES
After completing this lab, you should be able to:
 Explain how a tensile test is performed.
 Describe differences in mechanical characteristics among materials based on qualitative differences
in stress-strain graphs.
 Analyze the force and elongation data from a tensile test on a material in order to determine
quantitative values of mechanical properties including Young’s Modulus, Yield Strength, (Ultimate)
Tensile Strength, Ductility, Resilience, and Toughness.
 Explain the rationale for and use results from hardness testing to estimate the strength of metals.

BACKGROUND
Mechanical properties are among the most important
characteristics of a material that an engineer must Load Cell
routinely consider, and the tensile test is the primary
approach used to determine most mechanical Moving
properties. In a tensile test, a sample is elongated by a Crosshead
known amount, and the corresponding tensile load
(pulling force in the direction of elongation) is
measured. The sample is elongated at a steady,
gradual rate until it is finally broken into two pieces. Test
Specimen
Figure 1 depicts a typical load frame of a modern
tensile test apparatus. The test specimen is attached
by means of fixtures or grips (e.g., clamping jaws,
threaded nuts, etc.) at both ends—one to a stationary Fixed Support
or fixed support, and the other to a moving crosshead.
Between one of the grips and its support is a load cell,
a device which converts the force F on the sample into Figure 1. Illustration of a typical tension test load
an electronic signal that can be stored in a computer, frame. The test specimen is elongated by means of
a moving crosshead, while the corresponding force
along with the corresponding position (or change in at any elongation is measured via a load cell.
position) of the crosshead.
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For precise determination of standardized

mechanical properties, both the testing procedure
and the geometry of the test specimen should follow
an established standard such as ASTM Standard E8
for tension testing of metallic materials. (ASTM
International, formerly known as American Society
for Testing and Materials, is an organization that
Figure 2. A typical “round” (cylindrical) tensile
establishes globally accepted standard methods for test specimen with a characteristic “dogbone”
testing and manufacturing). Figure 2 illustrates one shape. One common standard specimen has
common standard geometry for the test specimen. values of: gauge length G = 2.000 in. (50.8 mm),
Note that the narrower gauge portion of the sample gauge diameter D = 0.505 in. (12.8 mm), length of
reduced cross-section A = 2.25 to 2.5 in., and
concentrates the applied stress during testing, “shoulder” radius of curvature R = 3/8 in.
ensuring that the majority of deformation occurs in
this region.

Ideally, the elongation of the sample should be measured by means of an extensometer, a device that is
affixed to the specimen at two locations that are a precise distance apart, thereby establishing the
original gauge length lo of the sample. During the tension test, the extensometer thus measures the
elongation ∆l of this gauge portion of the sample. Note that the change in position of the moving
crosshead includes not only this elongation of the specimen, but also any slight deflection or
deformation of the load frame components (e.g., load cell, fixtures, etc.) that may occur, especially
during the initial phase of the test when the force rises rapidly.

After completing the test, the force and elongation data are converted to values of stress σ and strain ε,
(technically, engineering stress and engineering strain) which depend only upon the nature of the
material and not upon the geometry of the test specimen:

F ∆l
σ= ε=
A0 l0

Note that A0 represents the cross-sectional area of the gauge portion of the sample (width multiplied by
thickness for a flat specimen, or π(D/2) 2 for a cylindrical specimen). An analysis of the stress versus strain
graph supplies an array of important mechanical properties, as indicated in Figure 3 on the following
page.

One property in particular, the yield strength σ y, warrants further discussion. Note that this property
indicates the stress at which the material transitions from recoverable, elastic deformation to
permanent, plastic deformation. The precise value of this stress can be ambiguous to determine in
practice, and so a number of standard approaches are used for different types of stress-strain behaviors.
For the majority of metals and metallic alloys, the 0.2% (i.e., 0.002) strain-offset approach is typically
used—a line with x-intercept 0.002 strain and with slope E (i.e., parallel to the linear elastic portion) is
drawn, and the stress value at which this line intersects the stress-strain curve is reported as yield
strength. For brittle materials, which include virtually all ceramics and some metals and polymers,

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fracture strength is typically reported rather than yield strength, since these materials do not undergo
significant plastic deformation. For ductile polymers, in contrast, which typically exhibit a slight drop in
stress at the onset of plastic deformation, this local maximum stress value is often reported as the yield
strength. And finally, some plain-carbon steels exhibit a yield point phenomenon where the stress value
fluctuates up and down at the onset of plastic deformation; the average of the lower threshold of these
fluctuations is typically reported as yield strength.

E, elastic modulus
σy, yield strength
TS, tensile strength
1 %EL, ductility
Toughness = total area
Resilience = dark area

Figure 3. Mechanical properties determined by stress-strain analysis of tension test data for a typical metal.

Hardness Testing While the tensile test provides a wealth of information about the mechanical
properties of a sample, it is a destructive as well as costly and time-consuming test. As a result,
engineers often use hardness testing as a non-destructive alternative that is more efficient for routine
evaluation of materials. Although there are a variety of different types of hardness tests and scales
(Brinell, Rockwell, Vickers, etc.), they all involve measuring the degree of indentation of the material
caused by a specified force and type of indentor (steel ball, diamond brale, etc.). While providing a more
limited set of information, hardness results can be correlated with tensile results, and, more
importantly, can be used to quickly evaluate the effect of various processing routines, or as a quality
control indicator.

In this lab, you will explore tensile testing by experimenting with interactive virtual simulations, and by
analyzing and evaluating stress-strain data obtained from both simulations and actual tensile tests.
Additionally, you will evaluate the utility of hardness testing by performing correlations of hardness data
with other mechanical properties for a variety of materials. After completing this virtual lab, you should
be better prepared to conduct actual tension and hardness tests required in future labs in this course.

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MATERIALS
 A computer with Microsoft Excel or an equivalent spreadsheet software application, as well as
the ability to run JAVA-based interactive computer simulations.

PROCEDURE
Work in groups of 3 to complete the following analysis.
1. For this first part of the lab, you will use the VMSE (Virtual Materials Science and Engineering)
computer simulation package that accompanies the Callister textbook. Select the Tensile Tests
option in the menu. This virtual simulator plots stress-strain data for a variety of different metals
and polymers. Explore the stress-strain behavior of each material, and use it to help you answer the
questions posed in Part 1 of the attached Report Sheet. Note that the simulator will allow you to:
 Click on a specific location of the graph to obtain precise stress and strain values.
 Use the Zoom In link to zoom in on the initial elastic portion of the graph.
 Use the Add links to add a second (or third, etc.) material to the same graph for comparison.
2. Analyze the attached stress-strain graph for an aluminum alloy in order to obtain all of the material
properties indicated in Part 2 of the Report Sheet. Note that you will need to use the graph of the
“Low Strain Region” in order to determine precise values for some of the properties.
3. For the second part of the lab, you will use another virtual tensile test simulation developed by the
UK Centre for Materials Education, and housed at The Materials Classroom website of the University
of Liverpool: http://classroom.materials.ac.uk/tensile.php
This simulator provides a slightly more realistic representation of tensile tests of normalized plain
carbon steels with varying carbon content, based on actual data that was measured and provided by
the University of Oxford Materials Outreach program. Click on Start Testing, then select a particular
steel, and press the Start button on the virtual instrument to begin the test. During the test, you can
toggle the Pause button in order to pause and resume the testing. After the test, the Graph feature
will allow you to analyze the stress-strain data with greater precision, as well as to compare multiple
steel specimens on the same graph. You should use this feature to help you answer the questions in
Part 3 of the Report Sheet.
4. Your group will be assigned an Excel file containing force and elongation data from an actual tensile
test of an “unknown” material. You should convert this data to stress and strain, and then perform a
stress-strain analysis in order to determine all relevant mechanical properties. From these
properties, you should be able to determine the identity of your unknown from a list of “possible
materials” provided by the instructor. You should present and evaluate your results according to the
guidelines in Part 4 of the Report Sheet, as well as upload your completed spreadsheet file to the
canvas.

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5. The table below provides hardness and tensile strength data for a number of materials. Note that
different hardness scales are often used for different materials, depending upon their relative
hardness. As a result, measured hardness values must often be converted to a common scale so that
they can be compared. The following Hardness Conversion Table from Gordon England provides a
fairly comprehensive correlation between different hardness scales:
http://gordonengland.co.uk/hardness/hardness_conversion_1c.htm
You should (a) convert all values to the Vickers Hardness scale (VPN HV/10), (b) create a graph of
Tensile Strength versus Vickers Hardness, and (c) answer the questions in Part 5 of the Report Sheet.
Your graph should include trendlines with equations and r 2 values for all materials together, and
each alloy type (brass, copper, steel) individually (i.e., altogether, four trendlines).

Material Hardness Tensile

BH- Strength
Alloy Designation Process HRB HRF
3000kg (MPa)
Brass C26000 OS100 58 315
Brass C26000 OS050 64 325
Brass C26000 OS025 72 350
Brass C26000 H02 70 425
Brass C26000 H04 82 525
Copper 10200 H01 70 260
Copper 10200 H02 84 300
Copper 10200 H04 90 345
Copper 10200 H08 94 380
Steel 1018 CR 71 440
Steel 1018 HR 66 400
Steel 1040 HR 149 525
Steel 1040 CR 170 585
Steel 1040 OQ 197 664
Steel 1040 WQ 217 743
Data obtained from www.matweb.com

WHAT TO TURN IN
1. Complete all five parts of the attached Report Sheet.
2. Attach your graphs for Parts 4 and 5.
3. Upload your completed spreadsheet file for Part 4 to Canvas.

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PART 1

Lab Report Sheet Name 2

Identifying Unknown Samples
Name 3
1. After closely examining the tensile test of Titanium,

a) What observable change takes place The thickness of the titanium shrinks as stress rises,
in the virtual sample as the stress and its elongation continues till it snaps
rises?
Plastic deformation occurs or ductility till is breaks in
b) What change takes place as the
its cross-sectional area.
stress begins to drop?
Aluminum and tempered steel
2. Of the five metals, (a) which two seem to
have the most qualitatively similar stress-
Tempered steel requires more stress than aluminum
strain curves (i.e., similar shapes)?
for its elongations to start, but aluminum have more
(b) How do they quantitatively differ? strain or deformation.
(Hint: plot both on the same graph.) it tends to require a huge stress in the beginning to
start its strain and drops a little, but continuous to rise
3. How does the Carbon Steel graph till it reaches its max.
qualitatively differ from the other
Cast iron graph doesn’t show any sign of ductility, it
metals? only shows brittleness as the graph moves in almost a
straight diagonal line. And its doesn’t show any drop.
4. How does the Cast Iron graph
Tempered steel and titanium, because they show a
qualitatively differ from the other
similar slope in the graph before attaining their
metals? maximums

5. Which two metals have the same elastic Tempered steel has the highest tensile strength with
modulus? (Zoom In) Why is this the value of 1656.6
expected? Carbon steel since it has the longest strain with the

6. Which of the five metals has the highest value of 0.4302

it undergoes to a ductile deformation before it
tensile strength? What is the value?
elongates and breaks after. Opposite to metal
7. Which of the five metals has the greatest behavior
ductility? What is the value?
It requires to have the max stress at the beginning to
8. After examining the tensile test of HDPE, start the deformation and then drop to start its
a) How does the behavior of the virtual elongation. It has longer strain than metals
HDPE sample visibly differ from that
of the metals? Titanium. They have the same characteristic when
reaching their maximum, the stress drops till the
sample breaks after elongation.

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b) How does the HDPE stress-strain curve qualitatively differ from all the metals?

9. Qualitatively, which metal’s stress-strain curve is most similar to Nylon? Quantitatively, how do they
compare?

10. Qualitatively, which metal’s stress-strain

Cast iron. They have similar graph of almost straight
curve is most similar to Bakelite? diagonal graph, showing that the amount of stress is
Quantitatively, how do they compare? directly proportional to the strain

11. How does the stress-strain behavior of Rubber is the only one that returns to its original form
Rubber differ from all other materials after a stress is applied, it has grater elasticity of all the
listed? material listed.

PART 2
1. Analyze the stress-strain graph on the following page for an aluminum alloy in order to obtain the properties
listed below. Clearly show on the graph how values were obtained.

Other Interesting
Major Properties Value Units Value Units
Characteristics
σ
E=
Elastic Modulus E ε MPa Elastic strain limit
(show calculation)
= 2119.9
Yield Strength σy Strain at onset of
(0.002 offset) necking

Tensile Strength TS Failure stress

Ductility %EL Elastic strain

recovery after
fracture (show
Toughness MJ/m3 calculation)

Resilience
Resilience (0.5 σy2 /E)
(actual area)

2. By how much had the diameter of the sample decreased (in mm) when the stress was 250 MPa? (Note:
Poisson’s ratio for Aluminum is 0.33)

3. What was the maximum load (kN) applied to the sample?

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4. What was the length of the sample at the onset of necking?

5. Explain why the measured stress increases up to the point of necking and then decreases afterward.

Test Specimen Geometry: Gauge Length = 50.80mm (2.000 in), Diameter = 12.8mm (0.505 in)

Tensile Test Results for Al

400

350

300

250
Stress (MPa)

200

150

100

50

0
0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10 0.12 0.14 0.16
Strain

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PART 3
1. After examining the stress-strain graph of (normalized) 0.18% carbon steel,

a) In what ways does the graph differ from those in VMSE?

b) Note that this data was measured without using an extensometer. How is this fact evident in the stress-
strain graph?

c) Explain whether it is reasonable to use the 0.002 strain offset approach to determine the yield strength of
this sample.

d) Explain whether or not a reasonable value for the elastic modulus can be determined from this graph.
(Hint: how would you know what a reasonable value is?)

e) Explain whether reasonable values for yield strength, tensile strength, and ductility can be determined?

2. After examining the stress-strain graphs for

all of the steel samples,

(a) How does the carbon content of steels

affect yield strength?

(b) How does carbon content affect

ductility?

(c) Which steel appears to have the

greatest toughness? (Note: you should
be able to determine this from a
simple visual estimation.)

PART 4
1. After analyzing the force and elongation
data of your “unknown material” provided
to you by the instructor, provide the
following mechanical properties, and

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answer the questions below. Also attach a printout of your stress-strain graphs (full range and low-strain
region) to this Report Sheet. Remember to upload the spreadsheet file to the course website.

Major Properties Value Units

Elastic Modulus E

Yield Strength σy
(0.002 offset)

Tensile Strength TS

Ductility %EL

Toughness

Resilience

Unknown Identity

2. Explain any challenges or ambiguities that you encountered in your analysis and/or in the identification of your
unknown, and any uncertainties in the property values that you reported above.

3. If a solid rectangular beam of your assigned material with dimensions 10.0cm x 20.0cm x 2.00 meters were
loaded in tension, what would be the maximum load that the beam could sustain without permanent
deformation, and how many millimeters of elongation would the beam experience under this load?

PART 5
1. After examining your correlation graph between Tensile Strength and Vickers Hardness (attach your graph to
this Report Sheet), would you say that these two properties are highly correlated when all materials are
plotted together? Explain.

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2. Is the correlation better when each alloy system is considered individually? Explain.

3. Write an equation below that would allow one to estimate the tensile strength of a steel sample from its
Vickers Hardness (use what you perceive to be reasonable significant figures in this equation):

4. Why were all of the hardness values converted to Vickers Hardness rather than to HRB?

5. Does the Rockwell HRF scale appear to be more appropriate for soft or hard metals? What about HRB? HRC?

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