Dr.

Mohammed Abdel-Hafez
Department of Electrical Engineering
 Lecture Outline
Proakis: Chapter 10, sections 10.3, 10.4 (US
Edition).
 Part 2 Design of IIR Filters
 Introduction
 10.3 Design of IIR from Analog Filters
 10.3.3
Bilinear Transformation
 10.3.4 Common Analog Filters

 10.4 Frequency Transformations

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 Introduction
 IIR filter have infinite-duration impulse responses,
hence they can be matched to analog filters, all of
which generally have infinitely long impulse
responses.
 The basic technique of IIR filter design transforms
well-known analog filters into digital filters using
complex-valued mappings.
 The advantage of this technique lies in the fact that
both analog filter design (AFD) tables and the
mappings are available extensively in the literature.

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 Introduction
 The basic technique is called the Analog/Digital
(A/D) filter transformation.
 However, the AFD tables are available only for
Lowpass filters. We also want design other
frequency-selective filters (highpass, bandpass,
bandstop, etc.)
 To do this, we need to apply frequency-band
transformations to lowpass filters. These
transformations are also complex-valued mappings,
and they are also available in the literature.

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Two approaches
Apply Freq. band Apply filter
Design analog Desired
transformation transformation
lowpass filter IIR filter
s→s s→ z

Approach 1, Used in Matlab

Apply Filter Apply Freq. band

Design analog Desired
transformation transformation
lowpass filter IIR filter
s→z z→ z

Approach 2, Analytical Study

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IIR Filter Design Steps (Our Approach)
1) Design analog lowpass filter.
2) Study and apply filter transformations to
obtain digital lowpass filter.
3) Study and apply frequency-band
transformations to obtain other digital filters
from digital lowpass filter.

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 The main problem
 We have no control over the phase
characteristics of the IIR filter.
 Hence IIR filter designs will be treated as
magnitude-only designs.

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 Analog-to-digital Filter Transformations
 We shall discuss different approaches to the design
of analog filters in the next section But now shall
study the transformation from Analog to Digital filters.
 These transformations are derived by preserving
different aspects of analog and digital filters.
 Impulse invariance transformation
 Preserve the shape of the impulse response from A to D filter

 Finite difference approximation technique

 Convert a differential eq. representation into a corresponding
difference eq.
 Step invariance
 Preserve the shape of the step response

 Bilinear transformation ✓
 Preserve the system function representation from A to D domain

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 Analog-to-digital Filter Transformations

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 CT to DT Transformation

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 10.3.3 Bilinear Transformation
 This mapping is the best transformation method.
2 1 − z −1 1 + sT / 2
s= −1
z=
T 1+ z 1 − sT / 2
T T
sz + s − z + 1 = 0 Linear fractional transformation
2 2

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 Bilinear Transformation

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 Bilinear Transformation

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 Observations
 𝜎 < 0 → |𝑧| < 1, 𝜎 = 0 → |𝑧| = 1, 𝜎 > 0 → |𝑧| > 1.
 The entire left half-plane maps into the inside of the
UC. This is a stable transformation.
 The imaginary axis maps onto the UC in a one-to-
one fashion. Hence there is no aliasing in the
frequency domain.
• Relation of ω to Ω is nonlinear
−1 Ω𝑇 2 𝜔
𝜔= 2tan ↔ Ω= tan
2 𝑇 2

Matlan Function [b,a] = bilinear(c,d,Fs)

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 Bilinear Transformation

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Given the digital filter specifications 𝑤𝑝 , 𝑤𝑠 , 𝑅𝑝 and
𝐴𝑠 , we want to determine 𝐻(𝑧).
The design steps in this procedure are the following:
1. Choose a value for T. this is arbitrary, and we may set T = 1.
2. Prewarp the cutoff frequencies 𝑤𝑝 and 𝑤𝑠 ; that is calculate
2 𝜔
Ω𝑝 and Ω𝑠 using Ω = tan :
𝑇 2
2 𝑤𝑝 2 𝑤𝑠
Ω𝑝 = tan , Ω𝑠 = tan
𝑇 2 𝑇 2

3. Design an analog filter 𝐻𝑎 (𝑠) to meet the specifications.

 2 1 − z −1 
4. Finally set H ( z ) = H a  
−1 
 T 1+ z 

And simplify to obtain 𝐻(𝑧) as a rational function in z-1

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 Frequency Warping

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 Design Procedure

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hafez 21 11/30/2020
 Example

𝜋
2 𝜔 2 1
Ω = tan → 4 = tan 2 → 𝑇 =
𝑇 2 𝑇 2 2

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 Example

In this example the parameter T was selected to map the resonant

frequency of the analog filter into the desired resonant frequency of the
digital filter.

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 Example

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 Example
2 1 − z −1
s=
T 1 + z −1

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 10.3.4 Common Analog Filters
 Analog filter specifications and the properties
of the magnitude-squared response used in
specifying analog filters.
 Characteristics of three widely used analog
filters
 Butterworth, Chebyshev, and Elliptic filter
 Transformation to convert these prototype
analog filters into different frequency-
selective digital filter

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 Some Preliminaries
 Relative linear scale
 The lowpass filter specifications on the magnitude-
squared response are given by
1
2
≤ 𝐻𝑎 𝑗Ω ≤ 1 , |Ω| ≤ Ω𝑝
1+𝜀
1
0 ≤ 𝐻𝑎 𝑗Ω ≤ 2 , Ω𝑠 ≤ |Ω|
𝐴

Where epsilon is a passband ripple parameter, Ω𝑝 is the

passband cutoff frequency in rad/sec, 𝐴 is a stopband
attenuation parameter, and Ω𝑠 is the stopband cutoff in rad/sec.

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 1
| H a ( j) | =
2
at  =  p
1+  2

1
| H a ( j) | = 2
2
at  =  s
A

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 The relations among epsilon, 𝐴, 𝑅𝑝 , As, 𝛿1 and 𝛿2
1
R p = −10 log10   = 10 −1
R p / 10

1+  2

1
As = −10 log10 2  A = 10 As / 20

A
1 − 1 1 2 1
=  =
1 + 1 1+  2
1 − 1
2 1 1 + 1
=  A=
1 + 1 A 2
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 Properties of |𝐻𝑎(𝑗Ω)| 2
Analog filter specifications, which are given in terms of the magnitude-
squared response, contain no phase information. Now to evaluate the s-
domain system function Ha(s), consider

𝐻𝑎 (𝑗Ω) = 𝐻𝑎 (𝑠)|𝑠=𝑗Ω
|𝐻𝑎 (𝑗Ω)|2 = 𝐻𝑎 (𝑗Ω)𝐻𝑎∗ (𝑗Ω) = 𝐻𝑎 (𝑗Ω)𝐻𝑎 (−𝑗Ω) = 𝐻𝑎 (𝑠)𝐻𝑎 (−𝑠)|𝑠=𝑗Ω
𝑜𝑟, 𝐻𝑎 (𝑠)𝐻𝑎 (−𝑠) = |𝐻𝑎 (𝑗Ω)|2 |Ω=𝑠/𝑗

Therefore the poles and zeros of the magnitude-squared function are

distributed in a mirror-image symmetry with respect to the 𝑗Ω axis.
Also for real filters, poles and zeros occur in complex conjugate pairs (or
mirror-image symmetry with respect to the real axis).
From this pattern we can construct 𝐻𝑎 (𝑠), which is the system function of
our analog filter.

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 Properties of |𝐻𝑎 (𝑗Ω)| 2

 We want 𝐻𝑎 (𝑠) to represents a causal and stable

filter. Then all poles of 𝐻𝑎 (𝑠) must lay within the left
half-plane. Thus we assign all left-half poles of
𝐻𝑎 𝑠 𝐻𝑎 (−𝑠) to 𝐻𝑎 (𝑠).
 We will choose the zeros of 𝐻𝑎 𝑠 𝐻𝑎 (−𝑠) laying
inside or on the 𝑗Ω axis as the zeros of 𝐻𝑎 (𝑠).
 The resulting filter is then called a minimum-phase
filter.

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Characteristics of Prototype Analog Filters
 IIR filter design techniques rely on existing analog
filters to obtain digital filters. We designate these
analog filters as prototype filters.
 Three prototypes are widely used in practice
 Butterworth lowpass
 Chebyshev lowpass (Type I and II)
 Elliptic lowpass

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 Butterworth Lowpass Filter
 This filter is characterized by the property that its
magnitude response is flat in both passband and
stopband.
1 1
| H a () | =
2
2N
= 2N
   
1 +   1+  
2 
 c   
 p
The magnitude-squared response of an N-order lowpass
filter
Ω𝑐 is the cutoff frequency in rad/sec.
Ω𝑝 is the pass band edge frequency in rad/sec.

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Butterworth Lowpass Filter

1
| H a () | =
2
2N

1 +  
 c 

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 Properties of Butterworth Filter
 Magnitude Response
 |𝐻𝑎 (0)|2 = 1, |𝐻𝑎 (Ω𝑐 ) |2 = 0.5, for all 𝑁 (3dB attenuation
at Ωc).
 |𝐻𝑎 (Ω)|2 monotonically decrease for Ω
 Approaches to ideal filter when 𝑁 → ∞.
To determine the system function 𝐻𝑎 (𝑠)
1 𝐻𝑎 (𝑠)𝐻𝑎 (−𝑠) = |𝐻𝑎 (𝑗Ω)|2 |Ω=𝑠/𝑗
𝐻𝑎 (𝑠)𝐻𝑎 (−𝑠) = 𝑁
−𝑠 2
1+
Ω𝑐 2
−𝑠 2
2 = (−1)1/𝑁 = 𝑒 𝑗(2𝑘+1)𝜋/𝑁 , ℎ𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑎𝑟𝑒 :
Ω𝑐
𝑝𝑘 = 𝑠𝑘 = Ω𝑐 𝑒 𝑗𝜋/2 𝑒 𝑗(2𝑘+1)𝜋/2𝑁 , 𝑘 = 0,1, ⋯ , 𝑁 − 1

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 Pole positions for Butterworth filters.

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 Properties of Butterworth Filter
 We can find the filter order by meeting an attenuation 𝛿2 at specified
frequency Ω𝑠 . Thus , at Ω = Ω𝑠

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 Example

40𝑑𝐵 = 10 log10 (𝛿22 )

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 Poles of |Ha(Ω)|2 Ω=s/j =Ha(s) Ha(-s)
 Equally distributed on a circle of radius Ω𝑐 with angular
spacing of 𝜋/𝑁 radians
𝑗2𝜋k
 For N odd, 𝑝𝑘 = Ω𝑐 𝑒 𝑁

𝜋 𝑘𝜋
𝑗 +
 For N even, 𝑝𝑘 = Ω𝑐 𝑒 2𝑁 𝑁
 Symmetry respect to the imaginary axis.
 A pole never falls on the imaginary axis, and falls on the real
axis only if N is odd
 A stable and causal filter 𝐻𝑎(𝑠) can now be specified by
selecting poles in the left half-plane
c
N
H a ( s) = N
 ( s − pk )
LHP poles

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 Poles of |Ha(Ω)|2 Ω=s/j =Ha(s) Ha(-s)

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 Example

𝜋 𝑘𝜋
𝑗 2𝑁+ 𝑁
𝑝𝑘 = Ω𝑐 𝑒

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 Design Equations
The analog lowpass filter is specified by the parameters, Ω𝑝 ,
𝑅𝑝 , Ω𝑠 , and 𝐴𝑠 . Therefore the essence of the design in the
case of Butterworth filter is to obtain the order 𝑁 and the
cutoff frequency Ω𝑐 .

1 at  =  p , − 10 log10 | H a () |2 = R p
| H a () |2 = 2N
 at  =  s , − 10 log10 | H a () |2 = As
1 +  
 c 

log10 [ (10𝑅𝑝/10 − 1)/(10𝐴𝑠 /10 − 1)]

𝑁=
2 log10 ( Ω𝑝 /Ω𝑠 )
Ω𝑝 Ω𝑠
Ω𝑐 = , 𝑜𝑟 Ω𝑐 = 2𝑁
2𝑁
𝑅𝑝 /10 (10 𝐴𝑠 /10 − 1)
(10 − 1)

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 Example

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 Chebyshev Lowpass Filter
 Chebyshev-I filters
 Have equiripple response in the passband
 Chebyshev-II filters
 Have equiripple response in stopband
 Butterworth filters
 Have monotonic response in both bands
 We note that by choosing a filter that has an equripple rather
than a monotonic behavior, we can obtain a low-order filter.
 Therefore Chebyshev filters provide lower order than
Buttworth filters for the same specifications.

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 The magnitude-squared response
of Chebyshev-I filter
1 N is the order of the filter,
|𝐻𝑎 (𝑗Ω)|2 =
Ω
1 + 𝜀 2 𝑇𝑁2 Epsilon is the passband ripple factor
Ω𝑐

cos( 𝑁 cos −1 ( 𝑥)), |𝑥| ≤ 1

𝑇𝑁 (𝑥) = ൝ Nth-order Chebyshev polynomial
cosh( 𝑁 cosh−1 ( 𝑥)), 𝑥 > 1
(a) For 0 < 𝑥 < 1, 𝑇𝑁 (𝑥) oscillates between –1 and 1, and
(b) For 1 < 𝑥 < ∞, 𝑇𝑁 (𝑥) increases monotonically to infinity (two possible shapes)

The Chebyshev polynomials can be generated by the recursive

equation

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Observations

Type I Chebyshev filter characteristic.

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Observations

1 𝑁 𝑂𝑑𝑑
• At x=0 (or Ω=0); 𝐻𝑎 0 2 = ൝ 1
𝑁 𝐸𝑣𝑒𝑛
1+𝜖2

2 1
• At x=1 (or Ω = Ω𝑐 ); 𝐻𝑎 1 = 1+𝜖2 for all N.

• For 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 1 (or 0 ≤ Ω ≤ Ω𝑐 )
1
|𝐻𝑎 (𝑥)|2 oscillates between 1 and 1+𝜖2

• For 𝑥 > 1 (or Ω > Ω𝑐 ), |𝐻𝑎 (𝑥)|2 decreases monotonically to 0.

1
• At 𝑥 = Ω𝑟 , 𝐻𝑎 𝑥 2 = 𝐴2

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Causal and stable 𝐻𝑎 (𝑠)
To determine a causal and stable 𝐻𝑎 (𝑠), we must find
the poles of 𝐻𝑎 𝑠 𝐻𝑎 (−𝑠) and select the left half-plane
poles for 𝐻𝑎 (𝑠).
The poles of 𝐻𝑎 𝑠 𝐻𝑎 (−𝑠) are obtained by finding the
roots of
 s 
1 +  T 
2 2

 j c 
N

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Causal and stable Ha(s)
It can be shown that if pk =  k + j k , k = 0,1,, N − 1
are the (left half-plane) roots of the above polynomial, then
pk =  k + j k , k = 0,1, , N − 1
  (2k + 1) 
 k = (a c ) cos +
2 2 N 
  (2k + 1) 
 k = (b c ) sin  +
2 2 N 
1
( ) 1
(
a = N  − N 1/  , b = N  + N 1/  ,
2 2
)
1 1
 = + 1+ 2
 
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The poles of Ha(s)Ha(-s)
The poles fall on an ellipse with
major axis b Ωc and minor axis a Ωc .
Now the system function is

K
H a (s) =
 ( s − pk )
k

Left half-plane
K is a normalizing factor

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Design Equations
Given Ωp, Ωs, Rp and As, three parameters are required
to determine a Chebyshev-I filter
1
𝜀= 100.1𝑅𝑝 − 1, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐴 = 10 𝐴𝑠 /20 𝛿 =1−
1 + 𝜀2
Ω𝑠 1
Ω𝑐 = Ω𝑝 , 𝑎𝑛𝑑 Ω𝑟 = 𝛿2 =
Ω𝑐 1 + 𝛿2
𝑔 = (𝐴2 − 1)/𝜀 2
log10 𝑔 + 𝑔2 − 1 cosh−1 ( 𝛿/𝜀)
𝑁= =
log10 Ω𝑟 + Ω2𝑟 − 1 cosh−1 ( Ω𝑠 /Ω𝑝 )

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 Example

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 Example

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 Chebyshev-II filter
• Related to the Chebyshev-I filter through a simple transformation.
• It has a monotone passband and an equiripple stopband, which
implies that this filter has both poles and zeros in the s-plane.
• Therefore the group delay characteristics are better (and the phase
response more linear) in the passband than the Chebyshev-I
prototype.

−1
Ω Ω
• Replace 𝜖 2 𝑇𝑁2 by its reciprocal 𝜖 2 𝑇𝑁2 .
Ω𝑐 Ω𝑐

Ω Ωc
• Replace the argument 𝑥 = by its reciprocals .
Ω𝑐 Ω
1 1
| H a ( j ) | 2 = |𝐻𝑎 (𝑗Ω)|2 = −1
2 2  
1 +  TN   1+ 𝜀 2 𝑇𝑁2 Ω𝑐 /Ω
 c 
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 Chebyshev-II filter
 One approach to design a Chebyshev-II filter is to
design the corresponding Chebyshev-I first then
apply the transformation.

Type II Chebyshev filters.

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 Elliptic Lowpass Filters
• These filters exhibit equiripple behavior in the passband as well as the
stopband. They are similar in magnitude response characteristics to the
FIR equiripple filters.
• Therefore elliptic filters are optimum filters in that they achieve the
minimum order N for the given specifications
• These filters, for obvious reasons, are very difficult to analyze and
therefore, to design.
• It is not possible to design them using simple tools, and often programs
or tables are needed to design them.

Magnitude-squared
frequency characteristics
of elliptic filters.

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 The magnitude-squared response
1
| H a ( j) | =
2 N: the order; epsilon: passbang ripple;

1 +  U 
2 2
 UN() is the Nth order Jacobian elliptic function
 c 
N

Typical responses for odd and even N are shown

Computation of filter order N:

( )
K (k ) K 1 − k12    /2 d
K (k ) K ( 1 − k )
N= ,k = , k1 = , K ( x) = 0
p

1
2  s A −1
2
1 − x 2 sin 2 

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 Phase Responses of Prototype Filters
 Elliptic filter provide optimal performance in the magnitude-
squared response but have highly nonlinear phase
response in the passband (which is undesirable in many
applications).
 Even though we decided not to worry about phase
response in our design, phase is still an important issue in
the overall system.
 At other end of the performance scale are the Buttworth
filters, which have maximally flat magnitude response and
require a higher-order N (more poles) to achieve the same
stopband specification. However, they exhibit a fairly linear
phase response in their passband.

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 Phase Responses of Prototype Filters
 The Chebyshev filters have phase characteristics
that lay somewhere in between.
 Therefore in practical applications we do consider
Butterworth as well as Chebyshev filters, in addition
to elliptic filters.
 The choice depends on both the filter order (which
influences processing speed and implementation
complexity) and the phase characteristics (which
control the distortion).

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 Bilinear Transform Example

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 Bilinear Transform Example

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 Bilinear Transform Example

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Frequency Transformation in Analog Domain
 If we wish to design a highpass or a bandpass or a
bandstop filter,
 it is a simple matter to take a low pass prototype
filter (Butterworth, Chebyshev, elliptic, Bessel) and
perform a frequency transformation.
 Approach 1: Convert the analog filter into a
corresponding digital filter by a mapping of the s-
plane into the z-plane.
 Approach 2: convert the analog lowpass filter into
a lowpass digital filter and then to transform the
lowpass digital filter into the desired digital filter by a
digital transformation.
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Frequency Transformation in Analog Domain

Lowpass to Lowpass
 Suppose that we have a lowpass filter with passband
edge frequency Ω𝑝 and we wish to convert it to
another low pass filter with passband edge frequency
Ω′𝑝 . The transformation that accomplishes this is

Prototype filter

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Frequency Transformation in Analog Domain

Lowpass to Highpass
 If we wish to convert a low pass filter into a
highpass filter with passband edge
frequency, the desired transformation is

 The system function o f the highpass filter is

Prototype filter

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Frequency Transformation in Analog Domain
 Lowpass to Bandpass
 The transformation for converting a low pass analog filter
with passband edge frequency Ω𝑝 into a band filter, having a
lower band edge frequency Ω𝑙 and an upper band edge
frequency Ω𝑢 , can be accomplished by and then performing
the transformation

Prototype filter
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Frequency Transformation in Analog Domain
 Lowpass to Bandstop
 The transformation for converting a low pass analog filter
with passband edge frequency Ω𝑝 into a bandstop filter,we
use the transformation

Prototype filter

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Summary:
Frequency Transformation in Analog Domain

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 Example

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 Frequency Transformation in Digital Domain
 As in the analog domain, frequency transformations
can be performed on a digital low pass filter to
convert it to either a bandpass, bandstop, or
highpass filter.
 The transformation involves replacing the variable
𝑧 −1 by a rational function 𝑔(𝑧 −1 ), which must satisfy
the following properties:
1) The mapping z −1 → 𝑔 𝑧 −1 must map points
inside the unit circle in the z-plane into itself.
2) The unit circle must also be mapped into itself.

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Frequency
Transformation
in Digital
Domain

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 Example

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 Example

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 Practice Problems)
Proakis (Chapter 10) US Edition.
10.10 to 10.23

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 Final Exam
 Chapter 3
 Chapter 4
 Chapter 5
 Chapter 7
 Basic implementation of FIR and IIR filters (Chapter 2 section 2.5)
 Chapter 10, parts 1 and 2

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