Business Management

Study Manuals

Diploma in
Business Management

FINANCIAL
ACCOUNTING

The Association of Business Executives

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Diploma in Business Management

FINANCIAL ACCOUNTING

Contents

Unit Title Page

1 The Nature and Purpose of Accounting 1

The Scope of Accounting 3
Users of Accounting Information 4
Rules of Accounting (Accounting Standards) 6
Accounting Periods 14
The Main Characteristics of Useful Information 14
The Twelve Traditional Accounting Concepts 17
Important Accounting Terms 20
Different Types of Business Entity 22
Auditing in Business 25

2 Business Funding 31
Capital of an Enterprise 33
Dividends 40
Debentures 41
Types and Sources of Finance 44
Management of Working Capital 48

3 Final Accounts and Balance Sheet 53

55
The Trial Balance 55
Trading Account 57
Manufacturing Account 59
Profit and Loss Account 62
Allocation or Appropriation of Net Profit 67
The Nature of a Balance Sheet 69
Assets and Liabilities in the Balance Sheet 71
Distinction between Capital and Revenue 75
Preparation of Balance Sheet 75

4 Presentation of Financial Statements 81

Introduction 83
The UK Companies Act 1985 and Accounting Requirements 83
The Balance Sheet 87
The Income Statement 93
IAS 1: Statement of Changes in Equity 97
Summary of Statements Required by IAS 1 99
Narrative Statements Required in Published Financial Statements 99
Appendix 1: Example of Statement of Accounting Policies 102
Appendix 2: Example of Independent Auditors' Report 110
Appendix 3: Example of Directors' Report 111
Unit Title Page

5 Profit and Cash Flow 115

Availability of Profits for Distribution 116
Cash Flow Statements 119
Funds Flow Statements 130

6 Valuation of Non-Current Assets and Inventories 135

Valuation of Inventories 137
Valuation of Long-Term Contracts 143
The Importance of Inventory Valuation 146
Depreciation 149
Methods of Providing for Depreciation 153
Borrowing Costs and IAS 23 154
Leased Assets and IAS 17 154
IAS 36: Impairment of Assets 156
IAS 40: Investment Properties 157

7 Further Accounting Standards and Concepts 165

Introduction 167
IAS 33: Earnings Per Share 167
IAS 20: Accounting for Government Grants 168
IAS 12: Income Taxes 169
Accounting for Research and Development Expenditure 170
IAS 10: Events after the Balance Sheet Date 171
IAS 37: Provisions, Contingent Liabilities and Contingent Assets 173
IAS 38: Intangible Assets 176
IAS 18: Revenue 178
IAS 24: Related Party Transactions 179
Accounting for Inflation 180

8 Assessing Financial Performance 189

Interpretation of Accounts 191
Ratio Analysis 193
Profitability Ratios 196
Liquidity Ratios 198
Efficiency Ratios 200
Capital Structure Ratios 202
Investment Ratios 203
Limitations of Accounting Ratios 205
Worked Examples 207
Issues in Interpretation 214
Unit Title Page

9 Sources and Costs of Finance 225

Introduction 227
Finance and the Smaller Business 227
Finance and the Developing Business 230
Finance for the Major Company 233
The London Money Market 239
The Cost of Finance 240
Cost of Equity 241
Cost of Preference Shares 243
Cost of Debt Capital 243
Weighted Average Cost of Capital (WACC) 244
Cost of Internally Generated Funds 245
Management of Factors Affecting Share Prices 247
Factors Determining Capital Structure 249
Advantages and Disadvantages of the Principal Financial Alternatives 253

10 Financial Reconstruction 257

Introduction 258
Redemption of Shares 258
Accounting Treatment 259
Example of Redemption of Preference Shares 259
Example of Redemption of Ordinary Shares 262
Redemption of Debentures 265

11 Group Accounts 1: Regulatory and Accounting Framework 269

Introduction 270
IAS 27: Consolidated and Separate Financial Statements 270
IFRS 3: Business Combinations 272
IAS 28: Investments in Associates 274
IFRS 3: Fair Values in Acquisition Accounting 276
Alternative Methods of Accounting for Group Companies 277
Merger Accounting 280

12 Group Accounts 2: The Consolidated Accounts 283

Introduction 284
The Consolidated Balance Sheet 284
The Consolidated Income Statement 298
Group Accounts – Example 306

13 Financial Accounting Examination – The Compulsory Question 323

The Financial Accounting Examination 324
December 2007 Compulsory Question 325
Specimen Examination Compulsory Question 330
 1

Study Unit 1
The Nature and Purpose of Accounting

Contents Page

A. The Scope of Accounting 3

The Purpose of Accounting 3
Financial Accounting and Management Accounting 3
Money as the Common Denominator 3
The Business Entity 4

B. Users of Accounting Information 4

Main Categories of Users 4
Interests of Principal Users 5

C. Rules of Accounting (Accounting Standards) 6

Development of UK Accounting Standards 6
International Accounting Standards 8
Statements of Standard Accounting Practice 9

D. Accounting Periods 14

E. The Main Characteristics of Useful Information 14

Underlying Assumptions 15
Qualitative Characteristics of Financial Statements 16

F. The Twelve Traditional Accounting Concepts 17

Prudence 17
Going Concern 18
Consistency 18
Money Measurement 18
Duality 18
Matching 19
Cost 19
Materiality 19
Objectivity 19
Realisation 19

(Continued over)

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2 The Nature and Purpose of Accounting

Business Entity Concept 19

Separate Valuation 20
IAS 1: Presentation of Financial Statements 20

G. Important Accounting Terms 20

The Accounting Equation or Basic Formula 20
Assets and Liabilities 21
Capital v. Revenue Expenditure 22

H. Different Types of Business Entity 22

The Sole Trader 22
Partnerships 23
Limited Companies in the UK 23
Accounting Differences Between Companies and Unincorporated Businesses 24
Principle of Limited Liability 24
Promoters and Legal Documents 24

I. Auditing in Business 25
What is an Audit? 25
Types of Audit 25
UK Law and External Audit 26
External Audit Report 27
External Audit Process 28
Expectations Gap 28

Answers to Questions for Practice 30

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 The Nature and Purpose of Accounting 3

A. THE SCOPE OF ACCOUNTING

The Purpose of Accounting
A business proprietor normally runs a business to make money. He or she needs
information to know whether the business is doing well. The following questions might be
asked by the owner of a business:
 How much profit or loss has the business made?
 How much money do I owe?
 Will I have sufficient funds to meet my commitments?
The purpose of conventional business accounting is to provide the answers to such
questions by presenting a summary of the transactions of the business in a standard form.

Financial Accounting and Management Accounting

Accounting may be split into Financial Accounting and Management Accounting.
(a) Financial Accounting
Financial accounting comprises two stages:
 book-keeping, which is the recording of day-to-day business transactions; and
 preparation of accounts, which is the preparation of statements from the book-
keeping records; these statements summarise the performance of the business –
usually over the period of one year.
(b) Management Accounting
Management accounting is defined by the Chartered Institute of Management
Accountants (CIMA) as follows:
"The application of professional knowledge and skill in the preparation and
presentation of accounting information in such a way as to assist
management in the formulation of policies and in the planning and control
of the operations of the undertaking".
Management accounting, therefore, seeks to provide information which will be used for
decision-making purposes (e.g. pricing, investment), for planning and control.

Money as the Common Denominator

Accounting is concerned with money measurement – it is only concerned with information
which can be given a monetary value. We put money values on items such as land,
machinery and stock, and this is necessary for comparison purposes. For example, it is not
very helpful to say: "Last year we had four machines and 60 items of stock, and this year we
have five machines and 45 items of stock.". It is the money values which are useful to us.
There are, though, limitations to the use of money as the common denominator.
(a) Human Asset and Social Responsibility Accounting
We have seen that accounting includes financial accounting and management
accounting. Both of these make use of money measurement. However, we may want
further information about a business:
 Are industrial relations good or bad?
 Is staff morale high?
 Is the management team effective?

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4 The Nature and Purpose of Accounting

 What is the employment policy?

 Is there a responsible ecology policy?
These questions will not be answered by conventional business accounting in money
terms but by "human asset accounting" and "social responsibility accounting". These
subjects have not yet been fully developed and are outside the scope of your syllabus.
(b) Devaluation
The value of money does not remain constant, and there is normally some degree of
inflation in the economy. We will look at the steps that have been taken to attempt to
adjust accounting statements to the changing value of money later in the course.

The Business Entity

The business as accounting entity refers to the separate identities of the business and its
owners.
 The Sole Trader
There must always be a clear distinction between the owner of the business and the
business itself. For example, if Mr X owns a biscuit factory, we are concerned with
recording the transactions of the factory. We are not concerned with what Mr X
spends on food and clothes. If Mrs Y, works at home, setting aside a room in her
house, an apportionment may have to be made.
 Partnership
Similarly, the partners in a business must keep the transactions of the business
separate from their own personal affairs.
 Companies
In UK law, a company has a distinct "legal personality". This means that a company
may sue or be sued in its own right. The affairs of the shareholders must be
distinguished from the business of the company. The proprietor of a limited company
is therefore distinct from the company itself.
We shall return to the issue of business entities later in the unit.

B. USERS OF ACCOUNTING INFORMATION

We need to prepare accounts in order to "provide a statement that will meet the needs of the
user, subject to the requirements of statute and case law and the accounting bodies, and
aided by the experience of the reception of past reports".
So if we prepare accounts to meet the needs of the user, who is the user?

Main Categories of Users

The main users of financial accounts are:
 Equity investors (shareholders, proprietors, buyers)
 Loan creditors (banks and other lenders)
 Employees
 Analysts/advisers
 Business contacts (creditors and debtors, competitors)
 The government (The Inland Revenue)

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 The Nature and Purpose of Accounting 5

 The public
 Management (board of directors)
Users can learn a lot about the running of a business entity from the examination of its
accounts, but each category of user will have its own special perspective. We need to look
at some of these in more detail.

Interests of Principal Users

What exactly do each of the users want from the accounts?
 Proprietor
The perspective of the business proprietor is explained above (but see below for the
interests of shareholders).
 Inland Revenue
The Inland Revenue will use the accounts to determine the liability of the business for
taxation.
 Banks and other Lending Institutes
These require to know if the business is likely to be able to repay loans and to pay the
interest charged. But often the final accounts of a business do not tell the lender what
he or she wishes to know. They may be several months old and so not show the up-
to-date position. Under these circumstances, the lender will ask for cash flow
forecasts to show what is likely to happen in the business. This illustrates why
accounting techniques have to be flexible and adaptable to meet users' needs.
 Creditors and Debtors
These will often keep a close eye on the financial information provided by companies
with which they have direct contact through buying and selling, to ensure that their own
businesses will not be adversely affected by the financial failure of another. An
indicator of trouble in this area is often information withheld at the proper time, though
required by law. Usually, the longer the silence, the worse the problem becomes.
 Competitors
Competitors will compare their own results with those of other businesses. A business
would not wish to disclose information which would be harmful to its own business:
equally, it would not wish to hide anything which would put it above its competitors.
 Board of Directors
The board of directors will want up-to-date, in-depth information so that it can draw up
plans for the long term, the medium term and the short term, and compare results with
its past decisions and forecasts. The board's information will be much more detailed
than that which is published.
 Shareholders
Shareholders have invested money in the business and as such are the owners of the
business. Normally, the business will be run by a team of managers and the
shareholders require the managers to account for their "stewardship" of the business,
i.e. the use they have made of the shareholders' funds.
 Employees
Employees of the business look for, among other things, security of employment.

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6 The Nature and Purpose of Accounting

 Prospective Buyer
A prospective buyer of a business will want to see such information as will satisfy him
or her that the asking price is a good investment.

C. RULES OF ACCOUNTING (ACCOUNTING STANDARDS)

As different businesses use different methods of recording transactions, the result might be
that financial accounts for different businesses would be very different in form and content.
However, various standards for the preparation of accounts have been developed over the
years in order that users can be assured that the information they show can be relied on.
We shall be looking at the layout of financial accounts later on in the course, but here we are
concerned with general underlying rules.
With regard to UK companies, various rules have been incorporated into legislation (through
the Companies Acts). UK Companies whose shares are listed on the Stock Exchange are
also subject to Stock Exchange rules. In addition, there are also "Statements of Standard
Accounting Practice" (SSAPs) and Financial Reporting Statements (FRSs) which are issued
by the main UK professional accounting bodies through the Accounting Standards Board
(ASB) which must be complied with.
There are also rules and regulations for the preparation of financial accounts in other
countries of the world, and an international regulatory framework is gaining in importance.
Global investment in business is becoming the norm in the 21st century and investors now
require comparable information between business entities from different countries of the
world. International regulation first began in 1973 with the establishment of the International
Accounting Standards Committee

Development of UK Accounting Standards

(a) Historical Development
In 1942, the Institute of Chartered Accountants in England and Wales began to make
recommendations about accounting practices, and over time issued a series of 29
Recommendations, in order to codify the best practice to be used in particular
circumstances. Unfortunately, these recommendations did not reduce the diversity of
accounting methods.
 The Accounting Standards Committee
In the late 1960s, there was a lot of public criticism of financial reporting methods
and the accounting profession responded to this by establishing the Accounting
Standards Committee (ASC) in 1970. The ASC comprised representatives of all
the six major accounting bodies, i.e. the Chartered Accountants of England and
Wales, of Scotland, and of Ireland, the Certified Accountants, the Cost and
Management Accountants, and the Chartered Institute of Public Finance and
Accountancy.
The Committee was set up with the object of developing definitive standards for
financial reporting.
A statement of intent produced in the 1970s identified the following objectives:
– To narrow the areas of difference in accounting practice
– To ensure disclosure of information on departures from definitive standards
– To provide a wide exposure for new accounting standards
– To maintain a continuing programme for improving accounting standards.

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 The Nature and Purpose of Accounting 7

There are various accounting conventions (which we'll look at later) that lay down
certain "ground rules" for accounting. However, they do still permit a variety of
alternative practices to coexist. The lack of uniformity of practices made it
difficult for users of financial reports to compare the results of different
companies. There was therefore a need for standards of accounting practice, to
try to increase the comparability of company accounts.
 Statements of Standard Accounting Practice (SSAP)
The procedure for their establishment was for the ASC to produce an exposure
draft on a specific topic – e.g. accounting for stocks and depreciation – for
comment by accountants and other users of accounting information. A formal
statement was then drawn up, taking account of comments received, and issued
as a Statement of Standard Accounting Practice (SSAP). Once a statement
had been adopted by the accountancy profession, any material departures by a
company from the standard practice had to be disclosed in notes to the Annual
Financial Accounts.
These standards do not have the force of law to back them up, although all
members of the accounting profession are required by their Code of Ethics to
abide by them.
 The Dearing Report
Although the ASC had much success during its period of operation and issued 25
SSAPs as well as a number of exposure drafts (EDs), Statements of Intent (SOI),
and Statements of Recommended Practice (SORP), there were many serious
criticisms of its work, leading to its eventual demise.
In July 1987, the Consultative Committee of Accountancy Bodies (CCAB) set up
a review of the standard-setting process under the chairmanship of Sir Ron
Dearing. The Dearing Report subsequently made a number of very important
recommendations. The government accepted all but one of them and in August
1990 a new Standard Setting Structure was set up.
(b) The Accounting Standards Board
The following structure (Figure 1.1) was recommended by the Dearing Report, with the
Financial Reporting Council (FRC) acting as the policy-making body for accounting
standard-setting.

The Financial
Reporting Council
(FRC)

The Accounting
The Review
Standards Board
Panel
(ASB)

The Urgent Issues

Task Force (UITF)

Figure 1.1: Standard Setting Structure

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8 The Nature and Purpose of Accounting

This gave rise to a slightly different regime for the establishment of standards and
these are now embodied in Financial Reporting Standards (FRS).
 Financial Reporting Standards (FRS)
The ASB is more independent than the ASC was and can issue standards known
as Financial Reporting Standards (FRS). The ASB accepted the SSAPs then in
force and these remain effective until replaced by an FRS. The ASB develops its
own exposure drafts along similar lines to the ASC; these are known as FREDs
(Financial Reporting Exposure Drafts).
 Statements of Recommended Practice (SORP)
Although the ASB believed that Statements of Recommended Practice (SORPs)
had a role to play, it did not adopt the SORPs already issued. Not wishing to be
diverted from its central task of developing accounting standards, the Board has
left the development of SORPS to bodies recognised by the Board.
The SORPs issued by the ASC from 1986 differed from SSAPs in that SSAPs
had to be followed unless there were substantive reasons to prove otherwise,
and non-compliance had to be clearly stated in the notes to the final accounts. A
SORP simply sets out best practice on a particular topic for which a SSAP was
not appropriate. However, the later SORPs are mandatory and cover a topic of
limited application to a specific industry (e.g. local authorities, charities, housing
associations). These SORPS do not deviate from the basic principles of the
various SSAPs and FRSs currently in issue.
 Urgent Issues Task Force (UITF)
This is an offshoot of the ASB which tackles urgent matters not covered by
existing standards or those which, if covered, were causing diversity of
interpretation. In these circumstances, the UITF issues a "Consensus
Pronouncement" in order to detect whether or not accounts give a true and fair
view.
 Financial Reporting Review Panel
This examines contentious departures from accounting standards by large
companies. The panel has the power to apply to the court for an order requiring
a company's directors to revise their accounts.

International Accounting Standards

(a) Historical Development
The International Standards Committee (IASC), established in 1973, was an
independent private sector body and had no formal authority. It therefore had to rely
on persuasion and the professionalism of others to encourage adoption of the
International Accounting Standards (IASs) that it issued. The IASC operated under the
umbrella of the International Federation of Accountants (IFAC), which is the worldwide
organisation of accountancy bodies and is independent of any country's government.
All members of IFAC were originally members of IASC. One of the problems facing
the IASC was that it quite often had to issue standards that accommodated two or
more alternative acceptable accounting treatments. This situation arose because
these alternative treatments were being practised in countries that were members of
the IASC.
In 1995 the IASC entered into an agreement with the International Organisation of
Securities Commission (IOSCO) (the body representing stock exchanges throughout
the world) to produce a core set of accounting standards. These standards were to be
endorsed by IOSCO as an appropriate reporting regime for business entities in the

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 The Nature and Purpose of Accounting 9

global marketplace for the raising of finance. This deal was to give IASC its much
needed authority. However, to gain IOSCO's backing the IASC had to agree to a
restructuring which occurred in 2000. The core standards were completed in 2000 and
adopted by IOSCO in May 2000.
The European Union, besides issuing Directives on company law (Fourth and Seventh
Directives), has also adopted the IASB standards for the preparation of financial
statements.
(b) International Accounting Standards Board (IASB)
The IASC became known as the IASB under the required restructuring in 2000. It is
governed by a group of 19 individual trustees, known as the IASC Foundation, with
diverse geographical and functional backgrounds. The current Chair of the trustees is
Paul A. Volcker, the former chair of the US Federal Reserve Board. The trustees are
responsible for the governance, fundraising and public awareness of the IASB.
The structure under the trustees comprises the IASB as well as a Standards
Interpretation Committee (SIC) and a Standards Advisory Council, as shown below.

Trustees

Standards IASB SIC

Advisory
Council

Figure 1.2: International Standards Setting Structure

The IASB has 12 full-time members and 2 part-time members all of whom have
relevant technical experience and expertise. The current chair of the IASB is Sir David
Tweedie, who was previously the chair of the UK ASB.
The IASB's sole responsibility is to set International Financial Reporting Standards
(IFRSs). (Note that the standards issued by the IASC were known as International
Accounting Standards (IASs) and several of these have been adopted by the IASB –
see the list of standards later in the unit). As such it is at the forefront of harmonisation
of accounting standards across the world as it pushes for adoption of its standards with
the help of IOSCO.
Within the UK this harmonisation process with IASs has already begun. Within the EU
all stock exchange listed businesses have to comply with IASs for the publication of
their consolidated financial statements as from 1 January 2005. Businesses not listed,
which tend to form the majority, can still use the framework of standards established by
the individual country. However, within the EU, countries are converging their home
standards with the international standards and this process is occurring in other areas
of the globe.
Within this manual, we intend to use the international standards. You might, therefore,
find it useful to have a look at the IASB web site – www.iasb.co.uk.

Statements of Standard Accounting Practice

Note that, with the issuing of new accounting standards by the IASB (IFRSs), there are
currently both a number of IFRSs and IASs in force. You do not require a detailed
knowledge of all the current standards, but you should be aware of what they cover and we
briefly review them here. The standards specifically within the range of the syllabus for this

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module will be dealt with in detail in later study units under their own topic headings. (Those
not included in the syllabus for this module are indicated by ** in the following list.)
International Financial Reporting Standards
 IFRS 1 First-time Adoption of International Financial Reporting Standards ** (no
UK equivalent)
The objective of this standard is to ensure that an entity's first IFRS financial
statements contain high quality information that is transparent for users and
comparable over time, provides a suitable starting point for accounting under IFRSs
and can be generated at a cost that does not exceed the benefits to users.
 IFRS 2 Share-based Payment ** (UK equivalent is FRS 20)
The objective of this standard is to specify the financial reporting by an entity when it
undertakes a share-based transaction. Businesses often grant share options to
employees or other parties and until the issue of this standard there was concern over
the measurement and disclosure of such transactions.
 IFRS 3 Business Combinations (FRS 6 UK similar, but not identical)
The objective of this standard is to specify the financial reporting by an entity when it
undertakes a business combination. It covers the preparation of consolidated
accounting staements using the puchase method (acquisition method) and will be dealt
with in detail in study units 11 and 12.
 IFRS 4 Insurance Contracts ** (FRS 27 UK similar, but not identical)
The objective of this standard is to specify the financial reporting for insurance
contracts issued by an entity. An insurance contract ia a contract under which one
party, the insurer, accepts significant insurance risk from another party, the
policyholder, by agreeing to compensate the policyholder if a specified uncertain future
event adversely affects the policyholder.
 IFRS 5 Non-current Assets Held for Sale and Discontinued Operations ** (no UK
equivalent)
The objective of this standard is to specify the accounting for assets held for sale, and
for the presentation and disclosure of discontinued operations.
 IFRS 6 Exploration for and evaluation of Mineral Resources ** (no UK
equivalent)
This standard covers the accounting requirements for expenditure incurred in the
exploration for and evaluation of mineral resources and whether such expenditure
should be regarded as a non-current asset. It also specifies the impairment treatment
for such expenditure.
 IFRS 7 Financial Instruments: Disclosures ** (FRS 29 UK)
This standard is partnered with IAS 32 Financial Instruments: Presentation. IFRS 7
deals with the disclosures that must be made by a business when it has in issue a
financial instrument defined as any contract that gives rise to a financial asset of one
entity and a financial liability or equity instrument of another entity.
 IFRS 8 Operating Segments ** (SSAP 25 UK similar, but not identical)
This is basically a disclosure statement identifying when and how information should
be disclosed in the financial statements in respect of business segments.

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International Accounting Standards

 IAS 1 Presentation of Financial Statements (FRS 3 UK similar, but not identical)
We will cover this is some detail in study unit 4. The standard sets out overall
requirements for the presentation of financial statements, guidelines for their structure
and minimum requirements for their content. It specifies that a complete set of
financial statements comprises:
– a balance sheet
– an income statement (profit and loss statement)
– a statement of changes in equity
– a cash flow statement
– notes and specified disclosure requirements
 IAS 2 Inventories (SSAP 9 UK similar, but not identical)
We will deal with this in study unit 6. A primary issue in the accounting for inventories
is the amount of cost to be recognised as an asset and carried forward until the related
revenues are recognised. Inventories are assets
– held for sale
– in the process of production for such sale
– in the form of materials or supplies to be consumed in the production process or
the rendering of services.
The standard does not cover contruction contracts. These are dealt with under IAS 11
 IAS 7 Cash Flow Statements (FRS 1 revised UK similar, but not identical)
We will cover this in study unit 5. The standard deals with the preparation of one of the
primary financial statements as specified by IAS 1. It deals with cash flows during the
period rather the matching of revenue and expenses and, therefore, provides further
information to users in terms of performance and liquidity in addition to information
provided in the income statement.
 IAS 8 Accounting Policies, Changes in Accounting Estimates and Errors (FRS
18 UK similar, but not identical)
The objective of the standard is to prescribe the criteria for selecting and changing
accounting policies used in the preparation of financial statements. Its use should
enhance the relevance and reliability of the financial statements produced. This
standard is dealt with in study unit 4
 IAS 10 Events After the Balance Sheet Date (FRS 21 UK)
This is dealt with in study unit 7. The standard deals with events that occur after the
balance sheet date and whether these affect the financial statements prepared and/or
whether information on these events should be provided in the notes to the accounts.
 IAS 11 Construction Contracts (SSAP 9 UK similar, but not identical)
Dealt with in study unit 6. The primary issue in dealing with construction contracts that
cover more than one accounting period is the allocation of contract revenue and
contract costs to the appropriate acconting period.

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 IAS 12 Income Taxes (FRS 16 and 19 UK similar, but not identical)

Dealt with in study unit 7. Income taxes are all domestic and foreign taxes which are
based on taxable profits. The standard deals with the accounting of both current taxes
and deferred taxes.
 IAS 16 Property, Plant and Equipment (FRS 15 UK similar, but not identical)
Dealt with in study unit 6. The principal issues in accounting for property, plant and
equipment (tangible fixed assets) are the recognition of the assets, the determination
of their carrying amounts and the depreciation charges and impairment losses to be
recognised in relation to them.
 IAS 17 Leases (SSAP 21 UK similar, but not identical)
This forms part of study unit 6. Businesses do not always purchase the fixed assets
they require but, rather,; quite often lease them from another party. These leased
assets in substance can be used by the business as if they had purchased them and,
therefore, the standard details the recognition and accounting for such leased assets.
This is an example of accounting for substance over form.
 IAS 18 Revenue ( FRS 5 UK similar, but not identical)
Dealt with in study unit 7. Income, as defined in the Framework for the Preparation
and Presentation of Financial Statements (see study unit 4), is increases in economic
benefits during the accounting period. It further states that income encompasses both
revenues and gains. So what is revenue? This standard answers that question and
explains how it should be measured.
 IAS 19 Employee Benefits ** (FRS 17 UK similar, but not identical)
Many businesses, in addition to wages/salaries, provide further benefits to their
employees. Such benefits include:
– retirement plans
– insurance plans such as hospital, dental, life and disability insurance
– stock options
– profit sharing plans
– recreational programmes
– vacation schemes, etc.
This standard deals with the accounting for all employee benefits except those dealt
with under a specific standard. The standard requires the recognition of a liability
when an employee has provided service in exchange for employee benefits to be paid
in the future and the recognition of an expense when the entity consumes the
economic benefit arising from service by an employee in exchange for employee
benefit.
 IAS 20 Accounting for Government Grants and Disclosure of Government
Assistance (SSAP 4 UK similar, but not identical)
Dealt with in study unit 7. Government grants should be recognised in the income
statement so as to match the expenditure to which they relate. Capital grants relating
to capital expenditure should be credited to revenue over the expected useful
economic life of the asset.
 IAS 21 The Effects of Changes in Foreign Exchange Rates ** (SSAP 20 UK
similar, but not identical)

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A business may carry on foreign activities in two ways – it may have transactions in
foreign currencies or it may have foreign operations. The objective of this standard is
to presribe how to deal with such activities in the financial statements.
 IAS 23 Borrowing Costs (no UK equivalent)
Dealt with in study unit 6. Businesses often borrow acquire loans, to purchase assets.
Normally the interest costs on such assets should be expensed to the income
statement in accordance with the matching principle. However, it is possible to put
forward an alternative argument that such borrowing costs, the interest, should be
capitalised as part of the cost of the asset. This standard deals with the accounting for
borrowing costs and whether the alternative treatment can be permitted.
 IAS 24 Related Party Disclosures (FRS 8 UK similar, but not identical)
Dealt with in study unit 7. The objective of this standard is to ensure that a business's
financial statements contain the disclsoures necessary to draw attention to the
possibility that its financial position and profit or loss may have been affected by the
existence of related parties and by transactions and outstanding balances with such
parties. This disclsoure is necessary because quite often such transactions would not
be entered into with unrelated parties.
 IAS 26 Accounting and Reporting by Retirement Benefit Plans ** (FRS 17 UK,
similar but not identical)
This standard deals with the preparation of financial statements by retirement benefit
plan (pension schemes) entities.
 IAS 27 Consolidated and Separate Financial Statements (FRS 2 UK similar, but
not identical)
This forms the basis of study units 11 and 12 where we deal with the preparation of
financial statements for holding and subsidiary businesses.
 IAS 28 Investments in Associates (FRS 9 UK similar, but not identical)
Again this is dealt with in study units 11 and 12.
 IAS 29 Financial Reporting in Hyperinflationary Economies ** (FRS 24 UK)
In an hyperinflationary economy, financial statements are only useful if they are
expressed in terms of the measuring unit current at the balance sheet date. Thus, the
standard requires restatement of financial statements of businesses operating in an
hyperinflationary economy.
 IAS 31 Interests in Joint Ventures** (FRS 9 UK similar, but not identical)
 IAS 32 Financial Instruments: Presentation ** (FRS 25 UK)
 IAS 33 Earnings per Share (FRS 22UK)
Dealt with in study unit 7. This statement specifies the determination and presentation
of the earnings per share figure/s in the financial statements.
 IAS 34 Interim Financial Reporting ** (ASB statement interim reports
 IAS 36 Impairment of Assets (FRS 11 UK similar, but not identical)
Dealt with in study unit 6. The objective of this standard is to prescribe the procedures
that a business applies to ensure that its assets are carried at no more than their
recoverable amount. An asset is carried at more than its recoverable amount if its
carrying value exceeds the amount to be recovered through the use or sale of the
asset. If this is the case, the asset is described as impaired and the standard requires
the business to recognise an impairmemt loss.

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 IAS 37 Provisions, Contingent Liabilities and Contingent Assets (FRS 12 UK,

similar but not identical)
See study unit 7. The standard deals with the appropriate recognition and
measurement of provisions and contingencies. It defines a provision as a liability of
uncertain timing or amount.
 IAS 38 Intangible Assets (FRS 10 UK similar, but not identical)
See study unit 7. The standard only permits the recognition of intangible assets if
certain criteria are met. An intangible asset is defined as an identifiable non-monetary
asset without physical substance, such as research and development costs,
broadcasting licences, airline route authority, patents, copyrights, etc.
 IAS 39 Financial Instruments: Recognition and Measurement ** (FRS 26 UK)
 IAS 40 Investment Property (SSAP 19 UK similar, but not idemtical)
See study unit 6. An investment property is property held by a business to earn rentals
or for capital appreciation or both, rather than for use in the production or supply of
goods or services. The standard deals with the accounting treatment of such
investment properties.
 IAS 41 Agriculture **

D. ACCOUNTING PERIODS
An owner of a business will require financial information at regular intervals. As we have
noted, he or she will want to be able to check periodically how well or badly the business is
doing. Financial accounts are normally prepared on an annual basis, e.g. twelve months to
the 31 March. Preparing accounts on an annual basis facilitates comparisons between one
year and previous years and assists forecasting the next year. For example, there may be
seasonal factors affecting the business, which will even out over the year. An ice-cream
vendor will expect to make more sales in the summer months than in the winter months. He
would not be able to tell if business is improving by looking at accounts for six months ended
31 March 20XX and comparing them with accounts for the six months ended 30 September
20XX. True comparison of profit/loss can be gained only when he examines his accounts for
the years (say) 31 March 20X1 and 31 March 20X2.
Accounts normally have to be prepared annually for tax purposes as tax is assessed on
profits of a 12-month accounting period. In the case of limited companies, accounts are
prepared annually to the "accounting reference date". It is necessary to calculate annually
the amount of profit available for distribution to shareholders by way of dividend.

E. THE MAIN CHARACTERISTICS OF USEFUL

INFORMATION
A number of attempts have been made since the 1970s to create some form of conceptual
framework for financial accounting. The IASBs version, the Framework for the Preparation
and Presentation of Financial Statements, was issued in 1989. This document is separate
from the IASs and IFRSs and basically assembles the body of accounting theory so that
standards are formulated on a consistent basis and not in an ad hoc manner. The
framework has several sections, but the two we will discuss here are the underlying
assumptions in the preparation of financial statements and the qualitative characteristics of
such statements.

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Underlying Assumptions
These are twofold – accruals and going concern
(a) Accruals
Accruals is taking into account or matching income and expenditure occurring within
an accounting period, whether actual cash is received or paid during the time or not.
The reasoning behind the assumption is that profit for the period should represent fairly
the earnings of the time covered and, in view of the dynamic nature of any business, it
is unlikely that all invoices will have been paid. However, they should be accounted for
to give a true picture.
A distinction is made between the receipt of cash and the right to receive cash, and
between the payment of cash and the legal obligation to pay cash. The accruals
assumption requires the accountant to include as expenses or income those sums
which are due and payable.
You need to remember what the following terms mean:
 Receipt – the receipt of cash or cheques by the business, normally in return for
goods or services rendered. The receipt may relate to another financial period,
e.g. it may be for goods sold at the end of the previous period.
 Payment – the payment of cash or cheques by the business in return for goods
or services received. Again, a payment may be in respect of goods purchased in
the previous financial year or a service to be rendered in the future, e.g. rates
payable in advance.
Additionally, the term "capital receipt" is used to describe amounts received from the
sale of fixed assets or investments, and similarly "capital payment" might relate to an
amount paid for the purchase of a fixed (i.e. long-term) asset.
 Revenue income – the income which a business earns when it sells its goods.
Revenue is recognised when the goods pass to the customer, NOT when the
customer pays.
 Expenses – these include all resources used up or incurred by a business
during a financial year irrespective of when they are paid for. They include
salaries, wages, rates, rent, telephone, stationery, etc.
To help you understand the significance of these terms, here are a few examples
(financial year ending 31 December):
 Telephone bill £200 paid January Year 2 relating to previous quarter = Payment
Year 2; Expense Year 1.
 Debtors pay £500 in January Year 2 for goods supplied (sales) in Year 1 =
Receipt Year 2; Revenue Income Year 1.
 Rent paid £1,000 July Year 1 for the period 1 July Year 1 to 30 June Year 2 =
Payment £1,000 Year 1; Expense Year 1 £500, Expense Year 2 £500.
In a later study unit we will see how these matters are dealt with in the final accounts.
(b) Going Concern
This assumption infers that the business is going on steadily trading from year to year
without reducing its operations.
You can often see if an organisation is in financial trouble, for example if it lacks
working capital, and in these circumstances it would not be correct to follow this
concept. It would probably be better to draw up a statement of affairs, valuing assets
on a break-up basis rather than reflecting the business as a going concern (i.e. on the

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basis of a sudden sale of all the assets, where the sale prices of the assets would be
less than on ordinary sale).
Inclusion of other potential liabilities might be necessary to reflect the situation properly
– for example, payments on redundancy, pensions accrued, liabilities arising because
of non-completion of contracts.
Thus, the going concern concept directly influences values, on whatever basis they are
measured

Qualitative Characteristics of Financial Statements

These characteristics are the attributes that make the information provided useful to users.
The IASB state that there are four principal characteristics – understandability, relevance,
reliability and comparability. We will deal with each of these in turn.
(a) Understandability
Information provided to users must not be so complex that a user with a reasonable
knowledge of business and economic activities and accounting, and a willingness to
study the information with reasonable diligence, would not be able to understand it.
There is a fine balancing act needed here by preparers of financial statements to
ensure that all information relevant to users is given to them even though it may be
complex.
(b) Relevance
To be useful, information must be relevant to the decision-making needs of users.
Relevance is closely related to its predictive role – that is the extent to which the
information helps users to predict the organisation's future and so make decisions
about it. For example, the attempt by a potential investor to predict future profitability
and dividend levels will be at least partly based on the financial statements. A sub
characteristic to relevance is materiality – Information is material and therefore relevant
if its omission or mis-statement could influence the economic decisions of users.
Materiality depends of the size of the item or error judged in the particular
circumstances.
(c) Reliability
Information has the quality of reliability when it is free from material error and bias and
can be depended upon by users to represent faithfully that which it either purports to
represent or could reasonably be expected to represent.
There is quite often a conflict between relevant and reliable information. Information
may be relevant, but so unreliable in nature or representation that its recognition may
be potentially misleading. For example, if the validity and amount of a claim for
damages under a legal action are disputed, it may be inappropriate for the business to
recognise the full amount of the claim in the balance sheet as this would provide
unreliable information. However, to ensure relevance, it would be appropriate to
disclose the amount and circumstances of the claim in a note to the accounts.
Reliable information also requires several sub-characteristics to be present as follows:
 Faithful representation – information provided must represent faithfully those
transactions and other events it purports to represent.
 Substance over form – transactions need to be accounted for in accordance with
their substance not merely their legal form. Substance is not always consistent
with legal form. For example, a business may dispose of an asset to another
party in such a way that documentation purports to pass legal ownership to that
party; nevertheless, though, agreements may exist that ensure that the business

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continues to enjoy the future economic benefits within the asset. In such
circumstances a sale would not represent faithfully the transaction entered into.
Such agreements are generally referred to as "sale and buy back". Another
example of substance over form is a finance lease which we will refer to later.
 Neutrality – information must be neutral, that is free from bias and provided in an
objective manner. This also ensures that the characteristic of prudence must not
override all other characteristics
 Prudence – as preparers have to contend with the uncertainties that inevitably
surround many events and transactions, then a degree of caution must be
brought to bear when making judgements on such events and transactions. This
degree of caution is required such that assets or income are not overstated and
liabilities or expenses are not understated. For example, when assessing the
useful life of plant and equipment, preparers must be cautious in their estimate
but not deliberately pessimistic. The exercise of prudence does not allow the
creation of hidden reserves or excessive provisions as this would result in the
accounts not being neutral.
 Completeness – for information to be reliable it must be complete within the
bounds of materiality and cost. An omission can cause information to be false or
misleading and thus unreliable and deficient in terms of its relevance.
(d) Comparability
Users need to be able to compare financial statements of a business through time in
order to identify trends in its financial position and performance. Users also need to be
able to compare one business with another and, therefore, the measurement and
display of the financial effect of transactions and other events must be carried out in a
consistent way for different entities. Thus, we have the need for accounting standards
from this characteristic.
In can be quite difficult to ensure that all four main characteristics and their
subcharacteristics are applied when preparing financial statements. In practice, a balancing
or trade-off between the characteristics is often necessary. Generally, the aim is to achieve
an appropriate balance among the characteristics in order to meet the objectives of financial
statements which is to provide useful information to users.

F. THE TWELVE TRADITIONAL ACCOUNTING CONCEPTS

Over a period of time a number of conventions/concepts have been postulated by various
bodies interested in financial statements. Many of these are incorporated in the above
characteristics, but for completeness of your study we provide them here. These concepts
are incorporated by preparers in current financial statements.

Prudence
Prudence is proper caution in measuring profit and income.
Where sales are made for cash, profit and income can be accounted for in full. Where sales
are made on a credit basis, however, the question of the certainty of profits or incomes
arises. If there is not a good chance of receiving money in full, no sales are made on credit
anyway; but if, in the interval between the sale and the receipt of cash, it becomes doubtful
that the cash will be received, prudence dictates that a full provision for the sum outstanding
should be made. A provision being an amount which is set aside via the profit and loss
account.

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The two main aspects of this concept are that:

 Income should not be anticipated and all possible losses should be provided for.
 The method of valuation of an asset which gives the lesser value should always be
chosen.
Prudence is often exercised subjectively on grounds of experience and is likely, in general, to
lead to an understatement of profit. The subjectivity involved can lead to variation between
accountants in the amount of provision for bad debts, etc. and is bound to create differences
between results obtained by the same general method of measurement. Users are therefore
provided with pictures of various businesses which although apparently comparable, in fact
conceal individual distortions.
In long-term credit arrangements, such as hire-purchase agreements, difficulties arise in the
actual realisation of income and profit. The date of the sale, whether on a cash or credit
basis, is usually regarded as the date of realisation; but if you have money coming in over
two or three years, measurement of the actual sum realised is subject to controversy.

Going Concern
As noted above, this concept assumes that the business is going on steadily trading from
year to year without reducing its operations.

Consistency
This is one of the most useful concepts from the point of view of users who need to follow
accounting statements through from year to year. Put simply, it involves using unvarying
accounting treatments from one accounting period to the next – for example, in respect of
stock valuation, etc.
You can only identify a trend with certainty if accounts are consistent over long periods;
otherwise, the graph of a supposed trend may only reflect a lack of precision or a change of
accounting policies. However, there will usually be changes or inconsistencies in accounting
policies over the years and in public accounts it is essential to stress these changes so that
users can make proper allowance for differences.

Money Measurement
Whether in historic or current terms, money is used as the unit of account to express
information on a business and, from analysis of the figures, assumptions can be made by
the users.
As we have seen, though, this concept of a common unit goes only some way towards
meeting user needs, though, and further explanation is often needed on non-monetary
requirements – such as the experience of the management team, labour turnover, social
policy.

Duality
Each item in a business has two accountancy aspects, reflected in its accounting treatment
as follows:
 Double-entry book-keeping requires each transaction to be entered twice – once as a
debit and once as a credit. The debit represents an increase in the assets of the
company or an expense, and the credit entry represents a reduction in the cash
balance to pay for the item, or an increase in the level of credit taken.
 The assets of a business are shown in one section of a balance sheet and the liabilities
in another.

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There is little to criticise in this duality, but we are looking behind the framework at the
efficiency of the system and judging it by its success in meeting user needs. Duality falls
short in the same sphere as money measurement, because there are areas in which it is not
relevant.

Matching
Often considered the same as the accruals concept, matching calls for the revenue earned
in a period to be linked with related costs. This gives rise to accruals and prepayments
which account for the difference between cash flow and profit and loss information. This
distinction will be clarified when you look at examples later.

Cost
As money is used to record items in the business accounts, each item has a cost.
Accountants determine the value of an asset by reference to its purchase price, not to the
value of the returns which are expected to be realised. Many problems are raised by this
convention, particularly in respect of the effect of inflation upon asset values.
This can also be considered as the historic cost concept.

Materiality
Accounting for every single item individually in the accounts of a multi-million pound concern
would not be cost-effective.
A user would gain no benefit from learning that a stock figure of £200,000 included £140
work-in-progress as distinct from raw materials. Neither would it make much difference that
property cost £429,872 rather than £430,000. Indeed, rounded figures give clarity to
published statements. So, when they are preparing financial statements, accountants do not
concern themselves with minor items. They attempt rather to prepare clear and sensible
accounts.
The concept of materiality leaves accounts open to the charge that they are not strictly
accurate, but generally the advantages outweigh this shortcoming.

Objectivity
Financial statements should be produced free from bias (not a rosy picture to a potential
lender and a poor result for the taxman, for instance). Reports should be capable of
verification – a difficult problem with cash forecasts.

Realisation
Any change in the value of an asset may not be recognised until the moment the firm
realises or disposes of that asset. For example, even if a sale is on credit, we recognise
the revenue as soon as the goods are passed to the customer.
However, unrealised gains, such as increases in the value of stock prior to resale, are now
widely recognised by non-accountants (e.g. bankers) and this can lead to problems with this
concept.

Business Entity Concept

The affairs of the business are distinguished from the personal affairs of the owner(s). Thus
a separate capital account is maintained in the business books, which records the business's
indebtedness to the owner(s).

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It is important to draw a clear distinction between the owner of a business and the business
itself. As far as accountancy is concerned, the records of the business are kept with a view
to controlling and recording the affairs of the business and not for any benefit to the owner,
although the completed accounts will be presented to the owners for their information.
However, it is sometimes hard to divorce the two interests, especially when you are dealing
with a sole trader, whose affairs are intertwined with the business he/she owns and is
operating. So if, for example, Pauline owns a sweetshop and takes and eats a bar of
chocolate, she is anticipating her profits – as much as she is if she takes a few pence from
the till to pay for some private purchase – and such activities should be recorded. Her more
personal affairs, however, such as the cost of food, clothing and heat and light for her private
residence, must be kept separately from the business records.
When we look at the partnership the distinction becomes a little clearer; and when we look
at limited companies, where the owners or shareholders may take no part in running the
company and the law gives the company a distinct legal personality of its own, then we have
a clear-cut division and it is easy to distinguish owner and business.

Separate Valuation
This concept can be best explained by an example.
Assume that A has sold goods on credit to B worth £1000. Thus in A's accounts, B shows up
as a debtor for £1000. Meanwhile, B has sold goods on credit to A for £750. Thus, in A's
accounts, B shows up as a creditor for £750. No agreement has been made between A and
B about setting off one amount against the other. What should we show in the accounts of A
in relation to B?
You could argue that we should simply show the net debtor of £250 as a current asset.
However, this would not show the entire picture in relation to A and B and therefore a true
and fair view would not be presented. The traditional concept of separate valuation requires
that both the debtor and creditor be shown in A's accounts.

IAS 1: Presentation of Financial Statements

This standard requires that financial statements present fairly the financial position, financial
performance and cash flows of an entity. The standard specifies the need to present
information in a manner that provides relevant, understandable, comparable and reliable
information – thus incorporating the four essential characteristics from the Framework
document. The standard also requires the use of going concern, accruals/matching,
consistency, materiality, separate valuation, business entity, etc. In other words, IAS 1
ensures that all the four characteristics and the twelve concepts detailed above in sections E
and F must be applied in the preparation of financial statements for users.

G. IMPORTANT ACCOUNTING TERMS

The Accounting Equation or Basic Formula
In any business there are two entities: the business and its owner/s. Capital is provided by
the owners in the form of cash or goods, and this capital is used by the business to acquire
assets and finance its operations. When accounts are drawn up, the balance sheet will
show the assets of the business, net of any liabilities not yet settled, balanced against the
owners' capital. We can therefore say that:
Capital = Net Assets (i.e. Total Assets  Total Liabilities)

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The capital is what belongs to the owner/s, and the net assets are the assets used in the
business. Should the business cease those net assets would be used to raise the cash to
repay the owners' capital.
As a business progresses both the net assets and the owner's capital increase. Let us
assume that an owner invests £10,000 in a business. The opening balance sheet will
therefore show:
Capital £10,000 = Net assets (cash at bank) £10,000
If a business is successful over the years, the figures will increase, so that after a period we
may see, for example:
Capital £20,000 = Net assets £20,000
This equation is known as the basic formula and you will notice that both sides have equal
values. This is because all modern accounting is based on the principle of double entry.
This means that every transaction in the accounts must have two entries, a debit entry in
one account and a credit in another.

Assets and Liabilities

Net assets represent the assets of the business after deducting outstanding liabilities due to
third parties. To calculate the net assets we take the total assets and deduct the liabilities.
 Assets are the property of the business and include land and buildings, cash, debtors
and money in the bank.
 Liabilities are what the business owes to outside firms for goods or services supplied,
loans made or expenses.
You can relate this to your own situation. You probably own various assets – perhaps a flat,
a car, and some household effects. At the same time you may well owe money to a credit
card company, the newsagent or a finance company. If you are an employee then your
employer will owe you money by way of salary or wages. When you are in business then the
business will owe you money by way of your capital and profits.
The treatment and classification of assets and liabilities in the accounts is of fundamental
importance:
 Assets involve expenditure and are always shown as debit entries in the accounts.
There are two main classes of assets:
(i) Non-current assets/Fixed assets, which comprise land and buildings, plant and
machinery, motor vehicles, fixtures and fittings – in fact any assets which are to
be used in the business for a reasonable period of time generally taken to be
greater than one year.
(ii) Current assets, which consist of stock for resale, debtors, cash/bank. Current
assets are short-term assets, not intended to be retained in the business for long.
(Note that expenses also involve expenditure and are always shown as debit entries.)
 Liabilities consist of money owing for:
(i) Goods purchased on credit
(ii) Expenses owing for items like telephone bills, unpaid garage bills, etc.
(iii) Loans from, say, the bank, building societies, hire purchase, etc.

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Capital v. Revenue Expenditure

When assets such as buildings, plant and machinery, motor vehicles, tools, etc. are bought,
they are purchased not for resale but for use in running the business. This type of asset is
known as a non-current asset/fixed asset. Non-current assets help to create profit, and
expenditure on them is known as capital expenditure.
As well as the cost of the asset there are additional costs such as carriage on machinery or
the legal costs of acquiring land and buildings. If a prefabricated building is erected, there
would be additional costs such as the materials used (cement and bricks for the
foundations), and the labour costs incurred to erect the building. All these costs are included
in the cost of the building and are referred to as capital expenditure. This class of
expenditure is kept separate from revenue expenditure, which relates to the day-to-day
running of the business. Examples of revenue expenditure include expenses such as petrol
for the delivery vans, telephone charges for the sales department, etc.
You should have no difficulty in distinguishing between capital and revenue expenditure.
Remember that capital is spent to buy fixed assets which are used to create profits, while
revenue is spent in the creation of profit. We will remind you of the difference between these
two types of expenditure in later study units.
Effects of not Complying with the Rule
If we include non-current assets in revenue expenditure, we will reduce the profit and at the
same time fail to disclose the non-current assets. This in turn means that any depreciation
(see later in course) will not be taken. If we add revenue items in the non-current assets, we
have the opposite effect, i.e. more profit and depreciation incorrectly charged.
The UK Companies Act 1989 includes the following directive in relation to published
company accounts:
"The balance sheet shall give a true and fair view of the state of affairs as at the
end of the financial year. The profit and loss account shall give a true and fair
view of the profit or loss of the company for the financial year."
If we mix capital and revenue expenditure, not only will the accounts be incorrect but they will
also contravene the law.

H. DIFFERENT TYPES OF BUSINESS ENTITY

We can now return to the issue of business entities and distinguish them in more
sophisticated ways.

The Sole Trader

A sole trader is a business person trading on his or her own account. A sole trader bears
total responsibility for business debts and, if in difficulty, may even need to sell personal
assets to discharge liabilities.
A sole trader is a business which is owned by one person, although we should remember
that the business may employ several others. Capital is introduced by the owner and the
profits will be used in two main ways:
 As drawings (the proprietor's wages).
 As retention of profits which will be used to finance the business in future.

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Partnerships
A partnership is a group of people working together with a view to generating a profit. The
basic structure of a partnership is governed in the UK by the Partnership Act 1890. There
will often be a deed of partnership which lays down in writing the rights and responsibilities of
the individual partners, but there is no legal requirement for any partnership agreement to be
put into writing.
There are two types of partnership:
(a) Ordinary or General Partnership
This consists of a group of ordinary partners, each of whom contributes an agreed
amount of capital, with each being entitled to participate in the business activity and to
share profits within an agreed profit-sharing ratio. Each partner is jointly liable for
debts of the partnership unless there is some written agreement to the contrary. This
is the most common form of partnership.
(b) Limited Partnership
This must consist of at least one ordinary partner to take part in the business, and to
be fully liable for debts as if it were an ordinary partnership. Some partners are limited
partners who may take no part in the business activity and whose liability is limited to
the extent of the capital which they have agreed to put in. Such firms must be
registered and are not common.

Limited Companies in the UK

There are four main characteristics which distinguish a limited company:
 The legal nature of the business
 Statutory rules governing the form and content of published accounts
 Separation of ownership from the management of the business
 Limited liability of the shareholders
A company is completely separate in law from its shareholders and as such it may be sued in
the courts. On its formation the shareholders subscribe for shares in the company in return
for money (or money's worth). The shareholders then collectively own the company and are
entitled to share in the profits generated by it.
Several types of limited companies exist:
(a) Private companies
These must comprise one or more members (shareholders) and may not offer shares
to the public at large. A private company's name must end with "Limited" or "Ltd".
(b) Public companies
A public company is a company limited by shares which must have at least two
members and an authorised capital of at least £50,000, at least one quarter of which
must be paid up. There is no maximum number of members prescribed and the
company can offer its shares to the public. A public company's name must end with
the words "public limited company" or "plc".
(c) Quoted companies
Quoted (listed) companies are those whose shares are bought and sold on a
recognised stock exchange. Large organisations may have a full listing on the London
Stock Exchange, whilst smaller firms may be listed on the Alternative Investment
Market. The latter was established to provide a market for younger companies which

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could not afford the costs of a full listing on the Stock Exchange. Quoted companies
must be public companies, although not all public companies will have a stock
exchange listing.
(d) Unquoted companies
These are companies which do not have a full listing on a recognised stock exchange.
An unquoted company may be a private or a public company and some shares may be
traded through the Alternative Investment Market.

Accounting Differences Between Companies and Unincorporated Businesses

The following table summarises the main accounting differences between the alternative
types of business:

Item Sole Traders and Companies

Partnerships

Capital introduced To the capital account As issued share capital

Profits withdrawn by the owners As drawings As dividends
Profits left in the business In a capital account As a revenue reserve
Loans made from outside As loan accounts As loan accounts
investors

Principle of Limited Liability

The principle of limited liability means that a member agrees to take shares in a company up
to a certain amount, and once he has paid the full price for those shares he is not
responsible for any debts that the company may incur, even if it becomes insolvent within a
few months of his becoming a member.
This provides a safeguard against the private personal estate of a member being attached to
make good the company's debts. (Remember sole traders and partners in such
circumstances can lose the whole of their business and private wealth.)

Promoters and Legal Documents

Promoters are the people who comply with the necessary formalities of company
registration. They find directors and shareholders, acquire business assets and negotiate
contracts. They draw up the memorandum and articles of the new company and register
them with the Registrar of Companies.
The memorandum of association is said to be the "charter" of the company and it must
state the company's objects as well as other details such as its name and address and
details of authorised capital.
The articles of association are the internal regulations or by-laws of the company, dealing
with such matters as the issue and forfeiture of shares, procedure at meetings, shareholders'
voting powers, appointment, qualification, remuneration and removal of directors.
When the promoters have arranged all the formalities and satisfied themselves that the
statutory regulations have been complied with, they apply for a certificate of incorporation
which brings the company into existence as a legal being, known as a registered company.

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I. AUDITING IN BUSINESS
What is an Audit?
An audit is a process by which an independent suitably qualified third party expresses an
opinion on whether a set of financial statements of a business represent a true and fair view
of its financial affairs for an accounting period.
Not all businesses are required to have an audit. In the UK, only large companies and some
public bodies are required by law to have an audit. So why are small companies,
partnerships and sole traders, for example, not audited by law? The answer to this question
is in the very nature of an audit. The audit is a check on the truth and fairness of the
financial statements prepared by the management of the organisation for the users. One of
the key users of these financial statements, as we saw earlier, is the owners and they need
to know that the statements have been prepared competently, with integrity and are free
from mistakes as best they can be. If the management and the owners are the same
people, as is the case with sole traders, partnerships and generally small companies, then
there is no need for such an audit.
It has been known for those involved in the preparation of financial statements to bend the
rules of accounting, as detailed in accounting standards, in order to provide a more
favourable picture of the entity. There can be many reasons for them doing this – for
example:
 their salary or bonus may be based on the profit figure declared;
 they may not wish information that shows a poor liquidity position to be in the public
domain;
 to protect the organisation from liquidation.
You might like to gather information from the internet on the demise of Enron and WorldCom
to illustrate the above points.

Types of Audit
There are two types of audit – external audit and internal audit.
(a) External audit
An external audit is carried out by persons from outside the organisation who
investigate the accounting systems and transactions and ensure, as far as they are
able, that the financial statements have been prepared in accordance with the
underlying books, the law and applicable accounting standards. The external auditor
needs, from his investigation, to place him/herself in a position to express an opinion
whether the financial statements being reported upon show a true and fair view or not.
This opinion, if positive, provides considerable reassurance to users of financial
statements, particularly the current shareholders, the owners, that these accounts are
reliable.
It is important to identify what an external audit is not. It is not an attempt to find fraud,
and it is not a management control. Fraud may be discovered during an audit, and the
auditor will usually be well placed to give advice to management about potential
improvements in the internal control system, but these benefits are incidental.
(b) Internal audit
Internal audit forms part of the internal management control system of a business. It is
carried out at management discretion and is not imposed by law. Many organisations
set up an internal audit function to check on financial records, quality or cost control to
ensure the organisation achieves the best performance it can. Internal auditors, who

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do not need to be qualified accountants, report to management not the owners. The
functions of internal audit can include:
 Ensuring the adequacy of internal controls
 Reviewing the reliability of records and books
 Preventing fraud, waste and extravagance
 Enforcing management decisions
 Undertaking ad hoc investigations
 Securing the asset base
 Substituting for external auditors under their supervision
 Undertaking value for money audits
Relationship between internal and external audit
When carrying out an external audit the auditor may make use of the internal audit function
during the course of the audit. If the external auditor does rely on the work of internal audit,
he will have to assure him/herself that the work has been:
 Carried out by suitably competent and proficient people
 Well documented and evidenced in accordance with findings
 Used appropriate audit tests and techniques, such that reasonable conclusions have
been drawn and acted upon
 Carried out without undue influence from others
The external auditor will need to test the work of the internal audit function to confirm its
adequacy.

UK Law and External Audit

Within the UK the 1985 Companies Act requires that all limited companies, except small
companies, are required to have an audit which they pay for. Thus, a private family-run
company, as long as it is not defined as small, will require an external audit as will a large plc
such as Tesco or BT.
A small company is defined as a private limited company, which is not part of a larger group,
and is not a banking or insurance company. Its turnover must be £5.6m or less, its balance
sheet totals £2.8m or less and it should employ fewer than 50 people.
The 1985 Companies Act also states that external auditors must be a member of a
Recognised Supervisory body (RSB). The current RSBs in the UK are:
 Institute of Chartered Accountants in England and Wales (ICAEW)
 Institute of Chartered Accountants in Scotland (ICAS)
 Institute of Chartered Accountants in Ireland (ICAI)
 Association of Chartered Certified Accountants (ACCA)
 Association of Authorised Public Accountants (AAPA)
The Act also states that a person may not be an auditor if he/she is an officer or employee of
the company, or is in business partnership with an officer or employee of the company being
audited.
This is the extent to which specified individuals are excluded from acting as an external
auditor. So, could you think of anyone who may have a close relationship with a company
who could be an auditor of that company?

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Well, to start with, a shareholder of the client company can audit that company, as can a
debtor or creditor of the client company. In addition, in law, the spouse, for example, of a
director of the client company can audit that company. However, RSBs impose stricter
guidelines than the law on who can audit and a spouse would be specifically excluded under
their rules.
By law external auditors are appointed by and report to the shareholders, the owners, of the
company. In practice, though, the choice of auditor is delegated to directors with
shareholders voting on that choice, on a simple majority basis, at the annual general
meeting, AGM, of the company.
The Companies Act also provides the external auditor with several rights during the audit.
These are the right to:
 Have access to all of the client's records
 Require from officers of the client, any information and explanations as they think
necessary
 Attend any general meetings of the client
 Receive a copy of any written resolutions
 Speak at general meetings
 Require the calling of a general meeting for the purpose of laying the accounts and
reports for the company.

External Audit Report

The audit report, as we have previously stated, is addressed to the shareholders of the
company and is the auditor's opinion as to whether the financial statements show a true or
fair view. The report should also:
 State which financial statements have been audited
 Place emphasis on the fact that it is management's responsibility to prepare the
financial statements and the auditor's purely to audit them
 State that compliance with auditing standards in carrying out the audit has been
adhered to
 Provide a brief overview of the work done to provide the auditor with the evidence for
the opinion
 Provide details of the auditor and the date of the report
 Provide details of "emphasis of matter" – this is where an issue arises during the audit
that does not affect the opinion, but the auditor believes it should be brought to the
attention of recipients of the report.
An auditor may not be able to state that the financial statements provide a true and fair view
after his audit, in which case he must provide a modified report to that effect.
The external report is included within the published financial statements. You might find it
useful to obtain several sets of financial statements – you will find many freely available
under a company's website on the internet – and read the audit report. You will also find
these published financial statements useful reference points for other topics we will deal with
in this manual.

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External Audit Process

The steps an auditor will take to carry out the audit from the time he/she is appointed until
signing off the audit report are as follows:
 Find out as much as possible about the potential client before accepting the audit
 Carry out detailed investigations and document the client's structure, management,
systems and accounting processes
 Draft a programme of audit work
 Carry out investigations and receive explanations necessary to support the audit
opinion
An audit syllabus would cover all of these steps in much detail. However, with the financial
accounting syllabus, the detail of these steps is not required.

Expectations Gap
Finally in this section on auditing, we need to deal with what an audit is not. This is best
illustrated by considering the "expectations gap". The expectations gap is the name given to
the difference between what the public think auditors do and what they actually do. When
large organisations such as Enron, Worldcom, Parmalat, etc., fail or get in to difficulties,
whether through poor management or fraud, auditors are often the first people the public
blame. They are often criticised in the press for failing to meet the expectations of the
public. However, these expectations are quite often unrealistic and do not form part of the
external auditors' duties.
The general public, research has shown, think that auditors check every single transaction,
prepare the financial statements, guarantee that financial statements are correct (whatever
correct means), are responsible for finding and reporting frauds however small, and are
responsible for detecting illegal acts by directors. You should be able to see from the short
review of auditing here that none of this is realistic and/or correct.
One important legal case in the UK that sets out the role of the external auditor was the
Kingston Cotton Mill case in 1896. The judge in the case established that the auditor's role
was similar to that of a "watchdog not a bloodhound". The judge further elaborated on this
famous phrase, stating that an auditor had to use reasonable skill and judgement
appropriate to the circumstances in carrying out his audit, but that he was not expected to
investigate every transaction and should use his /her professional abilities to support the
audit opinion given. Thus, we can conclude that it is the job of the auditor to ensure that
enough testing work is carried out to support the audit opinion and to be alert to the
possibility of fraud. If during their work they discover omissions or frauds, then they must of
course investigate and report them.

Questions for Practice

As this is the only point in the study manual that we will consider the topic of audit, you might
find it useful to consider the following two questions. We provide brief answers on the
following page, but do try and answer them without looking at these answers.
1. Many companies within the UK have to undergo an external audit by law. Non-
statutory audits are quite often undertaken by other organisations, but they are costly.
What would persuade a partnership to undergo a non-statutory external audit?

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2. What is a qualified audit report? Outline the likely effect on a UK company of such a
report.

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ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS FOR PRACTICE

1. The following circumstances/issues might persuade a partnership to undergo a
external audit:
 To settle the profit sharing between partners equitably especially if complicated
profit sharing arrangements exist
 To provide credibility to figures within the financial statements after asset
revaluations or creation of non-purchased goodwill on the death or retirement of
a partner, or other change in the partnership arrangement
 To support an application to third parties for loan finance
 To enhance the credibility of the accounts provided to tax authorities
 The need for financial advice from a expert/professional to advance the business
You might well have thought of other reasons as well.

2. A qualified audit report is one in which the auditor has reservations and which have a
material effect on the financial statements. Circumstances under which a qualified
audit report might occur are:
 Where there has been limitation on the scope of the audit, and hence an
unresolvable uncertainty, which prevents the auditor from forming an opinion, or
 Where the auditor is able to form an opinion but, even after negotiation with the
directors, disagrees with the financial statements.
The likely effect of a qualified audit report will be to significantly reduce the reliability of
the financial statements in the eyes of any user of such statements. This may well
then impact on the company's ability to raise finance or trade on credit. This could lead
to a fall in share price and eventual liquidation.

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Study Unit 2
Business Funding

Contents Page

A. Capital of an Enterprise 33
Features of Share Capital 33
Types of Share 33
Types of Capital 34
Share Issues 35
Bonus Issues 37
Rights Issues 37
Redeemable Shares 38
Purchase of Own Shares 40
Advantage of Purchasing/Redeeming Shares 40

B. Dividends 40
Preference Dividends 40
Ordinary Dividends 40
Interim Dividends 41

C. Debentures 41
Types of Debenture 41
Rights of Debenture Holders 42
Gearing 42
Issues at Par and at a Discount 42
Redemption of Debentures 43
Restrictions on Borrowings 43

D. Types and Sources of Finance 43

Balancing Fixed and Working Capital 43
Types of Business and Capital Structure 44
Long-term Funds 44
Shorter-term Funds 46
Interest Rate Exposure 46
Sources of External Finance 46
Examples of Business Financing 47

(Continued over)

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E. Management of Working Capital 48

Working Capital Cycle 48
Striking the Right Balance 49

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 Business Funding 33

A. CAPITAL OF AN ENTERPRISE
(Within this unit all references to companies are UK based in respect of terminology and
legal requirements)
Virtually every enterprise must have capital subscribed by its proprietors to enable it to
operate. In the case of a partnership, the partners contribute capital up to agreed amounts
which are credited to their accounts and shown as separate liabilities in the balance sheet.
A limited company obtains its capital, up to the amount it is authorised to issue, from its
members. A public company, on coming into existence, issues a prospectus inviting the
public to subscribe for shares. The prospectus advertises the objects and prospects of the
company in the most tempting manner possible. It is then up to the public to decide whether
they wish to apply for shares.
A private company is not allowed to issue a prospectus and obtains its capital by means of
personal introductions made by the promoters.
Once the capital has been obtained, it is lumped together in one sum and credited to share
capital account. This account does not show how many shares were subscribed by A or B;
such information is given in the register of members, which is a statutory book that all
companies must keep but which forms no part of the double-entry book-keeping.

Features of Share Capital

 Once it has been introduced into the company, it generally cannot be repaid to the
shareholders (although the shares may change hands). An exception to this is
redeemable shares.
 Each share has a stated nominal (sometimes called par) value. This can be regarded
as the lowest price at which the share can be issued.
 Share capital of a company may be divided into various classes, and the articles of
association define the respective rights of the various shares as regards, for example,
entitlement to dividends or voting at company meetings.

Types of Share
(a) Ordinary Shares
The holder of ordinary shares in a limited company possesses no special right other
than the ordinary right of every shareholder to participate in any available profits. If no
dividend is declared for a particular year, the holder of ordinary shares receives no
return on his shares for that year. On the other hand, in a year of high profits he may
receive a much higher rate of dividend than other classes of shareholders. Ordinary
shares are often called equity share capital or just equities.
Deferred ordinary shareholders are entitled to a dividend after preferred ordinary
shares.
(b) Preference Shares
Holders of preference shares are entitled to a prior claim, usually at a fixed rate, on
any profits available for dividend. Thus when profits are small, preference
shareholders must first receive their dividend at the fixed rate per cent, and any surplus
may then be available for a dividend on the ordinary shares – the rate per cent
depending, of course, on the amount of profits available. So, as long as the business
is making a reasonable profit, a preference shareholder is sure of a fixed return each
year on his investment. The holder of ordinary shares may receive a very low dividend
in one year and a much higher one in another.

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Preference shares can be divided into two classes:

 Cumulative Preference Shares
When a company is unable to pay dividends on this type of preference share in
any one year, or even in successive years, all arrears are allowed to accumulate
and are payable out of future profits as they become available.
 Non-cumulative Preference Shares
If the company is unable to pay the fixed dividend in any one year, dividends on
non-cumulative preference shares are not payable out of profits in future years.
(c) Redeemable Shares
The company's articles of association may authorise the issue of redeemable shares.
These are issued with the intention of being redeemed at some future date. On
redemption the company repays the holders of such shares (provided they are fully
paid-up) out of a special reserve fund of assets or from the proceeds of a new issue of
shares which is made expressly for the purpose of redeeming the shares previously
issued. Redeemable shares may be preference or ordinary shares.
(d) Participating Preference Shares
These are preference shares which are entitled to the usual dividend at the specified
rate and, in addition, to participate in the remaining profits. As a general rule, the
participating preference shareholders take their fixed dividend and then the preferred
ordinary shareholders take their fixed dividend, and any balance remaining is shared
by the participating preference and ordinary shareholders in specified proportions.
(e) Deferred, Founders or Management Shares
These normally rank last of all for dividend. Such shares are usually held by the
original owner of a business which has been taken over by a company, and they often
form part or even the whole of the purchase price. Dividends paid to holders of
deferred shares may fluctuate considerably, but in prosperous times they may be at a
high rate.
You should note that this type of share has nothing to do with employee share
schemes, where employees are given or allowed to buy ordinary shares in the
company for which they work, at favourable rates – i.e. at less than the market
quotation on the Inventory Exchange.

Types of Capital
(a) Authorised, Registered or Nominal
These terms are synonymously used for capital that is specified as being the maximum
amount of capital which the company has power to issue. Authorised capital must be
stated in detail as a note to the balance sheet.
(b) Issued (Allotted) or Subscribed Capital
It is quite a regular practice for companies to issue only part of their authorised capital.
The term "issued capital" or "subscribed capital" is used to refer to the amount of
capital which has actually been subscribed for. Capital falling under this heading will
comprise all shares issued to the public for cash and those issued as fully-paid-up to
the vendors of any business taken over by the company.
(c) Called-up Capital
The payment of the amount due on each share is not always made in full on issue, but
may be made in stages – for example, a specified amount on application and a further

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amount when the shares are actually allotted, with the balance in one or more
instalments known as calls. Thus, payment for a £1 share may be made as follows:
 25p on application
 25p on allotment
 25p on first call
 15p on second call
 10p on third and
 final call.
If a company does not require all the cash at once on shares issued, it may call up only
what it needs. The portion of the subscribed capital which has actually been requested
by the company is known as the called-up capital.
Note that a shareholder's only liability in the event of the company's liquidation is to pay
up any portion of his shares which the company has not fully called up. If a
shareholder has paid for his shares, he has no further liability.
(d) Paid-up Capital
When a company makes a call, some shareholders may default and not pay the
amount requested. Thus the amount actually paid up will not always be the same as
the called-up capital. For example, suppose a company has called up 75p per share
on its authorised capital of 20,000 £1 shares. The called-up capital is £15,000, but if
some shareholders have defaulted, the actual amount paid up may be only £14,500. In
this case, the paid-up capital is £14,500, and the called-up capital £15,000.
Paid-up capital is therefore the amount paid on the called-up capital.
(e) Uncalled Capital or Called-up Share Capital Not Paid
If, as in our example, a company has called up 75p per share on its authorised capital
of £20,000 £1 shares, the uncalled capital is the amount not yet requested on shares
already issued and partly paid for by the public and vendors. In this example the
uncalled capital is £5,000.

Share Issues
When a company issues shares, it can call for the whole value of the share or shares bought
to be paid in one lump sum, or it can request the payment to be made in instalments.
Generally, a certain amount is paid upon application, a certain amount on notification that the
directors have accepted the offer to subscribe (the allotment), and a certain amount on each
of a number of calls (the instalments). For our purposes we only need to look at shares
which are payable in full upon application.
(a) Shares at Par
This means that the company is asking the investor to pay the nominal value, e.g. if a
company issues 100,000 ordinary shares at £1, which is the par value, then the cash
received will be £100,000. We can follow the entries in the accounts:

Dr Cr
£ £

Cash 100,000
Share capital 100,000

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The balance sheet will show:

£
Current assets
Cash £100,000
Share capital
Authorised, issued and fully paid 100,000 £1 £100,000
shares

The basic rules of double entry apply and as you can see the basic formula is the
same:
Capital (£100,000) = Net assets (Cash: £100,000)
(b) Shares at a Premium
A successful company, which is paying good dividends or which has some other
favourable feature, may issue shares at a price which is higher than the nominal value.
For example, as in the last example, if the £1 share is issued it may be that the
applicant will be asked to pay £1.50. The additional amount is known as a premium.
The entries in the accounts will now be:

Dr Cr
£ £

Cash 150,000
Share capital 100,000
Share premium a/c 50,000

The balance sheet will show:

£
Current assets
Cash 150,000
Share capital
Authorised, issued and fully paid 100,000 £1
shares 100,000
Share premium account 50,000
150,000

Notes:
 The share premium is treated separately from the nominal value and must be
recorded in a separate account which must be shown in the balance sheet. The
Companies Act requires that the account is to be called the share premium
account, and sets strict rules as to the uses to which this money can be put.
 The basic formula will now be:
Capital (£150,000) = Net Assets (Cash: £150,000)

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and this means that the additional sum paid belongs to the shareholders and as
such must always be shown together with the share capital.

Bonus Issues
When a company has substantial undistributed profits, the capital employed in the
business is considerably greater than the issued capital. To bring the two more into line it is
common practice to make a bonus issue of shares. Cash is not involved and it adds nothing
to the net assets of the company – it simply divides the real capital into a larger number
of shares. This is illustrated by the following example.
A company's balance sheet is as follows:

£000
Net assets 1,000
Ordinary shares 500
Undistributed profits 500
1,000

We can see that the real value of each share is £2, i.e. net assets £1,000 ÷ 500, but note that
this is not the market value – only what each share is worth in terms of net assets owned
compared with the nominal value of £1. Now suppose the company issued bonus shares on
the basis of one new share for each existing share held. The balance sheet will now be as
follows:

£000
Net assets 1,000

Ordinary shares 1,000

Each shareholder has twice as many shares as before but is no better off since he owns
exactly the same assets as before. All that has happened is that the share capital represents
all the net assets of the company. This does, of course, dilute the equity of the ordinary
shareholders, but a more substantial share account can often enable a company to obtain
further finance from other sources. It can also be used as a defence against a takeover
because the bidder cannot thereby obtain control and distribute the reserves.

Rights Issues
A useful method of raising fresh capital is first to offer new shares to existing
shareholders, at something less than the current market price of the share (provided
that this is higher than the nominal value). This is a rights issue, and it is normally based on
number of shares held, as with a bonus issue, e.g. one for ten. In this case, however, there
is no obligation on the part of the existing shareholder to take advantage of the rights offer,
but if he does the shares have to be paid for. The Companies Act requires that, before any
equity shares are issued for cash, they must first be offered to current shareholders.
Example
A company with an issued share capital of £500,000 in £1 ordinary shares decides to raise
an additional £100,000 by means of a one-for-ten rights issue, at a price of £2 per share.
The issue is fully subscribed and all moneys are received. The book-keeping entries are:

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Dr: Cash £100,000

Cr: Share capital a/c £50,000
Cr: Share premium a/c £50,000

Note the credit to share premium account. You should also note that neither bonus nor rights
issues can be allotted if they would cause the authorised capital to be exceeded.

Redeemable Shares
Redeemable shares may not be issued at a time when there are no issued shares of the
company which are not redeemable. This means that there must be at all times some shares
which are not redeemable.
Only fully-paid shares may be redeemed and, if a premium is paid on redemption, then
normally the premium must be paid out of distributable profits, unless the premium effectively
represents a repayment of capital because it was a share premium paid when the shares
were issued. In that case the share premium may be paid from the share premium account.
When shares are redeemed, the redemption payments can be made either:
(a) From the proceeds of a new issue of shares, or
(b) From profits.
If (b) is chosen then an amount equal to the value of the shares redeemed has to be
transferred from the distributable profits to an account known as the capital redemption
reserve.
The Act makes it clear that when shares are redeemed it must not be taken that there is a
reduction of the company's authorised share capital.
By issuing redeemable shares the company is creating temporary membership which comes
to an end either after a fixed period or at the shareholder's or company's option. When the
temporary membership comes to an end the shares that are redeemed must be cancelled
out. To avoid the share capital contributed being depleted, a replenishment must be made as
mentioned earlier, i.e. by an issue of fresh shares or by a transfer from the profit and loss
account.
(Note: In the illustration which follows we have adopted a "standard" balance sheet which
we will discuss later. For the present, you need not be concerned with regard to how the
balance sheet is constructed.)

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Example
On 31 July the balance sheet of Heathfield Industries plc was as follows:

£ £
Non- current assets 135,000
Current assets 47,000
Current liabilities (12,000) 35,000

170,000

Capital and Reserves

40,000 £1 ordinary shares 40,000
30,000 redeemable £1 shares fully 30,000
paid
Retained profits 100,000

170,000

Notes:
 The bank balance which is included in the current assets stands at £20,000.
 It is the intention of the directors to redeem £15,000 of the redeemable shares, the
redemption being made by cash held at the bank.
After the redemption the balance sheet would look like this:

£ £
Non-current assets 135,000
Current assets 32,000
Current liabilities (12,000) 20,000

155,000
Capital and Reserves
40,000 £1 ordinary shares 40,000
15,000 £1 redeemable shares 15,000
Capital redemption fund * 15,000
Retained profits 85,000

155,000

* Under the Companies Act, when redeemable shares are redeemed and the funds to
redeem are not provided by a new issue of shares, i.e. the cash is available, then there
should be a transfer to this reserve from the profit and loss account. This prevents the
share capital being reduced, which is illegal other than by statutory procedures.
Notes:
 You will see that the basic formula is not changed. We still have:
Capital £170,000 = Net assets £170,000

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and after an equal amount has been taken from both sides (the reduction in cash and a
reduction in the redeemable shares) we have:
Capital £155,000 = Net assets £155,000
 There are very strict rules regarding the capital redemption reserve and the only
transfer without court approval is by way of creating bonus shares.
 Don't worry about the profit and loss account because we will discuss this account fully
in a later study unit.
 You may wonder why there are so many strict rules. This is because the Companies
Acts are there to protect the shareholders.

Purchase of Own Shares

The Companies Act authorises a company to purchase its own shares provided that it is so
authorised by its articles. There are three main rules:
(a) It may purchase, but this does not mean subscribe for, shares.
(b) It cannot purchase all its shares leaving only redeemable shares.
(c) Shares may not be purchased unless they are fully paid.
Note: Redeeming or purchasing shares may appear to be the same thing, particularly as the
same accounting procedures are adopted. The difference is that when shares that are
redeemable are issued it is made quite clear at the point of issue that they will be redeemed.
On the other hand, shares issued without this proviso cannot be redeemed. Such shares
can be bought back, but there is yet another golden rule, which is that a company cannot buy
back all its shares and it must, after the purchase, have other shares in issue which are not
redeemable. This is to prevent a company redeeming/purchasing all its shares and ending
up with no members.

Advantage of Purchasing/Redeeming Shares

The main advantage of buying back or redeeming shares for public companies is when there
are large cash resources and it may be useful to return some of the surplus cash to the
shareholders. This will avoid the pressures put on directors to use cash in uneconomic
ways.

B. DIVIDENDS
The shareholder of a company gets his reward in the form of a share of the profits and his
share is called a dividend.

Preference Dividends
The preference shareholder is one who is entitled to a specific rate of dividend before the
ordinary or equity shareholders receive anything. The rate which will be paid is established
when the shares are issued and is usually expressed as a percentage of the nominal value,
e.g. 10% preference shares, which means that if the shareholder held 100 £1 preference
shares he would receive a £10 dividend.
You should note that this type of share has declined and it is now more usual for companies
to have a single class of shareholder.

Ordinary Dividends
Ordinary dividends are paid on ordinary or equity shares and the rate is usually expressed as
a percentage, e.g. a 10% dividend on £500,000 ordinary shares will amount to £50,000.

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The Act states that:

"All dividends shall be declared and paid according to the amounts paid up on
shares on which the dividend is paid. A dividend while the company continues in
business may be of any size that is recommended by the directors and approved
by the members."
The amount distributed to members is proportional to either the nominal value of the shares
held, or the amount paid-up if they are partly paid.
Members may approve a dividend proposed by the directors or they can reject or reduce it,
but they cannot increase a proposed dividend.

Interim Dividends
Provided the articles so authorise and there are, in the opinion of the directors, sufficient
funds to warrant paying an interim dividend, then one may be paid. This means that
approximately halfway through the financial year, if the company is making sufficient profits,
the directors have the authority to pay a dividend. The directors do not require the members
to authorise such dividends. The dividends are calculated in the same way as the final
proposed dividend after the final accounts have been prepared.

C. DEBENTURES
A debenture is written acknowledgement of a loan to a company, which carries a fixed rate
of interest.
Debentures are not part of the capital of a company. Interest payable to debenture holders
must be paid as a matter of right and is therefore classified as loan interest, a financial
expense, in the profit and loss account. A shareholder, on the other hand, is only paid a
dividend on his investment if the company makes a profit, and such a dividend, if paid, is an
appropriation of profit.

Types of Debenture
(a) Simple or Naked Debentures
These are debentures for which no security has been arranged as regards payment of
interest or repayment of principal.
(b) Mortgage or Fully Secured Debentures
Debentures of this type are secured by a specific mortgage of certain fixed assets of
the company.
(c) Floating Debentures
Debentures of this type are secured by a floating charge on the property of the
company. This charge permits the company to deal with any of its assets in the
ordinary course of its business, unless and until the charge becomes fixed or
crystallised.
An example should make clear the difference between a mortgage, which is a fixed
charge over some specified asset, and a debenture which is secured by a floating
charge. Suppose that a company has factories in London, Manchester and Glasgow.
The company may borrow money by issuing debentures with a fixed charge over the
Glasgow factory. As long as the loan remains unpaid, the company's use of the
Glasgow factory is restricted by the mortgage. The company might wish to sell some
of the buildings, but the charge on the property as a whole would be a hindrance.

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On the other hand, if it issued floating debentures then there is no charge on any
specific part of the assets of the company and, unless and until the company becomes
insolvent, there is no restriction on the company acting freely in connection with any of
its property.

Rights of Debenture Holders

The rights of debenture holders are:
 They are entitled to payment of interest at the agreed rate.
 They are entitled to be repaid on expiry of the terms of the debenture as fixed by deed.
 In the event of the company failing to pay the interest due to them or should they have
reason to suppose that the assets upon which their loan is secured are in jeopardy,
they may cause a receiver to be appointed. The receiver has power to sell a
company's assets in order to satisfy all claims of the debenture holders.
The differences between shareholders and debenture holders are summarised in the
following table:

Debenture Holder Shareholder

Debentures are not part of the capital Shares are part of the capital of a
of a company. company.
Debentures rank first for capital and Shares are postponed to the claims
interest. of debenture holders and other trade
payables.
Debenture interest must be paid Dividends are payable out of profits
whether there are profits or not and only (appropriations) but only if there
is a charge to the profit and loss is adequate profit.
account.
Debentures are usually secured by a Shares cannot carry a charge.
charge on the company's assets.
Debenture holders are trade Shareholders are members of the
payables, not members of the company and have indirect control
company, and usually have no over its management.
control over it.

Debentures are not capital and so they should not be grouped with the shares in the balance
sheet.

Gearing
The gearing of a company is the ratio of fixed-interest and fixed-dividend capital (i.e.
debentures plus preference shares) to ordinary (equity) share capital plus reserves. We will
consider this when we look at accounting ratios later, but you should be aware that a
company's gearing can have important repercussions, as debenture interest must be paid
regardless of profitability.

Issues at Par and at a Discount

Whereas shares may not be issued at a discount, debentures may. This means that the
lender pays less than the nominal value.

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(a) Issues at Par

This is the same as issuing shares at par, i.e. a £100 debenture would raise £100.
(b) Issues at a Discount
This means that the value raised by the issue is less than the par value, e.g. a £100
debenture would raise in cash, say, £80. This discount can be deducted from the
share premium account. The entries in the accounts would look like this:

£ £
Cash 80
Share premium account * 20
Debenture 100

* Clearly there would be a balance in the account. This illustration merely shows
the basic entries.
As you can see, the debenture will appear in the accounts at its full value. You may
wonder why a company would take this step and there is no mystery; it is just a ploy to
encourage the public to invest.

Redemption of Debentures
As debentures can be issued at par or at a discount they can also be redeemed at a value
greater than that paid, e.g. if you pay £80 then the redemption value is quite likely to be £100
and if you pay the par value of £100 then you might well get £120 back. Again the difference
– if any – can be written off to the share premium account.
There are three ways of financing a redemption of debentures:
 Out of the proceeds of a new issue of shares or debentures.
 Out of the balance on the profit and loss account and existing resources of the
business (cash).
 Out of a sinking fund built up over the years with or without investments (the
investment really being a savings fund).
When shares are redeemed or purchased there is a statutory requirement to make a transfer
to the capital redemption reserve. The reason for this is because shares are part of the
capital of the company whereas debentures are merely long-term liabilities or loans.

Restrictions on Borrowings
Restrictions on borrowings outstanding at any time may be contained in the articles of
association of the company, imposed by resolution of shareholders, or included in the loan
agreement or trust deed.

D. TYPES AND SOURCES OF FINANCE

Balancing Fixed and Working Capital
The assets of a business are financed by its liabilities, as shown in the balance sheet. Every
business needs:
 Fixed capital – to finance fixed assets.
 Working capital – to finance current assets.

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Ultimately, all assets must be supported by the long-term capital base, but short-term
borrowings may be used to cover temporary lulls in trade in order to maintain the return on
capital employed.
Working capital – inventories, trade receivables and cash – must be carefully managed so
that it is adequate but not excessive.

Types of Business and Capital Structure

The type of business organisation influences the capital structure. In a small business the
financial structure tends to be relatively straightforward. On the other hand, with the large
public company an extremely complicated capital structure may be present.
(a) Sole Trader and Partnership
With the sole trader or partnership, the initial funds generally come from the owners
themselves. Any extra requirements for the seasonal needs or other purposes may be
obtained from a bank. Remember also that credit purchases are a very important
form of financing.
The fixed assets of the sole trader's business or the partnership may be obtained by
leasing or by hire purchase; all that the owner of the business has to do is to establish
a good credit standing.
With this type of small business, great care must be taken to ensure that overtrading
does not occur. Overtrading is when there is a high turnover, requiring more inventory
and higher costs, with an insufficient capital base to support it. There is a great danger
of overtrading when too much finance is obtained through hire purchase or the leasing
of premises or other fixed assets. Payments have to be made in the form of interest or
similar charges, and these are fixed charges which have to be covered whether the
business makes a profit or not.
(b) Private Limited Company
The private company requires greater cash resources and, when finance from the
owners is inadequate, additional cash must be obtained from external sources. The
constraint here is that shares cannot be offered to the general public.
(c) Public Limited Company
The public company can obtain funds through the issue of shares to the general public.
In determining the types of funds to be raised, every business must consider the reasons for
needing these funds and the use to which they will be put. For example, it is not likely that
share capital would be raised to solve a short-term liquidity problem.

Long-term Funds
(a) Owners' Capital
This is the amount contributed by the owner(s) of a business, and it is supplemented by
retained profits.
In the case of a limited company, a great many individuals can own shares in the
company. There are two main types of shares – ordinary shares and preference
shares, as we have seen. The decision about the proportions of ordinary shares and
preference shares (if any) to issue is not an easy one, and it will be influenced by the
type of company, as well as by other factors.
(b) Loans
There are a number of forms of longer-term loan available to a business:

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 Unsecured Loan
This is an advance for a specified sum which is repaid at a future agreed date.
Interest is charged per annum on the total amount of the loan or on the amount
outstanding.
 Secured Loans
These tend to be for larger amounts over longer periods. Security is required in
the form of a specific asset or it is spread over all the assets of the business (a
"floating" charge). If the borrower defaults on the loan, the lender is allowed to
dispose of the secured asset(s) to recover the amount owed to him. Since there
is less risk to the lender, secured loans are cheaper than unsecured ones.
 Mortgage Loans
These are specific secured loans for the purchase of an asset, the asset itself
giving security to the lender – e.g. purchase of premises.
 Debentures
These, as we've seen, are a special type of company loan, broken into small-
value units to allow transferability. They carry a fixed rate of interest which is a
charge against profits and has to be paid irrespective of the level of profits.
Note that loan interest is a charge against profits and it is, therefore, allowable for tax
purposes, unlike dividends on shares.
(c) Venture Capital
Obtaining finance to start up a new business can be very difficult. Venture capital is
finance provided by (an) investor(s) who is (are) willing to take a risk that the new
company will be successful. Usually, a business proposal plan will need to be
submitted to the venture capitalist, so that the likely success of the business can be
assessed.
The investor(s) providing venture capital may provide it just in the form of a debenture
loan or, more likely, in the form of a package including share capital and a long-term
loan. A member of the venture capital company is normally appointed to the board of
the new company, to ensure some control over the investment.
(d) Leasing (longer-term)
This source of funds has grown substantially in recent years, and it is an important
method of funding the acquisition of fixed assets. The business selects its required
asset and the leasing company purchases it. Then the business uses the asset and
pays the leasing company a rent. The payments are regular (e.g. monthly) and for
fixed amounts.
A development of leasing is a process called sale and leaseback, in which the assets
owned and used by a business are sold to a leasing company and then rented back
over a long period. The cash proceeds from the sale provide immediate funds for
business use.
Lease purchase agreements are also possible, where part of the fixed monthly
payment goes towards the purchase of the asset and part is a rental cost.
(e) Hire Purchase (longer-term)
This is very similar to leasing, although the ultimate objective, in this case, is for the
business to acquire title to the asset when the final hire-purchase payment is made.
The business can thus claim capital allowances on such assets, which reduce its tax
liability.

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Shorter-term Funds
(a) Trade Credit
Trade credit is a significant source of funds for most businesses, because payment can
be made after the receipt of goods/services. However, a balance must be achieved
between using trade credit for funding and the problem of loss of supplier goodwill if
payments are regularly late.
(b) Overdrafts
Here a bank allows the business to overdraw on its account up to a certain level. This
is a very common form of short-term finance.
(c) Grants (these can be for long- or short-term purposes)
Grants are mainly provided by the government and its agencies. They include grants
for special projects, e.g. energy-conservation grants for specific industries, such as
mining, and grants for specific geographical areas.
(d) Leasing and Hire Purchase
These can also be arranged on a short-term basis.
(f) Factoring
This is a service provided to a business which helps increase its liquidity. The factoring
organisation will, for a fee, take over the accounts section of its client and send out
invoices and collect money from trade receivables. It also provides a service whereby
the client may receive up to, say, 80% of the value of a sales invoice as soon as it is
sent to the customer and the remaining money is passed on when collected by the
factor.
The problem with this method is that factors are very careful about accepting clients,
and they reject many organisations which approach them. Also, some personal contact
with customers is lost, which can harm trade.

Interest Rate Exposure

When considering a loan or other financial arrangement, the benefits deriving from what that
borrowing finances will be set against its forecast costs. If the economic situation changes
and the difference between costs and benefits is squeezed (say by increased costs of
financing) the company will become less profitable. The general level of interest rates is a
very important factor in financial planning.

Sources of External Finance

Having looked at the various types of finance available, let's now consider the organisations
which provide or help provide funds.
(a) Clearing Banks
These play a vital part in the provision of funds, particularly to small businesses. They
provide:
 Overdrafts
 Personal loans – unsecured
 Personal loans – secured
 Medium-term loans – designed to help businesses to expand and develop.
Often, repayments can be tailored to suit the individual borrower.

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(b) Merchant Banks

These provide development capital but they are very selective in the organisations they
choose to help. Normally the bankers require, as security, a seat on the board of
directors and active involvement in the management of the company. Development
purposes include expansion, buying out partners, product development, and
overcoming tax problems.
(c) Specialist Institutions
There are a number of specialist institutions – e.g. 3i Group (Investors in Industry) –
which provide finance, particularly for new business start-ups or management buyouts.
(d) Foreign Banks
These account for about 30% of all bank advances to UK manufacturing industries.
They are often slightly cheaper than clearing bank loans. Foreign banks are unlikely to
lend below £250,000.
(e) Insurance Companies
These can be used for obtaining mortgage facilities on the purchase of property.
(f) Pension Funds
Several pension funds have invested in company projects.
(g) Share Issues through the Stock Exchange
Companies wishing to raise funds through a public issue of shares invariably use the
services of an issuing house. These are experts in new issues, and they provide
administrative support and advice.
(h) Local Authorities
These have certain powers to provide assistance to industry where this would benefit
the local area. Finance is usually in the form of loans, improvement grants or provision
of factory space.
(j) Central Government and the European Union
There are a number of different fields in which assistance is provided from these
sources – e.g. regional aid, tax relief for investing in new companies.

Examples of Business Financing

The following is the balance sheet of a newly opened corner shop/general store. Do you feel
that the fixed and working capital has been correctly balanced? Comment on any different
approach that you might like to see as regards financing.

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Balance Sheet as at . . . . . . . . .

£ £
Non-current assets
Land and buildings 35,000
Fittings 5,000
Current Assets
Inventory 1,000
Cash 500
1,500
Current Liabilities
Bank overdraft 5,000
Trade payables 1,000
6,000 (4,500)
35,500
Long-term Liabilities
Mortgage loan 30,000
5,500
Capital 5,500

This example is somewhat "larger than life" in that it is most unlikely that such a venture
would be financed.
Fixed and working capital has not been well balanced at all. It seems that inventory has
been purchased entirely on credit and that it is at a very low level. Unless another delivery is
expected shortly it seems unlikely that £1,000 inventory would satisfy customers for very
long. In addition, the bank overdraft seems to be financing fixed assets (fittings). This is a
mismatch of short- and long-term and is poor financing.
As to the remainder of the financing, much of the land and buildings appears to be under
mortgage, with a very small capital contribution from the owners.
The venture looks doomed from the beginning. Think about the level of profit needed to
meet interest charges alone on this level of borrowing – without considering repayment.

E. MANAGEMENT OF WORKING CAPITAL

Working Capital Cycle
Working capital is current assets less current liabilities.
When a business begins to operate, cash will initially be provided by the proprietor or
shareholders. This cash is then used to purchase fixed assets, with part being held to buy
inventories of materials and to pay employees' wages. This finances the setting-up of the
business to produce goods/services to sell to customers for cash, which sooner or later is
received back by the business and used to purchase further materials, pay wages, etc.; and
so the process is repeated.

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CASH
Expenses incurred
Cash from trade with suppliers/
receivables employees

TRADE TRADE
RECEIVABLES PAYABLES

Goods/services
produced
INVENTORY

Problems arise when, at any given time in the business cycle, there is insufficient cash to pay
trade payables, who could have the business placed in liquidation if payment of debts is not
received. An alternative would be for the business to borrow to overcome the cash shortage,
but this can be costly in terms of interest payments, even if a bank is prepared to grant a
loan.

Striking the Right Balance

Working capital requirements can fluctuate because of seasonal business variations,
interruption to normal trading conditions, or government influences, e.g. changes in interest
or tax rates. Unless the business has sufficient working capital available to cope with these
fluctuations, expensive loans become necessary; otherwise insolvency may result. On the
other hand, the situation may arise where a business has too much working capital tied up in
idle inventories or with large trade receivables which could lose interest and therefore reduce
profits.
Irrespective of the method used for financing fixed and current assets, it is extremely
important to ensure that there is sufficient working capital at all times but that this is not
excessive. If working capital is in short supply, the fixed assets cannot be employed as
effectively as is required to earn maximum profits. Conversely, if the working capital is too
high, too much money is being locked up in inventories and other current assets. Possibly,
the excessive working capital will have been built up at the sacrifice of fixed assets. If this is
so, there will be a tendency for low efficiency to persist, with the inevitable running down of
profits.
The management of working capital is an extremely important function in a business. It is
mainly a balancing process between the cost of holding current assets and the risks
associated with holding very small or zero amounts of them.
(a) Management of Inventories
Inventories may include raw materials, work in progress and/or finished goods. The
balance to be struck here is between holding or not holding inventories.
(i) The cost of holding inventories
These include:
 Financing costs – the cost of producing funds to acquire the inventory held
 Storage costs
 Insurance costs

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 Cost of losses as a result of theft, damage, etc.

 Obsolescence cost and deterioration costs
These costs can be considerable, and estimates suggest they can be between
20% and 100% per annum of the value of the inventory held.
(ii) The cost of holding very low (or zero) inventories
These include
 Cost of loss of customer goodwill if inventories not available
 Ordering costs – low inventory levels are usually associated with higher
ordering costs than are bulk purchases
 Cost of production hold-ups owing to insufficient inventories
The organisation will set the balance which achieves the minimum total cost, and
arrive at optimal inventory levels.
(b) Management of Trade Receivables
The management of trade receivables requires identification and balancing of the
following costs:
(i) Costs of allowing credit
These include:
 Financing costs
 Cost of maintaining trade receivables' accounting records
 Cost of collecting the debts
 Cost of bad debts written off
 Cost of obtaining a credit reference
 Inflation cost – outstanding debts in periods of high inflation will lose value
in terms of purchasing power
(ii) Costs of refusing credit
These include:
 Loss of customer goodwill
 Security costs owing to increased cash collection
Again, the organisation will attempt to balance the two categories of costs – although
this is not an easy task, as costs are often difficult to quantify. It is normal practice to
establish credit limits for individual trade receivables.
(c) Management of Cash
Again, two categories of cost need to be balanced:
(i) Costs of holding cash
These include
 Loss of interest if cash were invested
 Loss of purchasing power during times of high inflation
 Security and insurance costs

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(ii) Costs of not holding cash

These include:
 Cost of inability to meet bills as they fall due
 Cost of lost opportunities for special-offer purchases
 Cost of borrowing to obtain cash to meet unexpected demands
Once again, the organisation must balance these costs to arrive at an optimal level of
cash to hold. The technique of cash budgeting is of great help in cash management.

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Study Unit 3
Final Accounts and Balance Sheet

Contents Page

Introduction 55

A. The Trial Balance 55

B. Trading Account 57
Layout 57
Example 58

C. Manufacturing Account 59
Layout 59
Example 60

D. Profit and Loss Account 62

Credits 62
Debits 62
Items Requiring Special Attention 63
Example 66

E. Allocation or Appropriation of Net Profit 67

Sole Trader 67
Partnership 67
Limited Company 68

F. The Nature of a Balance Sheet 69

Difference between Trial Balance and Balance Sheet 70
Functions of the Balance Sheet 70
Summarised Statement 70

G. Assets and Liabilities in the Balance Sheet 71

Types of Asset 71
Valuation of Assets 72

(Continued over)

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Order of Assets in the Balance Sheet 72

Liabilities to Proprietors 73
External Liabilities 73

H. Distinction between Capital and Revenue 75

Definitions 75
Capital and Revenue Receipts 75

I. Preparation of Balance Sheet 75

Sole Trader 75
Partnership 76

Answers to Questions for Practice 78

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INTRODUCTION
Every business, sooner or later, wants to know the result of its trading, i.e. whether a profit
has been made or a loss sustained, and whether it is still financially solvent. For this reason,
the following accounts must be prepared at the end of the year (or at intervals during the
year if the business so chooses):
(a) Manufacturing Account
This applies only to a manufacturing business, and shows the various costs of
producing the goods.
(b) Trading Account
The purpose of this account is to calculate the gross profit of a trading business, and
this is done by showing the revenue from the sale of goods, and the cost of acquiring
those goods.
(c) Profit and Loss Account
A business has many expenses not directly related to manufacturing or trading
activities, and these are shown in the profit and loss account. By subtracting them
from gross profit, a figure for net profit (or loss) is found. A business selling a service
will produce just a profit and loss account.
(d) Appropriation Account
A business now has to decide what to do with its net profit. The way in which this profit
is distributed (or "appropriated") is shown in the appropriation account. This account is
not used in the case of a sole trader, the net profit being transferred to the proprietor's
capital account.
(e) Balance Sheet
This is a statement of the assets owned by the business, and the liabilities outstanding.
It is not strictly an account.
So you can see that we arrive at the results of a firm's trading in two stages. Firstly, from the
manufacturing and trading accounts we ascertain gross profit. Secondly, from the profit and
loss account we determine net profit. You will often see the manufacturing, trading and profit
and loss accounts presented together and headed simply "Income statement for the year
ending ....".

A. THE TRIAL BALANCE

Before drawing up the final accounts and the balance sheet, it is usual to prepare a list of all
the balances in the accounts ledger. This is known as the trial balance.
Each account in the firm's books is balanced off. This means adding up the debit and credit
sides and then comparing the totals. If, for example, the debit side adds up to £500 and the
credit side to £400, then the lesser figure is deducted from the greater figure, and the
difference would be shown as a debit balance and entered into the trial balance (in this case
it would amount to £100).
Having drawn up the trial balance, and providing that the two sides have similar totals, it is
then possible to begin to draw up the final accounts. Remember that even if the trial balance
has similar amounts on both the debit and credit totals, this only proves the arithmetical
accuracy of the entries in the ledger accounts.

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A Typical Trial Balance (Sole Trader)

Debit Credit
£ £

Capital 84,000
Drawings 10,000
Trade receivables 20,000
Trade payables 7,000
Provision for doubtful debts 700
Non-current assets at cost 60,000
Depreciation of non-current assets 19,000
Inventory (trading) 32,000
Telephone expenses 3,000
Sundries 1,000
Cash in hand/bank 1,900
Purchases trading inventory 55,000
Sales 170,000
Wages 35,000
Insurance 1,600
Audit 3,000
Motor vehicle expenses 9,000
Rent 9,000
Salaries (office) 12,000
Office cleaning 9,000
Carriage inwards 2,200
Advertising 5,000
Commissions paid 7,000
Loss on canteen 5,000

280,700 280,700

Note: This model is provided to give you an idea of the layout and of some of the typical
items that may be included in a trial balance. There is no need to try and learn where all the
items can be found.

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B. TRADING ACCOUNT
For the sake of simplicity, we will assume here that the business purchases ready-made
goods and resells them at a profit.
What is gross profit? If I purchase a quantity of seeds for £10 and sell them for £15, I have
made a gross profit of £5. In the trading account we have to collect all those items which are
directly concerned with the cost or selling price of the goods in which we trade.

Layout
The main items in the trading account are shown in the following model layout. Carriage
inwards, i.e. on purchases, and customs duties on purchases, etc. are expenses incidental
to the acquisition by the business of the goods which are intended for resale, and are
therefore debited to the trading account.

£ £ £
Sales XXXX
less Sales returns (Returns inwards) XXXX

Turnover XXXX
Cost of goods sold:
Opening inventory XXXX
Purchases XXXX
less Returns (Returns outwards) XXXX

XXXX
add Carriage inwards XXXX

XXXX

XXXX
less Closing inventory XXXX XXXX

Gross profit (loss) XXXX

Note how sales returns are deducted from sales, and purchases returns from purchases.
Gross profit may be defined as the excess of the selling price of goods over their cost
price, due allowance being made for opening and closing inventories, and for costs
incidental in getting the goods into their present condition and location. We will look at the
valuation of inventories in a later study unit.

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58 Final Accounts and Balance Sheet

Example
From the following balances extracted from the books of AB Co. Ltd, prepare a trading
account for the year ended 31 December:
Balances at 31 December Year 1

Dr Cr
£ £

Purchases 140,251
Sales 242,761
Purchases returns 4,361
Sales returns 9,471
Inventory as at 1 January 54,319
Customs and landing charges (re purchases) 2,471
Carriage inwards 4,391

Inventory in hand at 31 December was valued at £64,971.

NB These are not all the balances in the books of the company – only those necessary for
compiling the trading account.
As you know that all these items are trading account items, this makes the exercise easy, but
remember that in practice the accountant will have to select, out of the various items in the
trial balance, those which are trading account items.
AB Co. Ltd
Trading Account for year ended 31 December . . .

£ £ £
Sales 242,761
less Returns 9,471 233,290

Cost of goods sold:

Opening stock 54,319
Purchases 140,251
less Returns 4,361

135,890
Customs and landing charges 2,471
Carriage inwards 4,391 142,752

197,071
less Closing inventory 64,971 132,100

Gross profit 101,190

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Questions for Practice

1. (a) From the following balances extracted from the ledger of H Smith & Co. on 31
October, prepare the trading account of the business for the year ended 31
October:
Purchases £24,720
Sales £40,830
Purchases returns £1,230
Sales returns £1,460
Carriage inwards £2,480
Inventory as at 1 November (i.e. beginning of year) £6,720
Inventory at end of year £7,630
(b) In what way would the trading account of H Smith & Co. be different if the
proprietor, Mr Smith, had withdrawn goods for his own use valued at £500 selling
price?
Now check your answers with those provided at the end of the unit

C. MANUFACTURING ACCOUNT
In dealing with our trading account, we have assumed that the business purchased finished
articles and resold them in the same condition, without making any alteration to them. Such
a business is a trading concern only. As you know, many businesses do more than this.
They purchase raw materials and convert them into finished articles by a process of
manufacture. Manufacture involves a number of factors, each contributing its own measure
of cost to the final product when it is ready for the market. A simple trading account would
not be appropriate for the purpose of dealing with these various expenses, so we use a
manufacturing account.
The primary purpose of the manufacturing account is to arrive at the cost of production of
the articles produced within a given period. A secondary purpose may be that of arriving at a
theoretical profit on manufacturing (manufacturing profit).
The cost of production comprises such factors as raw materials, manufacturing wages,
carriage inwards, factory power and fuel, factory rent, rates, insurance, etc. The expenses
must not be debited to the manufacturing account haphazardly; the layout and sequence of
this account is important.

Layout
The account is built up by stages:
(a) Cost of materials used – i.e. opening inventory of raw materials plus purchases of
raw materials less closing inventory of raw materials.
(b) Carriage inwards, duty, freight, etc. will be added to purchases, while purchases
returns will be deducted. The purchases figure will be after deduction of trade
discount.
(c) Direct labour costs – i.e. wages paid to workmen engaged on actual production.

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60 Final Accounts and Balance Sheet

(d) Direct expenses – which are any expenses incurred on actual production.
(e) Prime cost – i.e. the sub-total of (a), (b), (c) and (d).
(f) Factory overheads or indirect expenses associated with production such as factory
rent and rates, salary of works manager, and depreciation of plant, machinery and
factory buildings.
(g) Work in progress at the beginning of the period (added).
(h) Work in progress at the end of period (deducted).
(i) Cost of production – i.e. adjusted total of (g) and (h)
So in outline the layout is:

Direct materials
Direct labour
Direct expenses

PRIME COST
Factory overheads or Indirect
expenses

TOTAL PRODUCTION COST

Example
The following is an extract from a trial balance:

£ £
Opening inventory of raw materials 90,000
Opening inventory of work in
progress 75,000
Returns outwards – raw materials 2,500
Purchases – raw materials 160,000
Wages direct 83,000
Wages indirect 65,000
Expenses direct 22,000
Carriage inwards – raw materials 7,900
Rent factory 25,000
Fuel and power 17,370
General factory expenses 32,910
Opening inventory – finished goods 97,880
Sales 548,850

The closing inventories are:

Raw materials £74,000

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Work in progress £68,000

Finished goods £83,500
We can prepare the manufacturing and trading accounts together as follows:

Manufacturing and Trading Account for ......

£ £
Opening inventory of raw materials 90,000
Purchases raw materials 160,000
less Returns outward (2,500)

157,500
Carriage inwards (7,900) 165,400

255,400
less Closing inventory of raw
materials (74,000)

Total cost of raw materials 181,400

Direct wages 83,000
Direct expenses 22,000 105,000

Prime cost 286,400

Indirect expenses:
Wages 65,000
Fuel & power 17,370
General factory expenses 32,910
Rent 25,000 140,280

426,680
Opening WIP 75,000

501,680
less Closing WIP (68,000)

Total cost of production 433,680

Sales 548,850
Opening inventory finished goods 97,880
Production costs 433,680

531,560
less Closing inventory finished goods (83,500) (448,060)

Gross trading profit 100,790

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D. PROFIT AND LOSS ACCOUNT

No business can function without incurring what are known as overhead expenses. For
example, there are salaries, rent, stationery and other incidentals which must be met out of
the gross profit made. In addition, a business may earn a small income quite apart from the
gross profit, e.g. dividends and interest on investments.
The purpose of the profit and loss account is to gather together all the revenue credits and
debits of the business (other than those dealt with in the manufacturing and/or trading
account) so that it can be seen whether a net profit has been earned or a net loss incurred
for the period covered by the account.

Credits
The items appearing as credit in the profit and loss account include:
 Gross profit on trading – brought from the trading account.
 Discounts received.
 Rents received in respect of property let. (If rents are received from the subletting of
part of the factory premises, the rent of which is debited to the manufacturing account,
then these should be credited to manufacturing account. In effect this reduces the rent
debit to that applicable to the portion of the factory premises actually occupied by the
business.)
 Interest and dividends received in respect of investments owned by the business.
 Bad debts recovered.
 Other items of profit or gain, other than of a capital nature, including profits on the sale
of assets.

Debits
All the overhead expenses of the business are debited to the profit and loss account. Items
entered as debits in the profit and loss account should be arranged in a logical and
recognisable order. The following subdivisions of overhead expenses indicate one
recommended order (although this is not the only order in use).
(a) Administration Expenses
These cover rent, rates, lighting, heating and repairs etc. of office buildings, directors'
remuneration and fees, salaries of managers and clerks, office expenses of various
types. In general, all the expenses incurred in the control of the business and the
direction and formulation of its policy.
(b) Sales Expenses
Included in these are travellers' commission, salaries of sales staff, warehouse rent,
rates and expenses in respect of the warehouse, advertising, and any expenses
connected with the selling of the goods dealt in, e.g. bad debts.
(c) Distribution Expenses
Here we have cost of carriage outwards. (Remember that carriage inwards, i.e. on
purchases, is debited to the trading account; it is not really an overhead charge as it
increases the cost of the purchase.) Under this heading we also have such items as
freight (where goods are sold to customers abroad), expenses of motor vans and
wages of the drivers, wages of packers and any other expenses incurred by the
distribution or delivery of the goods dealt in.

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(d) Financial Expenses

These include bank charges, interest on loans, hire purchase agreements, debentures,
mortgages, bank overdrafts, etc.
No capital expense items must be debited to profit and loss account. This is extremely
important. An example of a capital item is the purchase of plant and machinery by a
manufacturing business.

Items Requiring Special Attention

There are several items which do not occur in the normal course of business but which must
be carefully considered at the end of each trading period.
(a) Bad Debts
If all the trade receivables of a firm paid their accounts, no mention of this item would
be made. Unfortunately, however, they do not, and many firms incur what are known
as bad debts. For instance, where a debtor is declared a bankrupt, the whole of his
debt will not be settled. Only a part of it is paid, but as far as the law is concerned, the
debt is wiped out. Consequently, the unsettled portion of the debt is of no value, and it
must be written off as a loss. Similarly, if trade receivables disappear, or if their debts
are not worth the trouble of court action, the debts must be written off.
The debtor's account is credited with the amount of bad debt, thus closing the account.
To complete the double entry, the bad debts account is debited. All bad debts
incurred during the trading period are debited to the bad debts account.
At the end of the trading period the bad debts account is credited with the total bad
debts, to close the account. The double entry is preserved by debiting profit and loss
account with the same amount.
Bad debts are sometimes considered to be a financial expense, for they arise from the
financial policy of selling goods on credit rather than for cash. However, they are more
appropriately classified as a sales expense, as they result directly from sales.
(b) Bank Charges
These are charges made by the firm's bank for working the account of the firm, and
are therefore debited to profit and loss account. Bank charges are a financial
expense.
(c) Debenture Interest
As debenture holders are trade payables of the company, their interest must be paid
whether the company is able to show a profit or not. Therefore it is an expense and,
as such, must be debited to profit and loss account.
Remember the difference between debenture interest and dividends paid. The former
is interest on an outside loan whilst the latter is merely a distribution of profit.
(d) Depreciation
Assets such as plant and machinery, warehouse or factory buildings, delivery vehicles,
are used directly in the manufacture of goods or in trading and, as a result of this, their
value must decrease owing to wear and tear. This decrease in value must be allowed
for when overhead charges are being debited to the manufacturing, trading or profit
and loss account. We will look at how to estimate the amount to charge each year for
depreciation in a later study unit.
Each year the depreciation account will increase in value, until such time as the
balance on that account equals the cost price shown in the asset account. At this point
no further deprecation should be charged to the profit and loss account.

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Depreciation of such assets as office furniture must also be allowed for in the profit and
loss account. Where, however, there is a manufacturing account, the depreciation of
all assets which are actually engaged in production, e.g. plant and machinery, should
be recorded in it, because such depreciation is a manufacturing expense. Normally
the depreciation provision is the last charge to be shown in both the manufacturing
account and the profit and loss account.
Where there is a profit or loss on the disposal of a fixed asset, this is shown in the
profit and loss account immediately after the expense of depreciation.
(e) Discount
There are usually two discount accounts, one for discounts received and one for
discounts allowed. The former is a credit balance and the latter a debit balance. At the
end of the trading period, discounts received account is debited and profit and loss
account credited, as items under this heading are benefits received by the firm.
Discounts allowed account is credited and profit and loss account debited, as these
items are expenses of the firm. Discounts allowed can be classed as a financial
expense but are more usually shown as a separate item in the profit and loss account.
(f) Dividends Paid (Limited Company Only)
This item, which will appear as a debit balance in the trial balance, represents profits
which have been distributed amongst the shareholders of the company. It is not,
therefore, an expense of the company and must not be debited to the profit and loss
account. This item must be debited to the appropriation account (see later). If no
profits have been made, no dividends will be paid to shareholders.
(g) Drawings (Partnership or Sole Trader)
The drawings of a partner or sole trader are not expenses of the business and must
not, therefore, be debited to the profit and loss account. Drawings are the withdrawals
of cash or goods or services from the business by the partner or sole trader.
(h) Goodwill
This is an item which often appears as an asset of a business. It is the value attached
to the probability that old customers will continue to patronise the firm. Thus, where a
company purchases another business, it may pay £500,000 for assets which are
agreed as being worth only £450,000. The difference of £50,000 will be the value of
the goodwill.
In such circumstances, the company might decide to write off the goodwill over a
number of years, say ten years. In this case the profit or loss account would be
debited annually with £5,000 and goodwill account credited, until the latter account
ceases to exist. Often, however, the firm decides to write off the entire amount of any
goodwill immediately.
(i) Preliminary Expenses (Limited Company Only)
These are expenses incurred at the time a limited company is set up, and consist
chiefly of legal charges connected with the incorporation of the company. Under the
Companies Act they should be written off immediately.
(j) Provision for Bad Debts
In addition to writing off bad debts as they occur or when they are known to be bad, a
business should also provide for any losses it may incur in the future as a result of its
present trade receivables being unable to meet their obligations. If a business has
book debts totalling £100,000, it is not very likely that all those trade receivables will
pay their accounts in full. Some of the debts may prove to be bad, but this may not be
known for some considerable time.

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The amount of the provision should be determined by a careful examination of the list
of trade receivables at the balance sheet date. If any of these debts are bad, they
should be written off at once. If any debts are doubtful, it should be estimated how
much the debtor is likely to pay. The balance of his debt is potentially bad, and the
provision should be the total of such potentially bad amounts. The debtor's account
will not, however, be written off until it is definitely known that it is bad.
The provision is formed for the purpose of reducing the value of trade receivables on
the balance sheet to an amount which it is expected will be received from them. It is
not an estimate of the bad debts which will arise in the succeeding period. Bad debts
arising in the next period will result from credit sales made within that period as well as
from debts outstanding at the beginning of the period. It is therefore quite incorrect to
debit bad debts against the provision for bad debts. Once the latter account has been
opened, the only alteration in it is that required to increase or decrease its balance – by
debit or credit to profit and loss account. This alteration is included as a financial
expense when a debit.
(Never show provision for bad debts with the liabilities on the balance sheet – it is
always deducted from the amount of trade receivables under the assets on the balance
sheet – see later.)
(k) Provision for Discounts Allowable
If a business allows discount to its customers for prompt payment, it is likely that some
of the trade receivables at the balance sheet date will actually pay less than the full
amount of their debt. To include trade receivables at the face value of such debts,
without providing for discounts which may be claimed, is to overstate the financial
position of the business. So, a provision for discounts allowable should be made by
debit to profit and loss account. If made on a percentage basis, it should be reckoned
in relation to potentially good debts, i.e. trade receivables less provision for bad debts,
for if it is thought that a debt is sufficiently doubtful for a provision to be raised against
it, it is hardly likely that that debtor will pay his account promptly and claim discount!
The provision appears as a deduction in the balance sheet from trade receivables
(after the provision for bad debts has been deducted). It is a financial expense.
(l) Expenses Paid in Advance or Arrears (Prepayments and Accruals)
Where a proportion of an expense, such as rent, has been paid in advance (prepaid),
this must be allowed for when the profit and loss account is drawn up. For instance, if
the firm paid £10,000 rent for six months from 1 November, and the profit and loss
account is made out for the year ended 31 December, it would obviously be wrong to
debit the profit and loss account with the full amount of £10,000. Only two months'
rent should be debited, i.e. £3,333.30 and the other four months' rent, i.e. £6,666.70,
should be carried forward and shown in the balance sheet as an asset, "Rent paid in
advance". These remarks apply equally to any other sum paid in advance, e.g. rates,
insurance premiums.
On the other hand, it is often the case that a firm, at the end of the trading period, has
incurred expenses which have not yet been paid (i.e. have accrued). For instance,
where rent is not payable in advance, a proportion of the rent for the period may be
owing when the profit and loss account is drawn up. How is this to be accounted for?
Obviously, profit and loss account will be debited with rent already paid, and it must
also be debited with that proportion of the rent which is due but unpaid. Having
debited profit and loss account with this latter proportion, we must credit rent account
with it. The rent account will then show a credit balance and this must appear as a
liability on the balance sheet – it is a debt owing by the business. Then, when this
proportion of rent owing is paid, cash will be credited and rent account debited.

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The treatment of expenses (or income) paid or received in advance or in arrears is an

example of the accruals concept referred to earlier in the course.

Example
The following balances remain in John Wild's books after preparation of his trading account
for the year ended 30 June:

Dr Cr
£ £

Capital 80,000
Gross profit 10,000
Rates 700
Insurance 350
Postage and stationery 270
Drawings 6,000
Electricity 800

The following notes were available at 30 June:

Rates paid in advance £140
Insurance paid in advance £150
Electricity account due but £170
unpaid
Prepare John Wild's profit and loss account for the year ended 30 June.
This would be as follows:
John Wild
Profit and Loss Account for the year ended 30 June

£ £
Gross profit 10,000
less Expenses:
Rates (700 - 140) 560
Insurance (350 - 150) 200
Postage and stationery 270
Electricity (800 + 170) 970 2,000

Net profit 8,000

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E. ALLOCATION OR APPROPRIATION OF NET PROFIT

The net profit of a business for any period is the excess of its income (gains and profits) over
its expenses and losses. It is quite easily ascertained by deducting the total of the debit
items in the profit and loss account from the total of the credit items.
We must now consider how the debit to the profit and loss account for net profit (or credit for
net loss) is represented by double entry in the books of the business. This differs according
to the type of ownership of the business.
The three main types of ownership are sole trader, partnership and limited company, and we
shall consider the question of net profit in relation to each in turn.

Sole Trader
This is the simplest case of all (illustrated in the previous example) because the net profit,
which is debited to profit and loss account, is credited to the capital account of the sole
trader. The trader may have withdrawn certain amounts during the trading period; the total
of the drawings accounts will then be debited to capital account at the end of the trading
period.

Partnership
The allocation of net profit (or loss) in the case of a partnership is not quite as simple. When
the partnership commences, a document is usually drawn up setting out the rights and duties
of all the partners, the amounts of capital to be contributed by each, and the way in which the
net profit or loss is to be shared amongst them.
In the case of a partnership, the profit and loss account is really in two sections. The first
section is drawn up as we have seen in this study unit and is debited with the net profit made
(or credited with the net loss). The second section shows how the net profit is allocated to
the various partners, and it is referred to as a profit and loss appropriation account.
In a partnership, the partners each have two accounts, the capital account (which is kept
intact) and the current account. A partner's current account is debited with his drawings,
and with his proportion of any loss which the business might sustain. It is credited with the
partner's share of the net profit, and with interest on his capital if this is provided for in the
partnership agreement. Thus the capital account of a partner will remain constant, but his
current account will fluctuate year by year.
So the appropriation account is credited with the net profit of the trading period. It is debited
with any interest on the partners' capitals, where this is provided for in the partnership
agreement, and with any salaries.
Then, when these items have been debited, remaining profit can be divided. The
appropriation account will be debited with the shares of the remaining profit which are due to
the partners. This will close the profit and loss account, and, to complete the double entry,
the current account of each partner must be credited with his share of the profit.
Example
Smith, Brown and Robinson are partners who share profits in the proportion of their capitals.
Their capitals are £50,000, £20,000 and £10,000 respectively. The net profit for the year
before providing for this, or for the following items, is £71,000. Interest on capital is to be
allowed at 5 per cent per annum, and Robinson is to have a partnership salary of £3,000 per
annum. Show how the profit of £71,000 is allocated.

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Profit and Loss Appropriation Account for year ended 31 December . . .

£ £
Net profit b/d 71,000

Robinson – salary 3,000

Interest on capital at 5%:
Smith 2,500
Brown 1,000
Robinson 500 4,000

Share of profit:
Smith ( 58 ) 40,000

Brown ( 41 ) 16,000

Robinson ( 81 ) 8,000 64,000

71,000

Thus:
£
Smith's current account will be credited with (£2,500 + £40,000) 42,500
Brown's current account will be credited with (£1,000 + £16,000) 17,000
Robinson's current account will be credited with (£3,000 + £500 + 11,500
£8,000)

Net profit shown in first part of profit and loss account 71,000

Limited Company
When the net profit has been ascertained, the directors of a company have to decide how
much they can release as dividends and how much to retain. A limited company distributes
its profits by means of dividends on the shares of its capital held by the shareholders. So,
where a company declares a dividend of 10 per cent, the holder of each £1 share will receive
10p. Such a dividend would be debited to the appropriation account, together with all
dividends paid on other classes of shares.
Directors' fees should be debited to the profit and loss account proper. (If, however, these
fees vary according to the amount of net profit paid and have to be passed by the company
in general meeting, they should be kept in suspense until such meeting has taken place.
Then they should be debited to the appropriation account, because they are a proportion of
the profits due to the directors.)
When dividends and any other items have been debited to the appropriation account, the
whole of the profit may not have been used. The balance remaining is carried forward to the
appropriation account of the next trading period.
When a company make a large profit, the directors will often deem it prudent to place a
proportion of such profit on one side, instead of distributing it amongst the shareholders. An
account is opened to which such sums will be credited, the appropriation account being

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debited. This account is known as a reserve account and contains appropriation from net
profits, accumulating year by year.

Questions for Practice

2. From the following balances appearing in the ledger of the New Manufacturing Co. on
31 December, draw up the profit and loss account for the year ended 31 December:

£ £
Discounts allowed 32
Discounts received 267
Gross profit brought down from trading
account 127,881
Salaries 44,261
Bank charges 193
Sundry office expenses 1,361
Rent and rates 19,421
Bad debts written off 937
Carriage outwards 5,971
Plant and machinery 50,000

Notes:
(a) Write off 10 per cent depreciation on plant and machinery.
(b) Rent owing on 31 December amounted to £2,000.
(c) An insurance premium amounting to £500 was paid in July in the current year for
the year to 30 June of the following year. The £500 is included in sundry office
expenses.
Now check your answer with that provided at the end of the unit

F. THE NATURE OF A BALANCE SHEET

As we have seen, at the end of an accounting period, it is usual to extract a trial balance.
From the trial balance are compiled the trading account, manufacturing account (if any),
profit and loss and appropriation account. In preparing these final accounts, many accounts
in the ledger are closed, e.g. sales account is closed by being transferred to the credit of the
trading account.
When the final accounts have been prepared, there will still be a number of ledger accounts
which remain open. These open account balances are extracted as a kind of final trial
balance, set out in full detail, and this final trial balance is known as the balance sheet.
A balance sheet is a statement showing the assets owned and the liabilities owed by the
business on a certain date. It can be ruled in account form, but it is not an account.
However, the expression "final accounts" includes the balance sheet even though it is not
really an account.

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Because it is a statement as at a particular date, it is headed:

Name of Firm
Balance Sheet as at (or as on, or at) date

It is never headed "for the year (or other period) ended ......". This latter type of heading is
used for trading and profit and loss accounts which cover a period of time.
The balance sheet may be presented with the assets on one side and the liabilities on the
other. An alternative presentation is to show the assets (net) first, with a total, and then the
capital of the business, with its own total, in a vertical format. The vertical format is now the
more generally used one.

Difference between Trial Balance and Balance Sheet

 A trial balance is a list of all the ledger balances, not only assets and liabilities but also
gains and losses. A balance sheet is a list of a part only of the ledger balances, i.e.
those remaining after the profit and loss items have been dealt with, the assets and
liabilities.
 A trial balance is prepared before the revenue accounts are compiled. A balance
sheet is prepared after the revenue accounts have been dealt with.
With the profit and loss account we actually transfer the gains and losses appearing in
accounts in the books. Because the balance sheet is a statement and not an account, the
accounts for assets and liabilities in the books are not affected when we draw up the balance
sheet. We do not "transfer" them to the balance sheet.

Functions of the Balance Sheet

(a) Financial Position of Business
The balance sheet is drawn up in order to give a picture of the financial position of the
business. It reveals whether the business is solvent or insolvent. It shows how much
is invested in different forms of property, and how the business is funded.
(b) Arithmetical Accuracy of Accounts
The agreement of the balance sheet also provides a check on the accuracy of the
revenue accounts in much the same way as the agreement of a trial balance provides
evidence of the arithmetical accuracy of the books.

(c) Bridge between Financial Years

The balance sheet is also a bridge between one financial year and the next. All
accounts which remain open after the manufacturing, trading and profit and loss
accounts have been prepared are summarised in the balance sheet.

Summarised Statement
If we listed each asset, each piece of machinery, each book debt etc. separately, the balance
sheet would be extremely long. Assets and liabilities are summarised or grouped, therefore,
into main classes, and only the total of each type is shown on the balance sheet. Thus, if
our trade receivables are Jones, who owes us £10, and Smith, who owes us £15, we show
under current assets:
Trade receivables £25

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Summarisation entails giving as much information in as little space as possible. Style and
layout are important. As an example, assume that office furniture was worth £2,000 at the
beginning of the year and has since depreciated by £100. The balance sheet will show:

Balance Sheet as at 31 December year 1

£ £
Non-current assets
Office furniture
Balance 1 January 2,000
less Depreciation for year at 5% pa 100 1,900

G. ASSETS AND LIABILITIES IN THE BALANCE SHEET

Types of Asset
The key distinction to make is between fixed and current assets.
 Non-Current Assets
These are assets which are retained in a business, more or less permanently, for the
purpose of earning revenue only and not for the purposes of sale. Examples are:
plant, machinery, land, buildings, vehicles. Some non-current assets are consumed by
the passing of time, e.g. leases, mines. The difference between tangible and
intangible assets is discussed later.
 Current Assets
Cash and those other assets which have been made or purchased merely to be sold
and converted into cash are known as current assets. It is from the turnover of current
assets that a business makes its trading profit. Examples are: inventory in trade,
trade receivables, cash, temporary investments. All such assets are held for a short
period only, e.g. inventory when sold creates trade receivables, these trade receivables
pay their debts in cash, by means of which more inventory can be acquired. So the
circle moves round and current assets are kept constantly moving.
Whether an asset is fixed or current depends entirely upon the kind of business. What is a
fixed asset in one firm may be a current asset in another. For example, machinery is a fixed
asset when held by a firm which manufactures cigarettes but, in the hands of a firm which
sells machinery, it will be a current asset. A motor van will be a fixed asset for a tradesman
who uses it for delivery but, to a manufacturer of such vans, it will be a current asset, i.e.
inventory.
The deciding factor is whether the asset is held merely until a purchaser can be found, or
permanently for use in the business.
However, you must remember that even if an asset is not easily realisable, it may still be a
current asset, e.g. a debt due from a foreign importer may be hard to realise, owing to
exchange restrictions, but it still remains a current asset. (Note also that a "fixed" asset is
not necessarily immovable.)
A further classification of assets may be made to distinguish between tangible and intangible
assets.

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 Assets which can be possessed in a physical sense, e.g. plant, machinery, land and
buildings, are tangible assets. Also included in the category of tangible assets are
legal rights against third parties.
 On the other hand, assets which cannot be possessed in a physical sense, and which
are not legal rights against external persons, are intangible. Goodwill is perhaps the
best example of an intangible asset. It is often a very valuable asset in the case of an
old-established business.

Valuation of Assets
Generally speaking, non-current assets represent money which has been spent in the past
on items which were intended to be used to earn revenue for the firm. In many cases these
non-current assets depreciate over a period of years and may finally have to be scrapped.
Therefore, the money spent originally on a fixed asset should be spread out over the number
of years of the estimated life of the asset. An item representing depreciation will be debited
to the profit and loss account annually.
Because we deduct the depreciation from the cost of the asset, the fixed asset is shown as a
diminishing figure in the balance sheet each year (unless, of course, there have been
additions to the asset during the year). The decrease in the value of the fixed asset is also
shown as an expense in the annual profit and loss account.
Remember that not all non-current assets are consumed by the passing of time. Some, in
fact, may appreciate, e.g. freehold land and buildings. With the rising value of such assets,
it is considered quite correct to revalue them so the balance sheet shows the correct market
value.
Current assets such as inventory are normally held for a relatively short period, i.e. until they
can be realised. Current assets should generally be valued at cost or market price
whichever is lower. This is necessary to ensure that no account is taken of profit until the
assets have been realised.

Order of Assets in the Balance Sheet

The assets in the balance sheet must be arranged in a clear and logical order. The order
usually adopted is:
Non-current assets
Current assets
In each group assets are arranged in an order from most fixed to most fluid, thus:

Non-current assets Current Assets

Goodwill Work in progress

Patents, trademarks, etc. Inventory in trade
Freehold land and buildings Trade receivables
Leasehold land and Payments in advance
buildings
Plant and machinery Temporary investments
Motor vehicles Bank deposit account
Furniture and fittings Cash at bank
Long-term investments Cash in hand

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A sub-total for each group is extended into the end column of the balance sheet. The
examples which follow later make this clear.

Liabilities to Proprietors
The liability of a business to the proprietor is, in the case of a sole trader, his capital account,
i.e. the amount by which the business is indebted to him.
With a partnership, the liabilities to the proprietors are found in the capital accounts and
current accounts of the partners. (The current accounts are only liabilities when they are
credit balances. When they are debit balances they appear in the asset section of the
balance sheet, since debit balances represent debts due from partners.) The balances of
these accounts represent the indebtedness of the business to the various partners.
With a limited company, this indebtedness is the amount of the share capital paid up.
The indebtedness of the business to the proprietor(s) cannot, strictly speaking, be classed
as a liability. The proprietors of a firm can only withdraw their capital in bulk when the firm is
wound up, and even then they must wait until the outside trade payables have been
satisfied. When the outside trade payables have been paid out of the proceeds of sale of
the assets, it may be that there is very little left for the proprietors to take.
In some cases the proceeds of sale of the assets are insufficient to pay off the external trade
payables. The proprietors must then provide more funds until the trade payables are
satisfied:
 A sole trader must contribute funds to pay off remaining outside trade payables, even
if this takes the whole of his private property and investments.
 In a partnership, the partners too must make good a deficiency on winding up. They
must contribute until all the external trade payables are paid, even if this takes the
whole of their private means.
 A limited liability company is different from either a sole trader or a partnership, since
the liability of each proprietor, i.e. shareholder, is restricted to the amount he originally
agreed to contribute. For example, a shareholder has 100 shares of £1 each in a
company, and has paid 75p on each share. He can only be called upon to pay a
further sum of 25p per share (total £25), if the assets of the company do not realise
sufficient to satisfy the external trade payables. In most companies all the shares are
fully paid, so the shareholders are not liable for anything further.

External Liabilities
The external liabilities of any firm are those which cannot be described as indebtedness to
proprietors. It is possible, however, for a person to be an external creditor and a proprietor.
This occurs when a shareholder of a company becomes an ordinary trade creditor of the
company in the normal course of business.
We can classify external liabilities in various ways:
(a) Long term or Current Liabilities
 Long-term Liabilities
Long-term liabilities are those which would not normally be repaid within 12
months.
 Current Liabilities (Short-term Liabilities)
Current liabilities consist of current trading debts due for payment in the near
future. It is essential that long-term and current liabilities are stated separately in
the balance sheet, so that shareholders and third parties can judge whether the

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current assets are sufficient to meet the current liabilities and also provide
sufficient working capital. Current liabilities also include accrued expenses.
(b) Secured and Unsecured Liabilities
 Secured Liabilities
Liabilities for which a charge has been given over certain or all of the assets of
the firm are said to be secured. In such cases the creditor, in default of payment,
can exercise his rights against the assets charged, to obtain a remedy. (An
asset is "charged" when the creditor gives a loan on condition that he acquires
the ownership of the asset if the loan is not repaid by the agreed date. The asset
is security for the loan.) This is similar to a mortgage on a private house.
A charge may be either fixed or floating. A fixed charge is one which relates
only to one particular asset, such as a building. On the other hand, a floating
charge can be exercised over the whole of the class of assets mentioned in the
charge, present or future. Debentures are often secured by a floating charge on
the whole of the assets of the company.
The floating charge does not "crystallise" until the charge is enforced, i.e. the
creditor goes to court to obtain payment of his debt. When this occurs, the firm
which granted the charge may not deal in any way with any of the assets
included in the charge.
A floating charge is convenient to both borrower and lender. The borrower is
allowed to deal as he chooses, in the ordinary course of business, with the
assets covered by the charge, without having to obtain the permission of the
lender. Also the lender is satisfied because he knows that his loan is well
secured. With a fixed charge, however, the borrower could not sell the asset
charged without the permission of the lender.
 Unsecured Liabilities
Such liabilities are not secured by a charge over any of the assets of a firm.
In the event of a winding-up of a business, the secured trade payables are
satisfied out of the proceeds of the asset(s) over which they have a charge. Any
surplus, together with the proceeds of uncharged assets, are reserved to satisfy
first the preferential liabilities (described below) and then the unsecured liabilities.
When all these liabilities have been met, the final surplus, if any, is shared by the
proprietors.
(c) Preferential Liabilities
On the bankruptcy of a sole trader or partnership, or on the winding-up of a company,
certain liabilities enjoy preference over others. These debts are known as preferential
liabilities. Examples are unpaid wages and taxation. Preferential liabilities do not
concern us in the preparation of a balance sheet of a continuing business.
(d) Contingent Liabilities
Liabilities which might arise in the future but which are not represented in the books of
the firm concerned at the date of drawing up the balance sheet, are said to be
contingent.
An example of a contingent liability is where the firm concerned is involved in a law
action at the date of the balance sheet. If there is a possibility that damages and/or
costs will be awarded against the firm, a note to this effect should be added as a
footnote to the balance sheet.

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H. DISTINCTION BETWEEN CAPITAL AND REVENUE

As we mentioned earlier in the course, revenue expenditure constitutes a charge against
profits and must be debited to profit and loss account, whereas capital expenditure
comprises all expenditure incurred in the purchase of non-current assets for the purpose of
earning income, and is shown in the balance sheet. Failure to observe the distinction
inevitably falsifies the results of the book-keeping. For example, if a motor car were
purchased and the cost charged to profit and loss account as motor car expenses, or if a
building were sold and the proceeds credited to profit and loss account as a trading gain,
then both the profit and loss account and the balance sheet would be incorrect. It would not
show a true and fair view of the company's trading position.

Definitions
(a) Capital Expenditure
Where expenditure is incurred in acquiring, or increasing the value of, a permanent
asset which is frequently or continuously used to earn revenue, it is capital
expenditure.
(b) Revenue Expenditure
This represents all other expenditure incurred in running a business, including
expenditure necessary for maintaining the earning capacity of the business and for the
upkeep of non-current assets in a fully efficient state.
It is extremely difficult to lay down a hard and fast rule as to the dividing line which separates
capital expenditure and revenue expenditure. For example, if a general dealer bought a
motor car, the cost would be debited to capital, whereas if a motor dealer bought the car, the
cost would be debited to revenue and/or holding inventory, if not sold during the same
accounting period as the purchase.

Capital and Revenue Receipts

The division of receipts into capital and revenue items is not nearly as difficult, as the
sources of receipts are generally far less in number than the types of expenditure.
(a) Capital Receipts
These normally consist of additional payments of capital into the business, and
proceeds from the sale of non-current assets.
(b) Revenue Receipts
These comprise all other forms of income, including income from the sale of goods in
the ordinary course of trading, interest on investments, rents, commission and
discounts.

I. PREPARATION OF BALANCE SHEET

Let's now see how balance sheets are prepared in practice for sole traders and partnerships.
Company balance sheets follow the same lines, and we will look at these later.

Sole Trader
As an example, the balance sheet of J Smith is shown below.

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J. Smith:
Balance Sheet as at 31 Dec

£ £ £

Non-current assets Cost Dep'n Net

Freehold premises 21,480 21,480
Fixtures and fittings 2,000 (100) 1,900

23,480 (100) 23,380

Current Assets
Trading inventory 11,480
Trade receivables 18,960
less Provision for bad debts (750) 18,210
Insurance prepaid 250
Cash 240 30,180

Current Liabilities
Trade payables 19,490
Accrued expenses 480 (19,970)

Net current assets 10,210

Total assets less current liabilities 33,590

Long-term Liabilities
Mortgage on freehold (12,470)

21,120
Capital Account
Balance brought forward 18,000
add Net profit for the year 14,010

32,010
less Drawings (10,890)

21,120

Partnership
The main point of difference between the balance sheet of a sole trader and of a partnership
lies in the capital and current accounts. While the sole trader may merge profits and losses,
drawings, etc. into his capital account, this is not so in a partnership. Current accounts are
necessary to record shares of profits and losses, interest on capitals, salaries, drawings, etc.
and the final balances only need be shown in the balance sheet.
The order of assets and liabilities is generally as shown in the balance sheet above for the
sole trader. Current accounts always appear below capital accounts.
Here is a summarised version of the proprietors' interest section of the balance sheet of a
partnership:

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Robinson, Jones and Brown

Balance Sheet as at 31 October ....

Robinson Jones Brown Total

£ £ £ £

Proprietors' Interest
Capital accounts 7,500 5,500 2,500 15,500
Current accounts 2,475 1,965 1,180 5,620

9,975 7,465 3,680 21,120

Note that the formats we have used for the presentation of the accounts/financial statements
in this unit are suitable for the type of business referred to, but when, in later study units, we
deal with large companies who have to report under IGAAP, the format will be slightly
different.

Questions for Practice

3. The following balances remain in William Dean's books after he has completed his
profit and loss account for the year ended 31 May Year 2:

£ £
Capital 1 June Year 1 124,000
Net profit for year ended 31 May Year 2 13,570
Loan from John Dean (repayable in 10 years' 9,500
time)
Trade payables 1,950
Premises 110,000
Inventory 25,000
Trade receivables 2,600
Balance at bank 1,400
Cash in hand 20
Drawings (taken out of business for private use) 10,000

Set out William Dean's balance sheet as at 31 May Year 2.

Now check your answer with that provided at the end of the unit

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ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS FOR PRACTICE

1. (a)
H. Smith & Co.
Trading Account for year ended 31 October

£ £ £
Sales 40,830
less Returns 1,460 39,370

Cost of goods sold:

Opening inventory 6,720
Purchases 24,720
less Returns (1,230) 23,490
Carriage inwards 2,480

32,690
Closing inventory (7,630) (25,060)

Gross profit 14,310

(b) The profit would be increased by £500 to £14,810 because the net sales would
be increased to £39,870 and the drawings account of Mr Smith would be debited
by a similar amount, i.e. £500.

2. New Manufacturing Company

Profit and Loss Account for year ended 31 Dec

£ £ £
Gross profit on trading 127,881
Discounts received 267 128,148
Expenses
Rent & rates (19,421 + 2,000) 21,421
Salaries 44,261
Sundries (1,361  250) 1,111
Discounts allowed 32
Bad debts 937
Carriage outwards 5,971
Bank charges 193
Depreciation on plant and machinery:
10% of £50,000 5,000 (78,926)

Net profit 49,222

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Notes
 Rent and rates have been increased by £2,000, this being the amount owing at
the year end.
 Sundry office expenses have been reduced by £250, this being the prepayment
of the insurance premium.

3. William Dean
Balance Sheet as at 31 May year 2

£ £
Non-current assets
Premises 110,000

Current assets
Inventory 25,000
Trade receivables 2,600
Balance at bank 1,400
Cash in hand 20

29,020
less Current Liabilities
Trade payables (1,950) 27,070

Net assets 137,070

Long-Term Liabilities
Long-term loan (repayable in 10 years' time) (9,500)

127,570
Financed by:
Opening capital 124,000
add Net profit 13,570

137,570
less Drawings (10,000)

127,570

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 81

Study Unit 4
Presentation of Financial Statements

Contents Page

Introduction 83

A. The UK Companies Act 1985 and Accounting Requirements 83

Background 83
Accounting Records and Reports 84
Duty to Deliver Accounts 84
Signing of Balance Sheet 84
Circulation of Published Accounts 84
Small and Medium-sized Companies – Power to File Modified Statements 85
Directors' Report 85
Auditors' Report 86

B. The Balance Sheet 87

Disclosure of Accounting Policies 87
Presentation of the Balance Sheet 88
Example 91

C. The Income Statement 93

Presentation of the Income Statement 93
Example of Internal and Published Income Statement 95

D. IAS 1: Statement of Changes in Equity 97

Separate Statement of Comprehensive Income 97
Statement of Changes in Equity 98

E. Summary of Statements Required by IAS 1 99

F. Narrative Statements Required in Published Financial Statements 99

The Audit Report 99
The Director's Report 100
Corporate Governance Report 100
Other Statements 101

(Continued over)

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Appendix 1: Example of Statement of Accounting Policies (Tesco PLC) 102

Appendix 2: Example of Independent Auditors' Report (Tesco PLC) 110

Appendix 3: Example of Directors' Report (Tesco PLC) 111

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INTRODUCTION
When a business draws up its own final accounts/financial statements for internal use, it may
use any format it likes since there are no rules to prevent such accounts being drafted in the
manner most suitable for management.
However, the published accounts of a business must be in accordance with the rules laid
down in the legal framework of the country the business is resident in. They will also have to
comply with relevant accounting standards (with which we will deal later). As a flavour of the
legal regulations of a country, we shall briefly deal with those of the UK in the following
section.

A. THE UK COMPANIES ACT 1985 AND ACCOUNTING

REQUIREMENTS
Background
Even under the Companies Act 1929, the Act that operated before the Companies Act
1948 came into force, the directors of a company were under an obligation to lay before the
members in general meeting, at least once every year, a balance sheet and a profit and loss
account made up to the same date. However, with very few exceptions, that Act did not
specify which details were to be shown in this published profit and loss account. While the
"internal accounts" (i.e. the final accounts drawn up for the information of the directors and
management) would be fully detailed, the published profit and loss account frequently
contained the barest minimum of information. Thus, it might show little else but the opening
balance on the appropriation account, the "net profit" for the current year (a figure arrived at
by deducting from the true net profit all taxation, transfers to reserve, etc.), and the balance
on the appropriation account at the end of the year.
The following reasons led to the passing of the 1948 Act:
 The very real possibility that shareholders could be misled by published accounts.
 The growing need for more statistics relating to the commercial and business life of the
country.
 It was thought to be in the public interest for the press to have as much information as
possible about company finance.
 It was felt desirable to increase the amount of control which it was possible for
shareholders to exercise over the running of the business.
Other Companies Acts were passed in 1967, 1976 and 1980, further increasing the amount
of information required to be published by companies. The 1981 Act changed considerably
the format of annual financial statements. The accounting provisions of these Acts were
consolidated in the Companies Act 1985.
Before we consider the detailed provisions of the Companies Act 1985 regarding the
content of published accounts, we must first study the requirements concerning their
preparation, authorisation and circulation to members.

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Accounting Records and Reports

The provisions in respect of accounting records and reports are laid down in section 221 of
the Companies Act 1985.
A company must keep accounting records that are sufficient to give a clear indication of its
financial position at any time. The accounting records must be kept for three years in the
case of a private company, or six years otherwise, and they must show:
 Daily records of receipts and payments of moneys
 Details of assets and liabilities
 Stocktaking records at the end of the financial year
 With the exception of retail sales, clear indications of identities of the purchasers and
sellers of goods, as well as of the actual goods themselves.
From the above records, the following must be prepared at specific intervals:
 A profit and loss account (or an income and expenditure account, if appropriate)
 A balance sheet (as at the date of the end of the period covered by the profit and loss
account)
 An auditors' report
 A directors' report
 Group accounts (if applicable).

Duty to Deliver Accounts

The provisions in respect of the duty to deliver accounts are laid down in section 227 of the
Companies Act 1985.

Signing of Balance Sheet

The provisions in respect of the signing of the balance are laid down in section 238 of the
Companies Act 1985.
The three provisions of which you must be aware are:
 Every balance sheet of a company must be signed on behalf of the board by two
directors, or by the single director if there is only one. (Note that this is the company's
own balance sheet and not, in the case of a company with subsidiaries, the
consolidated balance sheet.)
 A balance sheet of a banking company must be signed by the secretary or manager
and by at least three directors.
 If any copy of a balance sheet not so signed is issued, the company and every officer
in default is liable to a fine not exceeding one-fifth of the statutory minimum (currently,
the statutory minimum is £1,000).

Circulation of Published Accounts

The provisions in respect of the circulation of published accounts are laid down in section
240 of the Companies Act 1985.
 A copy of every balance sheet, profit and loss account, directors' report and auditors'
report must be circulated to every shareholder and debenture holder at least 21 days
before the meeting to discuss them.

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 Any member or debenture holder is entitled to be supplied, within seven days of

demand, with a copy of the last balance sheet, and documents required to be
attached, free of charge.

Small and Medium-sized Companies – Power to File Modified Statements

Section 248 of the Companies Act 1985 defines a company as small or medium-sized if it
satisfies two or more of the qualifying conditions below, in respect of any financial year of
the company and the financial year immediately preceding that year. As at December 2007,
these qualifying conditions are that:
 The amount of its turnover must not exceed £5.6m.
 Its balance sheet total must not exceed £2.8m. (Balance sheet total means the
total assets before deduction of any liabilities.)
 The average number of persons employed by the company in the financial year
in question must not exceed 50.
Small and medium-sized companies are permitted to file modified financial statements (now
termed "filing exemptions") as follows:

To be forwarded to Registrar Small Company Medium Company

Balance sheet Abridged Full

Profit and loss account None Abridged
Directors' report None Full
Notes to accounts Reduced No need to disclose
turnover or margin of gross
profit
Information on directors' and None Full disclosure
employees' salaries

Note that these concessions relate only to documents filed with the Registrar. They do not
affect the information that must be given to members of the company – and thus they
actually involve more work for the company in preparing two sets of financial statements.
The filing exemption does not apply to a public company or a banking, insurance or shipping
company, which must file full accounts irrespective of size.
If directors file such modified statements with the Registrar, they must include a special
auditors' report which:
 States that the auditors consider that the requirements for exemption from filing full
accounts are satisfied.
 Reproduces the full text of the auditors' report on the financial statements issued to
members of the company.

Directors' Report
A report by the directors must be attached to every balance sheet laid before a company in
general meeting (S.235 CA 1985). It must contain the following:
(a) A fair review of the development of the business of the company and its subsidiaries
during the financial year ended with the balance sheet date, and of their position at the
end of it.

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(b) Details of the dividends proposed.

(c) Details of transfers to reserves.
(d) Details of the principal activities of the company and subsidiaries, and any significant
changes during the period.
(e) Any significant changes during the period in the fixed assets of the company or
subsidiaries.
(f) Any significant differences between the market values and book values of land and
buildings or any of the company's subsidiaries.
(g) The following details of the company or subsidiaries:
 Research and development activities
 Likely future business developments.
 Any important events occurring since the financial year-end.
(h) Details of the interests in group shares or debentures as they appear in the register of
directors' interests at:
 The start of the period, or the date of the director's appointment, if later, and
 The end of the period.
This information must be given for each director at the end of the financial year, either
here or in the notes to the accounts. A nil statement must be made, where applicable.
(i) Details of any political and charitable contributions over £300 in value in total.
(j) If the employees' average number is more than 250 during the financial year, details of
the policy regarding:
 Employment of the disabled
 Continued employment and training of those who are disabled during
employment in the company
 Training, promotion and career development of the disabled.
(k) Full details of any disposals or purchase of a company's own shares.

Auditors' Report
The provisions in respect of an auditors' report are laid down in section 236 of the
Companies Act 1985.
The auditors must make a report to the members on the accounts examined by them and on
every balance sheet and profit and loss account laid before the company in general meeting.
The report – which may be drawn up at some future time – must state:
(a) Whether, in their opinion, the company's balance sheet and profit and loss account
have been properly prepared in accordance with the law.
(b) Whether, in their opinion, a true and fair view is given:
 In the case of the balance sheet, of the state of the company's affairs at the end
of its financial year
 In the case of the profit and loss account, of the company's profit or loss for its
financial year
 In the case of group accounts, of the state of affairs and profit or loss of the
company and its subsidiaries, so far as concerns members of the company.

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The Accounting Standards Committee sought legal advice concerning the definition of
"true and fair", and a summary of Counsel's opinion is as follows:
(i) "True and fair" evolves as times change.
(ii) The legal requirements, such as the formats contained in the Companies Act
1985, are guidelines offered by Parliament at the time of drafting the legislation.
It is conceivable that they could be superseded by accounting practice in order to
give a true and fair view – e.g. if an SSAP were to say that historical cost
accounting would not give a true and fair view in times of high inflation, and
recommended instead current cost accounting or some other alternative, then
the courts might well accept the fundamentally altered true and fair view.
(iii) SSAPs are documents embodying seriously and deeply considered accounting
matters that are accepted by the profession. Although the courts may disregard
their terms, their requirements are likely to indicate a "true and fair" view of the
handling of specific accounting problems, and they are likely to be used by the
courts as influential guidelines. However, SSAPs evolve, and it must be
accepted that what is "true and fair" when an SSAP is originally written may not
be considered "true and fair" at some future date. Accurate and comprehensive
disclosure of information within acceptable limits is important.
(iv) Over time, the meaning of "true and fair" will remain the same but the content will
differ.
It is the duty of the auditors to carry out such investigations as will enable them to form an
opinion as to whether:
 Proper books of account have been kept by the company, and proper returns adequate
for audit have been received from branches not visited by them
 The company's final accounts are in agreement with these books and returns.
If their opinion is that proper books have not been kept, or adequate returns have not been
received, or the final accounts do not agree with them, they must state this in their report.
The report of the auditors must be read before the company in general meeting.
You should note that auditors are also bound to consider – and report, if necessary –
whether the accounts of the company comply with standard accounting practice. Normally
an auditors' report is very short, stating that, in their view, the accounts have been properly
prepared, give a true and fair view of the profit or loss, etc. and comply with the Companies
Act and with standard accounting practice. The report can then be qualified by stating the
respects in which the accounts do not conform to the requirements.

B. THE BALANCE SHEET

Let us now return to the international requirements for the presentation of financial
statements as contained in IASs.

Disclosure of Accounting Policies

Under IAS 1 Presentation of Financial Statements, businesses must publish their financial
statements every year. The information provided to shareholders (and other interested
parties) would be of little value were there no explanation of the way in which the figures had
been compiled. IAS 1 addresses just this area – namely a business's accounting policies.
IAS 1 requires the production of a summary of significant accounting policies in which a
business must disclose the measurement basis used in preparing the financial statements
and the other accounting policies that are relevant to an understanding of the financial

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statements. For example, users will need to be informed whether historical cost, current
cost, net realisable value, fair value or recoverable amount has been used as a
measurement basis. They will need to be informed if borrowing costs have been expensed
(see study unit 7) or capitalised as part of a qualifying asset. Policies in respect of goodwill
and foreign currency exchange will need disclosing as well as many others.
The statements of accounting policies from a business can run into several pages and we
include an example from Tesco plc here for you to review – see Appendix 1. You may find
other examples on the Internet – try searching for the financial statements of an international
business that you deal with regularly (such as Microsoft or McDonalds).

Presentation of the Balance Sheet

IAS 1 states that a balance sheet must be included in the financial statements, but does not
give us a prescribed format in the actual standard (only in an appendix to it). It does,
however, state the minimum information that must be presented on the face of the balance
sheet in terms of line items for each of the following:
 Property, plant and equipment
 Investment property
 Intangible assets
 Financial assets
 Investments accounted for using the equity method (see study unit 11 and 12)
 Biological assets
 Inventories
 Trade and other receivables
 Cash and cash equivalents
 Trade and other payables
 Provisions
 Financial liabilities
 Liabilities and assets for current tax
 Deferred tax liabilities and assets
 Minority interests presented within equity (see study units 11 and 12)
 Issues capital and reserves
As an illustration of this, we present below the balance sheet of Tesco plc for the year ended
24 February 2007.

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Tesco PLC: Group Balance Sheet, as at 24 February 2007

2007 2006
£m £m
Non-current assets
Goodwill and other intangible assets 2,045 1,525
Property, plant and equipment 16,976 15,882
Investment property 856 745
Investments in joint ventures and associates 314 476
Other investments 8 4
Deferred tax assets 32 12
20,231 18,644
Current assets
Inventories 1,931 1,464
Trade and other receivables 1,079 892
Derivative financial instruments 108 70
Current tax assets 8 –
Cash and cash equivalents 1,042 1,325
4,168 3,751
Non-current assets classified as held for sale and assets of the
disposal group 408 168
4,576 3,919
Current liabilities
Trade and other payables (6,046) (5,083)
Financial liabilities:
Borrowings (1,554) (1,646)
Derivative financial instruments and other liabilities (87) (239)
Current tax liabilities (461) (462)
Provisions (4) (2)
(8,152) (7,432)
Liabilities directly associated with the disposal group – (86)
(8,152) (7,518)
Net current liabilities (3,576) (3,599)
Non-current liabilities
Financial liabilities
- Borrowings (4,146) (3,742)
- Derivative financial instruments and other liabilities (399) (294)
Post-employment benefit obligations (950) (1,211)
Other non-current liabilities (29) (29)
Deferred tax liabilities (535) (320)
Provisions (25) (5)
(6,084) (5,601)
Net assets 10,571 9,444
Equity
Share capital 397 395
Share premium account 4,376 3,988
Other reserves 40 40
Retained earnings 5,693 4,957
Equity attributable to equity holders of the parent 10,506 9,380
Minority interests 65 64
Total equity 10,571 9,444

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As you can see from this example, non-current assets, current assets, current liabilities and
non-current liabilities are all sub-totalled and added to give a total for net assets. This net
assets figure is then represented by equity in the bottom half of the balance sheet
In a simplified form this presentation is as follows:

NET ASSETS
Non-current assets;
Intangible assets including goodwill and development
Tangible assets:
Property plant and equipment
Investment property
Deferred tax assets
Current assets
Inventories
Trade and other receivables
Cash and cash equivalents
Current liabilities
Trade and other payables
Provisions
Short-term loans and overdrafts
Net current assets (current assets less current liabilities)
Non-current liabilities
Loans
Deferred tax liabilities
Total of net assets
(non-current assets, plus net current assets, less non-current liabilities)

EQUITY
Share capital
Share premium account
Revaluation reserves
Other reserves
Retained profits
Total of equity attributable to equity holders (the above items totalled)
Minority interests
Total equity
(equity holders equity plus minority interests – this should equal net assets)

The format presentation in the appendix to IAS 1 actually shows both current liabilities and
non-current liabilities in the bottom half of the balance sheet. The two halves of the balance
sheet are retitled "assets" and "equity and liabilities". However, we find the presentation
shown above gives better information to users and is the one commonly used by most
international businesses. We suggest you use this style in your examinations, but as long as
your balance sheet is in reasonable style you will not lose presentation marks.

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Notes to the balance sheet are also required under IAS 1. In many cases, these can be very
detailed and long, and we would refer you to the notes for Tesco on the Internet that cover
almost 50 pages as an exemplar.

Example
The following example shows an acceptable layout of a balance sheet under IAS 1
J & K Plastics plc
Balance Sheet as at 31 December

Current year Previous year

£ £
Non-current Assets
Intangible assets X X
Tangible assets X X
Investments X X

X X
Current Assets
Inventories X X
Trade and other receivables X X
Cash at bank and in hand X X

X X
Current liabilities (X) (X)

Net current assets X X

Non-current liabilities (X) (X)
Provisions for liabilities and charges (X) (X)

XXX XXX
Capital and Reserves
Called-up share capital X X
Share premium account X X
Revaluation reserve X X
Other reserves X X
Retained profits X X

XXX XXX

Approved by the Board (date)

Names (Directors)

Note that previous year figures are also shown on the face of a balance sheet
An example of two important notes that are usually attached to all balance sheets follows.

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Notes to the Balance Sheet

(a) Intangible assets

Development Patents & Goodwill Total

costs trademarks
£ £ £ £
Cost
At 1 Jan X X X X
Additions X X X X
Disposals (X) (X) (X) (X)
At 31 Dec X X X X
Amounts Written off
Impairment
At Jan 1 balance X X X X
Charge for the year, IS etc. X X X X
Deductions in respect of disposals (X) (X) (X) (X)
At 31 Dec X X X X
Net Book Values
At 31 Dec current year X X X X
At 31 Dec previous year X X X X

(a) Tangible assets

Land & Plant & Vehicles Total

buildings machinery
£ £ £ £

Cost or Valuation
At 1 Jan X X X X
Additions X X X X
Revaluations (additional value only) X X X X
Disposals (X) (X) (X) (X)
At 31 Dec X X X X
Depreciation
At Jan 1 balance X X X X
Charge for year IS X X X X
Deductions in respect of disposals (X) (X) (X) (X)
At 31 Dec X X X X
Net Book Value
At 31 Dec current year X X X X
At 31 Dec previous year X X X X

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C. THE INCOME STATEMENT

We will now consider the format of the income statement for publication..

Presentation of the Income Statement

IAS 1 requires an income statement to be prepared for each period with, as a minimum, the
following items included
 revenue;
 finance costs;
 share of profit or loss of associated and joint ventures;
 tax expense;
 profit or loss attributable to minority holders; and
 profit or loss attributable to equity holders.
In the appendix to IAS 1 we are presented with a typical income statement as follows:

1. Revenue
2. Cost of sales
3. Gross profit or loss
4. Other income
5. Distribution costs
6. Administrative expenses
7. Other expenses
8. Finance costs
9. Share of profits of associates
10. Profit before tax
11. Income Tax expense
12. Profit or loss for the financial year, attributable to:
Equity holders of the parent
Minority interest

Notes
 Revenue should be shown and calculated net of trade discounts, VAT and other sales
taxes. Notes must show the revenue broken down by classes of business and by
geographical markets, having regard to the manner in which the company's activities
are organised, insofar as these classes and markets differ substantially. This
additional information on revenue may be omitted if disclosure would be seriously
prejudicial to the company's interests.
 Cost of sales, distribution costs and administrative expenses must all be stated after
taking any provision for depreciation or diminution of asset value into account. (Cost of
sales is the direct expenses attributable to bringing the raw materials to the point of
sale.)
 Dividends paid or payable to shareholders are not shown on the face of the income
statement. These are now required to be dealt with in a new statement – "a statement
of changes in equity" – as considered later in this study unit.

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 Note also that extraordinary items do not exist any more according to the IASB. The
IASB decided when revising IAS 8 in 2004 that, as extraordinary items (as they were
previously called) resulted from the normal business risks faced by an entity, they do
not warrant presentation in a separate part of the income statement. Thus, these
items are now just a subset of items of income and expense. A business can, if it
wishes, disclose such items in the notes, but not on the face of the income statement.
 Finally, here, you should note that earnings per share figures, both basic and diluted,
are also disclosed on the face of the income statement, but they do not form part of the
income statement. We will deal with EPS later in the course, in study unit 8.
We include here Tesco's income statement as an exemplar.

Tesco PLC: Group Income Statement, year ended 24 February 2007

2007 2006
£m £m
Continuing operations
Revenue (sales excluding VAT) 42,641 39,454
Cost of sales (39,401) (36,426)
Pensions adjustment – Finance Act 2006 258 -
Impairment of the Gerrards Cross site (35) -
Gross profit 3,463 3,028
Administrative expenses (907) (825)
Profit arising on property-related items 92 77
Operating profit 2,648 2,280
Share of post-tax profits of joint ventures and associates
(including £47m of property-related items (2005/06 – £nil) 106 82
Profit on sale of investments in associates 25 -
Finance income 90 114
Finance costs (216) (241)
Profit before tax 2,653 2,235
Taxation (772) (649)
Profit for the year from continuing operations 1,881 1,586
Discontinued operation
Profit/(loss) for the year from discontinued operation 18 (10)
Profit for the year 1,899 1,576

Attributable to:
Equity holders of the parent 1,892 1,570
Minority interests 7 6
1,899 1,576

Earnings per share from continuing and discontinued operations

Basic 23.84p 20.07p
Diluted 23.54p 19.79p
Earnings per share from continuing operations
Basic 23.61p 20.20p;
Diluted 23.31p 19.92p

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Example of Internal and Published Income Statement

In order to see how one kind of income statement can be changed into another, study the
example set out over the following pages.

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(a) Income Statement for Internal Distribution

J & K Plastics plc

Income Statement for the Year ended 31 December

£ £ £
Net sales 1,750,000
less Cost of sales:
Inventory 1 Jan 300,000
Purchases 1,500,000
1,800,000
Inventory 31 Dec (400,000) (1,400,000)
Gross profit 350,000
Distribution costs:
Salaries & wages 40,000
Motor vehicle costs 25,000
General 20,000
Depreciation: MV 7,000
Depreciation: Machinery 3,000 95,000
Administration expenses:
Salaries & wages 45,000
Directors' remuneration 22,000
Motor vehicles 12,000
General 27,000
Auditors 4,000
Depreciation: Office furniture 3,000
Depreciation: Office machinery 2,000 115,000 (210,000)
140,000
Other operating income:
Rents receivable 9,000
149,000
Income from shares in associated companies 3,000
Income from shares in non-related companies 1,500
Other interest receivable 1,000 5,500
154,500
Interest payable:
Loans repayable in less than 5 years 5,500
Loans repayable in less than 10 years 5,000 (10,500)
Profit on ordinary activities before taxation 144,000
Tax on profit on ordinary activities (48,000)
Profit on ordinary activities after tax 96,000
Undistributed profits brought forward from last year 45,000
141,000
Transfer to general reserve 47,000
Proposed ordinary dividend 60,000 (107,000)
Undistributed profits carried forward to next year 34,000

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An appropriate form of published statement is shown below.

(b) Income Statement for Publication

J & K Plastics plc

Income Statement for the Year ended 31 December

£ £
Revenue 1,750,000
Cost of sales (1,400,000)

Gross profit 350,000

Distribution costs 95,000
Administration costs 115,000 (210,000)

140,000
Other income 11,500
Income from associated interests 3,000

154,500
Finance costs (10,500)

Profit before taxation 144,000

Tax expense (48,000)

Profit for the year after taxation 96,000

Profit attributable to equity holders 96,000

D. IAS 1: STATEMENT OF CHANGES IN EQUITY

This is another primary statement required by IAS 1 as part of a complete set of published
statements. This statement has now, as at October 2007, been split into two statements and
we will deal with each part separately.

Separate Statement of Comprehensive Income

This statement encompasses all those other items of income and expense that have not
been included in the income statement, including such items as revaluation of non-current
assets and foreign currency exchange differences. Profit for the year is also included.
We present below Tesco's statement of comprehensive income – just note that they have
titled it "statement of recognised income and expense" as it was produced before the change
in IAS 1.

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Tesco PLC: Group Statement of Recognised Income and Expense,

year ended 24 February 2007

2007 2006
£m £m
(Loss)/gain on revaluation of available-for-sale investments (1) 2
Foreign currency translation differences (65) 3
Total gain/(loss) on defined benefit pension schemes 114 (443)
(Losses)/gains on cash flow hedges:
- net fair value (Iosses)/gains (26) 44
- reclassified and reported in the Income Statement (12) (5)
Tax on items taken directly to equity 12 133
Net income/(expense) recognised directly in equity 22 (236)
Profit for the year 1,899 1,576
Total recognised income and expense for the year 1,921 1,340

Attributable to:
Equity holders of the parent 1,920 1,327
Minority interests 1 13
1,921 1,340

Statement of Changes in Equity

This statement includes dividends and any issues or redemptions of shares. A typical
statement would be as follows:

Share Other Translation Retained Total Minority Equity

capital reserves reserve earnings interest holders
(foreign
currencies)

Balance 20-1 X X (X) X X X X

Comprehensive X (X) X X X X
income
(from above
statement which will
include profit for the
period)

Dividends (X) (X) (X) (X)

Issue of share capital X X

Balance 20-2 X X (X) X X X X

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E. SUMMARY OF STATEMENTS REQUIRED BY IAS 1

To summarise, a complete set of financial statements published in accordance with IAS 1
comprises:
(a) A balance sheet
(b) An income statement
(c) A statement of comprehensive income
(d) A statement of changes in equity
(e) A cash flow statement (see study unit 5)
(f) Notes comprising a summary of significant accounting policies and other explanatory
notes.
All of these statements need to present fairly the financial position, financial performance
and cash flows of an entity. Fair presentation requires the faithful representation of the
effects of transactions, other events and conditions in accordance with the definitions and
recognition criteria for assets, liabilities, income, expenses and equity. These are as follows:
 Assets are resources controlled by the entity as a result of past events and from which
future economic benefits are expected to flow to the entity.
 Liabilities are present obligations of the entity arising from past events, the settlement
of which is expected to result in an outflow from the entity of resources embodying
economic benefits
 Income is the increase in economic benefits during the accounting period in the form
of inflows or enhancements of assets or decreases of liabilities that result in increases
in equity, other than those relating to contributions from equity participants.
 Expenses are decreases in economic benefits during the accounting period in the
form of outflows or depletions of assets or incurrence of liabilities that result in
decreases in equity, other than those relating to distributions to equity participants.
 Equity is the residual interest in the assets of the entity after deducting all its liabilities

F. NARRATIVE STATEMENTS REQUIRED IN PUBLISHED

FINANCIAL STATEMENTS
Annual reports of businesses also include several narrative reports. Many of these are
required by the legislation of a particular country or by stock exchange requirements. We
are not going to deal with the plethora of legislation in this area, but we will consider the
following narrative reports;
 Audit report (see also study unit 1)
 Director's reports
 Corporate governance report.

The Audit Report

The auditor's report is made to shareholders and should give a clear opinion on the financial
statements. It should also give the reasoning behind that opinion and state how the audit
was carried out.
We include in Appendix 2 an example of an unqualified audit report taken from Tesco's
annual report.

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When auditors find problems during their audit they do not have the power to insist that
financial statements are amended, although many businesses will amend them to take
account of the auditor's findings. What they do have the power to do is to issue a modified
or qualified audit report. This modified audit report alerts the shareholders to what they have
discovered and expresses the auditor's opinion on whether this affects the truth and fairness
of the financial statements. Auditors generally consider the issue of a modified report as a
last resort.

The Director's Report

This report is generally included in the annual report of a business. Within the United
Kingdom it is regulated by the Companies Act 1985.
The report is basically designed to provide information that might otherwise be omitted from
the annual report. We include here, in Appendix 3, an exemplar of a directors' report taken
from Tesco's annual report.

Corporate Governance Report

Corporate governance is defined by the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and
Development (OECD) as:
"The system by which business corporations are directed and controlled. The corporate
governance structure specifies the distribution of rights and responsibilities among different
participants in the corporation, such as the board, managers, shareholders and other
stakeholders, and spells out the rules and procedures for making decisions on corporate
affairs. By doing this, it also provides the structure through which the business objectives
are set, and the means of attaining those objectives and monitoring performance."
From the above definition we can see that corporate governance is multi-faceted. It covers
processes, systems and cultures amongst others, and from the viewpoint of many
stakeholders. Corporate governance has come to the fore since the collapse of such
companies as Enron and WorldCom.
In 2004, the OECD issued its updated Principles of Corporate Governance and several
countries issue their own regulations – for example, as a result of several reports, in the UK
there is now a Combined Code on Corporate Governance issued by the Financial Reporting
Council (in June 2006).
The OECD sees corporate governance as a key element in improving economic efficiency
and growth as well as enhancing investor confidence. Good corporate governance should
ensure that the directors and managers pursue objectives within the business that are in the
interests of the business and its stakeholders, not just themselves. The aim of the report is
to allow the reader to make a judgement on whether the corporate governance of the
business is adequate to achieve this aim. Weak and non-transparent regimes can lead to
unethical behaviour in a business and ultimately loss of market integrity.
A Corporate Report will cover such matters as:
 Board composition and independence
 Board responsibilities
 Board processes and delegation regulations
 Appointments to the Board
 Determination of executive remuneration
 Audit committee
 Board performance evaluation

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 Risk management and internal controls

 Relations with stakeholders
 Compliance with any codes.
The Tesco corporate report runs to 5 pages so we do not produce it here, but we do advise
you to go to the Internet and read it or indeed any other corporate report of a large
multinational business.

Other Statements
The subject of reporting to stakeholders and the content of annual reports is ongoing and
within annual reports you may see examples of the following:
 Social and environmental reports
 Past trends in key financial figures
 Value added statements
 Employment reports
 Statement of future prospects
 Management commentaries
 Operating and financial review
As we have stated previously you will enhance your understanding of this study unit if you
access several annual reports that are freely available on the Internet

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APPENDIX 1: EXAMPLE OF STATEMENT OF ACCOUNTING

POLICIES (TESCO PLC)
The following extract is from Tesco PLC's Annual Report and Financial Statements, 2007 –
Note 1 to the Group Financial Statements (pages 48 – 55).

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APPENDIX 2: EXAMPLE OF INDEPENDENT AUDITORS'

REPORT (TESCO PLC)
The following is an extract from Tesco PLC's Annual Report and Financial Statements, 2007
(page 43).

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APPENDIX 3: EXAMPLE OF DIRECTORS' REPORT

(TESCO PLC)
The following two pages are an extract from Tesco PLC's Annual Report and Financial
Statements, 2007 (pages 21 - 21).

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Study Unit 5
Profit and Cash Flow

Contents Page

A. Availability of Profits for Distribution 116

Legal Definition 116
Rules Governing Relevant Accounts 117
Goodwill 118
Realised and Unrealised Profits 118

B. Cash Flow Statements 119

Purpose 119
Presentation of Cash Flow Statements 120
Example 123

C. Funds Flow Statements 130

Example 131
Reasons for Change from Funds Flow 131

Answer to Question for Practice 133

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A. AVAILABILITY OF PROFITS FOR DISTRIBUTION

This section deals with the distribution of profits in relation to UK law. The rules and
regulations relating to this topic may well be different in other countries.
There are three overriding principles governing the availability of profits for distribution.
(a) The profits from which the dividend is paid must be bona fide (as we shall see, this
gives companies a wide range of options).
(b) The payment of a dividend must not jeopardise the interests of outside trade payables,
i.e. the company must be solvent.
(c) Dividends must never be paid out of shareholders' capital.
If you return to this later after we have considered the legal aspects, you will appreciate
these three principles further.

Legal Definition
The Companies Act 1985 requires that no distribution may be made except out of profits
available for the purpose. These are defined as: accumulated realised profits, not on a prior
occasion distributed or capitalised, less accumulated realised losses not written off already
under reorganisation or reduction of capital. The profits and losses may originally have been
revenue or capital based.
A "distribution" is any distribution of a company's assets to its members, by cash or
otherwise, other than:
 An issue of bonus shares, partly or fully paid.
 A redemption of preference shares from the proceeds of a fresh share issue and the
payment, from the share premium account, of any premium on redemption.
 A reduction of share capital, either by paying off share capital which has been paid up,
or by eliminating or reducing a member's liability on partly-paid share capital.
 A distribution to members of a company's assets upon winding up.
In addition to satisfying the condition of having profits available for the purpose of
distribution, which is all that is required of a private company, a public company must fulfil
two other conditions:
 Its net assets must exceed the aggregate of its called-up share capital together with its
undistributable reserves.
 Any distribution must not deplete its net assets to such an extent that the total is less
than the aggregate of called-up share capital and undistributable reserves.
Called-up share capital
This is defined as "as much of the share capital as equals the aggregate amount of the calls
made on the shares, whether or not the calls have been paid, and any share capital which
has been paid up without having been called and share capital to be paid on a specific date
included in the articles".
Undistributable reserves
Undistributable reserves are as follows:
 Share premium account.
 Capital redemption reserve.

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 Excess of accumulated unrealised profits, not capitalised before, over accumulated

unrealised losses not already written off under reorganisation or reduction of capital.
Capitalisation excludes transfers of profit to the capital redemption reserve but includes
a bonus issue.
 Any other reserve that, for some reason, the company is prohibited from distributing.
Effectively, a public company must make good any existing net unrealised loss before any
distribution.
Example
We can illustrate the differences between private and public companies (figures in £000) as
follows.

Company A Company B Company C Company D

£000 £000 £000 £000 £000 £000 £000 £000

Share capital 2,500 2,500 2,500 2,500

Realised profits 400 400 400 400
Realised losses – – (160) (160)
400 400 240 240
Unrealised profits 200 200 200 –
Unrealised losses – (250) (250) (250)

Share capital and

reserves 200 (50) (50) (250)

3,100 2,850 2,690 2,490

Taking the companies A to D as alternatively private and public companies, the distributable
profits are as follows:

Company Private Company Public Company

£000 £000

A 400 400
B 400 350
C 240 190
D 240 0

Rules Governing Relevant Accounts

The information from which to ascertain the profit available for distribution must come from
"relevant items" as they appear in "relevant accounts", i.e. profits, losses, assets, liabilities,
share capital, distributable and undistributable reserves as they appear in the last annual
audited financial statements or initial statements.
 An initial financial statement is where a distribution is proposed during a company's
first accounting reference period prior to the first annual audited accounts.

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 An interim financial statement would be used as the basis of calculation if the proposed
distribution would exceed the maximum possible according to the last annual accounts.
As such strict rules govern distributions, equally strict rules must exist with regard to the
relevant accounts. The requirements regarding the relevant accounts are as follows – (a),
(b), (e), (f) and (g) not applying to initial or interim accounts of private companies:
(a) They must be "properly prepared" to comply with the Companies Acts, or at least to
the extent necessary to enable a decision to be made as to the legality of the proposed
distribution. Initial and interim statements must comply with Section 226 of the 1985
Act and the balance sheet must be signed in accordance with Section 233.
(b) The financial statements must give a true and fair view of the affairs of the company,
its profit or loss, unless the company is eligible by statute not to make disclosure.
(c) A public company must disclose any uncalled share capital as an asset.
(d) To prevent a company making various individually legal distributions which are in
aggregate more than is available for distribution, Section 274 of the 1985 Companies
Act makes it obligatory that any further proposed distributions are added to those
which have already been made and appear in the financial statements.
(e) The annual financial statements must be audited in accordance with Section 235 of the
1985 Act and initial financial statements must contain the auditor's opinion as to
whether they have been properly prepared. There is no need for interim financial
statements to be audited.
(f) Any qualifications made by the auditors must state if and to what extent the legality of
the proposed distribution is affected.
(g) The statement mentioned in (f) above must be either laid before the company in
general meeting or filed with the Registrar, whichever is applicable (Section 271). In
addition, the Registrar should receive, with any interim or initial financial statements, a
copy of them, and a copy of the auditors' report and statement (if there is one).

Goodwill
FRS 10 only permits goodwill to be written off over its useful economic life, to the profit and
loss account.
Under the previous standard (SSAP 22), companies had the alternative of writing goodwill off
directly on acquisition, to reserves. This immediate write-off, as you can appreciate,
depleted reserves, sometimes quite significantly, and could therefore reduce the amount
available for distribution.
The amortisation of goodwill over its useful economic life has less impact on the possible
sums available for distribution – especially if goodwill is written off over, say, 20 years.

Realised and Unrealised Profits

The 1985 Companies Act does not actually define either "realised" or "unrealised".
However, help is given in the following guidelines:
 Unrealised profits may not be used to pay up debentures or amounts unpaid on shares
issued.
 Provisions are to be "realised" losses except those that account for a drop in the fixed
asset value on revaluation.
 As regards the difference between depreciation on cost and depreciation on a revalued
sum, this is realised profit.

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 If the directors cannot determine whether a profit or loss made before the appointed
day was realised or unrealised, the profit can be taken as realised, and the loss
unrealised.
 In any other circumstances, best accounting practice rules.
Additional provisions apply to investment and insurance companies.
Unrealised profits may be either capital or revenue.
An unrealised capital profit is not "distributable" and may never be credited to profit and loss
account. If the directors of a company wish its books to record the fact that a fixed asset
which cost £7,500 is now valued at £10,000, the "appreciation" will be debited to the asset
account, a provision for taxation on the appreciation in value will be credited to taxation
equalisation account and the balance credited to capital reserve.
Now, what of an unrealised revenue profit? Suppose that the directors insist that inventory,
previously valued at £16,000 (at lower of cost or market price) shall now be valued at
£22,000 (representing selling price). Can they do this, thus increasing the "profit" of the year
by £6,000?
The answer is that, no matter how imprudent this might be, they can do so, but since the
£6,000 "profit" arises from a "change in the basis of accounting", it must be separately
shown, or referred to, in the published accounts; and if, in the opinion of the directors, any of
the current assets are valued in the balance sheet above the amount which they would
realise in the ordinary course of the company's business, the directors must state this fact.

B. CASH FLOW STATEMENTS

The purpose of the cash flow statement is to show the sources and amount of cash which
has become available to the company in the year, and how that cash has been applied. IAS
7 Cash Flow Statements requires a cash flow statement to be included as an integral part of
the published financial statements.

Purpose
The income statement and balance sheet place little emphasis on cash, and yet enterprises
go out of business every day through a shortage of readily available cash. This can happen
irrespective of profitability, as cash otherwise available may have been overinvested in
non-current assets, leaving insufficient cash to maintain the business.
The cash flow statement will help analysts in making judgements on the amount, timing and
degree of certainty of future cash flows by giving an indication of the relationship between
profitability and cash generating ability and thus the "quality" of the profit earned.
Looking at the cash flow statement in conjunction with a balance sheet provides information
about liquidity, viability and financial adaptability. The balance sheet provides information
about an entity's financial position at a particular point in time including assets, liabilities and
equity on their interrelationship at balance sheet date.
The balance sheet information is regularly used to obtain information about liquidity but as
the balance sheet is only the picture on one day, the liquidity information is incomplete. The
cash flow statement extends liquidity information over the accounting period. However, to
give an indication of future cash flows, the cash flow statement needs to be studied in
conjunction with the income statement and balance sheet.
The concentration on cash as opposed to working capital emphasises the pure liquidity of
the reporting business. Organisations can have ample working capital but run out of cash,
and fail.

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Presentation of Cash Flow Statements

A cash flow statement prepared under the terms of IAS 7 separates:
 Operating activities
 Investing activities – covering capital expenditure, acquisitions and disposals, equity
dividends paid, interest received, dividends received
 Financing activities – covering proceeds from issuing shares, other equity instruments,
debentures and other loans, principal lease payments, dividends paid.
Note that interest and taxation paid are treated as part of operating activities.
Hence the statement gives an overview of changes in these areas to illustrate the success of
management in controlling the different functions.
Briefly, the overall presentation of a cash flow statement is as follows:
Cash flows from operating activities X
Cash flows from investing activities X
Cash flows from financing activities X

Increase/decrease in net cash and cash equivalents X

Cash and cash equivalents at start of year X

Cash and cash equivalents at end of year X

As you can see, the emphasis at the bottom of the statement is on liquidity. The
accumulating effect on cash and cash equivalents (which may appear as a separate note) is
clearly shown.
Let us look now at the different terms and what they represent.
(a) Operating Activities
Cash flows from operating activities are, in general, the cash effects of transactions
and other events relating to operating or trading activities. This can be measured by a
direct or indirect method.
 Direct Method
The direct method picks up individual categories of cash flow including income
from customers, cash paid to suppliers, cash paid to employees and cash paid to
meet expenses.
In other words, you will see:
Operating Activities
Cash received from customers X
Cash payments to suppliers (X)
Cash paid to and on behalf of (X)
employees
Interest paid (X)
Income taxes paid (X)

Net cash inflow from operating activities X

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Any exceptional items should be included within the main categories of this
heading as above and be disclosed in a note to the cash flow statement.
The use of the direct method is encouraged only where the potential benefits to
users outweigh the costs of providing it.
 Indirect Method
Many businesses will not readily have available cash-based records and may
prefer the indirect method (which is accruals based) of dealing with operating
activities. This method is also adopted by IAS 7 as is the direct method.
A typical presentation of the indirect method for operating activities would follow
this approach:
Operating Activities
Profit before tax X
Adjustments for:
Depreciation X
Profit/loss on sale of assets X
Interest X
Amortisation X
X
Increase/decrease in trade receivables X
Increase/decrease in inventory X
Increase/decrease in trade payables X
Cash generated from operations X
Interest paid X
Income taxes paid X

Net cash inflow/outflow from operating activities X

Alternatively, you may well see in practice "Net cash inflow from operating
activities" in the cash flow statement with a separate reconciliation as a note to
the statement. This reconciliation will be between the operating profit (for non-
financial companies, normally profit before interest) reported in the income
statement and the net cash flow from operating activities. This should, as above,
disclose separately the movements in inventories, trade receivables and trade
payables relating to operating activities and other differences between cash flows
and profits (e.g. accruals and deferrals).
To illustrate this latter approach, consider the following notes attached to a cash flow
statement.

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Note: Reconciliation of Operating Profit to Net Cash

Inflow from Operating Activities £000

Operating profit 100
Depreciation charged 10
Increase in trade receivables (15)
Increase in trade payables 5
Increase in inventory (90)
Effect of other deferrals and accruals of
operating activity cash flows (5)

Net cash inflow from operating activities 5

Although the profit from the income statement is £100,000, this does not mean that the
company has received that amount of cash during the year, as profit has been charged
with non-cash items such as depreciation. Therefore, in order to arrive at the "cash
flow from operating activities" we have to adjust the operating profit figure for any non-
cash items, these being depreciation, amortisation and profit/loss on the sale of
fixed assets. Depreciation, in the above example, has been deducted in arriving at
the profit figure of £100,000. So we need to add the £10,000 depreciation back as it
was just a book entry and did not involve any cash payment.
Now look at the next three items under "operating activities" – trade receivables,
trade payables and inventory. We are trying to find the net increase/decrease in
cash in our cash flow statement and the first stage of this is finding our "cash flow from
operating activities". However, some of the profit has not gone into the cash or bank
balance but has been ploughed back into inventory. Therefore, we need to deduct any
increase in inventory from the operating profit to arrive at the cash flow figure.
Similarly with trade receivables, if the trade receivables figure has increased then
some of the sales made during the year have not yet generated cash. Any increase in
trade receivables therefore has to be deducted to arrive at the cash flow figure. On the
other hand, if the trade payables figure has increased then cash has not yet been paid
out for some of the purchases which have been deducted in arriving at the operating
profit. Therefore, we need to add back any increase in trade payables. Prepayments
and accruals are treated in the same way as trade receivables and trade payables.
Note that we have started with the figure for profit before tax, i.e. we do not adjust for
any provision for tax on this year's profit, as this does not involve the movement of
cash. What we do have to do is to deduct any tax actually paid during the year
(normally the tax on the previous year's profits), under the appropriate heading in
operating activities, as this reduces our cash flow. Lastly, we need to adjust for interest
expense, so we will need to add back the accrued interest paid and deduct the accrued
interest received. The actual interest paid in cash terms will be shown as a separate
line under cash flow from operating activities and the actual interest received in cash
terms will be shown under investing activities.
(b) Cash flows from investing activities
Cash inflows from investing activities include:
(i) interest received in cash terms;
(ii) dividends received in cash terms

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(iii) proceeds from the sale of non-current assets – remember that we have already
added back the profit or loss on the sale of these non- current assets when
amending the profit figure, so under this heading we need to include the cash we
actually received on the sale.
Cash outflows from investing activities include:
(i) payments made for the purchase of non- current assets such as property, plant
and equipment
(ii) payments made for the acquisition of subsidiaries.
(c) Financing Activities
These include as cash inflows:
 Proceeds from the issue of share capital
 Proceeds from long term borrowings
And as cash outflows
 Payment of finance lease liabilities – although note that the interest element of a
lease payment will be entered under interest paid in cash flow from operating
activities
 Payments to owners to acquire or redeem shares
 Repayments of a mounts borrowed other than finance leases
 Equity dividends paid
Supplementary notes are essential to explain certain movements. Paramount in these notes
are reconciliations of the movements in cash and cash equivalents.
The terms "cash" and "cash equivalents" should perhaps be defined as they exclude
overdrafts which are hardcore in nature.
 Cash is defined as cash in hand and deposits repayable on demand with any bank or
other financial institution. Cash includes cash in hand and deposits denominated in
foreign currencies.
 Cash equivalents are short-term, highly liquid investments which are readily
convertible into known amounts of cash and which are subject to an insignificant risk of
changes in value. An investment normally qualifies as a cash equivalent only when it
has a short maturity of, say, three months or less from the date of acquisition. Cash
equivalents include investments and advances denominated in foreign currencies
provided that they fulfil the above criteria.
We shall now take two examples which illustrate different degrees of complexity. We shall
work through the first in full, and the second is presented as a Practical Exercise for you to
try and work out for yourself.

Example
This sets out the full specimen statement from IAS 7 in the format for full published accounts
using the indirect method.
Initial Information Relating to XYZ
You are provided with the consolidated income statement and balance sheet for XYZ,
together with the following additional information.

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(a) All of the shares of a subsidiary were acquired for 590. The fair values of assets
acquired and liabilities assumed were as follows:
Inventories 100
Accounts receivable 100
Cash 40
Property, plant and equipment 650
Trade payables 100
Long-term debt 200
(b) 250 was raised from the issue of share capital and a further 250 was raised from long-
term borrowings.
(c) Interest expense was 400, of which 170 was paid during the period. Also, 100 relating
to interest expense of the prior period was paid during the period.
(d) Dividends paid were 1,200.
(e) The liability for tax at the beginning and end of the period was 1,000 and 400
respectively. During the period, a further 200 tax was provided for. Withholding tax on
dividends received amounted to 100.
(f) During the period, the group acquired property, plant and equipment with an aggregate
cost of 1,250 of which 900 was acquired by means of finance leases. Cash payments
of 350 were made to purchase property, plant and equipment.
(g) Plant with original cost of 80 and accumulated depreciation of 60 was sold for 20.
(h) Accounts receivable as at the end of 20X2 include 100 of interest receivable.
(i) Interest received during the year was 200 and dividends received during the year was
200. Payments on finance leases totalled 90.

Consolidated Income Statement for the period ended 20X2

Sales 30,650
Cost of sales (26,000)
Gross profit 4,650
Depreciation (450)
Administrative and selling expenses (910)
interest expense (400)
Investment income 500
Foreign exchange loss (40)
Profit before taxation 3,350
Taxes on income (300)
Profit 3,050

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Consolidated Balance Sheet as at end of 20X2

20X2 20X1
Assets
Cash and cash equivalents 230 160
i
Accounts rece vable 1,900 1,200
Inventory 1,000 1.950
Portfolio investments 2,500 2,500
Property plant and equipment at cost 3,730 1,910
Accumulated depreciation (1,450) (1,060)
Property, plant and equipment net 2,280 850
Total assets 7,910 6,660

Liabilities
Trade payables 250 1,890
Interest payable 230 100
Income taxes payable 400 1,000
Long-term debt 2,300 1,040
Total liabilities 3,180 4,030

Shareholder's Equity
Share capital 1,500 1,250
Retained earnings 3,230 1,380
Total shareholders' equity 4,730 2,630
Total liabilities and shareholders' equity 7,910 6,660

The cash flow statement now follows. Note that it is divided into two main parts:
 The cash flow statement itself
 Notes to the cash flow statement.
We have also added some working notes to help explain how the figures are arrived at.

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Indirect Method Cash Flow Statement

20X2
Cash flows from operating activities
Profit before taxation 3,350
Adjustments for:
Depreciation 450
Foreign exchange loss 40
Investment income (500)
Interest expense 400
3,740
Increase in trade and other receivables (500)
Decrease in inventories 1,050
Decrease in trade payables (1,740)
Cash generated from operations 2,550
Interest paid (270)
Income taxes paid (900)
Net cash from operating activities 1,380

Cash flows from investing activities

Acquisition of subsidiary X net of cash acquired (Note A) (550)
Purchase of property, plant and equipment (Note B) (350)
Proceeds from sale of equipment 20
Interest received 200
Dividends received 200
Net cash used in investing activities (480)

Cash flows from financing activities

Proceeds from issue of share capital 250
Proceeds from long-term borrowings 250
Payment of finance lease liabilities (90)
Dividends paid * (1,200)
Net cash used in financing activities (790)
Net increase in cash and cash equivalents 110
Cash and cash equivalents at beginning of period (Note C) 120
Cash and cash equivalents at end of period (Note C) 230

* This could also be shown as an operating cash flow

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Notes to the Cash Flow Statement

A. Acquisition of subsidiary
During the period the Group acquired subsidiary X. The fair value of assets acquired
and liabilities assumed were as follows:
Cash 40
Inventories 100
Accounts receivable 100
Property, plant and equipment 650
Trade payables (100)
Long-term debt (200)
Total purchase price 590
less Cash of X (40)
Cash flow on acquisition net of cash acquired 550

B. Property, plant and equipment

During the period the Group acquired property, plant and equipment with an aggregate
cost of 1,250 of which 900 was acquired by means of finance leases. Cash payments
of 350 were made to purchase property, plant and equipment.
C. Cash and cash equivalents
Cash and cash equivalents consist of cash on hand and balances with banks, and
investments in money market instruments. Cash and cash equivalents included in the
cash flow statement comprise the following balance sheet amounts:
20X2 20X1
Cash on hand and balances with banks 40 25
Short-term investments 190 135
i
Cash and cash equivalents as prev ously reported 230 160
Effect of exchange rate changes – (40)
Cash and cash equivalents as restated 230 120

Cash and cash equivalents at the end of the period include deposits with banks of 100
held by a subsidiary which are not freely remissible to the holding company because of
currency exchange restrictions.
The Group has undrawn borrowing facilities of 2,000 of which 700 may be used only
for future expansion.

Further working notes

In arriving at the cash flow statement you will have had to make the following calculations
and use the notes given in the additional information at the beginning of the exercise.

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 Trade and other receivables:

Change on balance sheet for accounts receivable (1900 – 1200) 700
deduct Subsidiary receivables, as these will form part of the
acquisition under investing activities 100
deduct Interest receivable as shown in investing activities 100
500
 Inventories:
Change on balance sheet for inventory (1,000 – 1,950) 950
deduct Subsidiary inventory acquired 100
1,050
 Trade payables:
Change on balance sheet (250 – 1,890) 1,640
deduct Subsidiary trade payables 100
1,740
 Interest paid is detailed in additional information note (c)
 Taxation paid:
Opening balance of tax (see note (e)) 1,000
Tax provided in income statement 300
1,300
Closing balance of tax 400
Therefore, cash paid in respect of tax 900
 Acquisition of subsidiary:
Acquisition cost was 590 (note (a)), but this included 40 cash, thus actual figure is 550
 Purchase of property, plant and equipment:
This is actually provided at note (f), but we can calculate the figure from other
information given as follows:
Opening cost as per balance sheet 1,910
add Subsidiary assets acquired 650
2,560
add Finance lease (note (f)) 900
3,460
deduct Sale of plant (note (g)) 80
3,380
Closing cost as per balance sheet 3,730
Therefore, purchase 350
 Proceeds from sale of equipment is given in note (g)
 Interest received and dividends received are given in note (i)
 The proceeds from the issue of share capital and long term borrowings are given in
note (b). The share capital can in fact be easily calculated from the balance sheet
changes.

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 Details of the finance lease payments and dividends paid are given in notes (i) and (d)
respectively.
As you can see from this exercise, to prepare a cash flow statement we need the provision
of other information which is not shown in the income statement or the balance sheet.

Question for Practice

Now see if you can work the next example out for yourself.
The following information relates to Peak Ltd.:
Balance Sheet as at 31 December 20X5

31.12.20X5 31.12.20X4
Property, plant and equipment nbv
Buildings 624,500 543,100
Other 102,300 93,450
Investments 142,000 868,800 56,000 692,550
Current assets:
Inventory 83,400 82,400
Debtors 48,750 54,300
Bank 1,100
132,150 137,800
Current liabilities falling due within one year:
Trade creditors 35,480 63,470
Taxation 12,500 10,500
Dividends 38,000 35,000
Bank 10,500
96,480 108,970
Net current assets 35,670 28,830
Total assets less current liabilities 904,470 721,380
Non-current liabilities due after one year:
5% Debentures 150,000 45,000
Net assets 754,470 676,380

Capital reserves
Ordinary £1 shares 620,000 600,000
Share premium account 40,000
Revaluation reserve 70,000 50,000
Retained profits 24,470 26,380
754,470 676,380

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Income Statement for the year ended 31 December 20X5

20X5 20X4
£ £
Profit before tax 48,590 65,600
Taxation 12,500 10,500
Profit after tax 36,090 55,100
Dividends 38,000 35,000
Retained profit for the year (1,910) 20,100
Retained profit b/f 1 January 26,380 6,280
Retained profit at 31 December 24,470 26,380

The following additional information is available:

 A market issue of shares was made on 1 January 20X5.
 During 20X5, equipment originally purchased at £65,200 was sold for £17,900,
accumulated depreciation being £37,700. The difference on disposal had been taken
to the income statement.
 Buildings costing £100,000 had been purchased during 20X5 and the depreciation
charged for the year 20X5 on other assets was £25,000. The only assets revalued
during the year were the buildings.
 During 20X5, dividends received amounted to £7,500 and interest received £15,000,
both of which had been credited to the income statement.
 The debentures were issued on 1 January 20X5 and all interest due had been paid.

Required
(a) Prepare the cash flow statement for the year ended 31 December 20X5 in a form
suitable for publication.
(b) Summarise the main conclusions arising from the cash flow produced for Peak Ltd.
(c) Comment on the usefulness of the cash flow statement to users of financial
statements.
Now check your answer with that provided at the end of the unit

C. FUNDS FLOW STATEMENTS

As the cash flow statement highlights the change in cash and bank balances over the year,
the source and application of funds statement highlights the change in working capital
over the year. Working capital is current assets less current liabilities. The statement shows
the sources of funds which have become available during the year, deducts the application
of funds (i.e. how these funds have been applied during the year) and shows how the
balance, i.e. net sources of funds, has been "ploughed into" inventories, bank, etc.

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Prior to the issue IAS 7, many entities included a statement of sources and application of
funds in their published accounts. You may come across a funds flow statement, so it would
be useful for you to understand its purpose.

Example
Source and Application of Funds Statement
for year ended 31 December

£ £
Source of Funds
Profit before tax 47,000
Adjustment for items not involving the movement of
funds:
Depreciation 12,000

Funds generated from operations 59,000

Funds from other sources
Issue of shares 15,000

74,000
Application of Funds
Purchase of non-current assets 6,000
Payment of taxation 31,000 37,000

37,000
Increase/Decrease in Working Capital
Increase in inventory 21,000
Increase in trade receivables 2,000
Increase in trade payables (2,000)
Movement in net liquid funds:
Decrease in bank overdraft 16,000

37,000

Reasons for Change from Funds Flow

IAS 7 sets out to meet what the IAS identified as a move away in user needs from funds flow
information to cash flow information (i.e. eliminating the long-term provisions and other
allocations associated with accruals accounting). Reasons cited for the change in emphasis
were:
 Historical cash flows may be directly relevant for business valuation in a way that
working capital flows are not.
 Funds flow information may hide significant changes, through the leads and lags, as
compared with cash flow, in the viability and liquidity of a business.

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 The funds flow statement does not provide any new data – it simply reorganises data
already available in the balance sheet.
 Cash flow is an easier concept to understand than working capital changes.

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ANSWER TO QUESTION FOR PRACTICE

(a) First we need to do the reconciliation of operating profit to net cash flow from operating
activities:
£ £
Net profit for the year before tax 48,590
less Interest and dividends received 22,500 26,090
add Interest charged 7,500
Net profit before interest and tax 33,590
Depreciation on buildings 38,600
Depreciation other 25,000
Loss on sale 9,600 73,200
106,790
Increase in inventory (1,000)
Decrease in debtors 5,550
Decrease in creditors (27,990) (23,440)
Net cash inflows from operating activities £83,350

Now we can prepare the cash flow statement.

Cash Flow Statement for Peak Ltd for the year ended 31.12.20X5

Net cash flow from operating activities 83,350

Interest paid (7,500)
Taxation paid (10,500) (18,000)
Net cash used in investing activities
Payments to acquire tangible non-current assets (161,350)
Payments to acquire investments (86,000)
Sale of non-current assets 17,900
Interest received 15,000
Dividends received 7,500 (206,950)
Net cash used in financing activities
Issue of shares 60,000
Issue of debentures 105,000
Equity dividends paid (35,000) 130,000
Decrease in cash balances £11,600

(b) The cash flow shows that:

 The amount generated from operating activities more than covered the net
interest, dividends and tax paid for the company during the year ended 31
December 20X5.

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134 Profit and Cash Flow

 Non-current assets were purchased in excess of sales of £229,450. This was

financed by the issue of shares and debentures of £165,000 cash. The
remaining £64,450 was financed from internal resources of the company
resulting in a cash reduction of £11,600.
 The interest and dividends received on the investments is at a good level.
 Questions should be asked in respect of the fall in the profit for the year.
 Gearing has increased during the year, but does not appear to be at a high risk
level.
 The company has expanded its assets by the use of long-term capital resources
in the main.
(c) The cash flow statement is useful in that:
 It identifies the factors which have caused the change in the cash and cash
equivalent position.
 It identifies the extent to which profits result in inflows of cash.
 It is more objective and verifiable than the income statement as it has no need
for accruals and other estimates.
 It provides information on something familiar to users – cash. Profit is not
universally understood by users.
 It provides information on the financial adaptability of a business and its liquidity.
However, we could also say that:
 The information provided is all historical. Will this provide an indication of the
future that can be relied on?
 The format presentation, many would say, is cluttered and lacks clarity.

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Study Unit 6
Valuation of Non-Current Assets and Inventories

Contents Page

A. Valuation of Inventories 137

Definitions 137
Methods of Determining Cost 138
Net Realisable Value 141
Balance Sheet Disclosure of Inventories 141

B. Valuation of Long-Term Contracts 143

Reflecting the Fundamental Concepts 143
IAS 11 Detail 144

C. The Importance of Inventory Valuation 146

Closing Inventory in the Trading Account 146
Unconsumed Inventories 146
Gross or Trading Profit 147
Stocktaking and Inventory Values 147
Effects of Under- or Over-Valuation of Inventory 148

D. Depreciation 149
Accounting for Depreciation 149
Balance Sheet Disclosure 150
Revaluation of Non-Current Assets 150
IAS 16: Property, Plant and Equipment Accounting for Depreciation 150

E. Methods of Providing for Depreciation 153

Straight-line Method 153
Reducing Balance Method 153
Sum of the Years Digits 153

F. Borrowing Costs and IAS 23 154

Accounting Treatment 154

(Continued over)

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G. Leased Assets and IAS 17 154

Classification of Leases 155
Accounting Treatment 155
Examples 155

H. IAS 36: Impairment of Assets 156

Requirements of IAS 36 157
Example 157

I. IAS 40: Investment Properties 157

Answers to Questions for Practice 161

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A. VALUATION OF INVENTORIES
Accounting standards aim to narrow the differences and variations in practice and ensure
adequate disclosure in published accounts. IAS 2 specifically seeks to define practices for
the valuation of inventories.
To determine profit, costs have to be matched with related expenses. Unsold or
unconsumed inventories and work in progress will have incurred costs in the expectation of
future revenue and it is therefore appropriate to carry forward such costs so that they may be
matched with future revenues.
The main requirement of IAS 2 is that inventories must be stated at the lower of cost or
net realisable value – this is the key point to remember.

Definitions
(a) Inventories
Inventories are assets:
 held for sale in the ordinary course of business;
 in the process of production for such sale; and/or
 in the form of materials or supplies to be consumed in the production process or
in the rendering of services
Note that they do not include work-in-progress arising under construction contracts.
These are dealt with under IAS 11 Construction contracts, which we will deal with later
in this study unit.
(b) Cost
Cost is expenditure incurred in bringing the product or service to its present location
and condition. There are three elements to consider.
 Cost of purchase
This comprises not just the purchase price of materials, etc., but any other costs
incurred in acquiring them:
(i) Purchase price
(ii) Import duties
(iii) Transport and handling costs and other attributable costs
(iv) Trade discounts (subsidies and rebates must be deducted)
Trade discounts must not be confused with cash discounts which are allowed or
received. Cash discounts are made to encourage the early payment of the
account and are entered into the accounts and appear in the profit and loss
account. Trade discounts, on the other hand, never appear in the accounts,
and are deducted at source. The reason for these discounts is that the seller will
be dealing with three possible types of customer:
(i) The trader who buys a lot
(ii) The trader who buys only a few items
(iii) The general public
It is therefore logical that whilst the three types of customer will want to benefit
from a discount those under (i) will expect a higher discount than those under (ii),
and those under (ii) a higher discount than those under (iii). This means that

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there would potentially be at least three price levels. To save staff having to deal
with several price lists, all goods are shown at the same price and a negotiated
trade discount is given to selected customers. Discounts are deducted at the
time of the transaction, are instant and are never therefore entered in the
accounts.
 Cost of conversion
The cost of conversion into finished goods consists of:
(i) Costs attributable to units of production such as raw material, direct labour
and expenses and sub-contracted work
(ii) Production overheads (see below)
(iii) Other overheads, if attributable in the particular circumstances of the
business in bringing the product or service to its present location and
condition.
Production overheads may cause some problems. The direct charges of raw
materials, direct labour and expenses are easy to identify, but other overheads
related to production may be difficult to define accurately. Fixed production
overheads are those indirect costs of production that remain relatively constant
regardless of the volume of production – for example, depreciation and
maintenance of factory buildings. Variable production overheads are those
indirect costs of production that vary directly, or nearly directly, with the volume of
production, such as indirect materials and indirect labour. The allocation of fixed
production overheads to the costs of conversion is based on the normal capacity
of the production facilities. Variable production overheads are allocated to each
unit of production on the basis of the actual use of the production facilities.
Where a production process results in more than one product being produced
simultaneously, then costs of conversion are allocated between the products on a
rational and consistent basis. For example, we could base the allocation on the
relative sales value of each product.
 Other costs
Other costs are included in the costs of inventories only to the extent that they
are incurred in bringing the inventories to their present location and condition.
For example, we may need to include the costs of designing products for specific
customers in the costs.
The standard specifically excludes several other costs:
(i) Abnormal amounts of wasted materials, labour or other costs
(ii) Storage costs, unless those costs are necessary in the production process
before a further production stage – for example, maturing whisky or wine
(iii) Administrative overheads that do not contribute to bringing inventories to
their present location and condition
(iv) Selling costs.

Methods of Determining Cost

If inventories are required to be measured at the lower of cost or net realisable value then
we need first to determine what the cost is. This is not always as easy as it sounds.

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(a) Unit Cost

This is the cost of purchasing or manufacturing identifiable units of inventory, and is the
simplest form of determining cost. It can, though, be an impractical method if the
volume of inventories or the sales turnover is high. Thus, this method could be used
for valuing luxury motor boats, but would be totally impractical for valuing tins of baked
beans.
(b) Average Cost (Weighted Average)
The units of inventory on hand are multiplied by the average price. The average price
is calculated by:
Total cost of units
Total number of units
(c) Simple Average
This method is used to good advantage when it is impossible to identify each item
separately, and the prices of purchases do not fluctuate very much. To calculate the
issue price, the total prices paid are divided by the number of prices paid in the
calculation, for example:
1 unit cost: £1.00 per unit
100 units cost: £0.50 per unit
£(1.00  0.50)
Average price is  £0.75
2
As you can see, a danger with this method arises where there are large variations in
the numbers of items purchased.
(d) First In First Out (FIFO)
Here it is assumed that the earliest purchases are taken into production or sold first,
and the inventory on hand then represents the latest production or purchases.
Advantages
The inventory valuation follows the physical movement of the inventory.
The most recent purchases appear on the balance sheet – as shown below.

Receipts Issues Inventory After Each

Transaction
Units £ Units £ Units £

20 @ £45 £900 20 @ £45

10 @ £50 £500 10 @ £50 £1,400

10 @ £45 £450 10 @ £45

10 @ £50 £950

10 @ £45
5 @ £50 £700 5 @ £50 £250

10 @ £52 £520 5 @ £50

10 @ £52 £770

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Disadvantages
The revenue is charged at current prices and is potentially matched with out-of-date
costs. This means that the profit is based on price change and the profit margin may
not be consistent.
(e) Last In First Out (LIFO)
This works the opposite way to FIFO, and the calculation of inventories taken to
production or sold represents the most recent purchases. Inventory on hand
represents the earliest purchases or cost of production, as follows:

Receipts Issues Inventory After Each

Transaction
Units £ Units £ Units £

20 @ £45 £900 20 @ £45 £900

10 @ £50 £500 20 @ £45

10 @ £50 £1,400

5 @ £50 £250 20 @ £45

5 @ £50 £1,150

10 @ £52 £520 20 @ £45

5 @ £50
10 @ £52 £1,670

5 @ £52 £260 20 @ £45

5 @ £50
5 @ £52 £1,410

Advantages
The current revenue is matched with the current purchases, meaning that the profit
should be realistic. In the ideal situation where items purchased equal items sold, the
cost of sales will be the current cost of goods sold.
Disadvantages
The inventory values on the balance sheet are out-of-date and unrealistic. There is
also the problem of keeping accurate records of inventory movements.
(f) Replacement Cost
This is the cost at which an identical asset could be purchased or manufactured. The
difficulty with this method arises where the replacement cost is greater than the historic
cost because unrealised gains will be included in the resulting profit. Conversely,
where the replacement cost is less than either the realisable value or the historic cost,
then a greater loss will be incurred.

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Under IAS 2, LIFO method and replacement cost are not permitted for the valuation of
inventories . Thus remember we can only use specific identification of costs, weighted
average costs or FIFO.

Net Realisable Value

This is the actual or estimated selling price net of trade discounts, less:
 All further costs to completion
 All costs which will be incurred in marketing, selling and distribution
Remember, the rule laid down in IAS 2 is that inventories must be valued at cost or
net realisable value, whichever is the lower.
Estimates of net realisable value are based on the most reliable evidence available at the
time the estimates are made. The write down to net realisable value is charged to income
statements as an expense
There are many reasons why the net realisable value might be lower than cost:
 Errors in purchasing
 Errors in production
 Falling selling prices
 Obsolescence
 Increasing costs
 The company has decided to sell at a loss – for example, the supermarket practice of
"loss leaders"

Balance Sheet Disclosure of Inventories

Certain factors must be stated in the notes to published company accounts. The accounting
policies used in calculating cost, net realisable value, attributable profit and foreseeable
losses must all be stated.
Inventories should be analysed in the balance sheet, or in notes to the financial statements,
in a manner which is appropriate to the business, so as to indicate the amounts held in each
of the main categories.
Remember that the amount at which inventories are valued in the final accounts directly
affects the amount of gross profit.

Questions For Practice

1. This will help reinforce your understanding of manufacturing and trading accounts, as
well as emphasising the importance of the inventory figure(s).)
The trainee accountant in your costing department has tried to draw up a
manufacturing and trading account as shown below.
Required
Correct the account.

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£ £
Opening inventories 20,590
Purchases 90,590
Returns inwards 2,718
93,308
less Carriage inwards 4,920
88,388
add Returns outwards 2,920 91,308
111,898
add WIP 1 Jan 2,409
Prime cost 114,307
Indirect wages 10,240
Direct expenses 9,110
Factory insurance 2,240 21,590
135,897
less WIP 31 Dec 5,219
130,678
less Direct wages 14,209
Indirect expenses 9,240 23,449
107,229
add Finished goods 1 Jan 18,240
125,469
less Finished goods 31 Dec 24,000
Cost of production 101,469

Sales 150,500
less Cost finished goods 101,469
49,031
Add Closing inventories, 31 Dec 19,420
Trading profit 68,451

2. Calculate the cost of inventories in accordance with IAS 2 from the following data
relating to Mod enterprise for the year ended 31 December 200X.
$
Direct material cost of computer game per unit 2
Direct labour cost of computer game per unit 2
Direct expenses cost of computer game per unit 2
Production overheads per year 500,000
Administrative overheads per year 300,000
Selling overheads per year 400,000
Interest payments per year 50,000

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There were 150,000 units in finished goods at the year end. You may assume there
were no finished goods at the start of the year and that there was no work in progress.
The normal annual level of production is 500,000 computer games, but in the year
ended 31 December 200X only 350,000 were produced because of a labour dispute.

3. An entity has three products in its inventory with values as follows

Product Cost Net Realisable Value

A 20 24
B 22 30
C 24 18

Total inventory 66 72

At what value should the inventory be stated in the balance sheet in accordance with
IAS 2?

Now check your answers with those provided at the end of the unit

B. VALUATION OF LONG-TERM CONTRACTS

Work in progress may include long-term contracts. IAS 11: Construction Contracts defines a
long-term contract as one that is undertaken to manufacture or build a single substantial
entity, or to provide a substantial service. In both cases the period taken will extend beyond
one year, and a substantial amount of the contract will be carried forward.
So what is the accounting problem with long term contracts?
Well our problem is "how much of the revenue of the contract should we recognise in any
one period?" A long term contract generally carries with it stage payments which may or
may not relate to the stage of completion of the contract. Let's look at an example to
demonstrate the problem.
Example
A construction contract with revenue of £20m is initially estimated to have total costs of £12m
and is expected to take three years to complete. Thus, over the life of the contract, there will
be a profit of £8m, but at what point should we recognise that profit. If, for example, we
receive stage payments of £5m in year 1, £5m in year 2 and £10m on final completion,
should we recognise the profit as follows £2m in year 1, £2m in year 2 and £4m on
completion – that is, in proportion to the stage payments.
If we reflect on some of the accounting concepts and conventions then we might be able to
answer this question.

Reflecting the Fundamental Concepts

(a) Accruals Concept
The contract activity is expected to extend over several years, and it is argued that
profit should be allocated over those years in order to give a "true and fair view" of the
results of the years over which the activity takes place. A misleading view could be

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given if contract profits were not recognised until completion of the contract. Some
years could show substantial profits and others substantial losses, causing the analyst
to make incorrect interpretations on a company's progress.
(b) Prudence Concept
It may not be possible to predict accurately the outcome of a contract until the contract
is well advanced. The prudence concept requires a company to determine the earliest
point at which contract profits may be brought into the profit and loss account. Any
contract has uncertainties, examples being the actual date on which the contract will
be completed, or some unexpected cost arising. If it is expected that there will be a
loss on any contract, provision should be made for a loss as soon as it becomes
evident.
(c) Going Concern
A company entering into any contract must ensure that it has adequate resources to
complete the contract.
(d) Consistency Concept
Where a company has several contracts of a similar nature, then it should treat such
contracts in a similar fashion from an accounting point of view. In addition there should
be consistency within any one year and from year to year.

IAS 11 Detail
This is a difficult area of accounting and because of the wide variety of industrial projects
there is, of course, a diversity of accounting practice. The IAS attempts to address this area
by providing us with the following definitions and accounting practice.
Definitions
The IAS defines two types of contract;
 A fixed price contract is a construction contract in which the contractor agrees to a
fixed price or a fixed rate per unit of output, which in some cases is subject to cost
escalation clauses.
 A cost plus contract is a construction contract in which the contractor is reimbursed for
allowable or otherwise defined costs, plus a percentage of these costs as a fixed fee.
The IAS does not define contract revenue for us, but it does tell us what it is comprised of.
Contract revenue shall comprise
 The initial amount of revenue agreed in the contract; and
 Variations in contract work, claims and incentive payments to the extent that it is
probable that they will result in revenues, and are capable of being reliably measured.
Contract revenue needs to measured at its fair value.
The more difficult area in the standard is, of course, the recognition of contract costs to
match with the revenue. There is no definition of contract costs, but the IAS states that
contract costs comprise costs that relate directly to specific contracts, costs that are
attributable to contract activity in general and can be allocated to the contract, and such
other costs as are specifically chargeable to the customer under the terms of the contract.
Accounting practice
When the outcome of a construction contract can be estimated reliably then revenue and
expense within the contract is recognised by reference to the stage of completion (and note
that this is not necessarily the same as stage payments) of the contract. This is generally
known as the percentage of completion method.

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An expected loss on a long term contract must be recognised as an expense immediately in

the income statement.
For debtors and creditors within long term contracts, the enterprise needs to disclose on its
balance sheet:
 The gross amount due from customers (debtors) for contract work, which IAS 11 states
is the net amount of costs incurred plus recognised profit less the sum of progress
billings and recognised losses.
 The gross amount due to customers (creditors) is the net amount of costs incurred
plus recognised profits less the sum of progress billings and recognised losses for all
contracts in progress for which progress billings exceed costs incurred plus recognised
profits.
All of the above may be somewhat confusing so again let us use an example to demonstrate
accounting for long term contracts under the requirements of IAS 11.
Example
Show how the following information for two construction contracts should be recorded in the
financial statements

Contract X Contract Y
Contract revenue 500 350
Contract expenses 450 400
Billings 500 200
Payments in advance of billings 25 0
Contract costs incurred 600 400
Foreseeable additional losses 0 60

 For contract X
Within the income statement, we will show revenue of 500 and expense of 450,
resulting in a profit of 50. The difference between the contract costs incurred and
contract expense (600 – 450 = 150) will be shown on the balance sheet under current
assets as "due from customers, construction contracts". In addition, the customer for
this contract has paid us 25 in advance on billings. This will be shown on the balance
sheet under "payments in advance, construction contracts".
 For contract Y
This contract is only 10% complete and at this stage we are not able to reliably
measure profit.
Within the income statement, we will show contract revenue of 350 matched to
contract costs of 400 plus the foreseeable loss (which must be recognised
immediately) of 60, resulting in a loss of 110. Under "due from customers", we will
need to show the 150 – the difference between the contract revenue 350 and billings
200 – plus the provision for foreseeable loss of 60, so we have a net figure of 90 on
the balance sheet under "due from customers, construction contracts".
In determining the point at which profit is to be recorded, the overriding principle is that there
should be no attributable profit until the outcome of the contract can be foreseen with
reasonable certainty. If the profit can be seen with reasonable accuracy it is only prudent
that the profit earned should reflect the amount of work performed to date.

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C. THE IMPORTANCE OF INVENTORY VALUATION

Closing Inventory in the Trading Account
Having reviewed the treatment of inventories in the manufacturing and trading accounts, we
will now turn our attention to those organisations which do not have a manufacturing
process. These firms will buy in finished goods for resale, and an example of a trading
account is given below to refresh your memory:

£ £ £
Sales 25,770
less Returns 1,446 24,324
Cost of goods sold:
Opening inventory 5,565
Purchases 18,722
less Returns 576
18,146
Carriage inwards 645 18,791
24,356
less Closing inventory 4,727 19,629
Gross (or trading) profit 4,695

After we have added purchases less returns to the opening inventory and added the carriage
inwards, we have a grand total of the total inventory on hand plus all net purchases. From
this figure we have to deduct the inventory remaining, i.e. unsold, because it is not part of
the current year's costs. The net result is known as the cost of sales.

Unconsumed Inventories
The cost of unconsumed inventories will have been incurred in the expectation of future
revenues which will not arise until a later period, and it is appropriate to carry this cost
forward to be matched with the revenue when it does arise. This reflects the accruals
concept – i.e. the matching of costs and revenue in the year in which they arise rather than
in the year in which the cash is paid or received.
If there is no reasonable expectation of sufficient revenue to cover the cost incurred, the
irrecoverable cost should be charged in the year under review. This may occur due to
obsolescence, deterioration, change in demand, etc.
The comparison of cost versus realisable value needs to be made in respect of each item
separately. Where this is not practical then groups or categories which are similar will need
to be assessed together.
The methods used in allocating costs to inventory need to be selected with a view to
providing the fairest possible assessment of the expenditure actually incurred in bringing the
product to its present location and condition. For example, in supermarkets and retail shops
which have large numbers of rapidly changing items, it is appropriate to take the current
selling price less gross profit. When you next go shopping take a good look at the goods
displayed and ask yourself how you think the retailer would go about valuing the inventory.
Inventories should be sub-classified so that the categories can be identified and this can be
done in three ways:

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 By maintaining detailed records of cost of sales

 By maintaining detailed records so that a inventory valuation may be performed at any
time (known as the perpetual inventory)
 By using the gross profit margin applied to sales
The inventories should also be classified and identified in the balance sheet or in notes to
the accounts under the headings of:
 Raw materials
 Work in progress
 Finished goods

Gross or Trading Profit

As you know, the net sales less the cost of sales (sometimes known as the cost of goods
sold) is the gross profit (GP). This is an important figure because it reveals the profit from
operations.
Gross Profit Ratio
This is a very simple calculation, and is usually quoted as a percentage:
Gross profit
 100
Net sales
If we apply the figures from our trading account example above we get:
4,695
 100  19%
24,324
Most businesses have a target gross profit ratio which they aim to achieve. The success or
failure of the business depends on maintaining a level of gross profit that will be higher than
the expenses incurred in running the business. We will return to this subject in a later study
unit when we discuss analysis of final accounts.
You should remember that the level of gross profit varies with the type of business. For
example, the grocery trade, furniture stores and newsagents all have their individual profit
margins, which may vary even within the industry. A major supermarket chain may operate
on quite different profit margins from that planned by a village store. However, it is generally
possible to judge whether a business is below or above the average, once we are aware of
the average gross profit for the particular trade. This will only be a rough guide because
there are many other factors to take into account before a reasoned judgement can be
made.

Stocktaking and Inventory Values

In large organisations inventory control systems usually exist and these adopt one of the
methods we looked at earlier. In large supermarkets and DIY stores, inventory will be
computer-controlled from the tills, using scanning devices. Each sale not only records the
value of the sale but also identifies the unit and updates the stock holding, often actually
executing a re-order program automatically. This, of course, cuts out the arduous and
expensive task of counting individual items of inventory. Smaller firms, unable to afford
sophisticated systems, do have to resort to counting the individual items.
The are various ways of doing this which range from the perpetual inventory to the once-a-
year inventory check. Whichever method is chosen, there is the continual problem of pricing
the stock. This is made easier by IAS 2 which suggests that it is acceptable to use the

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selling price less the estimated profit margin in the absence of a satisfactory costing system.
However, the chosen system must give a reasonable approximation of the actual cost.
Perpetual Inventory
This is a method of recording store balances after every receipt and issue to facilitate regular
checking and to avoid the need to close down for stocktaking. The essential feature of the
perpetual inventory is the continuous checking of stock. A number of items are counted
every day or at frequent intervals and compared with stores records. Discrepancies can be
investigated and clerical errors can be corrected. If there is a physical discrepancy, then the
records must be adjusted accordingly. The usual causes of discrepancies are incorrect
entries, breakage, pilfering, evaporation, short or over-issues, absorption by moisture,
pricing method or simply putting the inventory in the wrong bin or location.

Effects of Under- or Over-Valuation of Inventory

The following three examples show the outcome if the closing inventory valuation is
incorrect.
(a) Correct inventory values

£ £
Sales 10,000
Opening inventory 500
Purchases 6,500
7,000
Closing inventory 700 6,300
Gross profit 3,700

(b) Under-valuation

£ £
Sales 10,000
Opening inventory 500
Purchases 6,500
7,000
Closing inventory 650 6,350
Gross profit 3,650

(c) Over-valuation

£ £
Sales 10,000
Opening inventory 500
Purchases 6,500
7,000
Closing inventory 750 6,250
Gross profit 3,750

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Notice the difference in the gross profit. These models show how important it is to get as
accurate a inventory valuation as possible. Inventory adjustments are one of the main ways
of "window dressing" a set of accounts, as we will see in a later study unit.

D. DEPRECIATION
Depreciation is a reduction in the value of an asset over a period of time. Fixed/non-
current assets are those assets of a material value that are held for use in the business and
not for resale or conversion into cash. With the exception of land, non-current assets do not
last for ever and therefore have a limited number of years of useful life. In fact, even some
land may have its usefulness exhausted after a number of years – examples include
quarries, gravel pits and mines, but here it is possible that when one useful life is depleted,
another useful life can be created. For example, an old gravel pit can be filled with water
and used for water sports.
Usually there is no one cause that contributes to the reduction in value of an asset; it is more
often a combination of factors. Externally there may be technological change and
advancements causing obsolescence to existing assets, whilst internally there are inherent
causes such as wear and tear in a factory environment.
Depreciation cannot really be determined accurately until the asset is disposed of. At that
time the difference between the original cost and the disposal value can be matched. For
accounting purposes it is unacceptable to await the time of disposal, mainly because the
total reduction in value would fall within one financial accounting period, whereas the
reduction typically takes place over the whole of the period during which the asset is used.
Depreciation can be said to be that part of the cost of the asset which is consumed during its
period of use by the firm. Depreciation is an expense and is treated in the same way as
other expenses such as wages, electricity, rent, etc. However, the most significant
underlying concept is that, unlike other charges in the income statement, the charge for
depreciation does not entail actual expenditure.
Once the initial capital outlay has been made, no further amount is expended, although the
firm is suffering a loss by reason of the diminution of the value of the asset which is retained
in the business for the sole purpose of earning profit. This brings us back to the earlier rule
that capital expenditure must not be mixed with revenue expenditure.

Accounting for Depreciation

The accounting entry is created by charging the relevant account, e.g. plant and machinery
would be charged in the manufacturing account unless there were no manufacturing
account, in which case it would be charged in the profit and loss account. For delivery
vehicles or salesmen's cars the charge would be shown in the distribution section of the
income statement.

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If we choose a non-manufacturing firm as an example, then the entry in the income

statement will be:

£ £
Gross profit 29,250
Distribution expenses:
Depreciation motor vehicles 1,000
Administration expenses:
Depreciation fixtures and fittings 2,000 3,000
26,250

Balance Sheet Disclosure

The following extract from a balance sheet shows how the asset and its related depreciation
provision must be shown (these details may appear in notes to the final accounts):

£ £
Non-current assets
Fixtures & fittings 9,000
less Depreciation provision 2,000 7,000
Motor vehicles 11,000
less Depreciation provision 1,000 10,000

Remember the following two points:

 We must charge the accounts and at the same time create the provision as a credit
balance.
 When it comes to the balance sheet, we match the asset and its relative provision.

Revaluation of Non-Current Assets

Where non-current assets are thought to have permanently increased in value, they may be
included in the accounts at the revalued amounts. The depreciation charge is then
calculated on the revalued amount. We will deal with a permanent decrease in the value ,
impairment, a little later in this study unit.

IAS 16: Property, Plant and Equipment Accounting for Depreciation

This section gives a summary of the requirements of IAS 16 in relation to depreciation in the
published accounts of businesses.
Depreciation is defined as the systematic allocation of the depreciable amount of an asset
over its useful life. Depreciable amount is the cost of an asset, or other amount substituted
for cost, less its residual amount. Depreciation should be allocated to the accounting period
so as to charge a fair proportion to each accounting period during the expected useful life of
the asset.
It is important to remember that depreciation is just an accounting method for allocating the
cost of an asset over the period of its use. The value of the asset in each intervening year
has no real meaning, and it is certainly not what the asset could probably be sold at. The
value is usually referred to as its net book value. Depreciation also has nothing to do with

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ensuring the business can afford to buy another asset when the first one becomes useless.
Depreciation does NOT increase the amount of cash in a business. However, depreciation
does have the effect of retaining resources in the business by reducing profit and thereby
reducing potential dividend payments.
(a) Cost of an Asset
The cost of an asset is the amount of cash or cash equivalents paid, or the fair value
of any other consideration given, to acquire an asset at the time of its acquisition or
construction. The elements of this cost comprise;
 Its purchase price, including import duties and after deducting trade discounts
and rebates
 Any costs directly attributable to bringing the asset to the location and condition
necessary for it to be capable of operating in the manner intended by
management
 The initial costs of dismantling and removing the item and restoring the site on
which it is located the obligation for which an entity incurs at the time of
acquisition.
Work through the following example to ensure you understand this definition of cost.
In the year to 31 December 200X Krang bought a new non-current asset and
made the following payments in relation to it:

Cost as per supplier's list 24,000

Agreed discount (2,000)
Delivery charge 200
Erection charge 400
Maintenance charge 600
Replacement parts 500
Estimated costs for restoring site at end of use 1,000
The cost will not include maintenance and replacement parts, which will be
treated as ongoing expenses in relation to the asset, but the site restoration
costs will be included.
Therefore, cost = 24,000 – 2,000 + 200+ 400+ 1,000 = 23,600

(b) Residual Value

This is the value which the firm could expect to recover at the end of the asset's useful
life. It is a subjective matter and if there is any doubt then it should be treated as nil.
(c) Useful Life of an Asset
This is:
 Dependent upon the extent of use.
 Governed by extraction or consumption.
 Reduced by obsolescence or wear and tear.
 Predetermined as in leaseholds.
This assessment is one of the greatest problems since it depends upon the extent and
pattern of future use. It can be described as the period over which the present owner
will derive economic benefit from its use.

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The assessment of depreciation considers three factors:

 The carrying amount of the assets, whether at cost or valuation
 The expected useful economic life
 The residual value
The useful economic life should be reviewed regularly and, when necessary, revised.
Such a review should normally be undertaken every five years and more frequently
where circumstances warrant it.
(d) Methods of Depreciation
The IAS does not lay down any specific methods but states that "there is a range of
acceptable methods and management should choose the most appropriate to the
asset and its use in the business". Management also need to review the depreciation
method chosen at least each financial year end and change the method chosen if
necessary. The new method will be applied to the net book value remaining in the
books before the change.
It is not appropriate to omit a charge for depreciation.
Freehold land is not normally depreciated unless it is subject to depletion.
However, the value of land may be adversely affected by considerations such as the
desirability of its location, either socially or in relation to available sources of materials,
labour, or sales and in such circumstances should be written down. All buildings have
a finite life and should therefore be written down taking into consideration their useful
economic life.
(e) Disclosures
The accounts should disclose the following information regarding each major class of
depreciable asset:
 The method used
 The useful economic life or depreciation method used
 The total depreciation charged for the period
(f) Revaluation of assets
Assets can be revalued if their fair value can be determined reliably.
If an item of property, plant and equipment is revalued, the entire class to which the
asset belongs must be revalued. If an asset's carrying amount is increased under
revaluation, then the increase is credited to a revaluation surplus, but if an asset's
value is decreased then the entire fall in value is recognised in profit or loss, unless the
fall reverses a previous valuation, in which case it can be debited to the remaining
revaluation surplus.
Revalued assets must still be depreciated, with the revalued amount now being treated
as the cost determinant in the depreciation calculation.
(g) Changes in the Method of Depreciation
Changes should only be undertaken if the new method gives a fairer presentation of
the results and financial position.
(h) Scope of the Standard
The standard applies to all non-current assets other than:
 Investment properties

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 Goodwill
 Development costs
 Investments

E. METHODS OF PROVIDING FOR DEPRECIATION

Straight-line Method
The charge is calculated by taking the cost and deducting the residual value and dividing the
result by the years of expected use. In some cases there may only be a scrap value if the
asset has been used extensively in the business or if it is of a high-tech nature.
Suppose a motor vehicle was bought on the first day of the financial year for £10,000, the
disposal or trade-in price was £1,000 and the expected period of usage was four years. If
the vehicle is to be written off on a straight-line basis (i.e. in equal amounts each year), then:
£10,000  £1,000 = £9,000 ÷ 4 = a charge of £2,250 per annum
The charge per annum is often expressed as a percentage of cost less residual value.
This is a very common method. It has the benefits that it is simple, effective and produces a
uniform charge which affords better comparative costs. The straight-line method is ideal for
assets such as leases, copyrights, etc. although it is also commonly used for plant and
machinery and motor vehicles.
The argument against the method is that an equal amount is charged each year, even
though maintenance charges may be low in the early years of the asset's use and rise in the
later years.

Reducing Balance Method

This is also sometimes known as the fixed percentage method because a percentage is
determined and applied each year to the reducing balance of the capital value.
Say we have an asset worth £12,000 with residual value of £2,000 and choose a rate of
50%. In Year 1 the charge will be £5,000, but in the following year the charge will be
calculated on the reduced capital value of £5,000 and so would be £2,500 – the year after,
the charge would be £1,250 and so on. Those who favour this method claim that the high
charge in the earlier years offsets lower maintenance costs, and in the later years the higher
maintenance costs are offset by the reduced depreciation charge.
You should also note that this method never writes off the asset completely.

Sum of the Years Digits

This is not as popular a method in Britain as it is in the USA. It follows the same principle as
the reducing balance method but it is easier to use because there is no difficult computation
when assessing the amount to be charged.
Again, if we buy an asset for £10,000 with a life of four years and the residual value is
estimated to be £2,000, we would write down the asset over four years by weighting earlier
years' charges higher than later years. Therefore, over four years the charge in year 1
would be assigned a value of 4, in year 2 a value of 3, in year 3 a value of 2, and year 4 a
value of 1, as follows:
4 + 3 + 2 +1 = 10 or 4 (4 + 1) ÷ 2 = 10

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For example:
Year 1: 4/10ths  £8,000 = 3,200
Year 2: 3/10ths  £8,000 = 2,400
Year 3: 2/10ths  £8,000 = 1,600
Year 4: 1/10ths  £8,000 = 800 = £8,000 total

F. BORROWING COSTS AND IAS 23

Previously in this study unit we discussed the cost of an asset. Within that cost, we did not
consider whether borrowing costs, interest incurred on loans, etc. used to acquire the asset,
formed part of that cost. Remember the cost of an asset is all those expenses required to
enable the asset to be brought into use. Could we then make a case for considering the
interest on any loan needed as part of that cost?
In the case of a self-constructed asset, where we can directly allocate the borrowing costs,
these can be logically regarded as part of the cost. But it is not always clear which loan
applies to which asset, so should these interest/borrowing costs be regarded as part of the
cost or not? Clearly, if we don't capitalise the borrowing costs as part of the cost of an asset,
then they will need to be expensed to the income statement. Expensing all such borrowing
costs would clearly be prudent.
These issues are considered by IAS 23 which, in its most recent form, was issued in 1994
and minor changes made to it in March 2007.

Accounting Treatment
The standard states that borrowing costs shall be recognised as an expense in the period in
which they are incurred. That is very clear. However, the standard goes on to state "except
to the extent that they are capitalised". Thus, the standard permits us to capitalise some
borrowing costs. But which? The answer is "borrowing costs that are directly attributable to
the acquisition, construction or production of a qualifying asset shall be capitalised as part of
the cost of that asset".
 A qualifying asset for the capitalisation of borrowing costs is one that necessarily takes
a substantial period of time to get ready for its intended use or sale.
 Borrowing costs are defined as those costs that could be avoided if the asset had not
been acquired.
It can be quite difficult to identify a direct relationship between an asset and borrowing costs,
especially if funds are borrowed generally and controlled by a central function within the
business. In these cases, the standard permits us to apply a capitalisation rate to the
expenditure on the asset. This rate is a weighted average.

G. LEASED ASSETS AND IAS 17

A lease is an agreement that conveys to one part, the lessee, the right to use property, but
does not convey legal ownership of that property. However, the IASB's Framework does not
define an asset in relation to legal ownership. Remember an asset is a resource controlled
by an entity as a result of a past event and from which future economic benefits are
expected to flow to the entity. So, can a leased asset be viewed as an asset of the lessee
and not that of the lessor? If it is viewed as an asset of the lessee, then this will make a
considerable difference to the balance sheet of the business as the asset will have to be

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capitalised at its fair value and then depreciated. In addition, the amount owed to the lessor
under the lease agreement will need to be shown as a liability.

Classification of Leases
The standard divides leases into finance leases and operating leases. Finance leased
assets are those that we will need to capitalise onto the balance sheet of the lessee as they
fit the description of an asset.
 A finance lease is a lease that transfers substantially all the risks and rewards
incidental to ownership of an asset. Title may or may not eventually be transferred.
 An operating lease is a lease other than a finance lease.

Accounting Treatment
IAS 17 requires us to recognise a finance lease in the lessee's balance sheet at amounts
equal to the fair vale of the leased property or, if lower, the present value of the minimum
lease payments determined at the inception of the lease.
A finance lease will also give rise to depreciation expenses over the useful life of the leased
asset. However, be a little careful here as the useful life of a leased asset is only the
remaining period from the commencement of the lease over which the economic benefits
embodied in the leased asset are expected to be consumed by the lessee.
The interest payable on the lease needs to be allocated to accounting periods during the
lease so as to produce a constant periodic rate of charge on the remaining balance of the
obligation for each accounting period.

Examples
We can best demonstrate the classification and accounting for leases by the use of the
following examples.
Example 1
X business acquires four identical pieces of equipment on the same day as follows:
 Piece 1, rented from A at a cost of £500 per month payable in advance and terminable
at any time by either party
 Piece 2, rented from B at a cost of eight half-yearly payments in advance of £3,000
 Piece 3 rented from C at a cost of six half-yearly payments in advance of £2,400
 Piece 4 purchased outright from D at a cost of £16,000
Which of the above are non-current assets of X?
Obviously, piece 4 is a non-current asset of X as this is a purchased asset. The purchase
price also sets the fair value of the piece of equipment – £16,000.
Piece 1 is an operating lease as there is no transfer of the risks and rewards to X.
Piece 2 involves a total payment of £24,000 which in present value terms will be more than
the fair value. Therefore, this is a finance lease and 2 is a non-current asset of X.
Piece 3 only involves a total payment of £14,400, the present value of which will be
significantly less than £16,000 and this, therefore, is an operating lease.
Example 2
A lessee leases an asset for a period of five years. The rental is £650 per quarter payable in
advance. The leased asset could have been purchased for £10,000 and has a useful life of

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8 years. Show how the lease will be accounted for in the lessee's books for the first year.
The rate of interest implicit in the lease, the constant periodic charge, is 2.95% per quarter.
In this example, the lease is a finance lease as total payments are £13,000, which in present
value terms is more than £10,000. At the beginning of the lease period, the asset will be
capitalised in the lessee's books by debiting non-current assets £10,000 and crediting
liabilities loans £10,000.
The lease payments total £13,000 and, therefore, the total interest charge in the lease is
£3,000. This interest has to be allocated across the reducing balance of liability as follows:

Period Capital sum Rental paid Capital sum Finance charge Capital sum
at start during period 2.95% at end
1 10,000 650 9350 276 9626
2 9626 650 8976 265 9241
3 9241 650 8591 254 8845
4 8845 650 8195 242 8437
1,037
5 8437 650 7787 230 8017
6 8017 650 7367 217 7584
7 7584 650 6934 205 7139
8 7139 650 6489 191 6680
843

The annual lease charge of 4 x 650 = £2,600 can now be allocated to capital repayment and
expense interest charge. In the first year, the interest charge is 1,037 and therefore capital
repayment is 1,563. In the second year, the capital repayment due will be 1,757 (2,600 –
843).
Thus, in the financial statements for year 1, the income statement will be charged with 1,037
interest and the liability will be reduced by 1,563. Of the remaining liability of 8,437, the next
yearly capital repayment will be recognised as a current liability 1,757.
We also need to depreciate the asset. Its value is 10,000 and we shall assume no residual
value and that the useful life will be five years as this is the lesser of the lease period and the
useful life of the asset – in other words, the useful life to the lessee is curtailed by the length
of the lease period. Depreciation charge will, therefore, be 2,000 per annum.

H. IAS 36: IMPAIRMENT OF ASSETS

The essential objective of IAS 36 is to ensure that all assets are not carried at a figure
greater than their recoverable amount. Its essential requirement is that when an asset is
impaired – that is, its recoverable amount becomes less than its carrying amount in the
books – this loss must be written off.
IAS 36 is applicable to all assets except inventories (see IAS 2), construction contracts (see
IAS 11), deferred tax assets (see IAS 12), employee benefits, insurance contracts,
investment properties (see section I which follows and IAS 40), and assets held for sale in
accordance with IFRS 5. This means IAS 36 also applies to intangible assets such as

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goodwill. Impairment reviews are also required on those assets that have previously been
revalued upwards.

Requirements of IAS 36
IAS 36 requires that, at each balance sheet date, an assessment must be carried out to
determine whether there are any indications of impairment of assets. If there are indications
of impairment, then the business needs to estimate the recoverable amount of the asset and
compare this with the carrying amount.
IAS 36 suggests the following as indications of impairment:
 An asset's market value has declined significantly more than would be expected as a
result of the passage of time or normal use.
 Significant changes with an adverse effect on the business have taken place or will
take place in the technological, market, economic or legal environment in which the
business operates.
 Market interest rates have increased during the period and those increase are likely to
affect the discount rate used in calculating an asset's value in use and decrease the
asset's recoverable amount materially.
 The carrying amount of the net assets of the business is more than its market
capitalisation.

Example
Again let us use an example to demonstrate the requirements of the standard.
A non-current asset was purchased for £2m several years ago and revalued after 5 years to
£3m. At this stage, a revaluation reserve of £1m was created. In the current year, an
impairment review is undertaken and the recoverable amount of the asset is found to be
£1.2m. The impairment incurred is, therefore, £1.8m. £1m of this impairment will be
charged to the revaluation reserve and £0.8m to the income statement.

I. IAS 40: INVESTMENT PROPERTIES

IAS 1 defines a non-current asset as any asset other than a current asset. Current assets
are defined by IAS 1 as an asset which is:
 expected to be realised, or intended for sale or consumption, in the business's normal
operating cycle
 held primarily for the purpose of being traded
 expected to be realigned with 12 months
 cash or cash equivalent.
This is all well and good, but what about a business which owns a property which it intends
to hire out in the short to medium term and eventually sell. Is this a current asset or non-
current asset?
The answer seems to depend on the particular operating activities of the business. If the
business is actually trading in properties as an operating activity, then the property would
seem to be a current asset. If the business is intending to hold the property for a number of
accounting periods, then perhaps non-current denomination better reflects the substance.
However, the property is still not being consumed in supporting the operating activities of the
business, presuming it is not trading in property, and therefore charging depreciation on the
asset would seem to be incorrect.

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IAS 40 provides the following definition:

 An investment property is a property (land and/or building) held to earn rentals or for
capital appreciation rather than for use in the production or supply of goods or sale in
the ordinary course of business.
Investment properties are recognised as a non-current asset in the financial statements at
cost or fair value. If a business opts for the fair value model, then changes in fair value from
one period to the next will be recognised in the income statement. If a cost model is chosen,
then IAS 16 comes into force and the property is depreciated.
Note that choosing the fair value method for an investment property which is increasing in
value will enhance the profit declared by a company as the gain is taken to the income
statement, whereas under the cost model, the profit declared would be reduced due to
depreciation. This is something for you to be aware of when analysing financial statements.
(Also be aware that IAS 40 is very different to the UK SSAP 19 where a fair value method is
enforced and increases in fair value are taken to an investment property reserve.)
The decision tree below is useful in applying IAS 40.

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Figure 6.1: Decision tree for treatment of most property under IAS GAAP

Start

Is the property
held for sale in the Yes Use IAS 2
ordinary course of (inventories)
business?

No

Is the property Yes

Use IAS 16
owner occupied?

No

Is the property Yes Use IAS 16 until

being constructed
completion
or developed?

No

The property is
an investment
property

Which model Use IAS 16

is chosen for all Cost model with
investment disclosure from
properties? IAS 40

Fair value model

Use IAS 40

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Questions For Practice

4. J Limited purchased the following assets on 1 January: buildings at £150,000, plant
and machinery at £75,000, fixtures and fittings at £50,000 and motor vehicles at
£35,000. The company's financial year ends on 31 December.
Calculate the depreciation using the straight-line method.
The percentage rates of depreciation to be applied are: buildings 2% pa, plant and
machinery 25% pa, fixtures and fittings 12½% pa, and motor vehicles 25% pa.
It is assumed that the residual values will be as follows: buildings nil, plant £2,000,
fixtures £8,000 and motor vehicles £5,000.

5. Calculate the depreciation on the following assets, showing exactly how much will be
charged annually in respect of each. Use the sum of the years digits methods.
(a) Plant costing £150,000 with a residual value of £10,000 and an expected useful
life of 5 years.
(b) Fixtures and fittings costing £25,000 with a residual value of £1,000 and an
expected life of 15 years.
(c) Motor vehicles costing £45,000 with a residual value of £5,000 and an expected
life of 4 years.

6. Consider each of the assets described below and indicate whether or not they are
investment properties as defined in IAS 40.
(a) Land held for long term capital appreciation rather than for short term sale in the
ordinary course of business
(b) Land held for a currently undetermined use
(c) Property that is being constructed or developed for future use as investment
property
(d) A building owned by a business and leased out under operating leases
(e) A building that is vacant, but is held for operating lease purposes
(f) Property intended for sale in the ordinary course of business
(g) Property being constructed for third parties
(h) Owner occupied property
(i) Property leased to others under a finance lease

Now check your answers with those provided at the end of the unit

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ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS FOR PRACTICE

1. The corrected account is as follows:
Manufacturing and Trading Account

£ £
Opening inventories 20,590
Purchases 90,590
less Carriage inwards 4,920
95,510
Returns outwards 2,920 92,590
113,180
Closing inventories 19,420
93,760
Direct wages 14,209
Direct expenses 9,110 23,319
Prime cost 117,079
Indirect wages 10,240
Indirect expenses 9,240
Factory insurance 2,240 21,720
138,799
add WIP 1 Jan 2,409
141,208
less WIP 31 Dec 5,219
Cost of production 135,989
Sales 150,500
less Returns 2,718 147,782
Opening inventories 18,240
Cost of production 135,989
154,229
Closing inventories (finished goods) 24,000 130,229
Gross trading profit 17,553

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2. The direct costs of the computer game are simple enough to calculate as follows:
150,000 units at $2 material costs 300,000
150,000 units at $2 labour costs 300,000
150,000 units at $2 expenses costs 300,000
900,000

IAS 2 only permits the inclusion of overhead costs in the valuation of inventories and,
therefore, administration, selling and interest cannot be included. If we assume the
production overheads are fixed in nature, then we must allocate these based on
normal production capacity which, in this case, is 500,000 units.
500,000
Production overheads = x 150,000 150,000
500,000
Cost of finished inventory 1,050,000

The abnormal costs associated with the labour dispute will be charged as an expense
in the period in which they were incurred.

3. IAS 2 requires us to value each type of inventory separately. So the answer is not 66,
the lower of total cost or net realisable value.
The answer is 20 + 22 + 18 = 60.

4.
Cost Residual Depreciate Depreciation
Asset Value on
£ £ £ £

Buildings 150,000 Nil 150,000 3,000

Plant 75,000 2,000 73,000 18,250
Fixtures & fittings 50,000 8,000 42,000 5,250
Motor vehicle 35,000 5,000 30,000 7,500

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5.
Year Plant Year Fixtures Year Motor
and Fittings Vehicle
£ £ £

1 46,666 1 3,000 1 16,000

2 37,333 2 2,800 2 12,000
3 27,999 3 2,600 3 8,000
4 18,666 4 2,400 4 4,000
5 9,336 5 2,200
40,000
6 2,000
140,000
7 1,800
8 1,600
9 1,400
10 1,200
11 1,000
12 800
13 600
14 400
15 200

24,000

6. (a), (d) and (e) are clearly investment properties.

(b) is speculative at the moment, but would be regarded as an investment property at
this stage.

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 165

Study Unit 7
Further Accounting Standards and Concepts

Contents Page

Introduction 167

A. IAS 33: Earnings Per Share 167

Share Issues During a Period 168

B. IAS 20: Accounting for Government Grants 168

C. IAS 12: Income Taxes 169

D. Accounting for Research and Development Expenditure 170

Types of R & D Expenditure 170
Accounting Treatment 170
Disclosure 171

E. IAS 10: Events after the Balance Sheet Date 171

Adjusting Events 171
Non-adjusting Events 172
Standard Accounting Practice 172
Window Dressing 173

F. IAS 37: Provisions, Contingent Liabilities and Contingent Assets 173

Definitions 173
Accounting Treatment 175
Measurement of Provisions 175

G. IAS 38: Intangible Assets 176

How does Goodwill Arise? 176
Accounting Treatment 177
Amortisation Treatments 177

(Continued over)

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H. IAS 18: Revenue 178

Definitions 178

I. IAS 24: Related Party Transactions 179

Definitions 180
Requirements 180

J. Accounting for Inflation 180

Limitations of Historical Cost Reporting 181
Current Cost Accounting (CCA) 181
Financial and Operating Capital Maintenance Concepts 184

Answers to Questions for Practice 187

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INTRODUCTION
In this section we will look at other International Accounting Standards (IASs) and
International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRSs) that you should be aware of, and outline
how they affect financial statements. Remember that accounting standards do not
themselves have the force of law. They do, however, have the backing of the major
accounting bodies and professional accountants are expected to adhere to their provisions.
In addition, we review here the issue of accounting for inflation which, whilst not currently the
subject of an accounting standard, remains an issue of importance.

A. IAS 33: EARNINGS PER SHARE

IAS 33 requires earnings per share to be shown on the face of the income statement. It
states that basic earnings per share (BEPS) shall be calculated by dividing profit or loss
attributable to ordinary shareholders or the parent entity by the weighted average number of
ordinary shares outstanding during the period. An entity also has to disclose on the face of
the income statement the diluted earnings per share (DEPS) which requires adjustments to
be made to both earnings and weighted average number of shares for the effects of all
dilutive ordinary shares
An example of the income statement presentation could be as follows:
Income Statement (extract)

Year 2 Year 1
Basic earnings per ordinary share of 25p 16.25p 13.0p
Fully-diluted earnings per ordinary share of 25p 12.85p

Notes to Accounts (extract)

The basic earnings per share are calculated on earnings of £1,300,000 (Yr 1
£1,040,000) and eight million ordinary shares in issue throughout the two years
ended 31 December Yr 2.
The fully-diluted earnings per share are based on adjusted earnings of
£1,430,000 after adding back interest net of corporation tax on the 8%
convertible loan stock. The maximum number of shares into which this stock
becomes convertible on 31 December Yr 4 is 3.125 million, making a total of
11.125 million shares issued and issuable.
Formatted
Example
Shalmar had issued share capital on 31 December 200X as follows:
 500,000 £1 preference shares carrying a dividend of 7% and 4,000,000 ordinary £0.25
shares.
 Profit after tax for the period ended 31 December 200X was £435,000.
 On 1 October 200X Shalmar had issued a further 1 million ordinary shares at full
market value.
The numerator of the EPS figure will be:
43,500,000 – preference dividend of 3,500,000 = 40,000,000.

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9 3
The denominator will be 3,000,000 x + 4,000,000 x = 3,250,000
12 12
40,000,000
Therefore, EPS is: = 12.3p
3,250,000

Share Issues During a Period

Businesses quite often issue bonus shares and rights shares. These need careful
consideration when determining the denominator of the EPS calculation.
As a bonus issue is made from resources already within the business for the EPS, no matter
at what point the bonus issue was made during the year, we assume it was made at the
beginning of the year. Thus, if in the above example the issue on the 1 October was a
bonus issue, then the denominator would become 4,000,000.
A rights issue consists of both a bonus issue of shares and a new issue. To adjust the
number of shares for the rights issue we multiply the number of shares in issue before rights
by the fair value per share immediately before rights divided by the theoretical ex rights price
value per share. An example will demonstrate this rather complicated sounding calculation.
Example
Rose as at 30 June 200X has 600,000 ordinary shares in issue with a current market value
of £2 per share. On 1 July 200X, Rose makes a four for six rights issue at £1.75. Calculate
the weighted average number of shares in issue for the period ended 31 December 200X.
We need to calculate the theoretical ex-rights price as follows:
Market valuation of equity before rights = 600,000 x £2 = 1,200,000
Proceeds from rights issue = 400,000 x £1.75 = 700,000
1,000,000 1,900,000

1,900,000
Therefore, the theoretical ex-rights price is: = £1.90
1,000,000
Next we calculate the weighted average number of shares:
6 2 6
600000 x x + 1,000,000 x = 815,789
12 1.90 12

B. IAS 20: ACCOUNTING FOR GOVERNMENT GRANTS

Government grants should be recognised in the income statement so as to match them with
the expenditure towards which they are intended to contribute. There are two possible
methods of achieving this and both are permitted by the standard:
 Firstly the grant could be set up as a deferred income account and amounts will be
released to the income statement to match the usage of the asset.
 The other method is to deduct the amount of the grant in arriving at the carrying
amount of the asset.
Grants relating to leased assets in the accounts of lessors should be accounted for in
accordance with the requirements of IAS 17.
The following information should be disclosed in the financial statements:
 The accounting policy adopted for government grants.

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 The effects of government grants on the results for the period and/or the financial
position of the enterprise.
 Where the results of the period are affected materially by the receipt of forms of
government assistance other than grants, the nature of the assistance and, to the
extent that the effects on the financial statements can be measured, an estimate of
those effects.

C. IAS 12: INCOME TAXES

This standard mainly deals with the subject of deferred taxation.
Deferred tax is basically the difference between tax calculated on accounting profits and tax
calculated in accordance with legal requirements of a legislative authority. Quite often, tax
authorities, when calculating tax charges, start with the accounting profit and adjust it for
various matters such as depreciation. For example, in the UK, the tax authorities allow
specific allowances for the purchase of assets against reported profits rather than
depreciation.
Let us suppose Lex purchases an asset for £1,000 and depreciates on a straight line basis
over its 4 year life assuming no residual value. The depreciation charge per annum will,
therefore, be £250. On the other hand, the tax authorities applicable to Lex allow a 30%
written down allowance against profits. This allowance will, therefore, be year 1 £300, year 2
£210, year 3 £147, etc. and thus the accounting and taxable profits will be different.
If accounting profits were £2,000 per annum after depreciation charges every year, rising to
£2,250 in year 5 as no depreciation will be charged in this year, then the taxable profit,
accounting tax and actual tax (presuming a tax rate of 30%) would be as follows:

Year 1 Year 2 Year 3 Year 4 Year 5

Accounting profit 2,000 2,000 2,000 2,000 2,250
Accounting tax at 30% 600 600 600 600 675
Accounting profit before 2,250 2,250 2,250 2,250 2,250
depreciation
Written down allowance 300 210 147 103 72
Taxable profit 1,950 2,040 2,103 2,147 2,178
Tax 585 612 631 644 653

The above table shows us that in year 1, the accounting tax is £15 more than the actual tax
and in year 5 £22 more. These differences are spread over the years.
IAS 12 requires us to account for deferred tax which is the amount required to match the
accounting and tax charge. Thus, in the above example, in year 1 we would need to provide
for a deferred tax liability of £15 by making an extra charge against tax in the income
statement. In year 2, £12 of this deferred liability would be released.

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D. ACCOUNTING FOR RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT

EXPENDITURE
The accounting policies to be followed in respect of research and development expenditure
must have regard to the fundamental accounting concepts, including the accruals concept
by which revenue and costs are accrued, matched and dealt with in the period to which they
relate, and the prudence concept by which revenue and profits are not anticipated but are
recognised only when realised in the form either of cash or of other assets, the ultimate cash
realisation of which can be established with reasonable certainty. As a result of the prudence
concept, expenditure should be written off in the period in which it arises unless its
relationship to the revenue of a future period can be established with reasonable certainty.
The accounting treatment of R and D is contained in IAS 38 Intangible assets.

Types of R & D Expenditure

The term 'research and development' is used to cover a wide range of activities.
Classification of the related expenditure is often dependent on the type of business and its
organisation. However, it is generally possible to recognise three broad categories of
activity, which are defined in SSAP 13 as follows:
(a) Pure (or Basic) Research
Experimental or theoretical work undertaken primarily to acquire new scientific or
technical knowledge for its own sake, rather than directed towards any specific aim or
application.
(b) Applied Research
Original or critical investigation undertaken in order to gain new scientific or technical
knowledge and directed towards a specific aim or objective.
(c) Development
Use of scientific or technical knowledge in order to produce new or substantially
improved materials, devices, products or services, to install new processes or systems
prior to the commencement of commercial production or commercial applications, or to
improve substantially those already produced or installed.

Accounting Treatment
(a) The cost of non-current assets acquired or constructed in order to provide facilities for
research and development activities over a number of accounting periods should be
capitalised and written off over their useful life through the income statement.
Depreciation written off in this way should be treated as part of research and
development expenditure.
(b) Expenditure on pure and applied research (other than that referred to above) should
be written off in the year of expenditure through the income statement.
The argument for doing so is that this form of expenditure can be regarded as part of a
continuing operation, required to maintain a company's business and its competitive
position; and as no particular accounting period will benefit, it is appropriate to write off
such expenditure when incurred.
(c) Development expenditure should be also written off in the year of expenditure
except in the following circumstances when it may be deferred to future periods:
 There is a clearly defined project, and
 The related expenditure is separately identifiable, and

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 The outcome of the project has been assessed with reasonable certainty as to:
(i) Its technical feasibility, and
(ii) Its ultimate commercial viability considered in the light of factors such as
likely market conditions (including competing products), public opinion,
consumer and environmental legislation, and
(iii) The aggregate of the deferred costs, any further development costs, and
related production, selling and administration costs is reasonably expected
to be exceeded by related future sales or other ventures, and
(iv) Adequate resources exist, or are reasonably expected to be available, to
enable the project to be completed and to provide any consequential
increases in working capital.
In the circumstances above, development expenditure may be deferred to the extent
that its recovery can be reasonably regarded as assured.
Deferred development expenditure for each project should be reviewed at the end of
each accounting period and where the circumstances which have justified the deferral
of the expenditure no longer apply, or are considered doubtful, the expenditure, to the
extent to which it is considered to be irrecoverable, should be written off immediately,
project by project.

Disclosure
(a) The accounting policy on research and development expenditure should be stated, and
explained in the notes to the financial accounts.
(b) The standard requires the amount of R & D costs to be charged to P & L (some
enterprises have exemption from this). What is needed is disclosure analysed
between the current year's expenditure and amounts amortised from deferred
expenditure. The standard emphasises that the amounts disclosed should include any
amortisation of fixed assets used in R & D activity

E. IAS 10: EVENTS AFTER THE BALANCE SHEET DATE

IAS 10 concerns events which arise after the balance sheet date but for which evidence
exists at the balance sheet date. In the interests of accurate reporting, it is essential that
these be reflected in the financial statements. If a proper understanding of the financial
position cannot be obtained without some disclosure, then notes must be provided to
indicate those conditions existing at the balance sheet date.
A post balance sheet event is any event which occurs between the balance sheet date
and the date on which the financial statements are approved by the board of directors.
There are two main categories of post balance sheet events.

Adjusting Events
These are events which provide additional evidence relating to conditions existing at the
balance sheet date. They require changes in amounts to be included in the financial
statements.
Examples are:
 The subsequent determination of the purchase price or the proceeds of sale of fixed
assets purchased or sold before the year end.
 A valuation which provides diminution in the value of property.

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 Guidance concerning the net realisable value of stocks, e.g. the proceeds of sales
after the balance sheet date, or the receipt or evidence that the previous estimate of
accrued profit on a long-term contract was materially inaccurate.
 The negotiation of amounts owing by debtors, or the insolvency of a debtor.
 Receipt of information regarding rates of taxation.
 Amounts received or receivable in respect of insurance claims which are in the course
of negotiation at the balance sheet date.
 Discovery of errors or frauds which show that the financial statements were incorrect.

Non-adjusting Events
These are events which arise after the balance sheet date and concern conditions which
did not exist at the time. As a result they do not involve changes in amounts in the financial
statements. On the other hand, they may be of such materiality that their disclosure is
required by way of notes, to ensure that financial statements are not misleading.
Examples are:
 Mergers and acquisitions
 Issues of shares and debentures
 Purchases or sales of fixed assets and other investments
 Losses of fixed assets or stocks as a result of catastrophe such as fire or flood
 Decline in the value of property and investment held as fixed assets, if it can be
demonstrated that the decline occurred after the year end
 Government action, such as nationalisation
 Strikes and other labour disputes

Standard Accounting Practice

(a) Financial statements should be prepared on the basis of conditions existing at the
balance sheet date.
(b) A material post balance sheet event requires changes in the amounts to be included in
the financial statements, where it is either an adjusting event, or it indicates that
application of a going concern concept to the whole or a material part of the company
is not appropriate.
(c) A material post balance sheet event should be disclosed where:
 It is a non-adjusting event of such materiality that its non-disclosure would affect
the ability of the users of financial statements to reach a proper understanding of
the financial position; or
 It is the reversal or maturity after the year end of a transaction entered into
before the year end, the substance of which was primarily to alter the
appearance of the company's balance sheet.
(d) The disclosure should state, in note form, the nature of the event and an estimate of
the financial effect, or a statement that it is not practicable to make such an estimate.
(e) The estimate of the financial effect should be disclosed before taking account of
taxation, and the taxation implications should be explained, where necessary, for a
proper understanding of the financial position.

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(f) The date on which the financial statements are approved by the board of directors
should be disclosed in the financial statements.

Window Dressing
The term 'window dressing' refers to the practice of manipulating a balance sheet so as to
show a state of affairs more favourable than that which would be shown by a mere statement
of the balances as they stand in the books. Over the years window dressing became a
rather uncertain term because it encompassed two rather different situations:
(a) The fraudulent falsification of accounts in order to show conditions existing at the
balance sheet date in a more favourable light than should have honestly been the
case.
(b) A perfectly lawful exercise carried out at the year end which tended to make the
situation, viewed from the standpoint of the user of the financial statements, appear
different from the real state of affairs.
The fraudulent falsification of accounts is clearly unacceptable and unlawful and is not the
subject for an accounting standard. The meaning in (b) above, however, is dealt with in IAS
10 where the term 'window dressing' is taken to mean the lawful arrangement of affairs over
the year end to make things look different from the way they usually are at the year end.
The method in (b) above (i.e. adoption of special policy at end of accounting period) can be
put into effect in any of the following ways:
 Special efforts to collect book debts
A special effort to collect book debts just prior to the date of the published accounts, in
order to show a substantial balance of cash at the bank, is a form if window dressing.
If the effort is successful and easy collection of the debts proves to be possible, the
company can claim to be in as liquid a position as is shown by the balance sheet.
 Borrowing
An increasing bank overdraft tends to create an unfavourable impression of the
prospects of a company. By paying off part of the bank overdraft just before the
annual accounts are prepared, a growing overdraft may be shown at a reasonable and
steady level, even if the position of the company will make it necessary to increase it
again early in the new financial year.
Special loans may be raised to increase the ratio of liquid assets to floating liabilities at
the time the balance sheet is prepared.

F. IAS 37: PROVISIONS, CONTINGENT LIABILITIES AND

CONTINGENT ASSETS
IAS 37 effectively bans something known as big bath accounting – the creation of provisions
where no obligation to a liability exists and the use of provisions to smooth profits.

Definitions
A provision is a liability of uncertain timing or amount. Remember from the framework that a
liability is a present obligation of the business arising from past events, the settlement of
which is expected to result in the outflow of resources embodying economic benefits.
So what is an obligation? An obligation can either be legal or constructive. A legal obligation
is one that derives from a contract, legislation or other operation of law. A contract can also

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become onerous. This occurs when the unavoidable costs of meeting the obligations under
the contract exceed the economic benefits expected to be received from it.
A constructive obligation is an obligation that derives from an entity's actions where:
 By an established pattern of past practice, published policies or a sufficiently specific
current statement, the business has indicated to other parties that it will accept certain
responsibilities; and
 As a result the business has created a valid expectation on the part of those other
parties that it will discharge those responsibilities.
A contingent liability is:
 A possible obligation that arises from past events and whose existence will be
confirmed only by the occurrence or non-occurrence of one or more uncertain future
events not wholly within the control of the business; or
 A present obligation that arises from past events, but is not recognised because it is
not probable that an outflow of resources embodying economic benefits will be
required to settle the obligation, or the amount of the obligation cannot be measured
with sufficient reliability.
It can be quite difficult sometimes to decide whether an item is a provision or contingent
liability, etc. so we provide you with a decision tree here that might help.
Figure 7.1: Decision tree to determine existence of provision or contingent liability

Start

Present obligation No No
Possible
as a result of an
obligation?
obligating event?

Yes Yes

Probable No
Remote?
outflow? Yes

Yes No

Reliable No (rare)
estimate?

Yes

Provide Disclose Do nothing

contingent
liability

A contingent asset is a possible asset that arises from past events and whose existence will
be confirmed only by the occurrence or non-occurrence of one or more uncertain future
events not wholly within the control of the business

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Accounting Treatment
Now we have dealt with the definitions we must consider how to account for these items. If
the conditions for a provision are met (see the decision tree) and a reliable estimate can be
made of the amount, then this amount will be recognised in the income statement for the
year and shown as a provision on the balance sheet.
A contingent liability is not recognised in the financial statements, but it is disclosed as
follows:
 A brief description of the nature
 An estimate of the financial effect
 An indication of the uncertainties relating to the amount or timing of outflow
 The possibility of any reimbursement.
A contingent asset is not recognised in the accounts, but is disclosed if the inflow of
economic benefits is probable. Note here that IAS 37 provides no definition for "probable"
nor for "possible" or "remote".

Measurement of Provisions
How do we measure the "reliable estimate" required when we recognise a provision. IAS 37
informs us that the best estimate is determined in the judgement of management by
experience of similar transactions. Thus, management will need to keep details of previous
warranties, bad debts, etc. to inform their judgement on the amount of such provisions
required.

Questions For Practice

1. Identify how the following items should be treated in the financial statements of the
stated business at year end 31 December 200X.
(a) An airline business is required by law to overhaul its aircraft once every four
years. The aircraft were purchased a year ago.
(b) An entity has guaranteed a loan for another business. In March 200X this
business placed itself in liquidation and there would appear to be insufficient
funds from the liquidation to repay the loan.
(c) A business leases a factory under an operating lease. Production is moved from
the factory in March 200X, but the old factory cannot be relet nor the lease
cancelled.
(d) No bill has been received for internet access supplied in the last quarter of the
year.

2. A business sells goods under warranty. Past experience indicates that 75% of goods
sold will have defects. 15% will have minor defects and 10% major defects. If minor
defects occurred in all the items sold, the costs of rectification would be £2m and for
major defects £5m. What is the amount of the provision that should be recorded in the
financial statements at the balance sheet date.

Now check your answers with those provided at the end of the unit

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G. IAS 38: INTANGIBLE ASSETS

This standard deals with intangible assets in the balance sheet. We have already
considered one intangible asset – that of research and development. Other intangible
assets are brands, goodwill, etc. and we will see below whether these can be recognised in
the financial statements.

How does Goodwill Arise?

Where the cost of an acquisition exceeds the fair values of the net assets acquired, positive
purchased goodwill will arise, as the following example illustrates:

£000 £000
Cost of the acquisition 300
Fair value of assets acquired:
Non-current assets 150
Inventories 40
Other monetary items 10 200
Positive goodwill 100

Purchased positive goodwill may arise due to the following factors: the location or reputation
of the acquired business; its order book; the skills of its workforce; or similar reasons with
which you should be familiar from your foundation studies.
Purchased negative goodwill may also arise when the cost of an acquisition is less than the
fair value of the net assets acquired. This is likely to constitute a "bargain purchase" and is
likely to arise in relation to the fair values of non-monetary assets such as fixed assets and
stocks. After all, a purchaser is unlikely to pay less than the fair values of any monetary
items acquired!
The following example illustrates the calculation of purchased negative goodwill:

£000 £000
Cost of the acquisition 160
Fair value of assets acquired:
Non-current assets 160
Inventories 40
Other monetary items 10 210
Negative goodwill 50

The concept of negative goodwill may seem rather strange to you. It could arise if a
business has acquired a bad reputation for its standards of service, or if its products are of
consistently poor quality. A purchaser will therefore have a problem in reversing the factors
leading to the negative goodwill, before the benefits from the investment are seen.
Non-purchased goodwill is that which an entity generates on its own account. As IAS 38
defines an intangible asset as an identifiable non-monetary asset without physical
substance, then non-purchased goodwill is not to be recognised in the entity's financial
statements. This is because it is not identifiable. Note that this means that a great deal of
the businesses value is not reflected on the balance sheet. Think of the value that could be
put on the goodwill of businesses such as McDonalds or Microsoft to illustrate this point.

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The real difference between non-purchased goodwill (or inherent goodwill as it is quite often
referred to) and purchased goodwill is that purchased goodwill can be reliably measured –
the price the buyer paid for it.

Accounting Treatment
Three criteria need to be satisfied before an item should be recognised as an intangible
asset – identifiability, control and reliable measurability. Once recognised as an intangible,
the item is initially recorded in the balance sheet at cost. The intangible asset is then
amortised over its useful life in the same manner as we depreciate non-current tangible
assets. The business can revalue intangible assets to fair value if they wish, but they will still
have to be amortised based on this fair value.
There is one difference between the treatment of tangible and intangible assets in relation to
amortisation. This is where IAS 38 recognises intangible assets with infinite lives.
Remember that, to calculate amortisation/depreciation, we need to know the useful
economic life to the business. If an intangible asset is judged to have an indefinite life, then
it is not amortised, but this life will have to be reviewed regularly and the asset tested for
impairment annually.
For clarity then:
Positive purchased goodwill is to be capitalised and amortised in the income
statement over its useful economic life unless it is determined to have an
indefinite life. In this case it will be reviewed for impairment annually.
There is, though, a major exception to this that you must carefully note:
Where purchased goodwill occurs in a business combination (see study
units 11 and 12) the goodwill is not amortised, but tested for impairment.
(This is a requirement of IFRS 3: Business combinations.)
Purchased intangible assets may be capitalised provided they are capable of being reliably
measured. The usual approach to the assessment of the value of a purchased intangible will
be to assess the fair value by reference to replacement cost or market value. Therefore, it is
expected that there is an active market in which the items are traded. Again these may be
judged to have an indefinite life. Non-purchased goodwill is not to be recognised.
Non-purchased intangible assets may be capitalised provided they have a readily
ascertainable market value. Items such as franchises and quotas are examples of this.
Unique items such as brand names are unlikely to have a readily ascertainable market value
and are thus not examples of purchased intangible assets which may be capitalised.

Amortisation Treatments
IAS 38 specifies the way in which amortisation should be treated.
(a) Where the life of an item is considered to be limited
Amortisation is carried out on a systematic basis over the useful economic life of the
item. . As you might expect, the assessment of the useful economic life is fraught with
difficulty and some items could have indefinite lives. (For example, a purchased
franchise agreement may only legally apply for a defined contractual period, in which
case that period would be used for amortisation.)
In any event, an entity must be able to justify its choice of useful economic life
(auditors will have great difficulty here) and it is possible that the business will be called
to account where useful economic life is considered to be excessive or inappropriate.

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An impairment review will be required for items whose life is considered limited only in
the year after acquisition; adjustments may then be required. However, an impairment
review will be required annually for indefinite life intangibles.
Clearly, a prudent assessment of useful economic life is needed.
(b) Where the life is considered to be indefinite
In this case, goodwill is not amortised at all. Where goodwill is considered to have an
indefinite life, an annual impairment review is required leading to possible adjustments.
(c) Where negative goodwill exists
As positive goodwill is charged against profits when it is amortised, then we would
expect negative goodwill to be credited to profits over a suitable period. However,
IFRS 3 (which deals specifically with goodwill generated in a business combination –
see study units 11 and 12) requires such negative goodwill to be recognised in the
income statement immediately. This, by the way, is a major change to previous
accounting practice where, indeed, the negative goodwill was released to the income
statement over its life. This change means that any previous negative goodwill in the
financial statements must be eliminated by transferring it to retained reserves.

H. IAS 18: REVENUE

What is revenue? This seems simple enough to answer – cash you are paid for selling
goods or services. However, as always with things in accounting, the answer is not quite so
simple. We need to answer such questions as;
 At what point is the sale made?
 Has a sale been made or is there a different substance to the transaction?
 Is a transaction that doesn't appear in legal form to be a sale, in substance a sale?
 What is the value of the sale?
 Can the sale of non-current assets be regarded as revenue

Definitions
IAS 18 provides us with the following clarifications:
Revenue is defined as the gross inflow of economic benefits during the period
arising in the course of ordinary activities of an entity when those inflows result in
an increase in equity, other than an increase relating to contributions from equity
participants.
So, quite clearly, income from the sale of shares is not treated as revenue.
It is also clear that as the definition refers to gross inflows, then revenue is recorded before
expenses.
Revenue also results from ordinary activities, so the sale of non-current assets would not be
regarded as revenue as this is not the normal business activities.
The standard states that revenue is recognised when the business has transferred to the
buyer the significant risks and rewards of ownership of the goods. This answers substance v
legal from questions. Take, for example, the situation where a whisky distillery sells its entire
maturing whisky inventory to a bank for a specified amount with the provision to buy that
inventory back at a future date at a given price. No one else can buy the inventory. This
would not be regarded as a sale as the risks and rewards of ownership have not been

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passed to the bank – they still remain with the distillery. The essence of such a transaction
is that of a loan.
IAS 18 identifies several criteria that must be met before revenue can be recognised on the
sale of goods as follows:
 The business has transferred to the buyer the significant risks and rewards of
ownership of the goods
 The business retains neither continuing managerial involvement to the degree usually
associated with ownership nor effective control over the goods sold
 The amount of revenue can be measure reliably
 It is probable that the economic benefits associated with the transaction will flow to the
business
 The costs incurred or to be incurred in respect of the transaction can be measured
reliably.

Questions For Practice

3. In each of the following cases identify whether and, if possible, at what amount
revenue would be recognised.
(a) A publisher sells books to a retailer on sale or return. It is impossible to estimate
how many books will remain unsold.
(b) A retailer sells glasses worth £200 in exchange for £50 where the customer is
required to return all glasses within 7 days or pay full price for those not returned.
On average, 90% of glasses are returned.
(c) A recruitment agency has a contract with X to seek and appoint a new chief
executive. The contract is for a period of 18 months. On the appointment of the
CE, the agency will receive a payment of £35,000.

Now check your answers with those provided at the end of the unit

I. IAS 24: RELATED PARTY TRANSACTIONS

Quite often related parties enter into business transactions that unrelated parties might not.
Such related party transactions occur regularly in business combinations – that between
holding and subsidiary businesses (see study units 11 and 12). Transactions that might
occur in these relationships are;
 Assets and liabilities might be transferred at values above or below market value
 One party may make a loan to another at a beneficial rate
 Services carried out by one party may be at a reduced rate.
If these sort of situations occur it would be useful, when we are analysing financial
statements, to be aware of them and this is the area covered by IAS 24.

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Definitions
A party is related to another entity if:
 Directly or indirectly through one or more intermediaries the party controls, is controlled
by, or is under common control with the entity, has an interest in the entity that gives it
significant influence over it, or has joint control over the entity
 The party is an associate of the entity (as defined in IAS 28)
 The party is a joint venture in which the entity is a venturer (see IAS 31)
 The party is a member of the key management personnel of the entity or its parent
 The party is a close member of the family of an individual referred to in any of the
above
 The party is an entity that is controlled, jointly controlled or significantly influenced by,
or for which significant voting power in such entity resides with, directly or indirectly an
individual referred to above
 The party is a post-employment benefit plan for the benefit of employees.
Close members of the family of an individual are further defined as an individual's domestic
partner and children, children of the individual's domestic partner, and dependants of the
individual or domestic partner.

Requirements
These are in two areas:
 Where no transactions have occurred between the parties, but control exists, then the
relationship must be disclosed
 Where transactions have occurred, the nature of the relationship, type of transaction,
and elements of the transaction must be disclosed. Elements required to be disclosed
are the amount of transaction, amount of outstanding balances, provision for doubtful
debts and expense recognised during the period in respect of bad or doubtful debts,
together with the name of the entity's parent and key management personnel.

J. ACCOUNTING FOR INFLATION

In recent years accountants and other interested parties have become increasingly aware of
the problem posed by the impact of inflation on financial accounts. The problem can be
analysed into two main factors:
 Maintaining intact in real terms the value of capital invested.
 Showing a true and fair view of trading results when certain charges, notably
depreciation, are based on historical cost.
After many years of debate, the UK Accounting Standards Committee issued SSAP 16 on
Current Cost Accounting in 1980. This has subsequently been abandoned, so companies
can produce final published accounts without supplementary current cost statements.
However, it will be useful here to briefly review some of the main points of what remains an
issue in accounting. The IASB have not issued a standard on accounting for inflation
(except for hyperinflationary economies). However, it is still the subject of much debate,
especially in respect of "fair value".

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Limitations of Historical Cost Reporting

By this point in your studies, you will have no doubt become aware of the limitations of cost
reporting using the historical accounting convention. Those limitations include:
(a) Unrealistic non-current Asset Values
The values of some assets, particularly land and property, may increase substantially
over the years, especially in times of high inflation. This makes comparisons between
organisations using ratios such as return on capital employed very dangerous. You
must ensure that you are comparing like with like. Also, it is not sensible for a
Deleted:
business to undervalue its assets.
(b) Invalid Comparisons over Time
Because of the changing value of money a profit of £50,000 achieved this year is not
worth the same as £50,000 profit earned five years ago. Again, there is the problem of
comparing like with like.
(c) Inadequate Depreciation
The annual depreciation charge may not be a true indicator of the economic value of
the asset used in that year.
(d) Holding Gains Not Disclosed
Assume that we buy an article on 1 January for £100 and sell it on 31 March for £200.
Historical cost accounting tells us that a profit of £100 has been made and we may be
tempted to withdraw £100 and spend it on private needs. However, if at 31 March it
costs us £150 to replace the article sold, we cannot now do so because we have only
£100 left. The true position at 31 March when the article was sold was a holding gain
of £50 and an operating profit of only £50.
(e) Gains on Liabilities and Losses on Assets Not Shown
This means that we will pay creditors in money worth less than when we bought goods
but, similarly, debtors will pay us in money worth less than when we sold goods.
You should be able to appreciate that the effect of the above problems will lead to an
overstatement of what might be considered to be the correct profit figure. This may lead to
companies being pressed by shareholders to declare higher dividends than is prudent and
almost certainly will lead to higher taxation!

Current Cost Accounting (CCA)

The purpose of preparing current cost accounts was to provide more useful information
than that available from purely historical cost accounts, for the guidance of the
management and shareholders of a business and others in matters of financial viability,
return on investment, pricing policy, cost control and gearing.
CCA is based on the concept of capital represented by the net operating assets of a
business, i.e. non-current assets, inventory and monetary working capital. These are no
different from a historical cost approach but in current cost accounts the non-current assets
and inventory are expressed at current cost. The net operating assets represent in
accounting terms the operating capability of the business and will be financed by a mixture of
shareholder's capital and borrowings. Any changes to input prices of goods and services
affect the operating capability of a business and the current cost accounting approach is
designed to reflect this.
(a) Application of CCA
The CCA objectives were achieved by determining the current cost profits for an
accounting period and presenting asset values in the balance sheet based on current

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price levels. This then provided for users of the financial statements a realistic view of
the assets employed in the business, and enabled the relationship between current
cost profit and net assets employed to be established.
The preparation of current cost accounts did not affect the use of existing techniques
for interpretation (see next unit). The same tools for analysis could be adopted, as
appropriate, for both current and historical cost figures. The results, however, should
be more meaningful on a current cost basis when making comparisons between
entities in respect of gearing, asset cover, dividend cover, return on capital employed,
etc.
CCA was not a system of accounting for general inflation and equally did not show the
economic value of a business. This is because it did not measure changes in the
general value of money, or give any indication of the market value of the equity.
(b) CCA Technique and Methods
 Current Cost Operating Profit
This is the surplus calculated before taxation and interest on net borrowing
arising from ordinary activities in a financial period, after allowing for the impact
of price changes on funds needed to maintain the operating capability of the
business.
Trading profit before interest calculated on a historical cost basis had to be
adjusted with regard to three main aspects to arrive at current cost operating
profit. The main adjustments were in respect of depreciation, cost of sales, and
monetary working capital.
Deleted: ¶
 Depreciation Adjustment
This was the difference, caused by price changes, between the value to the
business of the proportion of non-current assets consumed during a period, and
the amount of depreciation charged for that period on a historical cost basis.
The total depreciation charged in a financial period on a current cost basis
represented the value to the business of that proportion of non-current assets
consumed in generating revenue for that period.
 Cost of Sales Adjustment (COSA)
This was the difference, caused by price changes, between the value to the
business of inventory consumed during an accounting period and the cost of the
inventory charged on a historical cost basis.
The total inventory value charged in a financial period on a current cost basis
represented the value to the business of the inventory consumed in generating
revenue for that period.
 Monetary Working Capital Adjustment (MWCA)
The aggregate monetary value arising from day-to-day operating activities as
distinct from transactions of a capital nature, i.e.:
Trade debtors, prepayments and trade bills receivable
plus
Inventory not subject to Cost of Sales Adjustment (COSA)
less
Trade creditors, accruals and trade bills payable

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When credit sales are made, funds are tied up in debtors, and conversely if input
goods and services are obtained on credit, funds needed for working capital are
less than they would have been if such inputs had to be paid for immediately.
These aspects are an integral part of an enterprise's monetary working capital
and had to be taken into account when determining the current cost profit.
The adjustment represented the additional (or reduced) finance needed on a
current cost basis during a financial period as a result of changes in prices of
goods and services used to generate revenue for that period.
(c) Gearing Adjustment
A gearing adjustment had to be made before arriving at the current cost profit
attributable to shareholders, where a proportion of the net operating assets was
financed by borrowing. The adjustment, where applicable, would normally be a credit
(but could be a debit if prices fell) and was calculated by:
 Using average figures for the financial period to express net borrowing as a
proportion of net operating assets; and
 Using this proportion to calculate the shareholders' portion of charges (or credits)
made to allow for the impact of price changes on the net operating assets.
No gearing adjustment arose where a company was wholly financed by shareholders'
capital.
It could be argued that, rather than applying the gearing adjustment only to realised
holding gains etc., it could also (ignoring accruals and prudence) be applied to all
holding gains no matter whether realised or unrealised. The feeling behind this is that
as the gearing adjustment ignores unrealised gains, the profit figure only partially
reflects gains attributable to the shareholder involvement.
Remember that the net figure of the gearing adjustment and interest takes out the
effect of outside interest in a business, to produce the current cost net profit
attributable to shareholders. Gearing only applies where there is a net borrowing.
Where there are net monetary assets, no gearing is used.
This idea can be challenged on the basis that if gains can be made from borrowing
then losses can be made from having surplus monetary assets and, because of this,
the current cost profit could be overstated.
(d) Indices and Valuation
There are basically two methods of effecting any adjustment to reflect price changes:
the use of indices and revaluation. Much will depend on the industry, the enterprise,
the class or category of asset involved, and on the circumstances. Whichever method
is selected, it is important for it to be appropriate and consistent, taking one financial
period with the next.
Where indices were to be used, reference was to be made to two HMSO publications:
 Price Index Numbers for Current Cost Accounting
 Current Cost Accounting – Guide to Price Indices for Overseas Countries
Indices would probably be appropriate for COSA and MWCA but for fixed assets and
depreciation, revaluation could be more appropriate in some cases. If revaluation was
to be used, the accountant or auditors had to seek the technical assistance of
engineers and surveyors.

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(e) Valuation of Assets

The profit figure and its significance depends on the concept of capital maintenance
selected. The basic approach to current value accounting is that a business should
only strike its operating profit after providing in full for the replacement cost of the
assets used up in earning that profit. Unrealised holding gains should be deducted but
reported separately.
The underlying values to be placed on the assets are defined as their value to the
business. In all cases this will be net current replacement cost, or the recoverable
amount if below the net current replacement cost. The recoverable amount may in
turn be either the net realisable value or the amount recoverable from its further use in
the business. The amount recoverable from an asset's further use is alternatively
known as its economic value.
The underlying concept of "value to the business" has been expressed as a deprival
value. In other words, the amount of loss a business would suffer if it were
deprived of the asset in question. Should the business intend to continue to use the
asset, then the deprival value would be its net replacement cost. On the other hand, if
it intended to put the asset out of use then its deprival value would be either the net
realisable value from sale or the cash flow benefits from continuing to use the asset.
Let's define these values further:
 Replacement cost – In the case of non-current assets, the replacement cost is
the gross replacement cost less an appropriate provision for depreciation to
reflect the amount of its life already used up.
 Net realisable value – This is the amount the asset could be sold for, after
deducting any disposal costs.
 Economic value (or utility) – This represents what the asset will be worth to the
company over the rest of its useful life.

Financial and Operating Capital Maintenance Concepts

Operating capital can be expressed in a number of ways, although it is usual to express it
as the productive capacity of the company's assets in terms of the volume of goods and
services capable of being produced. The maintenance of operating capital may be best
understood by looking at examples:
 A book trader buys and sells one publication only. He incurs no costs other than the
cost of purchasing books and has no assets other than unsold books, which means
that his operating capital consists entirely of unsold books.
Under the historical cost convention he will recognise a profit if the revenue from the
sale of a book exceeds the cost he incurred when acquiring that book. Under the
operating capital maintenance concept, he will recognise a profit only if the revenue
exceeds the cost of buying another book to replace the one sold. The cost of this
replacement is the cost of maintaining the operating capital.
 A mini-cab driver's only costs are the depreciation of the mini-cab and the cost of the
petrol. His operating capital consists of the mini-cab and the petrol in its tank.
Under the historical cost convention he will recognise a profit if the fares during a
period exceed the historical (i.e. original) cost of the petrol and of the element of the
mini-cab consumed in earning those fares (i.e. the historical cost depreciation charge).
Under the operating capital maintenance concept, he will recognise a profit only if the
fare exceeds the current (i.e. replacement) cost of the petrol and of the element of the
mini-cab consumed (i.e. the current cost depreciation charge).

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Profit under the operating capital maintenance concept depends upon the effects of specific
price changes on the operating capital, that is the net operating assets of the business.
Some systems also take into account the way in which these net assets are financed.
The alternative capital maintenance concept is that of financial capital maintenance.
Financial capital maintenance in money terms is the familiar foundation to historical cost
accounting.
A system of accounting which measures whether a company's financial capital (i.e.
shareholders' funds) is maintained in real terms, and which involves the measurement of
assets at current cost, is known as the real-terms system of accounting. The method is
appropriate for all types of company and is particularly suitable for value-based and other
types of company that do not have a definable operating capital. The basic approach to
profit measurement under the real-terms system is to:
(a) Calculate the shareholders' funds at the beginning of the period based on current cost
asset values.
(b) Restate that amount in terms of pounds of the reporting date (by adjusting (a) by the
relevant change in a general index such as the RPI).
(c) Compare (b) with the shareholders' funds at the end of the year based on current cost
asset values.
This comparison indicates whether or not the real financial capital has been maintained. If
the year-end figure is larger than the restated opening figure, a real-terms profit has been
made.
Which of the two concepts of capital maintenance – operating or financial – should a
company adopt?
Both are useful in appropriate circumstances. They have different objectives and the choice
of which to use depends in part on the nature of the company's business.
Some companies may wish to provide information based on both concepts. A real-terms
system can incorporate both concepts. Operating profit is reported using the operating
capital maintenance concept but then incorporates various gains and losses that result from
changes in the value of the assets and liabilities of the business, to yield a final measure of
total gains which is based on real financial capital maintenance.
A company that is seeking to measure the real return on its shareholders' capital will do this
by comparing its capital at the end of the period with opening shareholders' invested capital
restated in terms of constant purchasing power. In this way the company will show its
shareholders whether it has succeeded not only in preserving their initial investment, but in
increasing it. Alternatively, where the company's aim is to demonstrate its capacity to
continue in existence by ensuring that, at the end of the accounting period, it is as capable of
producing a similar quantity of goods and services as it was at the beginning, profit would be
regarded as the surplus remaining only after its operating capital had been maintained.
 Users' Needs
A company may determine its reporting objective based on its perception of the users
of its accounts. To shareholders in general, a financial capital maintenance view may
seem the most natural. They may be uneasy with the operating capital maintenance
concept, which charges against profit the full cost of replacement of assets used when
those assets have risen in cost, but does not credit to profit any of the gain derived
from buying those assets at historical costs which were below current cost. Managers
and employees, however, may consider shareholders to be only one of the many
stakeholders in a company and consider the company's major objective as maintaining
its ability to produce goods and services.

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Employees and management therefore could well look at a company's objectives in

terms of maintaining operating capital.
 Nature of Company
The selection of reporting method is often influenced by the nature of the company's
business. Financial capital maintenance is more suitable for companies in which asset
value increases are viewed as an alternative to trading as means of generating gains.
It is particularly suitable for companies which do not have an easily definable operating
capital to maintain, or for companies that do not have the maintenance of their
operating capital as an objective. Some companies involved in unique or
discontinuous ventures, such as the extraction or construction industries or commodity
trading, may find it difficult if not impossible to define their operating capital.
The true measure of the performance of such companies in times of inflation is their
ability to produce real profits, above the level of those nominal profits which arise
simply as a result of general inflation. The consistent measurement of real gains
requires not only that opening capital be adjusted by a general index, but also that
assets be valued at their current costs.
A company could maintain its operating capital while the current cost of its assets falls.
A case could, therefore, be made for all companies to report the change in their real
financial capital even after determining profit using an operating capital maintenance
method.
The real-terms system is able to provide both a profit figure on an operating capital
maintenance concept and a broader figure which encompasses gains on holding assets, to
the extent that these are real gains after allowing for inflation. Which of these figures is
found to be most useful will depend on the circumstances. For example, in the case of a
manufacturing company which intends to maintain its present operating capital, current cost
operating profit may be an important piece of information to an investor wishing to estimate
future earning capacity (while the real gain or loss on assets held may be relatively
unimportant). Conversely, for a property company, in which capital appreciation of properties
may be as important a factor as rents earned, the wider concept of total gains may be
considered relatively more important.
One objection which may be made against the total gains concept is that, like operating
capital, it relies heavily on asset valuations which may be subjective. Moreover, in the real-
terms system, annual changes in such valuations directly affect reported total gains,
whereas in the operating capital approach they are taken to current cost reserve and affect
reported current cost profit only gradually through the depreciation adjustment. The
objection about the subjectivity of asset valuations may have greater force in particular
circumstances, for example, the partly-used assets of a manufacturing operation will
probably be more difficult to value at current cost than will the assets of a property
investment company. However, the real-terms system, in which changes in asset values
affect reported total gains, is perhaps more likely to be used by companies whose assets are
relatively easy to value at current cost. Despite the practical problems that sometimes arise,
it can be argued that greater usefulness compensates for less objectivity.

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ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS FOR PRACTICE

1. (a) This is not a provision or a contingent liability as, at the balance sheet date, there
is no obligation to overhaul the aircraft independent of future action. The
business could sell the aircraft to avoid the overhaul.
(b) The business has an obligation to fulfil the guarantee. A provision should be
recognised for the amount of the guarantee.
(c) This is an onerous contract. A provision is required to reflect the unavoidable
lease payments.
(d) This is an accrual

2. The value of the provision will be:

(75% x 0) + (15% x £2m) + (10% x £5m) = £0.8m

3. (a) The risks and rewards do not pass in this case until the retailer has sold the
books. No revenue is recognised until the books are sold by the retailer.
(b) In this case the glasses have not been sold, but rather the right to use them.
Revenue of £50 plus £20 would be recognised.
(c) The revenue of £35,000 will not be recognised until the service is actually
complete – i.e. when the CE appointed.

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Study Unit 8
Assessing Financial Performance

Contents Page

A. Interpretation of Accounts 191

Matters of Interest 191
The Perspective 192

B. Ratio Analysis 193

Common Accounting Ratios 194
Sample Set of Accounts 194

C. Profitability Ratios 196

Profit : Capital Employed 196
Secondary Ratios 197
Expense Ratios 198
Non-current Asset Turnover Ratio 198

D. Liquidity Ratios 198

Working Capital or Current Ratio (Current Assets : Current Liabilities) 199
Quick Asset or Acid Test Ratio (Current Assets less Inventory : Current Liabilities) 199

E. Efficiency Ratios 200

Inventory Ratios (Closing inventory : Cost of Sales per Day) 200
Inventory Turnover 200
Debtors Ratio 201
Creditors Ratio 201

F. Capital Structure Ratios 202

Shareholders' Funds : Total Indebtedness 202
Shareholders' Funds : Non-current Assets 202
Capital Gearing Ratio 202
Cost of Capital 203

(Continued over)

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190 Assessing Financial Performance

G. Investment Ratios 203

Ordinary Dividend Cover 203
Earnings per Share 204
Dividend Yield Ratio 204
Price : Earnings Ratio 204
Other Useful Ratios 205

H. Limitations of Accounting Ratios 205

I. Worked Examples 207

Example 1 207
Example 2 210
Example 3 212

J. Issues in Interpretation 214

Financial Dangers and their Detection 214
Income Statement Interpretation 216
Balance Sheet Interpretation 217
Capital Gearing 217
Capital Position 220

Answer to Question for Practice 223

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 Assessing Financial Performance 191

A. INTERPRETATION OF ACCOUNTS
Interpretation – or comprehension, assessment or criticism – of accounts usually means the
interpretation of balance sheets and income statements (often referred to as "final accounts"
or "financial statements") or their equivalent.
Such accounts may be either:
 Published accounts, i.e. those prepared for the information of shareholders, etc; or
 Internal accounts, i.e. those prepared for the information of the directors and
management.
The second type, being the accounts upon which the policy of the concern is based, are
usually in much greater detail than the first.
In either case, greater reliance can be placed on accounts which have been audited by a
professional firm of standing; in particular accounts drawn up by a trader himself are always
open to question.
The primary object of interpretation of accounts is the provision of information. Interpretation
which does not serve this purpose is useless.
The type of information to be provided depends on the nature and circumstances of the
business and the terms of reference. By the latter we mean the specific instructions given
by the person wanting the enquiry to the person making it. Of course, if the person making
the enquiry is also the person who will make use of the information thus obtained, he will be
aware of the particular points for which he is looking.
The position of the ultimate recipient of the information must be especially noted. Thus,
suppose that you are asked by a debenture holder to comment on the balance sheet of an
enterprise in which he/she is interested. It would be a waste of time to report at length on
any legal defects revealed in the balance sheet. You would naturally pay attention to such
points as particularly concerned the debenture holder – for example, the security of his loan
to the enterprise and the extent to which his interest on the debentures is "covered" by the
annual profits. This does not mean that legal defects should be ignored. It is very important
that they should be mentioned (although briefly), for failure to comply with legal
requirements may be indicative of more serious shortcomings, possibly detrimental to the
security of the debenture holder.

Matters of Interest
The interpreter must consider and form conclusions on the following matters.
(a) Profitability
How does the profit in relation to capital employed compare with other and alternative
uses of the capital?
(b) Solvency
 Can the business pay its creditors, should they demand immediate payment?
 Does the enterprise have sufficient working capital?
 Is it under- or over-trading?
(c) Financial Strength
 What is the credit position of the enterprise?
 Has it reached the limit of its borrowing powers?
 Is it good policy to retain some profits in the business?

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(d) Trends
 Are profits rising or falling?
 What are the future profit prospects, based on recent planning and investment?
(e) Gearing and Cover
 What is the gearing (see later) of the enterprise?
 What does this imply for the future dividend prospects of shareholders?

The Perspective
So vital is this matter of approach to the task of interpretation that we shall now consider
certain special matters in which various persons will be particularly interested. For the sake
of illustration, we will deal with their positions in relation to the accounts of a UK limited
company.
(a) Debenture Holder
Debentures may be secured on non-current assets and/or current assets; they may
cover uncalled and unissued capital as well. Much depends on the terms of the issue.
As a secured creditor, therefore, the debenture holder is primarily concerned with the
realisable value of the assets which form the security. He will therefore pay attention
to the following:
(i) Bases of valuation of assets; whether depreciation has been provided out of
profits and, if so, whether it is adequate.
(ii) Whether any provision, such as a sinking fund, has been made for repayment of
debentures (if not irredeemable) or for replacement of non-current assets.
(iii) Adequacy of working capital (for if no cash resources exist, the interest cannot
be paid).
(iv) Profits earned; although debenture interest is a charge against profits, its
payment in the long run depends on the earning of profits.
He will be interested in (iii) and (iv) from the point of view of annual interest.
Point (iv) particularly concerns a debenture holder whose security takes the form of a
floating charge over all of the assets, for the assets (his security) are augmented or
depleted by profits and losses.
(b) Trade Creditor
As a general rule, a trade creditor will rely on trade references or personal knowledge
when forming an opinion on the advisability of granting or extending credit to a
company. He is not often concerned with the accounts, which he rarely sees, but if he
does examine the accounts he will be as much concerned with existing liabilities as
with assets. In particular, he will note the following:
(i) The existence of secured debts.
(ii) The net balance available for unsecured creditors.
(iii) The existence of uncalled capital and undistributed profits.
(iv) The adequacy of working capital.
Profits are of minor importance in this connection, but a series of losses would provide
a warning.

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(c) Banker
In deciding whether to grant overdraft facilities to a company, a banker will study with
great care all the points mentioned in (a) and (b) above. He will also wish to be
assured that the company can pay off the overdraft within a reasonable time. This may
necessitate an estimate as to future profits, dividends, capital commitments, other
commitments, e.g. loan repayments, leasing obligations, and whether any assets can
be pledged as security.
(d) Shareholder
The average shareholder is interested in the future dividends he will receive. Future
profits are of secondary importance, so long as they are adequate to provide the
dividend.
Past dividends provide the basis on which future dividends may be estimated, just as
past profits afford a similar indication as to future profits. Estimates may, however, be
upset because of radical changes in the nature of trade, production methods, general
economic conditions, etc.
It is usually recognised that the single most influential factor in determining a
company's share price is the amount of dividend paid. Any shareholder will want to
ensure that the level of dividend paid is sustainable, i.e. that that much is not just being
distributed in order falsely to support the market price of the shares.
The "cover" is a useful way of comparing or appraising a company's dividend policy.
This ratio is obtained by dividing the after-tax profits by the amount of the dividend.

B. RATIO ANALYSIS
In order to measure the success or failure of a business, financial analysts often use figures
obtained from the annual accounts. Some figures will be more useful to the analyst than
others. Absolute figures are usually of little importance, so it is necessary to compare
figures by means of accounting ratios in order to interpret the information meaningfully.
The purpose of calculating accounting ratios is to try to shed light on the financial progress
or otherwise of a company by discovering trends and movements in the relationships
between figures. The trends revealed will have implications for a company's progress. For
example, by comparing the movements of the number of days' sales held in stock from one
year to another, an increasing propensity to manufacture for stock may be noticed. This
could be inferred from a continuing increase in the number of days' sales held in stock, but it
would not be apparent from an examination of stock and sales figures in isolation. A
tendency to manufacture for stock could imply a drop in demand for a company's product,
which is a serious matter when considering a company's prospects.
Accounting ratios are only a guide and cannot form the basis for final conclusions – they only
offer clues and point to factors requiring further investigation. The ratios obtained are
subject to the same weaknesses as the financial statements from which they are computed.
They are of little value unless they are compared with other ratios.
Thus, it is very important to realise that there is no "correct ratio" for any particular business.
What is far more significant than a particular ratio is, say, movement in that ratio from year to
year; e.g. a steady decline over the years in a firm's working capital is symptomatic of
financial weakness, rather than being the weakness itself. A person's weight is not in itself of
great significance, but weight considered in relation to height and age becomes significant
when it changes dramatically.

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Ratios are, therefore, used to enable comparisons to be made:

 to compare the performance of the business with previous years.
 to compare the actual performance of the business with the budgeted or planned
performance.
 to compare results with the performance of similar businesses.
It is very important, also, to realise that financial accounting statements do not provide
unlimited information or ready conclusions. The accounts display only those aspects of the
organisation that can be translated into money terms. This is, of course, only part of the
picture. Other assets are not usually reflected in the accounts, e.g. skills of the workforce.
Thus, we may establish that a business has improved its performance over previous years.
However, this does not necessarily mean that the result is satisfactory. It may be more
meaningful to compare actual performance with planned performance or, alternatively,
compare performance with similar firms in the same industry.
If we adopt the latter method, we must remember that all the information that is required may
not be available from an ordinary set of published accounts, and also that accounting rules
are capable of different interpretation. Therefore, when examining published accounts, we
may not be comparing like with like and it is essential to be aware of this fact when making
comparisons and drawing conclusions.
It is vital to ensure that the items to be compared are defined in the same terms and
measured by the same rules. For example, one business may have revalued its assets in
line with inflation, whereas another may be showing its assets at historical cost.

Common Accounting Ratios

The main ratios that should be investigated will cover the following areas:
 Profitability
 Liquidity
 Efficiency
 Capital structure
 Investment
We shall examine the types of ratio in each area over the next few sections. However, first
we need to establish a common basis for illustrating their operation.

Sample Set of Accounts

As an aid to describing the ratios employed in interpreting accounts, we shall use the
following annual accounts of ABC Ltd.

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ABC Ltd
Income Statement

Year 4 Year 5
£ £ £ £
Sales 900,000 1,200,000
less: Production: cost of goods sold 630,000 818,000
Administration expenses 135,000 216,000
Selling and distribution expenses 45,000 810,000 64,000 1,098,000
Net Profit 90,000 102,000
less: Corporation tax 36,000 40,800
Proposed dividends 54,000 90,000 61,200 102,000
Retained Profits NIL NIL

Balance Sheet as at 31 December Year 5

Year 4 Year 5
£ £ £ £
Non-current Assets
300,000 Land & Buildings 662,000
190,000 Plant & machinery 180,000
10,000 500,000 Motor vehicles 8,000 850,000
Current Assets
100,000 Inventory 150,000
50,000 Trade receivables 95,000
50,000 200,000 Bank 5,000 250,000
less Current Liabilities
54,000 Proposed dividends 61,200
46,000 100,000 Trade payables 138,800 200,000
100,000 Net Current assets 50,000
600,000 900,000
Represented by:
Share Capital
Authorised –
800,000 800,000 ordinary shares of £1 each 800,000
Issued and fully paid –
500,000 Ordinary shares of £1 each 800,000
Reserves
54,000 General reserve 80,000
46,000 100,000 Retained profits 20,000 100,000
600,000 900,000

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C. PROFITABILITY RATIOS
Before we start to investigate the ratios which can shed light on the profitability of a
company, we need to clarify exactly which figures we need to use. The following definitions
are, therefore, important.
(a) Profit
There is some debate as to what figure should be taken for profit, i.e. should the figure
used be net profit before or after tax and interest? Some argue that changes in
corporation tax rates over a number of years can obscure the ratio of net profit after tax
to capital employed; others, that taxation management is a specialist job and that profit
after tax should therefore be used. The important thing is to be consistent and it may
be better in practice to compute both ratios.
Another point to remember is that gains or losses of an abnormal nature should be
excluded from net profit in order to produce a realistic ratio.
(b) Capital Employed
It is also necessary to decide which of the following items should be used as capital
employed:
 Total shareholders' funds, i.e. share capital plus reserves.
 Net assets, i.e. total assets less current liabilities (when loans are included it is
necessary to add back loan interest to net profit).
 Net assets less value of investments, i.e. excluding any capital which is
additional to the main activities of the business, with a view to assessing the
return achieved by management in their particular field (if this approach is
adopted it is also necessary to deduct the investment income from the net profit).
 Gross assets, i.e. total assets as in the assets side of the balance sheet.
Again there is no general agreement as to which of the above methods should be
adopted for the calculation of capital employed.
(c) Asset Valuation
A further factor to consider is that the assets are normally recorded in the balance
sheet on a historical cost basis. A clearer picture emerges if all the assets, including
goodwill, are revalued at their current going-concern value, so that net profit, measured
each year at current value, can be compared against the current value of capital
employed.

Profit : Capital Employed

The return on capital employed (ROCE) is the first ratio to calculate, since a satisfactory
return is the ultimate aim of any profit-seeking organisation. The return on capital employed
is sometimes called the primary ratio.
We will use "Net profit before tax : Net assets" as the basis for the calculation. The formula
and results for ABC Ltd are as follows:

Year 4 Year 5
Profit 90,000 102,000
 15%  11.33%
Capital employed 600,000 900,000
What conclusions can we draw from the above ratios?

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(a) We need to consider the decline in profitability in Year 5 in relation to the current
economic climate. It may be that the decline can be accounted for by the fact that the
industry as a whole is experiencing a recession, so the ratio of this company should be
compared with that of similar firms.
(b) Another factor to consider is that ABC Ltd appears to have spent £362,000 on
additional land and buildings. If the buildings were purchased in December Year 5 it
would be wrong to include this additional amount as capital employed for Year 5. In
such circumstances it is advisable to use average capital employed rather than the
year-end figure. This illustrates the fact that ratios are only a guide and cannot form
the basis for final conclusions.

Secondary Ratios
The decline in the return on capital employed in Year 5 may be due either to a decline in the
profit margins or to not utilising capital as efficiently in relation to the volume of sales.
Therefore, the two secondary ratios which we shall now examine are Net profit : Sales and
Sales : Capital. (It can also be useful to calculate the gross profit margin, i.e. Gross profit :
Sales.)
(a) Net Profit : Sales (Net Profit Margin or Percentage)
This ratio measures average profit on sales. The percentage net profit to sales for
ABC Limited was 10% in Year 4 and 8.5% in Year 5, which means that each £1 sale
made an average profit of 10 pence in Year 4 and 8.5 pence in Year 5.
The percentage profit on sales varies with different industries and it is essential to
compare this ratio with that of other firms in the same industry. For instance,
supermarkets work on low profit margins while furniture stores work on high profit
margins.
(b) Sales : Capital Employed
If profit margins do decline, the return on capital employed can only be maintained by
increasing productivity unless there is a greater proportionate increase in capital
employed.
The ratio measures the efficiency with which the business utilises its capital in relation
to the volume of sales.
 A high ratio is a healthy sign, for the more times capital is turned over, the
greater will be the opportunities for making profit.
 A low ratio may indicate unused capacity.
Like the Net profit : Sales ratio, this ratio varies considerably according to the type of
business concerned. Again, a supermarket may work on low profit margins with a very
high turnover while a furniture store works on higher profit margins with a lower
turnover.

Year 4 Year 5
Sales 900,000 1,200,000
 1.5 times  1.33 times
Capital employed 600,000 900,000

This indicates that each £1 capital employed produced on average a sale of £1.50 in
Year 4 and £1.33 in Year 5.
What are the possible reasons for the decline in this ratio?
 It may be that additional capital has not been justified by increased sales.

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 Alternatively, there may have been expansion of plant facilities based on

expectation of future sales.

Expense Ratios
The next question we may ask is "Why have profit margins on sales declined?" To answer
this question, we must calculate the following expense ratios:
Year 4 Year 5
% %
Production expenses : Sales 70 68.16
Administration expenses : Sales 15 18.00
Selling and distribution expenses : Sales 5 5.34
Net profit : Sales 10 8.50
100 100.00

We could analyse these items still further by examining the individual items of expense
falling within each category, e.g. Material costs of production : Sales, Office salaries : Sales.
On the basis of the above information, we may be justified in investigating the administrative
expenses in detail to account for the increased percentage in Year 5.

Non-current Asset Turnover Ratio

In order to find out why capital has not been utilised as efficiently in relation to the volume of
sales, we now consider the fixed asset turnover ratio (Sales : non-current assets). If the
ratio is low this may indicate that assets are not being fully employed. The accounts of ABC
reveal the following ratios:

Year 4 Year 5
Sales 900,000 1,200,000
 1.8 times  1.4 times
Fixed assets 500,000 850,000

This indicates that each £1 invested in non-current assets produced on average a sale of
£1.80 in Year 4 and £1.40 in Year 5. In practice, it may be advisable to compare the ratio for
each individual non-current asset and not merely total non-current assets. The reasons for
the decline of Sales : Capital employed may apply equally to this ratio.

D. LIQUIDITY RATIOS
The objects of any business are to earn high profits and remain solvent. Because
accountants realise revenue when the goods are delivered and match expenses with
revenue, it follows that profits may not be represented by cash. Therefore, a company may
be successful from a profitability point of view but may still have liquidity problems.
The following areas should be examined when investigating the liquidity position of a
company:
(a) Working Capital
Has the company sufficient funds to meet its working capital requirements?
(b) Immediate Commitments
Has the company sufficient resources to meet its immediate commitments?

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(c) Inventory Control

Is the company carrying excessive inventories?
(d) Debtors and Creditors Control
Is the company maintaining adequate credit control of debtors and creditors? Don't
forget that debtors are quite often referred to as trade receivables and creditors trade
payables under the international accounting regime.

Working Capital or Current Ratio (Current Assets : Current Liabilities)

This ratio compares current assets, which will become liquid in 12 months, with liabilities due
for payment within 12 months (i.e. it measures the number of times current assets cover
current liabilities). Therefore, the ratio measures the margin of safety that management
maintains in order to allow for the inevitable unevenness in the flow of funds through the
current asset and liability accounts.
Creditors will want to see a sufficiently large amount of current assets to cover current
liabilities. Traditionally it has been held that current assets should cover current liabilities at
least twice, i.e. 2:1, but this depends on the type of business and the requirements of
individual firms. Generally, a low ratio indicates lack of liquidity and a high ratio indicates
inefficient use of capital.
An investigation of the accounts of ABC Ltd reveals that current assets cover current
liabilities twice in Year 4 and 1.25 times in Year 5.
The decline in Year 5 may cause concern but whether this ratio is held to be satisfactory
depends on the length of the period from when the cash is paid out for production until cash
is received from the customer. It may well be that any planned increase in production is
being held back because of lack of funds, and that additional permanent capital is required
by means of an issue of shares or debentures.

Quick Asset or Acid Test Ratio (Current Assets less Inventory : Current Liabilities)
It is advisable to investigate not only the ability of a company to meet its commitments over
the next 12 months but also its ability to meet immediate commitments. Only assets which
can be quickly turned into cash are included, so inventories are excluded from current assets
since they may have to be processed into finished goods and sold to customers on credit.
Ideally we would expect to see a ratio of 1:1. If the ratio were below 1:1 and creditors
pressed for payment, the company would have great difficulty in meeting its commitments. If
the ratio were above 1:1, it could be argued that the company was carrying too high an
investment in funds which are not earning any return. The ratios for ABC Ltd are 1:1 in Year
4 and 0.5:1 in Year 5.
The ratio for Year 5 appears to be a cause for concern, though much depends on how long
the debtors and creditors accounts have been outstanding. Nevertheless, if creditors
pressed for payment the company would not have sufficient funds available to pay them. Do
not forget, however, that the ratios are taken from figures recorded at one point in time and
the position may have been considerably different on 1 January Year 6.

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E. EFFICIENCY RATIOS

Inventory Ratios (Closing inventory : Cost of Sales per Day)

Excessive inventories should be avoided since, apart from incidental costs (e.g. storage and
insurance), capital will be tied up which perhaps could be invested in securities or otherwise
profitably employed. Also, where inventories are financed by overdraft, unnecessary interest
costs are incurred. Therefore it may be advisable to calculate a ratio which will give us an
approximation of how many days' usage of inventories we are carrying at one particular point
in time.
Example
Assuming the cost of sales figure is £365,000, dividing by the days in the year, a figure of
sales cost per day of £1,000 is obtained.
Assuming this rate of sales continues and the balance sheet stock figure is, say, £80,000,
you can see that we have sufficient inventory requirements for 80 days.
If the company is a manufacturing company, different types of inventories are involved.
Therefore the following inventory ratios should be prepared:
 Raw Material
This is Raw Material inventory : Purchases per day.
 Work in Progress
This is Work in Progress inventory : Cost of production per day.
 Finished Goods
This is Finished Goods inventory : Cost of sales per day.
The average number of days' inventory carried by ABC Ltd are as follows:

Year 4 Year 5
Closing stock 100,000 150,000
 58 days  67 days
Cost of sales  365 630,000  365 818,000  365

From these figures we can see that ABC Ltd appears to have been carrying larger inventory
requirements in Year 5. Remember, however, that these figures have been taken at one
point in time and the position may have been completely different on 1 January Year 6. ABC
may have purchased in bulk at special terms, or there may be an impending increase in the
price of raw materials. Therefore, the increase in Year 5 may not necessarily be a bad thing.
Nevertheless, this ratio does highlight the inventory-holding period and, if the increase
cannot be accounted for, an investigation into the inventory control systems may be
warranted.

Inventory Turnover
A ratio known as the inventory turnover ratio is used to measure the average time it takes
for inventory to turn over. This is calculated as follows:
Sales at cost price
Inventory turnover ratio =
Average of opening and closing stock

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Therefore if the opening inventory is £8,000 and the closing inventory is £6,000 the average
inventory is:
£8,000  £6,000
 £7,000.
2
If the sales for the period cost £35,000 then the inventory has turned over by
35,000
 5 times during the period.
7,000
If we divide this turnover ratio into 365, we can calculate that the inventory turns over, on
average, every 73 days. This can be used as an efficiency indicator.

Debtors Ratio
Debtors
Debtors ratio =
Average credit sales per day
Cash may not be available to pay creditors until the customers pay their accounts. Therefore
an efficient credit control system ensures that the funds tied up in debtors are kept to a
minimum. It is useful to calculate a ratio which will give us an approximation of the number
of sales in the debtors figure at one particular point in time.
The ratios of ABC Ltd are:

Year 4 Year 5
50,000 95,000
 20 days  29 days
900,000  365 1,200,000  365

It appears that debtors were taking longer to pay their accounts in Year 5, but whether this is
good or bad depends on what ABC considers to be an acceptable credit period. Again, this
ratio represents the position at one particular point in time and may not be representative of
the position throughout the year. It may well be that the credit control department
concentrates on reducing the debtors to a minimum at the year-end, so that the figures
appear satisfactory in the annual accounts. Therefore there is a need for more detailed
credit control information to be provided at frequent intervals. Nevertheless, this ratio gives
an approximation of the number of days debtors are taking to pay their accounts and it may
be helpful to use this ratio for comparison with competitors.

Creditors Ratio
Creditors
Creditors ratio =
Average credit purchases per day
The above calculation could be made to compare how long ABC are taking to pay their
creditors in the two years. The actual cost of purchases is not disclosed in the data given
but if we take the production cost of goods sold as an alternative, we find:

Year 4 Year 5
46,000 138,000
 27 days  62 days
630,000  365 818,000  365

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F. CAPITAL STRUCTURE RATIOS

Consider the case of X, who starts a business. If he requires various assets worth £10,000
(inventory, etc.) where can he obtain the money to finance the business?
 Should he provide all the capital himself or should he obtain most of it from parties
outside the business? (For example, a loan of £7,000 at 10% plus £2,000 from trade
creditors and £1,000 from himself.)
 What effect will such a capital structure have on the future of the business?
 If there is a business recession, has the business sufficient earnings to meet the
annual £700 interest cost on the loan?
 If X requires more funds, how will trade creditors and lending institutions view the fact
that X has provided only 10% of the total funds of the business?
These problems suggest that there is a need for the financial analyst to investigate the
capital structure of a business.

Shareholders' Funds : Total Indebtedness

This ratio –known as the Proprietorship Ratio – shows what proportion of the total funds has
been provided by the shareholders of the business and what proportion has been provided
by outside parties. Potential investors and lenders are interested in this ratio because they
may wish to see the owners of the business owning a large proportion of the assets
(normally over 50%).
The ratios for ABC Ltd are:

Year 4 Year 5
Shareholders' funds 600,000 900,000
 86%  82%
Total indebtedness shareholders and creditors 700,000 1,100,000

Certainly a large proportion of the funds has been provided by the owners of ABC but
whether this ratio is good or bad depends on many other factors (e.g. the current economic
climate and taxation policy regarding dividends and fixed-interest payments).

Shareholders' Funds : Non-current Assets

This ratio reveals whether any part of the non-current assets is owned by outsiders. If non-
current assets exceed shareholders' funds, it is apparent that part of the non-current assets
is owned by outside parties, which may be interpreted as a sign of weakness. This does not
appear to be the case for ABC Ltd, since shareholders' funds were £600,000 in Year 4 and
£900,000 in Year 5, while non-current assets were £500,000 and £850,000.

Capital Gearing Ratio

Fixed-interest capital (i.e. preference shares and debentures )
Ordinary share capital
This ratio measures the relationship between the ordinary share capital of a company and
the fixed-interest capital.
 A company with a large proportion of fixed-interest capital is said to be high-geared.
 A company with a high proportion of ordinary share capital is low-geared.

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Where the capital structure of a company is low-geared, preference shareholders and

debenture holders enjoy greater security, while potential dividends payable to ordinary
shareholders will not be subject to violent fluctuations with variations in profits. The opposite
applies to a high-geared capital structure (i.e. less security for preference shareholders and
debenture holders, and violent fluctuations in dividends for ordinary shareholders).
The relationship between ordinary share capital and fixed-interest capital is important to an
ordinary shareholder because of the effects on future earning prospects. Some fixed-
interest capital is desirable, provided this capital earns a profit in excess of the fixed-interest
charges it creates. Any such excess profit will rebound to the ordinary shareholders, who
thereby enjoy a higher return than they would if the whole capital had been contributed by
them.
We shall consider aspects of capital structure later in the unit.

Cost of Capital
Because each type of capital carries its own interest rate, we can easily calculate the cost of
capital. For example:

Capital Dividend/Interest
£ £
Ordinary shares (expected dividend 15%) 50,000 7,500
10% Preference shares 40,000 4,000
8% Debentures 10,000 800
100,000 12,300

The cost of capital is £12,300 on capital of £100,000, i.e. 12.3%.

As we have seen, debenture interest is a charge against profits, so this means a high-
geared company's taxable profits are reduced more, and it will pay less tax and be able to
pay higher dividends, than a low-geared company with the same amount of profit.

G. INVESTMENT RATIOS
Investment ratios provide valuable information to actual or potential shareholders. These
ratios are also of interest to management, since a company depends upon potential
investors for further funds for expansion. We will now calculate the appropriate investment
ratios from the annual accounts of ABC Ltd.

Ordinary Dividend Cover

Profit after tax less Preference dividend
Ordinary dividend
This ratio indicates how many times the profits available for ordinary dividend distribution
cover the actual dividend paid. This ratio is important to the investor for two reasons:
 It gives the investor some idea of security of future dividends.
 Investors can check to ensure that management are not paying out all earnings but are
pursuing a prudent policy of ploughing back some part of the annual profit.
Investors and would-be investors may use these ratios as a basis for future investment
decisions. Therefore the ratios may have a direct effect on the demand for, and the market

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price of, the shares. For this reason, the Board of Directors should always endeavour to
maintain a careful balance between the payment of dividends and reinvestment.
(a) If dividends are too low or are infrequent, the market price of the shares may fall.
(b) Generous distribution of dividends may inhibit the ability of a company to expand
without resort to fresh capital or loans, besides depleting current liquid resources.
In practice a dividend cover of 2-3 times is commonly found. We can see that ABC Ltd has
distributed all of the profits after tax in the form of dividends in both years. This is not a good
sign.

Earnings per Share

Profits after tax less Preference dividends
Number of ordinary shares
The ratio is based on the same information as the ordinary dividend cover, but expresses it
in a different form.
Investors and potential investors are particularly interested in the total net profit earned in the
year which could have been received if the directors had paid it all out as dividend. Such an
amount, compared with what the directors have in fact paid out per share, gives an indication
of the dividend policy of the company. An investigation of the accounts of ABC Limited in
Year 5 reveals an earnings per share of 7.65 pence, i.e.
£61,200
800,000

Dividend Yield Ratio

Nominal value of share  Dividend %
Market value
Dividends declared are always based on a percentage of the nominal value of issued share
capital. Therefore in Year 5 ABC Ltd has declared a dividend of 7.65%, but the true return
an investor obtains is on the current market value rather than on the nominal value of the
share. If the current market value of the shares of ABC Ltd is £1.20, this indicates that the
shareholders are obtaining a yield of 6.375%:
Nominal value £1.00
 7.65%  6.375%
Current market value £1.20
Whether this is satisfactory depends on the yield acceptable to the investor and the potential
for future capital growth. In particular, this ratio should be considered in the light of other
investment ratios (e.g. earnings per share) rather than in isolation.

Price : Earnings Ratio

This ratio may be calculated as:
Market price per share
Earnings per share
Total market value of issued share capital
or
Profits after corporation tax and preference dividends
The ratio is ascertained by comparing the market price of an ordinary share with the
earnings per share (after deduction of corporation tax and preference dividends). This may
be expressed as so many years' purchase of the profits (in other words, assuming stability of

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market price, an investor's capital outlay will, at the present level of earnings, be recouped
after so many years, in the form of either dividends received or capital growth by virtue of
retained profits). On the assumption that a person who buys a share is buying a proportion
of earnings, the larger the PE ratio, the higher is the share valued by the market. In other
words, the ratio indicates how many times the market price values earnings.
Assuming a market value of £1.20, the price : earnings ratio of ABC Ltd is:
 1.20 
15.7  i.e.  pence
 7.65% 

Other Useful Ratios

Other useful ratios, which do not apply to ABC Ltd, are:
(a) Preference Dividend Cover
Profit after tax
Preference dividend
This ratio reveals the number of times preference dividends are covered by earnings
and thus indicates the preference shareholders' security, so far as income is
concerned.
(b) Debenture Interest Cover
Net profit + Debenture interest
Rate of interest  Loans outstanding
This ratio allows debenture holders to assess the ability of a company to meet its fixed-
interest payments. Because debenture interest is a charge and not an appropriation
of profits, it is necessary to add back the interest to net profit to determine profit before
interest.

H. LIMITATIONS OF ACCOUNTING RATIOS

Before we go on to examine some worked examples of accounting ratios, we should note
that ratios are subject to certain limitations, which must be recognised if maximum benefit is
to be derived from them. These limitations stem from the limitations of the accounts from
which the ratios are derived – for example:
(a) The Ephemeral Nature of Balance Sheet Information
The balance sheet is prepared at, and it is true for, one date only. From this, it follows
the ratios derived from the balance sheet are true for one date only. Thus, it is
particularly dangerous to rely on balance sheet ratios of companies involved in
seasonal trades.
The balance sheets of a holiday camp organisation, for example, would present very
different pictures according to whether they were drawn up in mid-summer or mid-
winter. In mid-summer, it would not be surprising to discover large stocks being carried
and considerable sums owing to suppliers, whereas in mid-winter these items would
probably have disappeared. The ratios calculated from a summer balance sheet
would, therefore, differ from those calculated from a winter balance sheet.
(b) The Effect of Inflation
Inflation and changing monetary values do not hamper ratio interpretation if the figures
being expressed in terms of ratios are all equally subject to inflation. Unfortunately,
this is not always the case, especially where fixed assets are not revalued for

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considerable periods. Care must be taken to allow for changing monetary values when
reasons for changes and trends are being sought and, thus, ratio analysis of current
cost accounts can be valuable.
We shall return to the subject of current cost accounting and the limitations of the
historic cost convention later in the course.
(b) Imprecise Terminology
The accounting profession is guilty of a certain looseness of terminology, and
accounting terms are not always given the same meanings by different companies.
When making inter-company comparisons, care should be taken to ensure that like is
always compared with like – otherwise, comparisons will be valueless.
(d) Quality of Employees
Ratios do not measure the loyalty, quality or morale of a company's employees, which
is a very important factor when assessing its prospects.

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I. WORKED EXAMPLES
Example 1
You are given summarised information about two firms in the same line of business, A and B.

Firm A Firm B
£ £ £ £ £ £
Land 80 260
Buildings 120 200
less Depreciation 40 80 – 200
Plant 90 150
less Depreciation 70 20 40 110
180 570
Inventories 80 100
Debtors 100 90
Bank – 10
180 200
Creditors 110 120
Bank 50 160 20 – 120 80
200 650

Capital b/forward 100 300

Profit for year 30 100
130 400
less Drawings 30 40
100 360
Land revaluation – 160
Loan (10% pa) 100 130
200 650
Sales 1,000 3,000
Cost of sales 400 2,000

Required
(a) Produce a table of 3 profitability ratios and 3 liquidity ratios for both businesses.
(b) Write a report briefly outlining the strengths and weaknesses of the two businesses.
Include comment on any major areas where the simple use of the figures could be
misleading.

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Answer
(a) Table of Ratios

Firm A Firm B
Profitability Ratios
Return on capital employed:
Deleted:
Operating profit (before interest) 30 100
× 100 × 100 × 100 Deleted:
Total assets less current liabilities 200 650
= 15% = 15.4%
Net profit percentage:
Deleted:
Operating profit (after interest) 30
× 100
100
× 100
× 100 Deleted:
Sales 1,000 3,000
= 3% = 3.3%
Gross profit percentage:
Deleted:
Gross profit 600 1,000
× 100 × 100 × 100 Deleted:
Sales 1,000 3,000
= 60% = 33.3%
Liquidity Ratios
Current ratio:
Current assets 180 200
= 1.125 = 1.7:1
Current liabilities 160 120
Quick ratio:
Current assets  Inventory 100
= 0.6:1
100
= 0.8:1
Liquid current liabilities 160 120

Inventory turnover ratio:

Cost of sales 400 2,000
Average stock (using closing stock figures) 80 100

= 5 times = 20 times

(b) Report

To: Chief Executive Date:

From: Administrative Manager
Subject: Analysis of Firms A and B for year ended 30 June
In accordance with your instructions, I have analysed and interpreted the final
accounts of A and B for the year ended 30 June. My detailed analyses are
shown in the appendix to this report.

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Analysis of Results
(a) Profitability
The return on capital employed for each firm was similar at 15% for A and
15.4% for B. These returns seem slightly low but are above the returns
that could be achieved on many forms of investment. We do not have any
previous years' figures to compare them with, so it is difficult to draw a
conclusion from only one year's results.
The most significant difference between A and B lies in the gross profit
percentages of 60% and 33.3% respectively. A must have a better pricing
policy or a means of purchasing goods for resale at more favourable rates.
However, the net profit percentage is similar for both at 3% and 3.3%
respectively. This low net profit percentage is a concern for A in particular
given its favourable gross profit percentage. A appears not to be
controlling overhead expenses as effectively as B.
(b) Liquidity
The current ratios were 1.125:1 and 1.7:1 respectively. Both seem a little
low given the norm of 2:1 but A in particular gives cause for concern.
Again both liquidity ratios at 0.6:1 and 0.8:1 are a little low compared with
the norm of 1:1. Without knowing the specific trade of A and B it is difficult
to conclude whether those ratios are acceptable but again A gives
particular cause for concern.
The inventory turnover ratio of B at 20 times per annum is four times
greater than A at 5 times per annum. It seems unusual to have such a
difference in turnover rates given that A and B are in the same line of
business. It would appear that B has chosen a high inventory turnover but
lower gross profit margin than A. Both, however, obtained the same return
on capital employed.
Difficulties in Use of Figures Alone
Only closing inventory figures are available so their use instead of average
inventory figures could give a misleading inventory turnover ratio. For example,
a high year-end inventory build-up could explain A's low inventory turnover ratio.
We are not told the different accounting policies used by each firm. Therefore
we may not be strictly comparing like with like. A, for example, may adopt a very
different depreciation policy from B. In addition, B has revalued land whereas A
has not.
We have no information on aspects of each business such as staff quality and
turnover, geographical location, attitudes to the environment etc. This would
need to be considered in addition to the figures.
Conclusion
The return on capital employed for each business is not unacceptable although it
could be improved. A's control of overhead expenses gives cause for concern
and needs to be examined further. Liquidity of A gives additional cause for
concern, although that of B is also lower than would be expected.

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Example 2
Roundsby Ltd is a construction firm and Squaresby Ltd is a property company which
specialises in letting property to professional firms. The following information is relevant:

Roundsby Ltd Squaresby Ltd

£ £
£1 ordinary shares 600,000 150,000
£1 preference shares (10%) 15,000 450,000
Retained profits 600,000 75,000
8% debentures 75,000 450,000
Operating profit for the year 300,000 300,000
Current market price per ordinary share £3.65 £10.20

The rate of corporation tax is 25%

Tasks
(a) (i) What do you understand by the term gearing?
(ii) Calculate the gearing ratios for both Roundsby Ltd and Squaresby Ltd.
(b) Prepare a schedule for each company in which you indicate the profit remaining after
allowing for debenture interest, taxation and the preference dividend.
(c) Calculate the earnings per share for each company.
(d) Calculate the price earnings ratio for each company.

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Answer
(a) (i) Gearing is the relationship of fixed-cost capital to equity capital, normally
expressed by the ratio:
Long - term loans + Preference share capital
× 100
Total ordinary shareholde rs' funds

15,000 + 75,000
(ii) Roundsby: = 7½%
600,000 + 600,000
450,000 + 450,000
Squaresby: = 400%
150,000 + 75,000
(b)
£ £
Operating profit 300,000 300,000
Debenture interest (6,000) (36,000)
Profit before tax 294,000 264,000
Tax (25%) (73,500) (66,000)
Profit after tax 220,500 198,000
Preference dividend (1,500) (45,000)
Profit available to ordinary shareholder 219,000 153,000

£219,000
(c) EPS: Roundsby = = 36.5 pence
600,000
£153,000
Squaresby = = 102 pence
150,000
£3.65
(e) PE ratio: Roundsby = = 10
£0.365
£10.20
Squaresby = = 10
£1.02

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Example 3
The following are extracts from the final accounts of a trading company over the last two
years:
Profit & Loss Data

Year 1 Year 2
£ £

Purchases (all on credit) 216,000 285,000

Sales (all on credit) 675,000 834,000
Cost of sales 210,000 272,000
Gross profit 465,000 562,000
Net profit before tax 130,000 200,000

Balance Sheet Data

Year 1 Year 2
£ £ £ £
Non-current Assets 620,000 800,000
Current Assets
Inventories 11,000 24,000
Debtors 95,000 106,000
106,000 130,000
Current Liabilities
Trade creditors (28,000) (39,000)
Bank Overdraft (39,000) (77,000)
Taxation (10,000) (20,000)
Proposed Dividends (25,000) (30,000)
(102,000) 4,000 (166,000 (36,000)
624,000 764,000
Long-term Liabilities
Mortgage (100,000) (90,000)
524,000 674,000
Capital and Reserves
£1 ordinary shares 300,000 300,000
Retained profits 224,000 374,000
524,000 674,000

Tasks:
(a) Calculate two profitability ratios for both years.
(b) Calculate two liquidity ratios for both years.

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(c) Calculate two efficiency ratios for both years.

(d) Briefly comment on the financial performance of the company over the two years.
(e) Briefly discuss the options available to the company to eliminate the negative working
capital.

Answer
(a) Two from: Year 1 Year 2
465 562
Gross profit percentage × 100 = 69% × 100 = 67%
675 834
130 200
Net profit percentage × 100 = 19% × 100 = 24%
675 834
130 200
Return on capital employed × 100 = 25% × 100 = 30%
524 674
(NB There are acceptable variations to the basis of calculating the ROCE.)

(b) Current ratio 106 : 102 = 1.04 : 1 130 : 166 = 0.78 : 1

Acid test (Quick ratio) 95 : 102 = 0.93 : 1 106 : 166 = 0.64 : 1

(c) Two from:

Rate of inventory turnover
210 272
(using closing inventory) = 19 times = 11 times
11 24
95 106
Debtor collection period × 365 = 51 days × 365 = 46 days
675 834
28 39
Creditor payment period × 365 = 47 days × 365 = 50 days
216 285
(d) You should comment on improvement in profit indicators, deterioration in liquidity and
link with increase in level of inventory holding.

(e) Lease assets rather than purchase them

Use debt factoring
Raise more long-term finance through loans or share issue

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J. ISSUES IN INTERPRETATION
Financial Dangers and their Detection
(a) Declining Sales
The analyst will not have access to much of the information available to the directors
but can still scent any dangerous sales trends from published accounts. Companies
are required to include their annual revenue (or net sales – i.e. sales less returns),
together with an analysis of the revenue on major activities for all but the smaller
companies. Particular attention should be given to the make-up of sales, in order to
spot whether total revenue is being maintained or increased by expanding trade in
unprofitable areas, thus hiding a loss of business in more profitable fields. A
company's sales should be compared with the total output of the industry concerned, to
see whether it is holding its own with competitors.
As in all matters of accounting interpretation, one should not lose sight of the effect of
inflation on revenue.
(b) Excessive Expenses
Three main tests can be applied to a set of company accounts in order to determine
what is happening to the company.
 Comparison of each item in the income statement with the corresponding figure
for the past two, three or more years.
 Calculation of the percentage which each profit and loss item forms of the sales
total – again, for comparison purposes.
 Subjection of each available item in the income statement to a detailed analysis.
Let us take wages as an example: figures relating to numbers employed, staff
functions, overtime charges, and labour charges in relation to the revenue in
each department should all be obtained if possible and compared with those of
previous years and those of other, comparable, companies.
(c) Shortage of Working Capital
A shortage of working capital can soon bring a company to a halt, no matter how
profitable its product. Indeed, inability to pay creditors through shortage of working
capital is particularly dangerous when companies are expanding rapidly.
To detect a possible shortage of working capital, a careful watch should be kept on the
ratio of current assets to current liabilities. If, year by year, trade creditors are growing
faster than trade debtors, inventory and bank balances, one may well suspect that,
before long, the business will be short of working capital. The speed with which a
company collects its debts and turns over its inventory are also indicators of the
working capital's adequacy.
(d) Excessive Inventories
It is essential for the health of a company that capital should not be locked up
unnecessarily in inventory. The comparison of inventory turnover rates from year to
year will reveal whether the inventory management of a company is deteriorating or
improving; and this will be an indicator of the general management standards of the
company.
In the second place (and perhaps this is more important) any tendency to manufacture
for inventory may be revealed. It should go without saying that manufacturing goods to
be held in finished inventory is a very dangerous practice. The manufacture of the

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goods will involve the company in expenditure on materials, wages, expenses, etc. but
no receipts will be obtained to pay for these items.
(e) Slow-paying Debtors
A danger similar to manufacturing for inventory, but not quite as pernicious is that of
"dilatory" debtors. Any increase in the length of time debtors take to pay could indicate
one of the following:
 a decline in the number of satisfied customers (implying a drop in standards of
management, manufacturing or delivery)
 a drop in the standard of debt control or
 perhaps most serious, a falling-off in favour of the company's product, forcing the
company to maintain turnover by selling on credit to customers to whom it could
not, usually, offer credit.
(f) Non-current Assets Needing Replacement
The usual method of presenting non-current assets in the accounts of limited
companies is to show them at cost less aggregate depreciation at the balance sheet
date. Additions and disposals of non-current assets are also shown.
In considering the non-current assets of a company, you must assess their real value,
condition, and future life, in order to estimate when replacement will be necessary.
This is important because the company needs sufficient finance available to effect the
necessary replacements without seriously depleting working capital.
It is difficult to find a substitute for personal knowledge of the assets concerned – this
is, obviously, a problem in the examination. However, an outline of the position can be
seen by tracing the movements in a company's non-current assets over the years and
by comparing them with those of other companies in the same industry.
(g) Diminishing Returns
These are suffered when a successful company expands past its optimum size. From
then onwards, every successive "dose" of capital put into the company yields a smaller
return. This, to a certain extent, is what happened to the Cyril Lord carpet business
when it entered the retailing field.
In searching for the tendency to expand beyond the optimum point, a close watch
should be kept on the trend of net earnings as a percentage of capital employed. Any
reduction in the percentage accompanied by an increase in capital employed must be
treated with considerable suspicion.
(h) Over-trading
"Over-trading" means that a business has insufficient funds to carry out its operations
at a satisfactory level. It implies that the working capital ratio is too low, and it may
mean that a business cannot meet its maturing financial obligations to its creditors.
Over-trading is caused by a rapidly expanding business outgrowing its initial asset
structure and capital resources. The remedy would be the raising of temporary loans,
short-term finance or, more probably, additional permanent capital.
We have, so far, mentioned the term "over-trading" only in passing, although we have
stressed the importance of retaining an adequate balance of working capital. As this is
a point to look for when assessing a set of accounts, you should be able to identify
quickly any symptoms of over-trading.
 From the banker's point of view, a call for extended or increased overdraft
facilities may suggest over-trading. Alternatively, the hard core of the bank

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balance or bank overdraft may shift in such a way as to suggest a strain on

resources.
 From the customer's viewpoint, a call for additional credit may denote a shortage
of funds. Similarly, an extended credit period may also suggest over-trading.
 When inventory shows a significant increase over a previous period, this
sometimes indicates failure to sell the goods. Funds are being invested in the
production process but the money is not returning as quickly in the form of sales.
Be always on the alert for any signs of strain on liquid resources. You should be able
to recognise weaknesses in accounting documents in the same way as a doctor
identifies symptoms of illness.

Income Statement Interpretation

The two most important figures in the income statement are at opposite extremes – sales at
the top and final net profit at the foot. Remember the effect of concepts and accounting
bases, particularly, in assessing the value of the latter.
When considering the income statements of a company over a period of three to five years,
the following questions should be asked.
(a) (i) Is the revenue steady, increasing or falling?
(ii) If it is steady, why isn't it increasing?
(iii) If it is increasing or falling, why?
(iv) Is this state of affairs likely to continue?
(v) If not, what will stop it?
(b) (i) Is the pattern of sales the same throughout the period, or has there been a
change in composition?
(ii) Is the business still selling the same sort of thing as it always did, or has it turned
to new markets?
(c) Has the gross profit percentage been affected? A distinction must be drawn here
between a fall in gross profit percentage and a fall in total gross profit.
(i) A fall in gross profit percentage may be overcome by increased sales so that
the final net profit does not suffer. It will, however, bring a corresponding fall in
the net profit sales ratio.
(ii) A reduction in total gross profit is likely to be more disastrous, in view of the
effects of fixed costs.
(d) How do selling and distribution costs vary with changes in revenue? One might expect
there to be a significant fixed component, together with a fairly large variable one.
Certainly, such costs should normally increase (or fall) less than proportionately to
revenue.
(e) Are the ratios of net profit to sales and net profit to capital employed reasonable,
bearing in mind the nature of the business?
(f) Do the accounts suggest that there may have been changes in the conduct of the
business?
(g) Do the accounts give any hint that there has been lack of prudence in earlier years?

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Balance Sheet Interpretation

The danger points to look for when examining a balance sheet may be summarised as
follows.
(a) Cash Position
Shortage of liquid resources will cause a company considerable trouble.
(b) Inventory Position
(i) Excessive inventories may be the result of overtrading or weak inventory
control.
(ii) Shortage of inventory may be a sign of lack of liquid funds.
Remember that different industries have different inventory-holding policies and that
seasonal factors may have to be taken into consideration.
(c) Average Collection Period
The average collection period will rise if there is poor credit control or weakness in
collection. On the other hand, the average collection period may fall if the concern's
credit policy is dictated by a shortage of funds.
(d) Working Capital
Working capital will fall if non-current assets are purchased without increasing the
capital funds of the company.
(e) Money Owed
Increases in the amount owed to creditors are, usually, a sign that the business has
been forced to "borrow" funds by delaying payment of its debts.

Capital Gearing
Some companies have to have far more non-current assets than others, and this affects the
type of capital structure adopted. The term used to describe the relationship between the
different classes of capital is capital gearing. We distinguish two main types of capital
gearing, as follows:
 High Gearing
This is where a company has a large proportion of fixed interest and fixed dividend
capital, e.g. loan capital and preference shares.
 Low Gearing
This is where a company has a large proportion of ordinary share capital plus reserves
and undistributed profits.
The gearing ratio is:
Fixed Interest Capital  Fixed Dividend Capital
Ordinary Share Capital  Reserves
An example of the calculation of gearing ratios is given below.

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The total capital of two companies, Sea and Breeze, is divided up as follows:

Sea Breeze
£ £
Share Capital
8% Preference shares £1 each 40,000 10,000
Ordinary shares £1 each 15,000 50,000
Reserves
Undistributed profits 5,000 30,000
Loan Capital
7% Debentures of £1 each 40,000 10,000
100,000 100,000

40,000  40,000 10,000  10,000

Gearing ratio  4:1  0.25 : 1
15,000  5,000 50,000  30,000

Therefore Sea is a high-geared company and Breeze is a low-geared company.

When considering whether to have a high-geared or low-geared capital structure, the
following points are important:
(a) Control
If the directors are to run the company with the minimum amount of interference, it is
generally advisable to have a low-geared capital structure. High gearing can be
difficult sometimes if preference shareholders and debenture holders prove to be
unhelpful when controversial decisions have to be made.
(b) Nature of Operations
The nature of the operations in which a company is engaged will also affect the
gearing. Some companies are engaged, for example, in the manufacture of
complicated machinery and need a very large investment in non-current assets. On
the other hand, many companies have very few non-current assets, especially in a
service industry.
When a company has a large investment in non-current assets it may be possible to
obtain funds by issuing secured debentures, which is a relatively cheap method of
obtaining money. Thus this type of company may often be a high-geared company.
(c) Effect on Earnings
Fluctuations in profits have disproportionate effects upon the return to ordinary
shareholders in high-geared companies. This can affect the pricing of ordinary shares
on the Stock Exchange, which in turn may influence directors, who will be looking for
stability in the price of the company's ordinary shares, when faced with raising more
capital.
An example will illustrate the effect of gearing upon earnings:

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Company X Company Y
(low-geared) (high-geared)
£000 £000
Ordinary share capital plus reserves 10,000 2,500
Loan capital: 10% debentures 7,500
10,000 10,000

Company X Company Y
Year 1 Year 2 Year 1 Year 2
£000 £000 £000 £000
Operating profit
(before deduction of loan interest) 2,000 3,000 2,000 3,000
less Loan interest – – 750 750
Available for distribution to ordinary
2,000 3,000 1,250 2,250
shareholders
Return on ordinary share capital 20% 30% 50% 90%

We can see that the increase in profits in Year 2 has a much greater effect on the
return on ordinary share capital in Company Y than in Company X. Similarly, a
decrease in profits would produce a much more severe effect in Company Y.
(d) Stability of Business Profits
An increase in a company's level of gearing is accompanied by an increase in financial
risk, because fixed interest has to be paid regardless of business performance. If the
demand for the product being manufactured/sold is stable, with the result that the profit
being earned does not vary much from year to year, it may be possible to have a highly
geared capital structure. Conversely, when a business is of a fairly speculative nature,
a low-geared capital structure will generally be essential.
(e) Cost of Capital
The ordinary shareholders will want to achieve an adequate return on capital given the
risk they are bearing. Since preference shareholders and debenture holders have a
first call on earnings, they can be paid a lower rate than the ordinary shareholders.
Therefore it is useful to have a reasonable proportion of fixed interest capital, both to
reduce costs and to enable the ordinary shareholders to be paid quite a high return on
capital invested, providing profits are adequate.
The company must consider all the above factors when deciding on capital structure. It is
particularly important to analyse gearing because many companies increase their
dependence on borrowed funds in order to try to push up earnings per ordinary share (see
(c)). While profits are rising this can prove successful, but if there is a slump in trade, fixed
interest must still be paid and many company collapses are due to an inability to meet
commitments to debenture holders. This risk in respect of high-geared companies needs to
be recognised and matched against the possibility of continued regular growth in company
profits.

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Capital Position
(a) Capital Structure
For a company to be successful, it is essential that its capital structure is satisfactory
and tailored to its needs. In examining a set of company accounts, you should
ascertain whether the capital structure is satisfactory. The points to look for are as
follows.
 If the business is of a speculative nature, a large proportion of the capital ought
to be made up of ordinary shares.
 Interest on debentures and other prior charges should not be unreasonably high.
 The terms of repayment of debentures, redeemable shares, etc. should be within
the capacity of the company.
 The capital structure of the company should be sufficiently elastic to allow for
future development – by the issue of additional debentures, for example, if new
assets are required.
(b) Under- and Over-capitalisation
Although it is difficult to say what is the optimum amount of capital any one company
needs to operate successfully, it is relatively easy to recognise under- or over-
capitalisation, and the dangers of these conditions.
 Over-capitalisation
A company is over-capitalised when a portion of its capital resources is not fully
used in the business and does not earn an adequate return. Sufficient profits will
not be earned to justify the capital employed and, in acute cases, preference
dividends may be jeopardised.
Over-capitalisation can be caused by:
(i) Failure to write off redundant assets
(ii) Excessive valuations of goodwill and similar assets
(iii) Failure to use surplus liquid resources when branches are closed down
(iv) Unjustified capitalisation of expenditure that should have been written off
(e.g. cost of advertising campaigns).
 Under-capitalisation
When the capital resources of a company are not consistent with the volume of
its trading, expenditure is likely to increase because of:
(i) Bank charges
(ii) Loan interest payments
(iii) Inability to pay suppliers within the discount period.
Substantial unsecured loans and inadequate or out-of-date plant indicate under-
capitalisation.
One of the dangers of under-capitalisation is that the company may not be able
to take advantage of attractive new opportunities when they arise.
(c) Return on Capital Employed
In order to appreciate a company's capital position (to see whether it is adequately
capitalised or over- or under-capitalised) a computation of the return earned on actual
capital employed is very useful. By "actual capital employed" we mean the capital

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employed in the business, obtained by replacing the book values at which assets and
liabilities appear in the balance sheet with market values. Furthermore, in a calculation
of this sort, intangible assets such as goodwill are ignored.

Question for Practice

This question is to help you think in a practical way about financial tactics.
The accountant of Wiley Ltd has prepared the following estimated balance sheet as at 31
December, Year 2.
Wiley Limited
Estimated Balance Sheet as at 31 December, Year 2

£ £ £ £
Freehold property 600,000
Depreciation 100,000 500,000
Current assets
Inventory (marginal cost) 590,000
Debtors 160,000 750,000
Current liabilities
Overdraft 60,000
Trade creditors 140,000 200,000 550,000
1,050,000
Debentures (repayable Year 10) 250,000
800,000
Capital
Called-up ordinary shares £1 500,000
Reserves 250,000
Profit for Year 2 50,000 800,000

The directors are disappointed with the estimated profit for Year 2 and the financial position
displayed in the balance sheet. The following suggestions are made for consideration:
(i) To make a capitalisation issue to existing shareholders on the basis of one £1 share for
every two shares held.
(ii) To increase the depreciation charged on the freehold buildings from £20,000 to
£30,000.
(iii) To arrange a loan for an extra £100,000 also repayable in Year 10; this is to be paid to
the company on 31 December Year 2.
(iv) To value inventory at total cost £680,000 for the purpose of the accounts. The Year 1
accounts included inventory at marginal cost (you will understand this term later) of
£400,000 and the corresponding figure for total cost at that date was £470,000.
(v) To offer cash discounts for prompt payment in respect of future sales. If this course is
followed, it is estimated that sales will be unaffected, but discounts of £3,000 will be
allowed during the period October – December, Year 2 and trade debtors at the end of
the year will amount to £120,000.

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Required
Taking each course of action separately, a statement showing the following:
(a) Net profit for Year 2
(b) Bank overdraft (or balance) as at 31 December Year 2
(c) Working capital as at 31 December Year 2
(d) Acid test ratio as at 31 December Year 2
Present your answer in the form of a table as shown below:

Course of Action Net Profit Bank (Overdraft) Working Capital Acid Test Ratio
Balance

(i)

(ii)

(iii)

(iv)

(v)

Make suitable notes explaining the reasons for your entries in the table. Ignore taxation.

Now check your answers with those provided at the end of the unit

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 Assessing Financial Performance 223

ANSWER TO QUESTION FOR PRACTICE

Course of Action Net Profit Bank (Overdraft) Working Capital Acid Test Ratio
Balance

(i) £50,000 (£60,000) £550,000 0.8 : 1

(ii) £40,000 (£60,000) £550,000 0.8 : 1

(iii) £50,000 £40,000 £650,000 1.4 : 1

(iv) £70,000 (£60,000) £640,000 0.8 : 1

(v) £47,000 (£23,000) £547,000 0.7 : 1

Notes
(i) Involves purely a book adjustment. No money changes hands.
(ii) Affects only new profit.
(iii) Involves £100,000 cash coming into the business and therefore affects the last three
columns.
(iv) Requires a restatement of both opening and closing inventories at total cost.
Profit is £50,000 + (£680,000  £590,000)  (£470,000  £400,000)
(v) Cash discounts reduce trade debtors at close by £40,000 but only £37,000 will actually
be received in cash, and £3,000 must be charged to profits, hence the net profit
reduction. The overdraft is reduced by £37,000 cash received. £40,000 debtor
reduction and £37,000 overdraft reduction means a £3,000 drop in working capital.
Liquidity or acid test ratio = £120,000 ÷ £(140,000 + 23,000)

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 225

Study Unit 9
Sources and Costs of Finance

Contents Page

Introduction 227

A. Finance and the Smaller Business 227

Banks 227
Venture Capital Providers 228
Small Loans Guarantee Scheme 228
Grants 228
Finance Companies and Lessors 229
Hire Purchase and Leasing 229

B. Finance and the Developing Business 230

Investment Capital 230
Short-term Finance 231

C. Finance for the Major Company 233

Treasury Management 233
Managing Exchange Rate and Interest Rate Risk 236
Raising Finance 238

D. The London Money Market 239

E. The Cost of Finance 240

F. Cost of Equity 241

Dividend Valuation Model 241
Dividend Growth Model 241
Share Issue Costs 242
Taxation 243
Retained Earnings 243

(Continued over)

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G. Cost of Preference Shares 243

H. Cost of Debt Capital 243

I. Weighted Average Cost of Capital (WACC) 244

J. Cost of Internally Generated Funds 245

K. Management of Factors Affecting Share Prices 247

Relationships with Shareholders 247
Assessment of Risk in the Debt versus Equity Decision 248

L. Factors Determining Capital Structure 249

Ability of the Earnings to Support the Structure 249
Attitudes of Investors 250
Cost of Capital 251

M. Advantages and Disadvantages of the Principal Financial Alternatives 253

Overdraft 253
Loan 253
Hire Purchase 254
Leasing 254
Debentures 255
Equity Capital 255

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INTRODUCTION
We looked, in general terms at the funding of businesses earlier in the course and now we
return to examine certain aspects in more detail. In the main, we consider this topic from a
UK viewpoint.
We start with a consideration of the various sources of funds available to different types of
business according to their needs. In particular we shall look at the position for small
businesses and for those which are growing, before reviewing the widening scope of the
money markets open to large enterprises and some of the attendant needs to manage
funds.

A. FINANCE AND THE SMALLER BUSINESS

It is generally difficult for a newly formed or small business to obtain more than a limited
amount of borrowed funds from a clearing bank, since the bank will look for a track record of
past performance on which the future projections have been based. Proportionately many
more small businesses fail than larger, more established businesses, and generally speaking
this is the result of inadequate management experience and lack of working capital facilities
with which to develop the business.
The financial markets that support the stock exchange quoted company obtain most of their
investment funds from unit trust, insurance and pension funds, for the managers of which
safety is very important. Despite efforts by the UK government to support the growing
number of small firms which have been established in recently years, raising new capital
before the business has established a successful record over three or more years remains
extremely difficult.
For the owners of a small business who are expert at what the business does, rather than
how to finance it, the world of banking and finance will often appear confusing. There are so
many financial and capital instruments available that making the right choice, even when
they are available to the business, may seem a formidable task.
Most businesses will need to resort to outside borrowing at some time, and if the rate of
return (the earnings) arising from the use of those assets which have been financed by debt
exceeds the borrowing cost, the surplus will benefit the shareholders by increasing the
revenue reserves. Essentially, when the rate of return on assets is high, a high level of
gearing may be considered, since the earnings will exceed the cost of borrowing by a large
amount.

Banks
Banks are not risk-takers and do not provide venture capital. They will expect customers to
provide a reasonable proportion of the required funding from their own resources. Whilst
banks will usually be willing to lend a degree of support, where tangible security is agreed,
the customer should expect to be able to negotiate a reduction in the rate of interest
charged.
Clearing banks like to lend against assets – in other words, they are lenders against
security. If the owners of the new business have some property, shares or other tangible
assets which they can offer their banker as security, it is possible that funds will be made
available by the bank. Without the ability to offer some additional tangible security, the new
business will probably have to seek financial backing from its shareholders or an outside
private investor, such as a venture capital provider.
Overdrafts provided by a bank are intended to cater for short-term, seasonal fluctuations in
financing requirements of its customers' businesses and not to be part of the permanent

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capital of the business, as such overdraft facilities are technically subject to recall
(repayment) on the bank's notice.
Bank loans may be arranged over periods of up to ten years (more in some cases). These
will be tailored to the needs of a specific project or capital purchase with repayments scaled
to reflect future cash generation. Security will almost always be required in respect of a
fixed-term loan from a bank. Although theoretically a bank loan cannot be recalled by the
bank whilst the customer continues to honour the terms of the agreement, the majority will
be subject to an annual review process when the published financial statements of the
business are available.

Venture Capital Providers

Venture capital specialists may be willing to participate in a new project, but they will typically
only show an interest in projects which require fairly substantial working capital, and where
there is a planned exit route for them to realise their investment at some agreed future date.
Venture capitalists will usually expect the principals of the new business to be able to
demonstrate a thorough knowledge of the market sector in which the firm will trade, and this
should be supported by evidence of successful performance in a managerial capacity in a
related business.
Investors in Industry (3i) plc is possibly one of the better known venture capital providers for
new ventures. This organisation has its roots back in 1945 when the Bank of England and
the clearing banks formed the Industrial and Commercial Finance Corporation (ICFC) with
the aim of financing small business development as a way to rebuild the UK in the post-war
years. Cavendish Management resources CMR is a venture capitalist specifically geared
towards funding small and medium sized enterprises. It was established in 1984 and not
only provides funding, but also additional management support for those enterprises wishing
to grow. It is essentially a "match-maker" as it matches its syndicate of investors to
appropriate enterprises. Another source of funding for small and medium sized enterprises
is from what has become known as "Business angels". Typically, business angels are high
net worth individuals who will invest anything from £10,000 to £750,000 in an enterprise they
regard as innovative and financial viable. They also often offer their own expertise and
guidance to fledging enterprises. Within the UK the television programme "The Dragon's
Den" is an example of business angel funding.

Small Loans Guarantee Scheme

When security is a problem, there is a government Loan Guarantee Scheme. The Small
Firms Loan Guarantee (SFLG) system helps to overcome the difficulties small businesses
may have in finding a conventional loan because they do not have assets to offer as security.
The SFLG provides lenders with a government guarantee against default in certain
circumstances. The scheme is a joint venture between the Department for Business,
Enterprise and Regulatory Reform (BERR) and a number of participating lenders. The
maximum loan available for viable projects is £250,000, with the proportion guaranteed by
government equalling 75%.
There is a premium on the cost of borrowing – currently 2% per year on the whole payable
by the borrower to the BERR.

Grants
Grants are available to all businesses, whether private, public, partnerships, sole traders,
etc. Most carry a test relating to the number of new jobs created from a project or
development requiring assistance. The second test for grant assistance will usually be that
the project cannot proceed without financial assistance.

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The following examples provide some insight into the variety of assistance that is available.
Note: as this is an area that is continually changing, you should supplement your studies by
your reading of the financial press.
 Regional Selective Assistance is considered by the local office of the BERR and is
only available in areas defined geographically for the purpose of the availability of
financial assistance. Where a major project involves investment in more than one area
of regional selective assistance, the BERR will consider the whole project centrally in
London. Grants which are available in special development areas may carry higher
cash amounts in respect of each job created.
 Loans may be available in support of job creation projects from the European
Investment Bank. The fund only provides loans for projects which support EU
measures for integration or seek to benefit humans or the environment. The maximum
amount available is £8.6 million and they only loan up to 50% of project costs. Only
small and medium sized enterprises with fewer than 250 employees, a revenue less
than £33 million per annum and an annual balance sheet not exceeding £27 million
can apply. Projects are judged on their economic viability, level of technology involved
and their ability to comply with environmental legislation.
 UK Local authorities, including district and city councils, typically set aside funds to
assist business enterprise. Purposes for which grant aid may be sought are as diverse
as site clearance in urban development areas to assistance with equipment in light
manufacturing businesses.
 In rural areas the Rural Development Commission aims to stimulate job creation and
the provision of essential services in the countryside. As well as providing help to rural
business seeking funding via the Loan Guarantee Scheme, there is an Enterprise
Allowance Scheme for unemployed people who wish to start their own business.
Additionally, there is the opportunity for additional support from the DTI who consider
Regional Enterprise Grants in Assisted Areas, and the Prince's Youth Business
Trust can provide loans to young entrepreneurs with sound plans who are under 29
years of age.

Finance Companies and Lessors

The main providers in this market sector are members of the Finance and Leasing
Association, a trade association which lays down a Code of Conduct to which members must
adhere and which represents members' interests in forthcoming legislation and with
government departments. Finance companies typically specialise in providing financial
accommodation in respect of fixed assets. Since they generally retain title to the assets
throughout the term of the contract through which funds have been provided, they (unlike the
clearing bank that often owns them) do not usually seek additional security by way of
charges or debentures. They may, however, seek directors' personal guarantees when the
directors of a small business are also the principal shareholders. This will support their
involvement, which may be significant in proportion to the size of the net assets in the
balance sheet.

Hire Purchase and Leasing

The legal distinctions between hire purchase, leasing and rental are well defined, although it
may sometimes be difficult for the inexperienced person to distinguish between them simply
by reading the supporting documentation of the contract.
Where the company pays rentals for the use of the asset under a leasing arrangement, the
financier, who purchases and provides the asset, will be considered to be the legal owner
who will be entitled to obtain and retain capital allowances applicable to the nature of the
asset. Conversely, if the customer enters into a loan contract, secured by a charge on the

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asset, the customer will be viewed in law to be the owner, and the financier who provided the
funds will, in effect, be the mortgagee (a secured creditor). Any capital allowances which
may be available will be granted to the customer.
(a) Hire purchase is in many respects a hybrid lying between the two legal concepts of
lending and renting (hiring). The facility may be simply defined as "hiring with the
option to purchase". By concession the Inland Revenue will generally permit the
customer to claim and retain capital allowances, provided that the option-to-purchase
fee is less than the market value at the end of the contract term – in practice this is
taken at present to be that the option to purchase fee should be no greater than 1% of
the original cost of the asset.
Assets subject to hire-purchase contract will appear on the face of the balance sheet
under fixed assets and will be depreciated in accordance with the accounting policy of
the business. The liability to make future payments will be shown under creditors, split
between payments due within 12 months of the accounting date and those (if any)
payable thereafter.
(b) Leasing was traditionally a facility which did not have to be reported on the face of the
balance sheet of the customer (known as the lessee). With the growth in the market
for leasing (exceeding 23% of all capital expenditure in the UK in the early 1990s),
International Accounting Standard 17 Leases introduced the concept of the finance
lease and the operating lease, in an attempt to bring funds provided by leasing
projects into the balance sheet. Remember that:
 Finance leases are basically leases in which the owner (the lessor) will expect to
recoup the whole (or substantially the whole) of the cost of perfecting the
contract during the initial period of rental, referred to as the basic lease period
(or primary term). Finance leases must be reported on the face of the balance
sheet as a non-current asset, with the liability to pay future rentals shown within
creditors.
 Operating leases do not need to be reported on the face of the balance sheet of
a business and are defined within IAS 17 as "any leases other than finance
leases". Common examples of operating leases include short-term rental
contracts for tea-vending machines or office equipment, and contract-hire
agreements for the provision of vehicles.
As operating leases are not reported as balance sheet items, they will not be included in
gearing calculations. However, liability for payment of future rentals under the terms of
contracts will be reported as a note to the accounts. Lenders and analysts will take these
commitments into account when reviewing the company's future financing needs.

B. FINANCE AND THE DEVELOPING BUSINESS

As a company grows, the founder(s) will generally need to recruit specialist managers to run
the individual areas of activity. Once a business begins to expand its activities, its approach
to financing will require careful planning. Whilst everything we have said about the financing
of a small business will still be valid for the growing business at its next stage of
development, its enhanced reputation, deriving from a successful past trading record, will
provide greater opportunity and flexibility in the selection of the financial and capital
instruments available to it.

Investment Capital
Most investment in a growing business will involve the issue of preference shares with
special rights. Often a venture capital provider will be invited to participate, and the use of

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this form of capital instrument will help to ensure that the running yield will be as he or she
would expect.
The acronym CREEPS means cumulative, redeemable, and "everything else"
preference shares, illustrating the potentially flexible nature of investment capital once the
company has built up an acceptable credit rating.
CREEPS have the following features and benefits:
 Cumulative, so that dividends accrue to the provider of funds, but the company is not
contracted to make payment until the finances are adequate.
 Participating, so that the investor (be he or she a private investor, a venture capital
provider, or some other class of provider) has a cumulative and participating dividend –
this is typically expressed as a percentage of pre-tax profit.
 Redeemable at an agreed date (or possibly a range of dates) in order to give the
investor an exit route, often achieved by applying to the Alternative Investment Market
(in the past, the Unlisted Securities Market).
 Convertible to equity if the company should fail to achieve its planned profit targets or
to pay dividends over time, to redeem the capital by the agreed dates or otherwise
default on its obligations to the investor.

Short-term Finance
A business may not always wish to commit to long-term, fixed-rate debt capital which
involves an increased risk. The owners may not wish to accept the partial loss of control
resulting from the issue of further share capital (equities). In recent years, the capital
markets have recognised this need in the growing company, and there has been an
increased concentration on the short- or medium-term floating rate sector.
A major development in this area of capital provision is the arrival of the note issuance
facility and the similarly rapid growth of the related short-term Euronote (the Euro-
commercial paper market). This is supplying UK businesses with a means of raising cheap,
short-term and flexible finance at floating rates.
A note issuance facility involves a package of medium-term back-up facilities provided by a
group of banks. The banks will underwrite the facility to ensure that the borrower will obtain
the required funds, usually over a period of three to ten years. The financial manager will
usually be afforded other mechanisms so that he can raise short-term funds by a number of
methods, not just from the underwriting banks. One example of this will be where the
company will issue six-month dollar notes in the European Commercial Paper Market, a
facility that will also allow the issue of notes in other currencies. The company will also be
able to call for advances of a multi-currency nature, perhaps in dollars or sterling.
These are but a few of the many new arrangements that are developing. You will almost
certainly learn of more from your reading of the financial press as new ideas come to market.
(a) Alternative Investment Market (AIM)
The Unlisted Securities Market (USM) of the London Stock Exchange closed its doors
to new members at the end of 1994 and closed completely at the end of 1996. The
AIM opened for operation on 19 June 1995 and was expected to appeal to a wide
variety of companies, including management buyouts, family businesses, former
Business Expansion Scheme (BES) companies, and possibly start-ups. The AIM has
its own marketing and management team and is regulated by the Stock Exchange's
Supervision and Surveillance Departments. To be eligible for admission to the AIM, a
company must appoint a nominated adviser (NA) and retain that adviser at all times.
The NA is responsible to the exchange for assessing the appropriateness of an

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applicant for AIM. If an AIM enterprise ceases to have a NA, the exchange will
suspend trading in its securities and if within one month of that suspension the
enterprise has not appointed a new NA, the admission of the enterprise to the AIM will
be cancelled. An applicant to the AIM must produce an admission document which is
freely available to the public. The admission document generally consists of a
prospectus and financial statements.
Once an enterprise is listed on the AIM it must publish annual audited financial
statements not later than six months after the end of the financial year to which they
relate. They must also be presented in accordance with International Accounting
Standards. Each enterprise listed on the AIM must also maintain a website on which
the following information must be available free of charge:
 A description of its business and, where it is an investing company, its investing
strategy
 The names of its directors and brief biographical details of each
 A description of the responsibilities of the board of directors and details of any
committees of the board of directors and their responsibilities
 Its country of incorporation and the main country of operation
 Where the AIM company is not incorporated in the UK, a statement that the
rights of shareholders may be different from the rights of shareholders in a UK
incorporated company
 Its current constitutional documents – for example, its Articles of Association
 Details of any other exchanges of trading platforms on which the AIM company
has applied or agreed to have any of its securities admitted or traded
 The number of AIM securities in issue
 Details of any restrictions on the transfer of its AIM securities
 Its most recent annual report
 Its most recent admission document
 Details of its nominated adviser
Once a company has traded on the AIM for two years, it may apply to be included in
the Official Listed Market without producing listing particulars, although some additional
information will be required with its application.
Debt is usually cheaper than equity, mainly because it represents a lower risk to the
financial institution, and therefore the use of debt finance will, in most circumstances,
reduce the overall cost of capital to the business. However, if there is too much debt
capital, there is the risk that the market value of the company will be adversely
affected. The AIM provides the growing company with the chance to "go public", with
the advantage that it should be much easier to obtain fresh capital as the result of
issues made to the public at large.
At the time of writing, the AIM has 1.139 companies listed, 543 of which have a market
capitalisation of £10 million or below. These firms pay at least £100,000 for their AIM
listing in terms of AIM fees, NA fees and non-executive directors, etc.

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(b) Insurance Companies and Mortgages

As companies grow, this form of financing typically becomes less common. The
institutions involved provide loans secured by the right to take over the building(s) of
the company in the event of default under the terms of the loan agreement. In
common with building societies, some of whom also provide commercial mortgage
facilities, the period of the loan may extend to in the region of 20 years.
Large firms will generally arrange term funding from a bank or merchant bank, or
finance their building requirements through an issue on the market.
(c) Sale and Leaseback of Real Property
Under this financing arrangement, a company will sell its building to an investment
company or other specialist in the field. The purchasing company (lessor) takes an
interest in the freehold land on which the property stands, and the selling company
becomes the lessee who then rents the building which it previously owned.
The main disadvantage of this method is that fewer assets remain to support future
bank borrowing, and the effect of the removal of a significant asset from the balance
sheet may cause an adverse reaction by financial commentators and the market in
general.

C. FINANCE FOR THE MAJOR COMPANY

The trend of internalisation of corporate finance means that the financial manager of the
major or multinational company must become expect in a wide variety of areas. He or she
must also remain up-to-date in a worldwide market in which material change occurs in one
area or another almost every day. Clearly, this is a massive task, and to combat the
problems that result, larger companies have typically created specialist functions, each
reporting to the financial director.
Treasury management is invariably the area concerned with financial management, often on
an international scale.

Treasury Management
There are four key areas to the role of a treasury in a major company.
(a) Working Capital and Liquidity Management
Management of the short-term needs of the organisation will be fundamental. Whilst
individual operating units will often arrange their own working capital needs through
local banks, reports of facilities arranged, level of utilisation, interest and other
charges, etc. will be collated and controlled from the central treasury function. The
treasurer will be actively involved in full liquidity control and this includes all areas of
activity that have an impact on cash flow.
(b) Cash Management
Cash management may be described briefly as an action to achieve optimum use of
the organisation's overall financial resources. The discipline involves:
 Minimising aggregate borrowing needs.
 Minimising interest costs and lending fees.
 Optimising the use of alternative financing methods.
 Maximising return on investments.
 Putting idle credit balances to work.

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 Controlling bank accounts.

 Controlling transmission charges.
 Optimising automated processes for information-gathering and money
movements where this can be cost-justified.
 Managing exposure to financial risk (e.g. exchange rate movements).
 Generating relevant information for management reporting.
Specific problems may arise where the treasurer has to deal with:
 Foreign, quasi-autonomous subsidiaries in other countries
 A vast number of accounts with many different banks
 Multiple foreign currency arrangements
 Subsidiaries with different banking arrangements.
Large corporate organisations employ a variety of skills, techniques and services to
manage these potential pitfalls brought about by growth. Some of the most important
of these are:
(i) Set-off
This is where credit balances on some accounts are netted against debit
balances on other of the company's accounts with the same bank. Interest will
then only accrue on the net overdrawn balance(s).
(ii) Automated Transfers
This achieves the same goal as set-off, but a system is in place to concentrate all
individual account balances into one nominated account using information
technology.
(iii) Centralised Investment Funding
This is a means of controlling a large number of accounts by carrying out
investments (if in net credit) and funding (if the account is net overdrawn). One
nominated account will be used, in effect as a cash reservoir, and this account
will form part of a set-off, or automated transfer, facility.
(iv) Interest Allocation
This is a means of internally allocated interest debits and interest credits for
accounts that are part of a set-off arrangement. The aim is to maintain the
individual accounting autonomy of individual operating units, since each carries a
fair proportion of the financing costs.
(v) Balance Reporting
Using a computer terminal linked to the bank's computer, the treasurer can
obtain up-to-the-minute information about the organisation's bank accounts,
allowing him or her to react in good time to arrange funds transfers.
(vi) Rate Indication Services
Up-to-date information on a range of interest rates and exchange rates can be
obtained through a computer terminal.
(vii) Treasury Workstation
This is a computer package designed to facilitate the compilation of data on
spreadsheets to assist with cash or exposure management. It should improve
the close monitoring and regular updating of forecasts.

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(c) Surplus Funds Management

Ideally, treasurers will employ surplus funds to obtain the best possible returns and with
maximum security. A typical strategy to achieve this goal would include:
 Establishing objectives which follow from the overall objectives of the business.
 A clear definition of acceptable risk versus return established by the board to
define the parameters in which the treasury function can operate.
 Establishing a framework through which to identify surplus funds and plan to
accommodate future needs.
 Ascertaining periods of availability and need from business plans.
 Evaluating courses of action, which may include:
(i) Do nothing as very short-term.
(ii) Invest internally by funds transfer elsewhere in the organisation.
(iii) Invest externally for the term projected for the surplus.
(iv) Simply monitor progress (i.e. wait and see what happens if the outcome is
uncertain or the market is particularly volatile).
In evaluating the alternatives, a variety of factors will need to be taken into
account. These might include:
Risk Return Interest rates
Liquidity Accessibility Complexity
Term Type of rate Minimum/maximum criteria
Cost Taxation Image/policy
Facilities available to assist the large company treasury department include:
 Money market deposits
 Bills
 Equities
 Commercial paper
 Bonds
 Gilts
 Certificates of deposit
(d) Exposure Management
Exposure, or risk, is a continuing feature of life and nowhere more certainly than in
business. Most commonly this will manifest itself in the guise of commercial risk,
such as (for example) buyers' financial failure. Financial stability and future
performance can, of course, be affected by market and economic movements and
these factors also fall within the concept of exposure management.
However, the principle concern will be with exchange rate and interest rate
movements. This concept of exposure is most readily understood by reference to
exchange rate fluctuations. These can potentially give rise to three types of currency
exposure:
 Transaction: exposure arises where a transaction is entered into which requires
the conversion of one currency into another, and there is a time delay factor
between the debt being incurred and the time for settlement.

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 Translation: this occurs where items on the face of the balance sheet need to
be converted from a foreign currency to the home currency to comply with
accounting standards.
 Economic: basically this is any exchange rate risk arising other than as a result
of those mentioned above. Typically it may arise as a result of currency
fluctuations that impact (adversely or otherwise) on sales of goods exported by
the organisation.
Interest rate movements also give rise to risk – something that is sometimes
overlooked in the rapidly growing firm that has limited financial expertise. Clearly,
borrowers are exposed when rates start to rise; investors are exposed when rates fall.

Managing Exchange Rate and Interest Rate Risk

The exposure create by these risks can be managed to a reasonable extent through
hedging, a process of taking any action that protects against adverse movements in
exchange rates or interest rates. Hedging can take several forms, including:
 Do nothing and leave the exposure position uncovered.
 Hedge everything.
 Hedge selectively.
You should remember that movements may profit the organisation. This is where the skill of
the treasurer will be of particular value – the skill of balancing cost with risk, with opportunity,
within the policy laid down by the board.
There are a number of financial instruments to accommodate the treasurer's need to reduce
risk. The most common are as follows.
(a) Interest Rate Techniques and Instruments
 Smoothing
This is the process of creating a balance between fixed and floating rates.
 Interest Rate Swaps
This is an agreement between two parties under which each agrees to pay the
other's interest based on the underlying notional amount (there is no exchange
of the principal sum) and for an agreed period. Different interest base rates
apply, for example, parties may swap fixed-rate LIBOR payments for variable
LIBOR payments.
 Options
The most common options include:
(i) Interest rate guarantee – a short-term option used for single transactions.
(ii) Interest rate cap – this puts a maximum rate on the transaction and can
relate to a number of transactions over several years.
(iii) Interest rate floor – this sets a minimum rate below which interest rates
will not fall and is the converse of the cap.
(iv) Interest rate collar – this establishes both a maximum and a minimum
rate outside which no movements will occur, or (alternatively) within which
rates remain fixed.

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 Financial Futures
These contracts are fixed in terms of rate, delivery period and in amount and
provide an interest rate commitment for a future period that is agreed at the
outset.
 Forward Rate Arrangements (FRAs)
These contracts provide for rates to be fixed in advance for a specific period
commencing at some agreed future date. Unlike futures, which are highly
standardised contracts, FRAs can be tailored to meet individual needs. FRAs
are entirely separate from the principal amount of the loan or deposit, relating
only to the interest element.
 Fixed Forwards
These are agreements to borrow or deposit an agreed amount for a fixed term
commencing from a future date, but with the rate determined at the outset.
 Matching
Here, borrowing and deposits are linked to the same interest base. This provides
a degree of cover and an alternative way of hedging.
(a) Exchange Rate Techniques and Instruments
 Forward Contracts
This is the most common hedge against exchange rate risk and provides a way
of fixing the rate in respect of currency on an agreed future date. The amount
involved will be agreed at the outset.
 Forward Contracts with Option
This is not a pure option contract as the exchange still has to take place.
However, in this type of forward contract, delivery (i.e. the exchange) may take
place at any time between two dates agreed at the outset. This allows the
treasurer some flexibility in trying to select the optimum time to perform his or her
obligations under the contract.
 Currency Options
The buyer has the right, but not the obligation, to buy or sell a specified amount
of currency at a specified rate and within a future period of time (or on a
nominated future date).
 Currency Swaps
These are agreements under which two parties commit to buy specific amounts
of foreign currency from each other, at an agreed rate, and to sell the same back
on an agreed date in the future at the same rate. During the intervening period,
payments are exchanged in respect of the interest payments relating to the
principal sum.
 Matching
This is an alternative to the forward contract where exposure in respect of loans
or receivables is short-term. A currency loan is taken to match the sum(s) due at
maturity of the loan – repayment will be in the same currency as the loan taken
for matching.
 Leading and Lagging
This is the process of accelerating or delaying payments to take advantage of
perceived future fluctuations.

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 Currency Accounts
This can be a good way of avoiding the expense and risks involved in
exchanging currency where there is a two-way flow of funds available.
 Basket Currencies
Because the core or base is made up of several constituent currencies, individual
rate movements will have a less dramatic.

Raising Finance
All types of finance can be broadly defined within two headings: equity and debt. These
can be compared as follows:

Equity Debt

Usually permanent Repayable in due course

Holders receive dividends Interest must be paid
Holders have a stake in the Holders are creditors
business
Increased equity can improve the Increased debt can have an
financial base adverse effect
It is a permanent cost It is a temporary cost
Can be costly and complicated to Usually quick and easy to arrange
arrange

The treasurer will need to take account of many factors when deciding on the most
appropriate form of finance to use. Some of the main headings are listed below:
 Debt v. equity  Purpose  Amount
 Sole or syndicated  Availability  Currency
 Fixed v. floating rate  Maturity  Repayment
 Loan or revolving  Cost  Committed or
uncommitted
 Documentation  Security  Complexity
 Public or private  Exposure  Balance sheet
 PR/image  Timing  Taxation
 Policy  Politics  Alternatives

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D. THE LONDON MONEY MARKET

The London money market in its broadest sense covers a wide range of UK institutions,
among them:
 The Bank of England  Clearing banks
 Merchant banks  Other banks
 Discount houses  The Stock Exchange
 Finance houses  Insurance companies
 Pension funds  Investment trusts
 Unit trusts  Building societies
 Parallel markets

The Stock Exchange is now less of a central market as a result of technology which has
resulted in traders being able to work principally from their offices.
The discount houses represent a particularly important market in Britain as they act as a
buffer between the Bank of England and the clearing banks. By a system of Treasury bills
which are tendered for by the discount houses weekly, the Bank can control to a large extent
the rate prevailing in the domestic banking market, and this in turn impacts on other rates
which are generally available. The discount market is a peculiarity of the UK system and is
not mirrored in the US.
The parallel markets consist of the following:
 Local Authority Market
Generally the maximum term on this market is five years and much of its business is
concerned with very short periods. The short-term local authority market is concerned
with loans on call, overnight, at two, seven and up to 364 plus seven days' notice.
Lending comes mainly from banks and other financial institutions – generally local
authorities can only afford to lend to each other after local taxes have been received.
Transactions in this market tend to be around the £100,000+ bracket. Local authority
securities and loans up to five years will be dealt with in this market.
 Inter-bank Market
This is a very short-term market with the majority of transactions being agreed for
periods of three months or less. Money is often lent overnight, on call or for very short
periods. Dealings on the market are only between banks on an unsecured basis and
sums range from upwards of £250,000. Rates of the previous day's business will be
published in the principal financial papers.
 Certificate of Deposit (CD) Market
First introduced into the UK in 1968, a certificate of deposit is a negotiable instrument
which certifies that a sum of money has been deposited with a bank at a fixed or
floating rate of interest. There is a maturity date on the certificate stating when the
deposit will be paid by the issuing bank.
Certificates must be issued for periods of between three months and five years and in
multiples of £10,000, with a minimum of £50,000 and a maximum of £500,000 per
certificate. (There have been rare issues of £1 million in the past.) The market is
available to banks, discount houses, building societies and a few non-financial
companies.

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Certificates are issued at par and quoted at an interest rate on maturity – they may be
bought and sold in the same way as securities on the Stock Exchange.
 Finance House Market
This market is similar to the inter-bank market but between finance houses. Deposits
will be for similar periods also.
 Inter-company Market
Companies are able to lend to each other, rather than through a third-party bank. The
market has few controls and relies heavily on brokers to match borrowers with lenders.
This market has grown through the recession as, we assume, companies desire to
save on bank-related costs.
 Eurocurrency Market
Eurocurrency transactions apply to any transactions undertaken in a currency outside
the country of origin of the particular currency concerned. This market started as a
dollar market. On the short-term inter-bank Eurocurrency market, transactions may
take place between banks on an unsecured basis from overnight to five years'
duration. Most transactions are for six months or less and transactions of over £1
million are common.
Certificates of deposits in dollars, etc. have become important negotiable instruments
in the currency deposit markets. These are issued for periods of three months to over
five years, with minimum denominations of $25,000. Generally, the secondary market
for dollar CDs is confined to CDs issued by London banks in the UK.
 Foreign Exchange Market
This is a market frequently publicised in the national media. It is a wholesale market
run through electronic systems linking brokers and the main banks in London and the
main financial centres. Deals usually take only seconds and will be confirmed in
writing.
The market's general business is to enable companies and others who trade to cover
their deals from the time goods are delivered, to protect them from potentially volatile
exchange rate fluctuations. Floating rates make life harder for speculators, since
countries no longer choose to prop up their currencies in the way that has been seen in
earlier times.
There are two markets, spot and forward. In the former a deal is struck and deliveries
made in two days' time. Dealings in the latter involve delivery on any business day,
after two days, often ranging for periods up to one year forward. Dealing is exclusively
through banks.

E. THE COST OF FINANCE

In this second part of the study unit we will look at how the financial manager will review the
cost of the various types of funds that make up his or her company's capital. In a listed
company, the financial manager will need to know this in order for him or her to be able to
satisfy the needs of investors, for if they are not satisfied they may cease to invest. For
example, if the return on a company's ordinary shares is 8%, whilst a building society deposit
will yield 10%, it is unlikely that the shares will seem very attractive (unless there is a real
prospect of capital growth in the short term).
In all businesses, the managers should be aware of the cost of capital that is available to
them. If they are not, they will be unable to make considered decisions regarding new

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projects, since they will be unable to determine whether the project will generate a sufficient
return on the funds needed to support it.
We will firstly consider the cost of the different types of funds such as equity, retained
earnings, preference shares and debit capital, before then going on to look at the
calculations behind the Weighted Average Cost of Capital (WACC), the assessment of the
cost of internally generated funds and other factors which the financial manager will need to
take into account in managing share prices.

F. COST OF EQUITY
The financial manager must take account of the expectations of the shareholders and the
effect that changes in earnings and dividends may have on the share price. There are
management tools available to him or her in the form of financial models to help with the
appraisal.

Dividend Valuation Model

In order to calculate the cost of equity the dividend valuation model is used. The formula
applied is expressed as:
De
Ke 
Se
where: Ke = cost of equity
De = current dividend payable
Se = current share price (ex div)
For example, if the current dividend payable is 25p and the market value of each share is £2,
then the cost of equity is:
25
 0.125  12 21 %
200
The assumptions used in this model are as follows:
 The level of dividends is expected to remain constant in the future.
 Taxation rates applying to different classes of shareholders are ignored.
 The costs of any share issue are ignored.
 All investors receive the same, perfect level of information.
 The cost of capital to the company remains unaltered by any new issue of shares. In
other words, any project undertaken utilising the funds from a share issue is no more
and no less risky than any other project in which the company is currently involved.

Dividend Growth Model

Where it is expected that dividends will not remain the same in future but will grow at a
constant rate, the dividend growth model can be applied. The formula is expressed as:
De(1 + g)
Ke  g
Se
where: g = the expected annual rate of growth.

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Using our previous example, if the rate of growth is expected to be 5% pa, the cost of equity
would be:
0.25(1 + 0.05)
Ke =  0.05
2.00
= 0.1312 + 0.05
= 0.1812 or approximately 18%
The biggest problem in applying this model is in deciding the level of growth that will be
sustained in future years. The most usual approach is to take several years' historical data
and then attempt to extrapolate forward. Using our example again, we will assume that the
past dividends have been:
Dividend per
Share
Year 1 0.26
Year 2 0.27
Year 3 0.28
Year 4 0.32
We can now find the average rate of growth by using the following calculation:

Latest dividend
1 g  3
Earliest dividend
Note: here we are using the cube root because there are three years of growth. Had there
been five years' data (from which we could project four years' growth), we would have used
the fourth root and so on.
0.32
1+ g  3
0.26
1 + g = 1.0717
so, g = 0.0717, or 7.17% (approximately 7%)
This level of growth can be incorporated into the dividend growth model as usual. In the
case below, we are assuming shares with a market value of £2.50.
0.32(1.07)
Ke =  0.072
2.5
= 0.137 + 0.072 = 20.9%

Share Issue Costs

Share issue costs can be high, and where it is necessary for the financial manager to take
account of them, he or she can best do this by deducting costs from the value per share.
The valuation formula would then be affected as follows.
We will assume for this example that the shares have a value of £2, the dividend is 25p and
the issue costs per share are 5p:
De
Ke 
(Se  I)
where: I is the cost of issue.

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 Sources and Costs of Finance 243

0.25
Ke   12.8%
(2  0.05)

Taxation
These models ignore tax considerations. They are gross dividends paid out from the
company's point of view. The investor will receive his or her dividend under the deduction
of tax and will account for higher rates of tax separately. The value of the dividend to the
investor will therefore be determined by the recipient's current tax rates.
A dividend of 25p will be worth:
20p at 20% tax; 19p at 24%; 15p at 40% tax

Retained Earnings
Retained earnings will also have an effect because, when left in the business rather than
being distributed, they should achieve higher returns in the future to offset the lack of current
dividends. Thus shareholder's expectations of increasing future dividends, rather than
constant payments, may persuade them to accept initial lower dividends.

G. COST OF PREFERENCE SHARES

Preference shares carry a fixed dividend which is payable at the discretion of the company's
management. Their popularity has declined in recent years, mainly because interest payable
on debentures is allowable for tax relief whilst the preference dividend is not. The formula
for calculating the cost of preference shares is:
Dp
Kp 
Sp
where: Kp = cost of preference shares
Dp = fixed dividend based on nominal value
Sp = market price of preference shares
To clarify this we will take as an example a company whose 8% preference shares have a
nominal value of £1 and a market price of 80p. The cost of the preference shares would
therefore be:
8
Kp   10%
80

H. COST OF DEBT CAPITAL

Debentures issued by a company in the form of debt capital can be either redeemable or
irredeemable. Where they are irredeemable, the formula for calculating the cost is:
I
Kd 
Sd
where: Kd = cost of debt capital
I = annual interest payment
Sd = current market price of debt capital

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The real cost of debt capital is, of course, lower than its nominal rate because the interest
can be offset against taxation. The formula therefore becomes:
I(1  t)
Kd 
Sd
where: t is the rate of corporation tax applicable.
Example
If a company has £10,000 worth of 8% debentures in issue with a current market price of
£92 per £100 of nominal value and a corporation tax rate of 33%, the cost of debt capital
would be:
800(1 0.33)
Kd =
9,200
= 0.0583 = 5.83% *
* The higher the rate of corporation tax payable by the company, the lower will be the after-
tax cost of debt capital. For example at 35% corporation tax, the cost will fall to 5.65%.
Bearing in mind the impact of taxation, the advantages of issuing debt capital rather than
preference shares can be shown by calculating the cost of preference shares with the same
coupon rate and market value as the debentures. Of course, no allowance for taxation is
made in the calculation as shown below:
8
Kp   0.0870  8.7%
92
Clearly, from this you can immediately see that the cost of debt capital is much lower
because of the availability of tax relief. Naturally this only applies if the business has taxable
profits from which to deduct its interest payments. Where the business has generated a
taxable loss, the interest will increase that loss for carry-forward to be offset against future
taxable profits in later years, and the immediate benefit of tax relief will be lost. (This will be
covered in more detail in the taxation section of your course.)
In the case of irredeemable capital, it will be possible to calculate the cost to the date of
redemption by finding the internal rate of return (IRR). This will involve calculating all the
necessary cash flows and generally the assumption will be made that all payments and
receipts are made at the end of a year. Wherever possible the ex-interest values should be
used, so if the cum-interest value is quoted and an interest payment is due shortly, we
should deduct the interest payment from the market price.

I. WEIGHTED AVERAGE COST OF CAPITAL (WACC)

Problems often occur with the use of each of these ways of calculating the different costs of
the various types of capital when they do not relate specifically to one particular project.
Additionally, it would be wrong simply to calculate the cost of debt capital and then to apply it
to the project for which the finance was raised. This is because, without the equity capital,
there could be no borrowings.
Generally therefore, it is considered prudent to calculate a cost of capital that is weighted by
the proportion of the different forms of capital employed within the business. The financial
manager will therefore need to ensure that any project which is under consideration will
produce a return that is positive in terms of the business as a whole and not just in terms of
an issue of capital made to finance it.

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There are two approaches to calculating the WACC and we will take a look at each in turn.
One method is based on book values and the other on market values.
(a) Using Book Values in the Proportions Appearing in the Company's Accounts

Weighting Cost Weighted Cost

Ordinary shares 60% 12% 7.2%
Debentures 40% 8% 3.2%
WACC 10.4%

(b) Using Market Values

Number Price Market Value Cost Weighted Market

Value
Ordinary shares 6,000 2.50 15,000 12% 1,800
Debentures 4,000 1.50 6,000 8% 480
21,000 2,280

The WACC is then calculated as:

2,280
 10.86%
21,000
Both methods produce the historic WACC and you should remember that raising fresh
capital could well alter the weighting and therefore the cost of capital.

J. COST OF INTERNALLY GENERATED FUNDS

Internally generated funds typically represent a round 60% of all sources of capital available
to a business. The principal benefit of using internal funds, as you will no doubt realise, is
derived from the fact that there are no formalities to their acquisition. However, it will often
be difficult to generate the optimum amount at exactly the time the business needs the
additional funding.
By the very nature of the way internally generated funds arrive in the company, it is easy to
make the mistake of assuming that they are free of cost. This is not the case, although the
formal costs of equity issues and so forth, which involve issuing houses, brokers, and so on,
will be avoided.
Retained earnings in any form (whether as provisions, retentions, etc.) belong to the
shareholders and, in order to justify their retention, the company must be able to earn a
return in excess of that which the shareholders could earn before tax had they been
distributed to them.
This is best illustrated by way of an example, and to do this, a comparison of two companies
is given below.

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246 Sources and Costs of Finance

Example
Company X pays out most of its earnings, whereas Company Y retains a high percentage.

Company X Company Y
£ £ £ £

Year 1 Profits 200,000 Profits 200,000

less Dividend 160,000 less Dividend 20,000
Balance c/f 40,000 Balance c/f 180,000

Year 2 Capital needs of both companies are an additional £200,000. X obtains equity of
£160,000 and Y equity of £20,000. Assume dividends of 10% on new capital.

Profits (Year 2) 200,000 Profits (Year 2) 200,000

less Dividends: less Dividends:
on existing capital 160,000 on existing capital 20,000
on new capital 16,000 176,000 on new capital 2,000 22,000
Balance c/f 24,000 Balance c/f 178,000

Year 3 Suppose in Year 3 profits fell sharply to £100,000 for each company. The following
would be the result:

Profits 100,000 Profits 100,000

Dividend paid Dividend paid
(i.e. halved) 88,000 (doubled) 44,000
Balance c/f 12,000 Balance c/f 56,000

What do these figures mean? That Y is more efficient than X? No, because profits each
year have been the same, the only difference being that Y obtains large amounts of cost-free
capital, whereas X is paying out most of its profits as it has to pay for its capital in the form of
a dividend.
Is Y able to weather the storm better than X? Yes, because it has a large balance, made
possible by its low pay-out ratio. Sooner or later the shareholders of Company Y will realise
that they are losing out, to the benefit of the company itself.
From this two important principles emerge:
 All capital has a cost.
 Even retained profits should carry a cost (an implied or imputed cost).
This implied cost is often referred to as an opportunity cost concept related to the cost of
retentions. Where the company is unable to meet that rate from its operations, then it would
appear to have an obligation to distribute its retentions to its shareholders, allowing them to
obtain better returns on their investments elsewhere.
An alternative approach is offered by G.D. Quirin in The Capital Investment Decision, where
he suggests that the change in share price following the retention of profits must equal the
capitalised value of the potential dividend increase which the shareholder has forgone in
order for the retentions to have been made. By observing share price movements following
the retention of profits, the rate of share price change can be used to calculate the
capitalisation (i.e. the cost) rate attached to the retention by the market.

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The underlying problem of quantifying human behaviour is again present in this hypothesis
and therefore limits this method. For this reason, perhaps the opportunity cost method is
preferable. Shareholder behaviour continues to be an area for future research in the
meantime.

K. MANAGEMENT OF FACTORS AFFECTING SHARE

PRICES
A number of aspects of financial management expertise revolve around the determination of
future share prices and the behaviour of shareholders as far as it affects share price.
The dominant financial objective in a commercially run business will be the maximisation of
the wealth of the shareholders. Their wealth is dependent firstly upon dividends and
secondly upon capital growth, in the longer term reflected in upward movement in share
prices. Management of the share price, so far as possible, becomes an important aspect of
the work of the financial manager.
It is appropriate, therefore, for us to consider this from another perspective now. So far in
this study unit we have talked about the cost of funds in the business. This cannot be the
financial manager's only consideration. He or she must try to anticipate shareholders'
reaction to financing decisions. The typical shareholder wishes to see the company correctly
structured with adequate minimum-cost capital effectively utilised. Dividends and capital
growth are two of the principal factors to affect share prices, but the company will need to
work hard on its public relations in order to encourage investors to buy, and then to hold on
to, shares in the business.

Relationships with Shareholders

It is the shareholders who make the market in a company's shares and it is they who
ultimately determine the market price. Many companies issue only one detailed
communication to their shareholders every year, that being the annual report and accounts.
This usually includes a prepaid card inviting the shareholder to appoint one of the directors
as his or her proxy to vote at the forthcoming Annual General Meeting (AGM). A problem
arises because many shareholders may be unable to interpret the accounts fully, and the
proxy card may be taken by them to be a suggestion that they should not bother to attend
the AGM anyway.
Companies are beginning to recognise this shortcoming and increasing numbers are
improving their relationships in their attempt to retain their shareholders' confidence. They
may send shareholders a copy of the company's in-house magazine, or allow them
privileged rights to acquire the company's goods or services. They personalise their
communications, keeping shareholders informed of planned developments, and in many
cases a gradual improvement is taking place in the format and content of the published
accounts. As well as the statutory information, companies are incorporating graphs and bar
charts and other visual aids, to assist and improve the shareholders' level of comprehension.
Some companies circularise shareholders to gain a clearer picture of their nature and of their
investment ambitions and, where appropriate, they may place national advertisements aimed
at emphasising the strengths and solidarity of the company.
Direct contact with the shareholders may also be supplemented by indirect contact via the
media with which many shareholders will be familiar, such as the Investors' Chronicle, Stock
Exchange publications, stockbrokers' circulars to clients and, perhaps most important of all,
the financial sections of the press.

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248 Sources and Costs of Finance

Assessment of Risk in the Debt versus Equity Decision

(a) Effect on Market Value
The direct cost of borrowing is represented by the interest charges and fees which are
applied by the lender. In common with debenture interest, such charges will generally
be deductible for tax purposes, and therefore the after-tax cost of borrowing will usually
be less than the gross cost. Although the cost of borrowing will by and large appear
cheaper than equity, there is a risk to the company and the financial manager should
take this into account when comparing the costs of borrowing. To demonstrate this an
example is given below.
Example
A company has a current profit before interest and tax (PBIT) of £5 million pa and
current interest payable of £1.7 million. The company's issued share capital comprises
£10 million in ordinary shares and the earnings per share (EPS) are 5p.
The firm needs to invest £7.5 million of new capital and it expects to increase its PBIT
by £1.25 million pa as a result. The alternatives under consideration by the directors
are as follows:
 To issue 3.75 million shares at 200p, representing a discount on the current market
price of 240p.
 To borrow £7.7 million on 10-year debentures at 12% annual interest
Solution
One approach to decide on the better route would be to attempt to predict the effect on
the market value of the ordinary shares. The company would then elect for the
opportunity which gives the best return to shareholders (remember the dominant
objective of financial management). The following table shows the effect on the
earnings per share:

Current Projected Equity Projected Debt

£m £m £m
PBIT 5.00 6.25 6.25
Interest payable (1.70) (1.70) (2.60)
Profit before tax 3.30 4.55 3.65
Tax at 33% (1.09) (1.50) (1.20)
Profit after tax 2.21 3.05 2.45
Issued ordinary shares 10m 13.75m 10m
Earnings per share 22.10p 22.18p 24.50p

From this we can see that the market value of the shares will be improved by choosing
to raise the debt capital, on the assumption that the PBIT really does increase by £1.25
million.
However, the financial manager should always remember that debt is a riskier route
than equity. This is because:
 Debt payments cannot be deferred, whereas dividends to shareholders can, should
trading estimates fail to materialise.
 Use of debt capital could result in a lower price/earnings ratio than an equity issue.

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In our example the financial gearing ratio would increase and the interest cover will fall
from the present 2.94 to 2.4.
Interest cover should be calculated as the number of times the interest payable can be
divided into the PBIT figure. Unequivocally, the higher the number of times, the better
the result and the less risk will be attached to the decision.
A low figure, generally less than three times cover (when interest rates themselves are
low), indicates that the company should be cautious regarding further borrowings if
these are likely to be sensitive to adverse (upward) movements in interest rates,
because its ability to service the necessary payments may be in doubt.
(b) Breakeven Profit Before Interest and Tax
The financial manager may choose to compute the breakeven PBIT at which the
earnings per share will be the same for the use of either equity or debt. This is done
as follows:
Debt Equity
67%( y  2.60) 67%( y  1.70 )
=
10 13.75
Note: 67% is used to represent the position net of tax at 33%, and y represents the
breakeven PBIT.
13.75(y – 2.60) = 10(y – 1.70)
13.75y – 35.75= 10y – 17
3.75y = 18.75
so, y = 5.00
This shows us that the breakeven PBIT in our example is £5 million. Earnings per
share will be greater using debt above this level, but below it equity should be
favoured. In practice, more than one source of financing may be used, and it will be
important for the financial manager to consider the risks and rewards of the
alternatives.
It is quite common for a company to lease a large part of its expenditure on capital
items and to use equity for its increased working capital needs, although due to the
costs involved, a quoted company will be unlikely to consider issuing less than
£250,000 in new shares to be worthwhile. Whilst the calculations demonstrated in this
study unit will be simpler to apply to quoted companies (because of the ease with
which share prices can be determined), the underlying principles will be appropriate to
all businesses seeking to increase the capital available for investment.

L. FACTORS DETERMINING CAPITAL STRUCTURE

Ability of the Earnings to Support the Structure
When the assets to be financed cost £100 and the earnings generated by them are £10,
then such a level of earnings could only service the £100 if the return expected by the
ordinary shareholders for a class of risk of this type was 10%. To achieve this, all the
earnings would have to be paid out as dividends.
If the dividend required was, say, 12%, then an alternative structure would be needed to
overcome the problem that the earnings were only £10. Examples of two alternatives are
given below (in both cases we will continue to use our £100 basis).

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Capital Earnings Required

£ £
Ordinary shares 50 Ordinary shares at 12% 6
Debentures 50 Debentures at 8% 4
Capital 100 Earnings 10

Or we could have:

Capital Earnings Required

£ £
Ordinary shares 40 Ordinary shares at 12% 4.8
Preference shares 30 Preference shares at 7% 2.1
Debentures 30 Debentures at 8% 2.4
Capital 100 Earnings 9.3
Available for reserves 0.7
10.0

Simple though this example is, it should clarify in your mind how the financial manager can
combine securities to arrive at the optimum capital structure for his or her company. As we
can see, by using less risky fixed-interest capital, it should be possible to reduce the
demands on equity amounts. In other words, the earnings expectation can be geared
down.
The earnings of the capital, the company's policy in paying dividends or distributing retained
earnings, and the return required by the providers of capital will all influence the pattern of
finance that the business is able to raise. In turn the financial manager will take account of
present and predicted future interest rates in his or her assessment of the most suitable
security to be issued.

Attitudes of Investors
Potential suppliers of capital or equity will take account of other factors in addition to the rate
of return offered by the company.
Providers of debt capital will consider the security offered and the ability of the business to
meet its interest payments (i.e. the interest cover). In the first of our two examples above,
debenture interest is covered 2½ times by the earnings of 10%. Typically an unsecured
lender would look for cover of between three and five times and we can therefore assume
that security would be required in this case.
Providers of equity capital must allow all other forms of capital to be serviced before their
dividend can be paid. They will look closely at the debt holder's stake as the volume of debt
will significantly affect ordinary dividends in times when earnings fall.

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Consider the following figures, which assume total pay-out and no retention. Taxation has
been ignored:

Company High Company Low

Ordinary shares 1,000 9,000

8% Debentures 9,000 1,000
Capital 10,000 10,000
Year 1:
Earnings 1,500 1,500
Debenture interest 720 80
Available for dividend 780 1,420
Dividend % 78% 15.8%
Year 2:
Earnings 720 720
Debenture interest 720 80
Available for dividend NIL 640
Dividend % NIL 7.1%

Debenture interest is, of course, a fixed charge, and the effect of having to service this
payment when earnings fall is clearly demonstrated. Ordinary shareholders will only be
entitled to their dividend after this fixed charge has been met. In Year 1 the earnings are
high and the shareholders in the highly-geared company obtain a higher return than those in
the low-geared business. The reverse position is shown when earnings are low, and in our
example the shareholders in the highly-geared company receive nothing.
The effect of the mixture of debt and equity effectively gears up the effect of fluctuating
profits and will generally influence the decision of an ordinary shareholder on whether or not
to invest. Where gearing is high, dividends can be expected to fluctuate in response to profit
fluctuations and this will impact on share prices in due course.
This reaffirms that profit maximisation does not always operate in the best interests of the
shareholders' future wealth. An influx of debt capital may help to generate additional profit,
but there will be a risk that it will disturb the financial gearing ratio, with the result that the
market will then demand a higher return in order to compensate for what it sees as
increased risk. This may result in the share prices falling and the reduction of the
shareholders' wealth in capital gains terms, without a significant increase in future dividend
to compensate for the fall.
Concepts of profit maximisation and shareholder wealth need to be set against a relative
time background. They should not be viewed as simple, absolute requirements. In
planning the mix of debt and equity capital, the financial manager must take account of the
risk attitude of existing and potential investors.

Cost of Capital
As we have already seen, conventionally the cost of capital will be calculated on a weighted
average basis. One of the fundamental objectives of financial management is to seek to
provide adequate capital for the business requirements at a minimum possible cost. Since

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debt capital is cheaper than equity capital, the introduction of debt into the total mix will have
the effect of reducing the overall cost of capital.
Lenders (debt capital providers) will feel happier if someone has already taken some risk
(evidenced by the issue of equities) to insulate them from the effects of future trading
problems. Remember that, when debt capital is introduced, not only does gearing increase,
but interest cover falls. The prudent debt capital provider will take this into account in
assessing the investment and will expect a higher return in return for the increased risk
factor that has been introduced.
Debt capital providers do not have voting rights in the affairs of the company, and if a
provider feels he or she is supplying more than a fair share in proportion to the equity
investors, he or she will expect a return commensurate with participation and which is in
excess of that available to the ordinary shareholders. Of course, in these circumstances the
provider may not agree to participate at all.
As with other factors which the financial manager must take into account, it is balance that
will be important. The introduction of some debt capital will bring about a reduction in the
weighted average cost of capital. This reduction will remain for as long as the debt and the
equity holders agree to accept the gearing structure. However, as gearing increases, the
respective providers of capital will begin to expect higher returns to compensate for
additional risk, and this will then manifest itself in an increase in the weighted average cost of
capital.
In every business there will be an optimum mix of equity and debt capital at which the
weighted average cost of capital will be minimised, and this can be demonstrated
diagrammatically as in
Figure 9.1:

Figure 9.1

The position shown in Figure 9.1 represents the generally accepted traditional theory.
However, we should bear in mind that, as with determining the cost of equity capital, this is
another topic where basic theory is far from conclusive. There are various claims and
counter-claims and only further research will eventually clarify the best approach. As with
other problems that revolve around shareholder behaviour, the greatest difficulty arises
because the investor is not just one person whose attitudes and reactions can be predicted
fairly accurately.

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Questions of security may often arise in the process of deciding on the best way to generate
additional funding for the business. Banks will often seek security by way of a fixed or
floating charge over the assets of the business. Providers of leasing or hire-purchase
facilities may be content to rely on their asset as security.

M. ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF THE

PRINCIPAL FINANCIAL ALTERNATIVES
The principal advantages of the major financial instruments are summarised on the following
tables.

Overdraft

Advantages Disadvantages

Easy to arrange and relatively cheap. Security may be required.

Useful as a method of easing cash flow Can be withdrawn by the bank at any
strains during peak periods. time or may not be renewed when it is
required in future.
Interest charges are only incurred whilst Banks may require management
the facility is overdrawn and only the figures at regular intervals in order to
exact amount of funding required is monitor progress.
utilised.

Loan

Advantages Disadvantages

Can be structured so that repayments Security will generally be required which

can be met out of future income adds to the initial costs and puts the
deriving from a project. business at a degree of risk.
Cannot technically be withdrawn as Management figures may be required at
long as the borrower honours all of the regular intervals.
terms of the facility.
Repayments can be structured to meet An agreed sum of money is lent and
the needs of the business. this may be more than is actually
needed at the time.
Can be expensive for a small company.

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Hire Purchase

Advantages Disadvantages

The period can generally match the life

of the asset.
There are usually no setting-up costs. Interest rates may be higher than those
of a bank (but this may be outweighed
by the absence of fees).
Repayments can be structured to suit
the cash flow of the business.
Only the actual amount of cash is
advanced – there are no surpluses on
which charges accrue.
The facility cannot be withdrawn whilst
the customer honours his or her
commitments under the contract.
Additional security is often not required.

Leasing

Advantages Disadvantages

Can be on-balance-sheet (the finance In an operating lease, the benefit of any

lease) or off-balance-sheet – for longer- residual value in the asset is lost to the
life assets (the operating lease). lessor.
The period can generally match the life
of the asset.
There are usually no setting-up costs. Costs may be higher than those of a
bank (but this may be outweighed by
the absence of fees).
Repayments can be structured to suit Capital allowances are lost to the lessor
the cash flow of the business. (owner) but the rentals will usually be
tax-deductible.
Only the actual amount of cash is
advanced – there are no surpluses on
which charges accrue.
Additional security is often not required.
The facility cannot be withdrawn whilst Early settlement of the facility is usually
the customer honours his or her expensive.
commitments.

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Debentures

Advantages Disadvantages

Cash can be raised for long periods. Money cannot usually be repaid if the
project generates cash more quickly
than envisaged.
Large sums can be secured against It may not be possible to arrange an
specific assets, leaving other assets extension at the redemption date if the
free for use as security for other cash flow of the business is poor.
facilities.
A high ratio of borrowing in this form
may deter investors when they compare
fixed-interest securities with equity
capital.

Equity Capital

Advantages Disadvantages

Can be a cheaper form of raising capital A degree of control over the business
and dividends will only have to be paid will be lost.
when the business can afford it.
Capital is raised in the long term. Possibility of takeover is increased
when the shares are widely held.
Increasing the equity capital should
increase the ability of the company to
borrow in the market.

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Study Unit 10
Financial Reconstruction

Contents Page

Introduction 258

A. Redemption of Shares 258

B. Accounting Treatment 259

C. Example of Redemption of Preference Shares 259

D. Example of Redemption of Ordinary Shares 262

E. Redemption of Debentures 265

Redemption by Means of a Sinking Fund – Accounting Treatment 265
Example of Redemption of Debentures 266

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INTRODUCTION
Within the UK companies are legally permitted to buy-in their own shares. This may not be
the case in other countries. One key reason for a company to wish to buy-in its own shares
stems from the desire of management to improve earnings per share, a financial ratio in
which investors are becoming increasingly interested. Buy-in opportunities will be
considered against financial performance, share price and capital structure. For instance, a
company with a low level of gearing may find it advantageous to trade on borrowed cash
which will improve the P/E ratio. A further option may be to provide a cash realisation for a
large shareholding of a director.
Repurchases, or buy-ins, of shares may be made by UK companies out of their distributable
profits or out of the proceeds of a new issue of shares made especially for the purpose,
provided that they are authorised to do so in the company's Articles of Association. A
company may not, however, purchase its own shares:
 Where, as a result of the transaction, there would no longer be any member of the
company holding other than redeemable shares.
 Unless they are fully paid and the terms of the purchase provide for payment on
purchase.
From a tax point of view, the share buy-in is a partial distribution, and a partial return of
prescribed capital.
The change in the capital base will cause management to rethink its investment decisions,
gearing, interest cover, earnings, etc. This is particularly important as the financial
institutions focus their attention more towards income and gearing as an indicator of financial
risk.

A. REDEMPTION OF SHARES
The issued share capital of companies, like the fixed capital of partners, should be regarded
as a permanent fund in the business. However, the Companies Act 1948 allowed the issue
of preference shares which are redeemable. The Companies Act 1981 (now the CA 1985)
gave greater flexibility, allowing a company, if authorised by its Articles, to issue redeemable
shares of any class. The Articles must specify the terms of redemption, i.e. the time and the
price to be paid. Preference shares are used in the illustration that follows. The principles
are the same for redeemable ordinary shares.
Public companies may only redeem or purchase their own shares out of distributable profits,
or out of the proceeds of an issue of new shares made expressly for the purpose. Private
companies may redeem or purchase their own shares out of capital, but only to the extent
that the purchase price exceeds available distributable profits and the proceeds of a new
share issue.
Where shares are not redeemed wholly out of the proceeds of a new issue of shares, in
order that the capital of the company is not depleted, a sum is required to be transferred to a
capital redemption reserve (CRR), equal to the difference between the nominal value of the
shares redeemed and the aggregate proceeds of any new shares issued. The capital
redemption reserve cannot be used to pay a dividend to shareholders, and its only use is to
make a bonus issue of shares to the existing shareholders. The purpose of this is again to
prevent a reduction of capital.
Note that any premium payable by the company on redemption of shares must be provided
in all cases out of the share premium account, if one exists, or out of profits available for
appropriation (payment of a dividend), i.e. the premium cannot be provided out of the

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proceeds of a new issue of shares, neither can it be carried forward in the balance sheet and
written off out of future profits.

B. ACCOUNTING TREATMENT
The accounting entries necessary to redeem preference shares are set out below by way of
a series of steps:

Description Accounts
Debited Credited

1. Making a bonus issue of shares General reserve Bonus account

Bonus account Share capital account
or double entry direct
General reserve Share capital account

2. Making a fresh issue – nominal value Cash Share capital account

3. Redemption of preference shares General reserve or Capital redemption

otherwise than out of proceeds of freshProfit and loss account reserve (CRR)
issue of shares

4. Upon commencing redemption of Preference share Preference share

preference shares – nominal value of capital account redemption account
shares to be redeemed (a temporary ledger
a/c opened just for
purposes of the
redemption)

5. Upon repaying shareholders (full Preference share Cash

sum due including any premium on redemption account Deleted:
redemption)

6. Balance on preference share Share premium Preference share

redemption account, being premium account and/or profit redemption account
and loss account

C. EXAMPLE OF REDEMPTION OF PREFERENCE SHARES

A company's share capital comprises:

Authorised Called Up
£ £
Ordinary shares 100,000 50,000
Preference shares 10% redeemable 50,000 50,000
150,000 100,000

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In addition, the balance on the share premium account is £750 and on the profit and loss
account £42,500.
The preference shares are redeemable at a premium of 2% at any time during the year
ended 31 October, and the following transactions took place:
31 March: 25,000 of the preference shares were redeemed
31 October: 20,000 ordinary shares were issued at a premium of 1p per share
31 October: The balance of the preference shares was redeemed
The ledger accounts to record the above transactions and the balance sheet extract at 31
October, will be as follows:

ORDINARY SHARE CAPITAL ACCOUNT

£ £
1 Nov Balance b/f 50,000
Cash 20,000

PREFERENCE SHARE CAPITAL ACCOUNT

£ £
31 Mar Redemption a/c 25,000 1 Nov Balance b/f 50,000
31 Oct Redemption a/c 25,000
50,000 50,000

SHARE PREMIUM ACCOUNT

£ £
31 Mar Preference share 1 Nov Balance b/f 750
redemption a/c 500 Cash 200
31 Oct Preference share
redemption a/c 450
950 950

CAPITAL REDEMPTION RESERVE

£ £
31 Mar Profit and loss a/c 25,000
31 Oct Profit and loss a/c 4,800
29,800

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PROFIT AND LOSS ACCOUNT

£ £
31 Mar CRR 25,000 1 Nov Balance b/f 42,500
31 Oct CRR 4,800
Preference share
redemption a/c 50
Balance c/d 12,650
42,500 42,500
Balance b/f 12,650

NB This account is shown in this form for simplicity of explanation.

PREFERENCE SHARE REDEMPTION ACCOUNT

£ £
31 Mar Cash 25,500 31 Mar Preference share 25,000
capital
Share premium a/c 500
25,500 25,500
31 Oct Cash 25,500 31 Oct Preference share 25,000
capital
Share premium a/c 450
Profit and loss a/c 50
25,500 25,500

Workings
CRR Transfers

Date Preference Shares New Issue of Shares CRR Transfer

Redeemed (Nominal) (Aggregate Proceeds)
31 Mar 25,000 – 25,000
31 Oct 25,000 20,200 4,800
50,000 20,200 29,800

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Balance Sheet (extract at 31 October)

£ £
Share Capital and Reserves
Called-up share capital 70,000
CRR 29,800
Profit and loss account 12,650 42,450
112,450

Authorised capital would be shown by way of a balance sheet note.

D. EXAMPLE OF REDEMPTION OF ORDINARY SHARES

The balance sheet of Mutter Vater plc at 31 December Year 1 showed the following extract:

£
Capital and Reserves
Authorised ordinary share capital (£1 each) 200,000 (by way of note)

Called-up ordinary share capital 80,000

7% redeemable ordinary shares at 50p each 60,000
Share premium account (arising on issue of 7%
redeemable ordinary shares) 2,000
General reserve 186,000

During Year 2 the following transactions took place:

1 March: (1) The redeemable shares were all redeemed at a premium of 20p per share.
(2) 20,000 £1 8% debentures were issued at 95, to help pay for the
redemption. (95 means at a discount of 5%.)
(3) 40,000 ordinary shares were issued at an issue price of £1.40 to assist in
paying for the redemption.
1 July: A bonus issue of one for every four ordinary shares held was made using the
balance on the capital redemption reserve and general reserve.
The relevant ledger account entries (excluding cash) and the final balance sheet extract will
be as follows:

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Mutter Vater plc

ORDINARY SHARE CAPITAL ACCOUNT

Year 2 £ Year 2 £
1 July Balance c/d 150,000 1 Mar Balance b/f 80,000
Application and
allotment account 40,000
1 July 1 for 4 Bonus issue:
CRR 4,000
General reserve 26,000
150,000 150,000

7% REDEEMABLE ORDINARY SHARES ACCOUNT

Year 2 £ Year 2 £
1 Mar Redemption of ordinary
shares 60,000 1 Mar Balance b/f 60,000

SHARE PREMIUM ACCOUNT

Year 2 £ Year 2 £
1 Mar Redemption of ordinary 1 Mar Balance b/f 2,000
shares a/c 2,000 Application and
Debenture discount 1,000 allotment account 16,000
Balance c/d 15,000
18,000 18,000

8% £1 DEBENTURE ACCOUNT
Year 2 £ Year 2 £
1 Mar Balance c/d 20,000 1 Mar Cash 19,000
Debenture discount 1,000
20,000 20,000

DEBENTURE DISCOUNT ACCOUNT

Year 2 £ Year 2 £
1 Mar 8% Debentures 1,000 1 Mar Share premium 1,000
account

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REDEMPTION OF ORDINARY SHARES ACCOUNT

Year 2 £ Year 2 £
1 Mar Cash 84,000 1 Mar Ordinary shares 60,000
Premium on
redemption:
Share premium 2,000
General reserve 22,000
84,000 84,000

GENERAL RESERVE
Year 2 £ Year 2 £
1 Mar Redemption of equity 1 Mar Balance b/f 186,000
shares 22,000
CRR 4,000
1 July Ordinary share capital 26,000
Balance c/d 134,000
186,000 186,000

CAPITAL REDEMPTION RESERVE

Year 2 £ Year 2 £
1 July Ordinary share capital 4,000 1 Mar General reserve 4,000

Extract from Balance Sheet as at 1 July Year 3

£ £
Creditors: Amounts falling due after more than one year
8% £1 Debentures 20,000
Capital and Reserves
Called-up share capital 150,000
Share premium account 15,000
General reserve 134,000 299,000

NB Authorised share capital details would be shown by way of a note to the balance sheet.

Calculations:
£
New issue proceeds 40,000 × £1.40 56,000
Nominal sum of redemption 60,000
Transfer to CRR 4,000

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E. REDEMPTION OF DEBENTURES
Debentures are a written acknowledgment of a loan to the company, given under seal, and
carrying a fixed rate of interest. Debentures do not form part of the share capital of the
company and may be issued at a premium or discount. They are, however, shown in the
ledger and hence the balance sheet at their nominal value, interest being calculated on this
figure.
The debenture trust deed will specify whether debentures will be redeemed at par or at a
premium and the way the company will actually redeem the debentures. Along with the
share capital and reserves, the debentures finance a company's operating assets. Thus
although there is no statutory requirement to establish the equivalent of a CRR, the financing
must be maintained. This can be achieved by either:
 The proceeds of a new issue of shares or debentures; or
 Annual appropriations from the profit and loss account to a debenture redemption
account.
The cash needed to redeem the debentures must also be found. This can be accumulated
by investing an amount each year equal to the appropriation to debenture redemption
account. This is also known as the sinking fund method.

Redemption by Means of a Sinking Fund – Accounting Treatment

The accounting entries necessary to redeem debentures are set out by way of a series of
steps below:

Sinking Fund Maintenance

Description Accounts
Debited Credited

1. Amount appropriated to sinking fund Profit and loss account Sinking fund account
each year
Amount transferred to sinking fund Sinking fund Ordinary cash
investment account investment account
2. Interest received from sinking fund Sinking fund cash Sinking fund account
3. Reinvesting income received Sinking fund Sinking fund cash
investment account
4. Sale of sinking fund investment Sinking fund cash Sinking fund
investment account
5. Profit on sale of sinking fund Sinking fund Sinking fund account
investments investment account
Loss on sale of sinking fund Sinking fund account Sinking fund
investments investment account

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Actual Debenture Redemption

Description Accounts
Debited Credited

1. Nominal value of debentures Debenture account Debenture redemption

redeemed account
2. Amount paid to redeem debentures Debenture redemption Sinking fund cash
account
3. Profit on redemption debentures Debenture redemption Sinking fund account
(redeemed at a discount) account
4. Loss on redemption debentures Sinking fund account Debenture redemption
(redeemed at a premium) account
5. Nominal amount of debentures Sinking fund account Non-distributable
redeemed reserves
6. Balance of sinking fund account Sinking fund account Profit and loss account
7. Balance on sinking fund cash Ordinary cash Sinking fund cash
account

Note: the balance on 6 and 7 above should be equal.

Example of Redemption of Debentures

X Co. has £50,000 5% debentures redeemable at 31 October Year 2. On 1 November Year
1 a sinking fund stands in the books at £45,000 represented by investments.
During the year ended 31 October Year 2 the following transactions occurred:
 Investments which cost £5,000 were sold for £6,000.
 £5,000 debentures redeemed for £4,900 which included £100 of accrued interest.
 £3,000 income from sinking fund investments was received.
 Interest on debentures for half-year paid.
 The balance of the investments remaining were sold for £47,500.
 Balance of debentures redeemed at a premium of 2%.
 Interest on debentures for half-year paid.
The necessary ledger accounts recording the above transactions will be as follows.
Note that the book-keeping rules are based on the following equation:
Sinking fund (investments plus cash) = Asset accounts
(a credit balance) (debit balances)

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5% DEBENTURES ACCOUNT
£ £
Debenture redemption account 5,000 Balance b/f 50,000
Debenture redemption account 45,000
50,000 50,000

DEBENTURE REDEMPTION ACCOUNT

£ £
Sinking fund cash 4,800 Debenture account 5,000
Sinking fund account
(profit on purchase) 200
5,000 5,000
Sinking fund cash 45,900 5% Debenture account 45,000
Sinking fund account 2%
premium 900
45,900 45,900

SINKING FUND ACCOUNT

£ £
Reserves 5,000 Balance b/f 45,000
Debentures redemption Sinking fund investment
account 2% premium 900 account 1,000
Reserves 45,000 Debenture redemption account 200
Profit and loss account 5,800 Sinking fund cash – income 3,000
Sinking fund investment
account 7,500
56,700 56,700

SINKING FUND INVESTMENT ACCOUNT

£ £
Balance b/f 45,000 Sinking fund cash 6,000
Sinking fund Sinking fund cash 47,500
(profit on sale investment) 1,000
Sinking fund account
(profit on sale investment) 7,500
53,500 53,500

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SINKING FUND CASH

£ £
Sinking fund 6,000 Debenture redemption account 4,800
Investment account ordinary Debenture interest account 100
cash (reimbursement of
4,900
accrued interest) 100
Sinking fund account 3,000 Debenture redemption account 45,900
Sinking fund investment (45,000 + 2% × 45,000)
account – proceeds 47,500 Ordinary cash 5,800
56,600 56,600

DEBENTURE INTEREST ACCOUNT

£ £
Sinking fund cash – accrued Profit and loss account –
interest on redemption of debenture interest for year 2,600
debentures 100
Ordinary cash – interest for half-
year (5% × 50,000 × ½) 1,250
Ordinary cash – interest for half-
year 1,250
2,600 2,600

NON-DISTRIBUTABLE RESERVES
£ £
Sinking fund 5,000
Sinking fund 45,000
50,000

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Study Unit 11
Group Accounts 1: Regulatory and Accounting Framework

Contents Page

Introduction 270

A. IAS 27: Consolidated and Separate Financial Statements 270

Definitions 270
Exclusion of a Subsidiary from Consolidation 271
Accounting Requirements of IAS 27 272

B. IFRS 3: Business Combinations 272

Scope 272
Application of the Purchase/Acquisition Method 273

C. IAS 28: Investments in Associates 274

Standard Accounting Practice for Associated Companies 274
Example of Normal Presentation for an Associate 275

D. IFRS 3: Fair Values in Acquisition Accounting 276

E. Alternative Methods of Accounting for Group Companies 277

Acquisition Method 278
Proportional Consolidation 279
Equity Method 280

F. Merger Accounting 280

Features of Merger Accounting 280
Preparation of Financial Statements using Merger Accounting Principles 281

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INTRODUCTION
Many companies have more than one type of business activity and trade in different
geographical locations. In these circumstances there are often advantages in establishing
separate companies to undertake separate activities or to trade in other countries. The
shares in the individual companies, the subsidiaries, are usually owned by a holding
company which may or may not be quoted on the stock market.
Each, as we have seen in study unit 4, has to prepare its own individual published accounts.
In the holding company's accounts the investments in the subsidiary companies will be
carried at cost and the only income recognised in its accounts concerning the subsidiaries
will be dividends receivable.
Over the years the subsidiaries will hopefully earn profits and, if these are not all paid in the
form of dividends, will accumulate assets. Hence the holding company's accounts will not
reflect the true value of the investment nor its earnings.
The solution adopted to this problem was for the holding company to prepare an additional
set of consolidated or group accounts which would reflect the "economic substance over
the legal form" of the group. The consolidated accounts would show the assets and liabilities
of the group as if they were owned directly by the holding company.
Over the years the various definitions concerning group companies have evolved along with
the criteria for preparing group accounts. The rules dealing with the preparation of group
accounts are now contained in:
 IFRS 3: Business combinations
 IAS 27: Consolidated and separate financial statements
 IAS 28: Investments in associates
We will consider all of these over the last part of your course.

A. IAS 27: CONSOLIDATED AND SEPARATE FINANCIAL

STATEMENTS
IAS 27 deals with the content of the consolidated financial statements, not with the methods
of accounting for business combinations nor the issue of goodwill on consolidation. These
latter issues are dealt with in IFRS 3.

Definitions
IAS 27 broadly defines a subsidiary undertaking as an entity, including an unincorporated
entity such as a partnership, that is controlled by another entity.
So what is control?
Control is defined in the standard as the power to govern the financial and operating policies
of an entity so as to obtain benefits from its activities. It elaborates further on this definition
by telling us that:
 Control is presumed to exist when the parent owns, directly or indirectly through
subsidiaries, more than half of the voting power of an entity unless it can be clearly
demonstrated that such ownership does not constitute control
 Control also exists even where the parent owns half or less than half of the voting
power when it has power over more than half the voting power by virtue of an
agreement with other investors

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 Control is apparent if the entity has power to govern the financial and operating policies
of the entity under a statute or agreement
 The power to appoint or remove the majority of the members of the board of directors
or equivalent governing body also indicates control
 The power to cast the majority of votes at meetings of the board of directors or
equivalent governing body also indicates control.
Clearly note, therefore, that a business may own less than 50% of the equity shares in
another, but if it has control as defined above then the other entity will constitute a subsidiary.
Consider the following examples to test your understanding of this concept of control.
Example 1
A owns 100% of the equity of C, who in turn owns 20% of the equity of B. A also owns
33% of the equity of B. Voting rights in A, B and C are in relation to equity ownership.
Is B a subsidiary of A?
Example 2
A owns 42% of the voting rights of B and also has the power to appoint or remove five
of the nine members of the its board of directors.
Is B a subsidiary of A?
Exercise 3
A owns 49% of the voting rights of B.
Is B a subsidiary of A?
Answers
 In example 1, the answer is YES. As a controls C totally, then it also controls
20% of B. If we add this to A's own holding, then we have a total of 53% which is
more than the half required to give control.
 In example 2, the answer is also YES. A clearly controls the board of directors.
If A only had the power to remove 4 members of the board, then B would not be
a subsidiary as control would not have been established.
 In example 3, this time the answer is NO. A does not control over half of B.
Minority interest is that portion of the profit or loss and net assets of a subsidiary attributable
to equity interests that are not owned, directly or indirectly through subsidiaries, by the
parent.

Exclusion of a Subsidiary from Consolidation

The requirements in IAS 27 concerning the exclusion of a subsidiary from consolidation are
as follows:
(a) when the parent is a wholly owned or partly owned subsidiary of another entity. In this
case, the holding entity will have to consolidate subsidiaries and sub-subsidiaries, the
process for which can become very complicated, but luckily is not part of your
syllabus!)
(b) the parent's debt or equity instruments are not traded in a public market, or the parent
is not in the process of issuing any class of instruments in a public market
(c) the ultimate or any intermediate parent produces consolidated statements available for
public use that comply with IFRS.

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Accounting Requirements of IAS 27

IAS 27 identifies the consolidation procedures as follows.
The consolidation procedures are:
 Eliminate the carrying amount of the parent's investment and the parent's share of
equity in each subsidiary
 Allocate the profit or loss for the period on the face of the income statement between
the parent and the minority interest
 Identify minority interest in consolidated subsidiaries' net assets and present them
within equity on the balance sheet, but separately from parent equity
 Eliminate intergroup balances and transactions in full
 Prepare the consolidated statements using uniform accounting policies
 Include the subsidiaries income and expenses only from the date of acquisition to date
when control ceases
 Make adjustments where reporting dates between parent and subsidiary are longer
that three months.
We deal with the practical application of these in some detail when preparing consolidated
accounts in study unit 12, so you will need to remember the points in this list.

B. IFRS 3: BUSINESS COMBINATIONS

IFRS 3 requires all business combinations to be accounted for by applying the purchase
method of consolidation. This method is also known as acquisition accounting or the
parent method. It basically requires the acquirer to recognise the acquiree's assets and
liabilities at their fair values at the acquisition date, and also to recognise purchased
goodwill.
Remember that, in the preparation of individual financial statements, fair values are not
required to be used – original cost is the norm – and, therefore, recognising the acquiree's
assets and liabilities at fair value will give rise to a revaluation reserve within the consolidated
accounts. This revaluation need not appear in the individual financial statements of the
subsidiary.

Scope
IFRS 3 is applied to all business combinations except:
 Business combinations in which separate entities are brought together to form a joint
venture
 Business combinations under common control
 Business combinations involving two or more mutual entities
 Business combinations in which separate businesses are brought together to form a
reporting entity by contract alone without obtaining of an ownership interest.
A business combination can be structured in many different ways, but the result of nearly all
of them is that one business will be the acquirer and one the acquiree, at least according to
the standard. Many accountants have disputed this and, for a time, when it was difficult to
identify acquirer and acquiree and it was felt that a merger had actually occurred, then
merger accounting was permitted. Merger accounting is now NOT permitted under IFRS 3.

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Application of the Purchase/Acquisition Method

Applying the purchase method involves the following steps:
 Identify an acquirer – identify which party has control of the other
 Measure the cost of the business combination at fair value – the amount paid for the
subsidiary. Note that this may not be a cash transaction and it is more likely to involve
the issue of parent equity shares to purchase the subsidiary shares
 Allocate, at the acquisition date, the cost of the business combination to the assets
acquired and liabilities assumed.
The cost of a business combination needs to be measured at fair value. Thus, if the parent
issues equity shares to acquire the subsidiary, then these will be valued at the market value
on the date of acquisition.
The acquisition date is the date on which the acquirer effectively obtains control and,
therefore, if the purchase of the subsidiary has been made in stages, then the cost of the
combination is the aggregate cost of the individual transactions at the fair value on the date
of the transaction.
Consider the following examples.
Example 1
A acquired 20% of the voting shares of B in year 1, paying £150,000, 10% in year 2,
paying £200,000, and 25% in year 3, paying £800,000.
A has, in total, acquired 60% of B at a fair value of £1,150,000.
The cost of the acquisition is then allocated to the fair values of the assets and
liabilities acquired. What this means is that we compare the two fair values and, if
there is a difference, then this is identified as purchased goodwill.
Example 2
A acquired 75% of the net assets of B, paying a fair value of £1m. The fair value of B's
net assets at the date of acquisition was £2m.
A has only acquired 75% of the net assets, so we need to compare 75% x 2m with the
£1m paid. This will result in a goodwill of £0.5m
Where we have stage payments, the goodwill will be calculated at each stage and then
aggregated.
IFRS 3 states that this purchased goodwill is recognised in the consolidated statements as
an asset. Subsequent to this initial recognition, impairment reviews are carried out annually
on the goodwill and, if an impairment is found, this amount is charged to the income
statement. Note here that purchased goodwill in consolidated accounts is NOT amortised
(which is a change from previous versions of the standards).
If the goodwill is negative, that is the net assets are more than the fair value paid, then this
negative goodwill is credited to the income statement in the period of acquisition.

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C. IAS 28: INVESTMENTS IN ASSOCIATES

Standard Accounting Practice for Associated Companies
An associate is an entity (other than a subsidiary) over which the investor has significant
influence.
Significant influence is the power to participate in the financial and operating policy decisions
of the investee, but is not control or joint control over those policies.
Significant influence is amplified in IAS 28 as a situation where the investor holds 30% or
more of the voting power of the investee and, if such a situation exists, significant influence
will be presumed unless it can be clearly evidenced otherwise and vice versa.
Significant influence is usually evidenced by:
 Representation on the board of directors or equivalent governing body
 Participation in policy making processes
 Material transactions between the investor and the investee
 Interchange of managerial personnel
 Provision of essential technical information.
Consider the following examples to see if you have understood this associate relationship.
For each case identify whether B is an associate of A.
Examples
1. A owns 20% of B and appoints one out of seven directors. The remaining voting
rights are held equally by two entities that both appoint three of the seven
directors.
2. B manufactures widgets for A. A designs the widgets and normally 85% of B's
sales are made to A. A owns 15% of the voting rights of B.
Answers
In example 1, B is not an associate of A as A has very little influence. The other two
entities exert all the influence.
In example 2, B is reliant on A for its business and, therefore, a exerts significant
influence. B is an associate of A.
IAS 28 requires that associate undertakings are included in the consolidated accounts as
follows (this approach is referred to as the equity method):
(a) Consolidated Income Statement
The investing group should include the aggregate of its share of before-tax profits less
losses of associated undertakings. The group share of the associated undertakings'
taxation should be included and separately disclosed.
(b) Consolidated Balance Sheet
The investment should be carried at the total of:
(i) The investing group's share of the net assets other than goodwill of the
associated undertakings, stated, where possible, after attributing fair values to
the net assets at the time of acquisition of the interest in the associated
undertakings; and
(ii) The investing group's share of any goodwill in the associated undertaking's own
financial statements.

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These two items can be shown as one aggregate amount.

(c) Where the Investing Company Does Not Have Any Subsidiaries
If the investing company does not have any subsidiaries it will not prepare consolidated
accounts. The holding company's own accounts would recognise the dividends
receivable and carry the investment at cost.
This does not reveal the underlying profitability of the investment. IAS 28 requires that
an investing company that does not prepare consolidated financial statements should
incorporate the associate in its individual accounts in the same manner is it would in
consolidated accounts.

Example of Normal Presentation for an Associate

The following example provides an illustration of the normal presentation of an associate.
Note that the format shown for the consolidated income statement is illustrative only.

Consolidated Income Statement

£m £m
Group revenue 200
Cost of sales (120)
Gross profit 80
Administrative expenses (40)
Group operating profit 40
Share of operating profit in associates 24
64
Interest receivable (group) 6
Interest payable
Group (26)
Associates (12) (38)
Profit on ordinary activities before tax 32
Tax on profit on ordinary activities * (12)
Profit on ordinary activities after tax 20
Minority interests (6)
Profit on ordinary activities after taxation and minority interest 14
Equity dividends (10)
Retained profit for group and its share of associates 4

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Consolidated Balance Sheet

£m £m
Non-current assets
Tangible assets 480
Investments in associates 20
500
Current assets
Inventory 15
Debtors 75
Cash at bank and in hand 10
100
Creditors (due within one year) (50)
Net current assets 50
Total assets less current liabilities 550
Creditors (due after more than one year) (250)
Provisions for liabilities and charges (10)
290

Capital and reserves

Called up share capital 50
Share premium account 150
Retained profits 50
Shareholders' funds (all equity) 250
Equity minority interest 40
290

Notes:
Note that minority interest is presented as part of equity, but separate from group equity.

D. IFRS 3: FAIR VALUES IN ACQUISITION ACCOUNTING

One of the objectives of IFRS 3 is to ensure that when a business is acquired by another, all
the assets and liabilities at the time of the acquisition are recorded at their fair values. All
subsequent gains and losses should be reported as post-acquisition results of the new
group.
This means that post-acquisition reorganisation costs have to be charged in the post-
acquisition group income statement, rather than setting up a provision for such expenses.
The reasoning behind this is that such costs are not considered to be an identifiable liability
of the acquired business, but a subsequent commitment entered into by the acquirer.
Fair value is the amount at which an asset or liability could be exchanged in an arm's length
transaction between informed and willing parties, other than in a forced or liquidation sale.
The fair values of monetary items should take into account amounts expected to be paid or
received. The fair value of non-monetary items will usually be the replacement cost, unless

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the item concerned has a readily ascertainable market value. In any event fair values should
not exceed the recoverable amounts from use of the item concerned. This implies that the
discounted value of future earnings from an asset could be used as a basis for establishing
its fair value.
The assets and liabilities recognised should be those which existed at the date of acquisition.
The measurement of fair values should reflect the conditions at the acquisition date.
Provisions for future operating losses should not be set up.
Any costs associated with reorganising the acquired business are treated as post-acquisition
items and are not dealt with as part of the fair value exercise at acquisition.
IFRS 3 considers the fair value of certain specific assets and liabilities and how they should
be valued as follows:
 Tangible non-current assets should be based on market value or depreciated
replacement price, but should not exceed the recoverable amount of the asset.
 Intangible assets should be based on replacement cost in an active market, which is
normally replacement value. If no active market exists then the best information
available should be used.
 Inventories and work in progress should be based on selling prices less the sum of
costs of disposal and a reasonable profit allowance for the selling effort of the acquirer
based on profit for similar goods. Raw materials should be valued at current
replacement cost.
 Quoted investments should be valued at market price.
 Monetary assets and liabilities should be valued by reference to market prices and
may involve discounting.
 Contingencies – reasonable estimates of expected outcomes may be used.
 Pensions and other post retirement benefits – a deficiency should be recognised in
full, but a surplus should only be recognised as an asset to the extent that it is
reasonably expected to be realised.
The cost of acquisition is the cash paid and the fair value of any other purchase
consideration given, together with the expense of acquisition.
Where the amount of the purchase consideration is dependent on future events, the cost of
acquisition is to be based on a best-estimate basis. When the outcome is known, the cost of
acquisition and goodwill should be adjusted.
Fees and other costs incurred in making an acquisition should be included in the cost of
acquisition. Internal costs, and other expenses that cannot be directly attributed to the
acquisition, should be charged to the profit and loss account.

E. ALTERNATIVE METHODS OF ACCOUNTING FOR

GROUP COMPANIES
We've seen how group accounts are prepared when one company holds a controlling
interest in another company. If a subsidiary is wholly-owned this should be relatively
straightforward as all of the subsidiary's assets and liabilities belong to the group and these
can simply be included in the group accounts.
However, a problem arises when the group only has a partial interest in another company,
i.e. some of the shares in the subsidiary are held by parties outside the group. In this
instance there are three possible methods of consolidating the company concerned:

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 The acquisition method – the method required by IASs for consolidation of subsidiaries
 Proportional consolidation – not permitted by IASs
 The equity method – only permitted for consolidation of associate businesses.
We will now consider these in turn, using a simple set of financial statements for the
investing and investee company. At this stage do not worry about the detailed accounting
treatments involved, concentrate upon mastering the essential differences.

Acquisition Method
The acquisition method consolidates a subsidiary company as if, instead of acquiring the
company's shares, the holding company acquired the subsidiary's net assets.
The proportion of the subsidiary owned by parties outside the group (i.e. the minority
interest) is shown either as a deduction from the group's net assets or as an addition to
shareholders' funds.
Example
H plc acquired 75% of S Ltd's share capital on the date of S Ltd's incorporation. The two
companies' balance sheets as at 31 December Year 3 were:

H plc S Ltd
£000 £000
Tangible non-current assets 1,200 500
Investment in S Ltd 75
Net current assets 600 120
1,875 620
Represented by:
£1 Ordinary shares 500 100
Retained profits * 1,375 520 *
1,875 620

* This is all post-acquisition profit as S was acquired at its incorporation date.

The acquisition method requires all of the assets under group control to be shown in the
consolidated balance sheet:

H plc Consolidated Balance Sheet as at 31 December Year 3

£000
Tangible non-current assets (1,200 + 500) 1,700
Net current assets (600 + 120) 720
2,420

The consolidated accounts are prepared from the perspective of H plc's shareholders. Thus
only H plc's equity is shown. The investment in S Ltd is cancelled against S Ltd's share
capital. The share capital and reserves are therefore:

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£000 £000
£1 Ordinary shares – H plc only 500
Retained profits:
H plc 1,375
S Ltd (75% × 520) 390 1,765
2,265
Minority interest (25% × 620)
(a 25% share of S Ltd net assets) 155
2,420

There are several versions of the acquisition method – the two main ones being proprietary
and entity:
 The proprietary method views the consolidated accounts as being primarily prepared
for the shareholders of the controlling group. Thus, the minority interest under this
method is shown as a quasi-liability.
 The entity method makes no distinction between the shareholders and, therefore, the
minority interest will also be allocated some goodwill at the date of acquisition by
grossing up the group share of goodwill.
Note that the entity method is not used under IASs. Nor is the true version of the proprietary
method used by IASs, as the current IASs reflect the minority interest under equity, albeit
separate from group equity. We deal with the exact rules for acquisition accounting under
IASs in study unit 12.

Proportional Consolidation
Note that this is not permitted by IASs.
Proportional consolidation only includes the group's share of the subsidiary's assets and
liabilities. Thus, if proportional consolidation was used in the above example the
consolidated balance sheet would be:

H plc Consolidated Balance Sheet as at 31 December Year 3

£000
Tangible non-current assets (1,200 + (75% × 500)) 1,575
Net current assets (600 + (75% × 120)) 690
2,265
Represented by:
£1 Ordinary shares 500
Retained profits – as above 1,765
2,265

Note that a minority interest figure does not appear under proportional consolidation as we
are only including that proportion of S that has been acquired, not the whole of it.

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Equity Method
This method is used for associates under IASs.
The equity method is also known as one-line consolidation. As this name suggests, the
consolidated balance sheet only includes one item relating to the company being
consolidated. Instead of carrying the investment in the company at cost, it is restated each
year to account for any change in the net assets of the company concerned.
The consolidated balance sheet includes the investment as the group's share of the
company's net assets plus any goodwill arising on acquisition.
Applying the equity method to the above example, we would obtain the following
consolidated balance sheet:

H plc Consolidated Balance Sheet as at 31 December Year 3

£000
Tangible non-current assets 1,200
Investment in S Ltd (75% × 620) 465
Net current assets 600
2,265
Represented by:
£1 Ordinary shares 500
Retained profits – as above 1,765
2,265

Note that under the equity accounting method, the composition of S Ltd net assets is not
shown in the H plc consolidated balance sheet and is therefore "hidden" using this "one-line"
technique.

F. MERGER ACCOUNTING
The major feature of consolidation procedures using acquisition accounting is that the profits
are split between pre- and post-acquisition items. Pre-acquisition profits are taken to cost of
control and are thus effectively frozen. This may mean that distributable profits are thus
reduced as far as the group is concerned. Against this background, the techniques of
merger accounting arose.
Remember, though, as we noted above, that this method is not permitted under International
Accounting Standards.

Features of Merger Accounting

(a) Net assets are not revalued to fair value as in acquisition accounting.. So post-
merger profits may be higher because depreciation and similar charges will be lower
as a result.
(b) Following from (a) above, merger accounting results will give higher returns on
capital.
(c) No share premium account is necessary on the issue of share to acquire the
acquiree as they are assumed to have been issued at nominal value.

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(d) No distinction is drawn between pre- and post-acquisition profits; the business
combination is accounted for as if the businesses had always been together. A
practical example of this is where a merger takes place part-way through an
accounting period – the results of the combining entities are shown in the consolidated
accounts in full for the year of combination.
(e) The accounting policies of the companies combining are adjusted so they are uniform.
(f) If there is a difference between the nominal value of shares issued plus the fair value
of any other consideration, compared with the nominal value of shares acquired, this
difference is treated as a movement on reserves or as a merger reserve. (This will be
further explained in a numerical example.) There is therefore no goodwill on
consolidation as may arise under acquisition accounting.
In summary, a merger is a very rare type of business combination where two or more parties
combine for mutual trading advantages in what is effectively an equal "partnership". None of
the parties involved can be portrayed as the acquirer, and the newly merged company is
regarded as an entirely new entity, not the continuation of one of the combined entities.
Note that IFRS 3 does not recognise the existence of this type of situation. It clearly states
that "an acquirer shall be identified in all business combinations". Thus, IFRS 3 has quite
literally outlawed the use of merger accounting for the preparation of international financial
statements, but you still might find it used in individual countries who prepare their accounts
under their own country GAAP.

Preparation of Financial Statements using Merger Accounting Principles

In order to understand the techniques of merger accounting, we will now work through a
consolidation example using acquisition accounting and merger accounting methods.
(Note that, for now, concentrate on the differences between the approaches – we shall
examine the principles of consolidation in detail in the next unit.)
The balance sheets of A plc and B plc are as follows:

A plc B plc
£000 £000
Net assets 600 360
£1 ordinary shares 480 180
Retained profits 120 180
600 360

(a) Acquisition Accounting

Immediately after preparing its accounts, A plc issued 240,000 ordinary shares at £2
each to acquire all of the shares in B plc. The assets of B plc are stated at fair value. .
Goodwill is calculated as:
£000
Purchase consideration 240,000 shares at £2 480
100% ordinary shares and reserves 360
Goodwill 120

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The consolidated balance sheet is:

£000
Goodwill 120
Net assets (600 + 360) 960
1,080
Share capital (480 + 240) * 720
Share premium * 240
Reserves (120) 120
1,080

* Increase in A plc's share capital following acquisition of B plc.

(b) Merger Accounting
Using the same data, the 240,000 ordinary shares would be accounted for at nominal
value, no share premium account would be created. No goodwill account would arise.
The nominal value of the new shares issued (£240,000) exceeds the nominal value of
the shares acquired (£180,000) by £60,000 which is deducted from reserves.
The consolidated balance sheet is:

£000
Net assets 960
£1 ordinary shares (480 + 240) 720
Reserves (120 + 180 – 60) 240
960

Finally, suppose that only 170,000 ordinary shares were issued to acquire 100% of B.
The nominal value of shares issued (£170,000) is less than the nominal value of
shares acquired (£180,000) and this creates a non-distributable capital (merger)
reserve (£10,000). The consolidated balance sheet then becomes:

£000
Net assets 960

Ordinary shares 480 + 170 650

Reserves 120 + 180 300
Merger reserve 10
960

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Study Unit 12
Group Accounts 2: The Consolidated Accounts

Contents Page

Introduction 284

A. The Consolidated Balance Sheet 284

Basic Consolidation Procedures 284
Cost of Control (Goodwill) 286
Partly-owned Subsidiaries 289
Preference Shares and Debenture Stock 291
Revaluation of Subsidiary's Assets on Acquisition 291
Adjusting for Unrealised Intra-Group Profits/Losses 293
Intra-Group Dividends and Investments 294

B. The Consolidated Income Statement 298

Principles of Consolidation 298
Preparation of a Consolidated Income Statement 300

C. Group Accounts – Example 306

Answers to Questions for Practice 313

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INTRODUCTION
In this last study unit of the course (before the final unit which provides advice, guidance and
practice in relation to the examination for this subject) , we shall examine the preparation of
consolidated balance sheets and consolidated income statements.
A balance sheet of a business shows its state of affairs at a point in time. It is a summary of
the assets and liabilities of the business and how those net assets are financed. In the case
of a group of companies, the consolidated balance sheet shows the statement of affairs of
the group and will be comprised of the balance sheet of the parent company, the net assets
of the subsidiaries and also investments in associated companies.
However, companies within the group are likely to be debtors and creditors of each other and
the (majority) shareholder in subsidiary companies is the holding company, so that dividends
proposed by subsidiary companies are only liabilities to the group to the extent that they
relate to minority shareholders. Furthermore, it is unusual for the price paid for the shares in
a subsidiary company to equate to the net value of assets and liabilities acquired; usually a
premium is paid – goodwill on acquisition.
Companies within a group which trade with each other are likely to have stocks purchased
from another company within the group, charged at normal selling price. This means that,
as far as the group is concerned, there is an element of unrealised profit in stocks which
must be eliminated.
There are also adjustments to consider in respect of the preparation of a group income
statement – the consolidated income statement – but not as many as in the consolidated
balance sheet.

A. THE CONSOLIDATED BALANCE SHEET

Basic Consolidation Procedures
We will generally use the double-entry method and open a memorandum ledger to record
the consolidating entries; no adjustments are made in the books of the individual companies.
Such accounts will be opened for:
 Every element of shareholders' funds
 Cost of control (i.e. goodwill) for each subsidiary (often referred to as "adjustment
account")
 Minority interests
 Assets containing inter-company profits (e.g. stock)
 Assets revalued by the group at the date of balance sheet, if no adjustment has been
made in the individual companies' books.
After writing up these accounts, the closing balance will be transferred to the consolidated
balance sheet and the assets and liabilities on the individual balance sheet, to which no
alteration has been made, will be added together and shown on the consolidated balance
sheet (CBS).
Example
Before we study in detail the points which cause complications, we will look at a simple
example concerning a subsidiary which, at the date of the balance sheet, had no
undistributed profits and in which all the shares are held by the holding company. We work
as follows:

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(a) Combine the assets in the various balance sheets, e.g. plant, inventories. Show the
aggregate figure in the CBS.
(b) Similarly, combine all outside liabilities, e.g. trade payables, debentures.
(c) In the holding company balance sheet, we have "Shares in subsidiary company". If
this is equal to the combined share capitals of the subsidiaries, both cancel out.
From the following balance sheets of Company X and Company Y, prepare the CBS. All the
shares in X were acquired by Y at the date of the balance sheets.
Balance Sheets at 31 December

X Y
£000 £000
Premises 35 24
Plant 19 10
Shares in subsidiary – 60
Inventories 13 18
Trade receivables 9 16
Cash 1 2
Trade payables (12) (19)
Overdraft (5) (11)
Net assets 60 100
Share capital 60 80
Undistributed profits – 20
60 100

Apply the rules:

(a) Combine the assets:
£000
Premises (35 + 24) 59
Plant (19 + 10) 29
Inventory (13 + 18) 31
Trade receivables (9 + 16) 25
Cash (1 + 2) 3
147

(b) Combine the liabilities:

£000
Trade payables (12 + 19) 31
Overdraft (5 + 11) 16
47

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(c) Cancel out "Shares in subsidiary" in Y's balance sheet against share capital of X.
The result is as follows:
Consolidated Balance Sheet of Y and its Subsidiary X at 31 December

£000 £000 £000

Non-current Assets
Premises 59
Plant 29
88
Current Assets
Inventory 31
Trade receivables 25
Cash 3
59
Creditors: Amounts falling due within one year
Bank overdraft 16
Trade payables 31 47
Net current assets 12
Total assets less current liabilities 100

Capital and Reserves

Called-up share capital 80
Retained profits 20
100

Note that the only share capital shown in the CBS is that of the holding company. This is
always the case, no matter how involved the affairs of the group.
We will now work through a simple consolidation example which will lay the foundations for
your future studies of group accounts. Make sure you fully understand the example before
proceeding to the next stage.

Cost of Control (Goodwill)

In our earlier example, the item "Shares in subsidiary" in the holding company's balance
sheet was replaced in the CBS by the actual assets and liabilities represented by this
investment. This was so since the net value of assets acquired was equal to the price paid
for the shares. However, if the price paid for the shares exceeds the book value of the net
assets of the subsidiary, the excess represents a premium, called the cost of control or
goodwill on acquisition of the subsidiary.
Since the value of the net assets of a subsidiary is represented in its balance sheet by the
amount of its paid-up capital plus reserves, the cost of control is the difference between the
cost of the investment to the holding company and the total of the nominal value of shares
issued and paid up, and all undistributed profits and reserves at the date of acquisition.

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Example
From the balance sheets of Company A and Company B immediately after A had acquired
all the shares in B, which were as follows, prepare the CBS. (Note this example assumes
that B is a wholly-owned subsidiary, i.e. there is no minority interest.)

A B
£000 £000
Non-current assets 22 14
Current assets 12 8
10,000 shares in B 20 –
54 22
Less current liabilities 8 6
Net assets 46 16

Share capital (£1 shares) 24 10

Reserves 10 4
Undistributed profits 12 2
46 16

(All assets and liabilities are stated at fair values).

Consolidation Workings
Open memorandum ledger accounts for the share capital, reserves and undistributed profits
of the subsidiary and then apply the following double-entry procedure to ascertain the
amount of goodwill:
(a) For the nominal value of 100% of shares acquired
Cr: Cost of control
Dr: Share capital
(b) For the balances existing on date of acquisition
Cr: Cost of control
Dr: Reserves
Dr: Undistributed profits
(c) For the cost of shares acquired
Cr: A – investment in B
Dr: Cost of control
The memorandum accounts are as follows:

B – SHARE CAPITAL
£000 £000
Cost of control 10 Balance b/d 10

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B – RESERVES
£000 £000
Cost of control 4 Balance b/d 4

B – UNDISTRIBUTED PROFITS
£000 £000
Cost of control 2 Balance b/d 2

A – INVESTMENT IN B
£000 £000
Balance b/d 20 Cost of control 20

COST OF CONTROL
£000 £000
Cost of 10,000 shares in B Share capital – B 10
(A – Investment in B) 20 Reserves – B 4
Undistributed profits – B 2
Balance = Goodwill 4
20 20

Note carefully that the balances on B reserves and undistributed profits are all transferred to
the cost of control account because they reflect pre-acquisition profits and reserves.
Answer
Consolidated Balance Sheet of A and its Subsidiary B as at ....

£000 £000
Non-current assets
Intangible asset: goodwill 4
Tangible assets (22 + 14) 36
Current assets (12 + 8) 20
Creditors: Amounts falling due within one year (8 + 6) 14
Net current assets 6
Total assets less current liabilities 46

Called-up share capital (A only) 24

Reserves (see footnote) 10
Retained profits 12
46

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Footnote
None of the reserves of B appear because they all relate to pre-acquisition profits.
Goodwill is tested for impairment annually and impairment losses taken to the income
statement.
Note that it is quite possible for the cost of shares in a subsidiary to be less than the net
value of assets acquired. In this case goodwill will be negative, i.e. a credit balance.
Negative goodwill will then appear credited to the income statement.

Partly-owned Subsidiaries
Where the holding company does not own the whole of the share capital of the subsidiary, it
is clear that if the total value of net assets of the subsidiary is included in the CBS, some part
of those assets is owned by an outside body, and this part should be shown as a liability in
the CBS under "Minority interests".
Example
Use the information given in the previous example for company A and B, but suppose that
A's holding in B consists of only 8,000 shares at a cost of £20,000. Since A only owns 4/5ths
of the shares of B, only 4/5ths of the reserves and undistributed profits are attributable to the
group.
Consolidation Workings

B – SHARE CAPITAL
£000 £000
Cost of control (4/5) 8 Balance b/d 10
Minority interest (1/5) 2
10 10

B – RESERVES
£000 £000
Cost of control (4/5) 3.2 Balance b/d 4.0
Minority interest (1/5) 0.8
4.0 4.0

B – UNDISTRIBUTED PROFITS
£000 £000
Cost of control (4/5) 1.6 Balance b/d 2.0
Minority interest (1/5) 0.4
2.0 2.0

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A – INVESTMENT IN B
£000 £000
Balance b/d 20 Cost of control 20

COST OF CONTROL
£000 £000
Cost of 8,000 shares in B 20.0 B – Share capital (4/5) 8.0
Reserves (4/5) 3.2
Undistributed profits (4/5) 1.6
Balance, being goodwill 7.2
20.0 20.0

MINORITY INTEREST
£000 £000
Balance c/d 3.2 B – Share capital (1/5) 2.0
Reserves (1/5) 0.8
Undistributed profits (1/5) 0.4
3.2 3.2

Consolidated Balance Sheet of A and its Subsidiary B as at ....

£000 £000
Non-current assets
Intangible assets: goodwill 7.2
Tangible assets (22 + 14) 36.0
Current assets (12 + 8) 20.0
Creditors: Amounts falling due within one year (8 + 6) 14.0
Net current assets 6.0
Total assets less current liabilities 49.2

Called-up share capital (A only) 24.0

Reserves 10.0
Retained profits 12.0
46.0
Minority interest 3.2
49.2

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Note:
(a) Please watch for instructions in questions regarding the treatment of impaired goodwill.
(b) The minority interest represents the minority share (1/5) of the net assets (share
capital and reserves) of the subsidiary. FRS 4 requires that this is analysed between
equity and non-equity interests. In this case it is entirely equity.

Preference Shares and Debenture Stock

It is quite possible that a subsidiary company will also have some preference shares and
debenture stock in issue. When the preference shares and debenture stock are owned by
the group, their nominal value should be cancelled against the investment made by the
holding company in those securities. If this gives rise to a premium or discount on
acquisition, this should be written off against group reserves.
Preference shares held by parties outside the group should be included in minority interest.
Debentures are a form of loan creditor and debenture stock held outside the group should be
shown as a long-term creditor in the consolidated balance sheet.

Revaluation of Subsidiary's Assets on Acquisition

Goodwill is the difference between the cost of an acquired entity and the aggregate of the
fair value of the entity's identifiable assets and liabilities. The book value of the subsidiary's
assets on the date of the acquisition may not be the same as their fair value. The assets
should therefore be revalued and the revaluation surplus/deficit split between the group and
any minority interest (in proportion to the respective holdings in the subsidiary.)
Example
The following is an example of the treatment of revaluation. The facts are as in the previous
example with the exception that the non-current assets of the subsidiary have a fair value of
£18,000 at the date of acquisition of the interest by A in B. The balance sheet of B following
the revaluation adjustment will be as follows:

£000
Non-current assets at valuation 18
Current assets 8
26
less Current liabilities 6
20

Share capital 10
Revaluation reserve 4
Reserves 4
Undistributed profits 2
20

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Consolidation workings

COST OF CONTROL
£000 £000
Cost of 8,000 shares in B 20.0 B – Share capital (4/5) 8.0
Revaluation reserve (4/5) 3.2
Reserves (4/5) 3.2
Undistributed profits (4/5) 1.6
Goodwill 4.0
20.0 20.0

MINORITY INTEREST
£000 £000
Balance c/d 4.0 B – Share capital (1/5) 2.0
Revaluation reserve (1/5) 0.8
Reserves 0.8
Undistributed profits (1/5) 0.4
4.0 4.0

Consolidated Balance Sheet of A and its Subsidiary as at ......

£000 £000
Non-current assets
Intangible asset: goodwill 4.0
Tangible assets (22 + 18) 40.0
Current assets (12 + 8) 20.0
Creditors: Amounts falling due within one year (8 + 6) 14.0 6.0
Total assets less current liabilities 50.0

Called up share capital 24.0

Reserves 10.0
Retained profits 12.0
46.0
Minority interest 4.0
50.0

Notes
(a) The workings of the reserves and profit and loss account are as shown in the previous
example.
(b) The minority interest now includes the minority interest share (1.5) of the revaluation
surplus.

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Adjusting for Unrealised Intra-Group Profits/Losses

Group companies will often trade with each other and will make profits in the individual
company accounts on the transactions that take place. For example, assume we have a
group consisting of H and S who trade with a company outside the group, Z.
H has a subsidiary company S and S has a customer Z. Assume H sold goods (cost
£100,000, selling price £125,000) to S. S then sold part of these goods to Z (cost to S
£80,000, selling price £120,000).
The following situation exists:
£
Sale by H to S: profit is 25,000
Sale by S to Z: profit is 40,000
Apparent group profit 65,000

However, S still has goods which cost it £45,000 in inventory. As the original mark-up was
25% on the sale from H to S, then there is an unrealised profit of 20% × £45,000 as far as
the group is concerned.
£
Therefore, the apparent total profit of 65,000
is reduced by the unrealised profit still in S inventory (9,000)
So the group realised profit is 56,000

(a) Eliminating Intergroup Profits/Losses

IAS 27 requires us to eliminate intergroup profits and losses in full. Thus, we do not
need to apportion the profit or loss between the group and minority holding. Similar
adjustments must also be made when a group company sells a fixed asset at a profit
to another group company. In this instance an adjustment must also be made for the
excess depreciation charged by the company due to the unrealised profit included in
the cost of the asset.
For example, if a 75%-owned subsidiary sold an asset (cost £6,000) for £10,000 to the
holding company, making a profit of £4,000, the profit would be eliminated as follows:

Debit Credit
£ £
Group reserves (100% × 4,000) 4,000
Asset (reduction to cost) 4,000

If the asset is depreciated by £1,000 per annum then at the end of the first year the
following adjustment must be made for the excess depreciation charged:

Debit Credit
£ £
Asset – depreciation (1,000 – 600) 400
Group reserves (75% × 400) 400

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(b) Eliminating Inter-company Debts

If group members trade between themselves, then consolidation adjustments will be
needed to eliminate any inter-company balances prior to the preparation of the group
accounts. Similarly any cash in transit as yet unrecorded by the recipient company will
need to be adjusted for before the consolidated accounts are prepared.

Intra-Group Dividends and Investments

The holding company will usually receive dividend payments from its subsidiaries and will
account for them on an accruals basis as they are declared. When preparing the
consolidated accounts, the dividend payable by the subsidiary to the holding company will be
cancelled against the dividend receivable shown in the holding company's accounts. Only
the dividend payments due to the holding company's shareholders and the minority
appear in the consolidated balance sheet.
(a) Dividends Paid Out of Pre-acquisition Reserves
The holding company usually credits the dividend income from its subsidiaries to its
own profit and loss account. However, sometimes the dividend payment will be out of
pre-acquisition reserves.
Example
A plc acquired all of the ordinary share capital (with a nominal value of £10,000) of B
Ltd on
30 December, paying £100,000. On that date B Ltd's reserves were £80,000. On
31 December B Ltd paid a dividend of £10,000 to its ordinary shareholders. After
paying the dividend B Ltd's balance sheet was as follows:

£000
Net assets 80
Ordinary shares 10
Retained profits 70
80

The net assets of B have thus fallen from £90,000 at the date of acquisition to £80,000
after payment of the dividend.
The goodwill on the date of acquisition would be found by doing the following cost of
control calculation:
£000 £000
Cost of investment 100
less: Ordinary shares 10
Retained profits 80
90
Goodwill 10

Obviously the goodwill cannot change, but B Ltd only has net assets amounting to
£80,000 on 31 December. A plc could really treat the dividend received as profit, as it
was paid out of the assets acquired. The dividend must therefore be credited to the
cost of the investment.

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Thus we obtain:
£000 £000
Cost of investment 100
less: Dividend paid out of pre-acquisition profits (10)
90
less: Ordinary shares 10
Retained profit 70
80
Goodwill 10

The consolidation adjustment to reflect dividends paid out of pre-acquisition profits is:
Debit: Group reserves working
Credit: Cost of control account (to reflect reduction in the cost of investment)
Dividends paid out of pre-acquisition profits must not be included in group reserves on
the unconsolidated balance sheet.
(b) Apportioning Dividends When a Subsidiary is Acquired During the Year
When a subsidiary is acquired during the year it is often not clear whether or not a
dividend has been paid out of pre- or post-acquisition profits. There are no strict rules
as to how this should be determined and in practice several different methods are
used.
For the purpose of your examination you should assume, unless directed otherwise,
that the dividends paid relating to the year of acquisition accrued evenly during the
year. For example, if a subsidiary was acquired halfway through the year and
proposed a dividend of £12,000 you should assume that £6,000 relates to pre-
acquisition profits and the remaining £6,000 to post-acquisition profits (assuming
sufficient profits were earned).
Example
C plc acquired 60% of the ordinary share capital of D Ltd at 31 December for
£900,000.
C plc's year ends 31 March.
An interim dividend of £60,000 was paid by D Ltd on 1 October and it proposed a final
dividend of £90,000 on 31 March.
Total dividends paid/proposed in the year: £150,000
Dividends paid out of pre-acquisition profits (£150,000 × 9/12): £112,500
Pre-acquisition element of final dividend (£90,000 – (£112,500 – £60,000)): £37,500
The consolidation adjustments will be to:
Reduce group reserves (Dr) by 60% × £37,500: £22,500
Reduce cost of control a/c (Cr) by 60% × £37,500: £22,500
In C plc's own accounts the effect of these adjustments will be to reduce the carrying
value of the investment in D by £22,500.

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Questions for Practice

1. H plc acquired 80% of S Ltd's ordinary share capital on 1 January Year 4 for £700,000.
S Ltd's reserves were £600,000 on that date and the fair value of some land owned by
S Ltd on that date was £200,000 in excess of book value. S Ltd has not subsequently
revalued the land.
The balance sheets of the two companies as at 31 December Year 9 were as follows:

H plc S Ltd
£000 £000
Tangible non-current assets 1,000 1,400
Investments 700 –
Net current assets 500 400
2,200 1,800
Represented by:
£1 Ordinary shares 100 100
10% Preference shares (issued 1 June Year 1) – 50
Retained profits 2,100 1,650
2,200 1,800

Prepare the consolidated balance sheet of H plc at 31 December Year 9.

2. H plc acquired 75% of S Ltd's ordinary share capital on 18 July Year 8 when S Ltd's
reserves were £300,000. The balance sheets of the two companies as at 31
December Year 9 were:

H plc S Ltd
£000 £000
Tangible non-current assets 800 900
Investment in S Ltd 420
Inter-company a/cs 120 (100)
Other current assets 520 360
1,860 1,160
Represented by:
£1 Ordinary shares 100 200
Retained profits 1,760 960
1,860 1,160

There was cash in transit from S Ltd to H plc amounting to £20,000 at the year-end.
Goodwill has been impaired by £2,250 as at 31 December Year 9.
Prepare H plc's consolidated balance sheet as at 31 December Year 9.

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3. On 1 January Year 3 X plc acquired 60% of Y Ltd's ordinary share capital and £10,000
of Y Ltd's debenture stock. Y Ltd's reserves as at 1 January Year 3 stood at £240,000.
The two companies had the following balance sheets as at 31 December Year 9:

X plc Y Ltd
£000 £000
Tangible non-current assets 1,200.0 700
Investment in Y Ltd (see footnote) 260.5
Net current assets 260.0 350
Debenture stock – (50)
1,720.5 1,000
Represented by:
£1 Ordinary shares 100.0 100
Preference shares – 100
Share premium 100.0 80
Retained profits 1,520.5 720
1,720.5 1,000

Footnote
£000
The investment in Y comprises: Ordinary shares 250
Debentures 10.5
260.5

Prepare X plc's consolidated balance sheet as at 31 December Year 9. Treat goodwill

in accordance with IFRS 3

4. Hold plc owns 60% of the ordinary share capital of Sub Ltd. The two companies
produced the following balance sheets as at 30 June Year 8:

Hold plc Sub Ltd

£000 £000
Plant & machinery – NBV 3,200 960
Investment in Sub Ltd 1,200
Inventory 1,120 480
Trade receivables 960 600
Bank 200 50
Trade payables (900) (530)
5,780 1,560
Represented by:
£1 Ordinary shares 2,000 200
Retained profits 3,780 1,360
5,780 1,560

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Hold acquired the investment in Sub on 1 July Year 5. Sub's reserves at that date
were £1,040,000.
On 30 June Year 8 Hold had goods in stock of £30,000 which had been purchased
from Sub. Sub sold these goods to Hold with a mark-up of 50%.
On 1 July Year 7 Hold sold Sub some machinery, which had cost £240,000 to
manufacture, for £300,000. Both companies depreciate machinery at 10% of cost per
annum and the asset has been incorporated in Sub's books at cost less depreciation.
Prepare the consolidated balance sheet as at 30 June Year 8, assuming goodwill as at
30 June year 8 has been impaired by £68,400.

Now check your answers with those provided at the end of the unit

B. THE CONSOLIDATED INCOME STATEMENT

The object of a consolidated income statement (CIS) is to present information obtained from
the separate income statements of the companies in the group in such a way as to show the
amount of undistributed group profit at the end of the period.
The actual layout of a CIS is similar to an individual business income statement. In addition,
though, we need to add a line in the statement to show the profit allocated to the minority
interest.

Principles of Consolidation
You will appreciate that the principles involved here are the same as we met in preparing a
CBS. The following matters in particular must not be overlooked:
 Pre-acquisition profits or losses of subsidiary companies
 Minority interests, both as regards current preference dividends paid and undistributed
profits of subsidiary companies
 Inter-company dividends
 Inter-company profits or losses
 Impairment of goodwill now charged to the CIS.
With these in mind, we will consider the steps to be taken in preparing our CIS. You are
usually given the separate income statements of the holding company and the various
subsidiary companies. Additional information is given and you are then required to draw up
the CIS.
The best way to get to grips with the CIS is to work through a simple example and then
consider the further complications of what can appear at first glance to be a fairly demanding
study topic.
Example
(You should work through the question and suggested answer to familiarise yourself with the
basic approach before proceeding further with this study unit.)
W plc acquired 80% of the £1 ordinary share capital of S Ltd some years ago when the
retained profits of S Ltd was £20,000. The following draft income statements for the two
companies for the year to 31 December have been prepared:

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W plc S Ltd
£000 £000
Sales 1,000 400
Cost of sales (600) (200)
Gross profit 400 200
Distribution costs (80) (30)
Administration expenses (70) (50)
Operating profit pre-tax 250 120
Tax (80) (40)
Profit after tax 170 80
Dividend proposed (100) (50))
Retained profit of year 70 30
Retained profit b/f 260 100
Retained profit c/f 330 130

(a) W plc sold goods £100,000 to S charging cost + 25%. There were £10,000 of these
goods in the inventory of S Ltd at 31 December.
(b) W plc has not yet taken the dividend from S Ltd into its records.
(c) There was no goodwill at acquisition.

Consolidated Income Statement

Note £000
(1) Revenue (1,000 + 400 – 100) 1,300
(2) Cost of sales (600 + 200 – 100 + 2) (702)
Gross profit 598
Distribution costs (80 + 30) (110)
Administrative expenses (70 + 50) (120)
Profit on ordinary activities before taxation 368
Taxation on profit on ordinary activities (80 + 40) (120)
Profit on ordinary activities after taxation 248
(3) Minority interest: (20% × £80,000 (after tax profits of S Ltd)) (16)
232
Dividend proposed (W only) (100)
Retained profit for year 132
Retained profit b/f: £000
W plc 260
Group share of S Ltd i.e. 80% of post-acquisition
retained profit b/f = 80% × (100 – 20) 64 324
Retained profit c/f 456

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As W plc had not accounted for dividends received from S Ltd, no adjustment was
necessary to eliminate these prior to the preparation of the CIS for the group. Remember,
the pre-acquisition profits of S Ltd are effectively frozen by being taken to cost of control
account and are excluded from the retained profit brought forward figures.
Notes
(1) The £100,000 sales from W to S are eliminated as inter-company trading.
(2) The purchase price of goods to S from W is the same adjustment £100,000. In
addition cost of sales is increased by the unrealised profit included in the inventory,
thus reducing group profits.
(3) The dividends attributable to the minority interest in S Ltd will eventually appear as a
current liability in the consolidated balance sheet. The profit for the year attributable to
the minority interest is split between the proposed dividend and the net addition to the
minority interest figure in the consolidated balance sheet, i.e.:
£000
Profit attributable to minority interest 16
Proposed dividend payable to minority interest (£50,000 × 20%) 10
Minority interest share of S Ltd retained profit for year
(£30,000 × 20%) 6
16

Preparation of a Consolidated Income Statement

The procedure for the preparation of a consolidated income statement involves working
through the following points, in this order:
(a) Balances Brought Forward
(i) Eliminate the proportion attributable to minority interests. This amount can now
be disregarded for CIS purposes, forming part of the minority interest figure for
the CBS.
(ii) Eliminate pre-acquisition profits and losses of subsidiaries attributable to the
group. This amount can also now be disregarded for CIS purposes, although it
forms part of cost of control workings.
These two adjustments will have the effect of eliminating all pre-acquisition profits, and
the outside shareholders' proportion of post-acquisition profits, from balances brought
forward. However, we still need to consider the effects on the CIS if the subsidiary was
acquired during the year, and we also need to deduct minority interests from the profits
for the year.
(b) Pre-acquisition Profits and Losses
We have already learnt that pre-acquisition profits are not free for distribution and are
taken to cost of control account. Similarly, if shares in the subsidiary were acquired
during the year, the profits for the year must be apportioned to the date of acquisition,
and the pre-acquisition profits transferred to cost of control.

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Illustration
£
Profits on ordinary activities after tax X
less Pre-acquisition profits (X)
X
less Minority interests (X)
Profits applicable to group shareholders X
Deduct proposed dividends (X)
Unappropriated profits applicable to group shareholders X

(c) Inter-company Unrealised Profits

Deduct from the profits shown in the separate income statements the proportion of
any unrealised profits on inventories, i.e. due to trading within the group at a profit.
(This is a point we have already considered for CBS purposes.) Remember that the
profit of a selling company is adjusted. In the CBS, of course, a second adjustment is
made to the inventory of the purchasing company. The trading profits can now be
combined. Remember to eliminate inter-company sales from revenue and cost of
sales as well, if the question demands it as in the previous example.
(d) Inter-company Dividends
Note particularly that all ordinary dividends paid by subsidiaries should be eliminated,
irrespective of minority holdings. The liability to minorities is calculated on the balance
brought forward and the trading profit for the period. Therefore, dividends paid to them
are merely cash payments on account of that liability for CIS purposes, and then may
be eliminated with other ordinary dividends. (There would not, of course, be any
objection to allocating to them first their due proportion of dividends and then the
balance of their profits.)
The inter-company dividends are deleted from "Income from shares in group
undertakings" on the credit side of the recipient company's income statement, and this
amount is deducted from the balance of profit carried forward. In the income
statement of the paying company, the whole of the ordinary dividends paid, whether to
members of the group or to minority interests, is deleted from the debit side of the
account. The group's proportion is added back to the balance of profit carried forward,
for purposes of the CIS, and the outside shareholders' proportion is automatically
allowed for in the calculation of their interests, as we have seen.
Different considerations apply to preference dividends. Here, the group proportion
must be eliminated as described above, but the outside shareholders' proportion must
be left as a debit or included with the debit of the proportion of profit attributable to
minority interests, since the liability is not otherwise provided for.
You must remember to show dividends paid by the holding company in the CIS.
Eliminate dividends from pre-acquisition profits as described above. Remember that,
for CBS purposes, the amount received by the holding company (or subsidiary, if one
holds shares in another) should be credited to shares in subsidiary's account, since it
acts as a reduction in the price paid for the shares and, consequently, the amount
attributable to goodwill.
(e) Transfers to Reserve
Eliminate the proportion attributable to minority interests and combine the balance of
these items.

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(f) Minority Interests

Dividends, except preference dividends, paid to outside shareholders and their
proportion of the balance brought forward, have all been eliminated. It only remains to
calculate from the individual income statements of subsidiaries the true net profits
(excluding transfers to reserve and similar appropriations). The outside shareholders'
proportions of such net profits can then be ascertained and the consolidated total
entered as a debit in the CIS.
Example 1
The summarised income statements of R Ltd and its subsidiary S Ltd for the year ended
31 December are as follows:

R Ltd S Ltd
£000 £000
Trading profit 25,000 30,000
Dividends received (net) 3,750 –
Profit before tax 28,750 30,000
Taxation (14,000) (14,000)
Profit after tax 14,750 16,000
Dividends: paid – (5,000)
proposed (10,000) (5,000)
Retained profit for year 4,750 6,000
Balance brought forward 35,000 40,000
Balance carried forward 39,750 46,000

Prepare the consolidated income statement from the above and the following supplementary
information:
(a) R Ltd acquired 75% of the shares of S Ltd two years previously when the balance on S
Ltd's retained profits stood at £16m.
(b) Inventories of R Ltd at 31 December include goods to the value of £400,000 invoiced
1
by S Ltd at cost plus 33 /3%.

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Answer
Consolidated Income Statement of R Ltd and its Subsidiary
for the Year ended 31 December

£000 £000
Group profit on ordinary activities before taxation (see workings (b)) 54,900
Taxation on profit on ordinary activities (28,000)
Group profit on ordinary activities after tax 26,900
Minority interest (4,000)
Profit for year attributable to holding company 22,900
Dividends: paid –
proposed 10,000 (10,000)
Retained profit for year 12,900

Statement of Group Retained Profits

£000
Balance at 1 January 53,000
Retained for the year 12,900
Balance at 31 December 65,900

Workings
(a) Unrealised profit
Unrealised profit in inventory (£400,000 × 25%): £100,000
This is all allocated to the group in accordance with IAS 27:

(b) Trading Profit

R S Combined
£000 £000 £000
As stated 25,000 30,000 55,000
Unrealised profit – (100) (100)
As restated 25,000 29,900 54,900

(c) Minority Interest

£000
S Ltd Trading profit after tax 16,000
25% thereof 4,000

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(d) Dividends
Note that only the dividends proposed by the holding company are shown in the
consolidated income statement.
(e) Retained Profit for Year

R S Combined
£000 £000 £000
As individual P & L 4,750 6,000 10,750
Inter-company dividend (3,750) – (3,750)
Dividends paid and proposed – 10,000 10,000
1,000 16,000 17,000
Minority interest (as per workings (c)) – (4,000) (4.000)
1,000 12,000 13,000
Unrealised profit – (75) (75)
1,000 11,900 12,900

(f) Balance Brought Forward

R S Combined
£000 £000 £000
As stated 35,000 40,000 75,000
Minority interest 25% – (10,000) (10,000)
35,000 30,000 65,000
Pre-acquisition profit (75% × £16m) – (12,000) (12,000)
35,000 18,000 53,000

Note that as no information was given regarding the cost of R investment in S, goodwill
cannot be ascertained and is ignored.

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Example 2
X plc bought 60% of Z Ltd many years ago when the reserves of Z Ltd stood at £100,000. X
plc also bought 20% of Z Ltd preference shares at the same date. The summarised income
statements for the year ended 31 December were as follows:

X plc Z Ltd
£000 £000 £000 £000
Gross profit 2,000 500
Expenses (1,300) (200)
Net profit 700 300
Investment income 52 –
Profit before tax 752 300
Taxation (210) (90)
Profit after tax 542 210
Dividends paid: Ordinary 100 20
Preference 10 10
Dividends proposed: Ordinary 120 60
Preference 10 (240) 10 (100)
Retained 302 110
Reserves b/f 500 200
Reserves c/f 802 310

X plc sold goods to Z Ltd at invoice price £300,000 (invoiced at cost + 50%). Z Ltd has still
to sell half of these goods at the year end.
Prepare an income statement for X plc and its subsidiary for the year ended
31 December.
Workings
(a) Unrealised profit in inventory:
50
× £300,000 × ½ = £50,000
150
This is eliminated in full against the group results as the sale was from the holding
company to the subsidiary.
(b) Dividends received by X plc from Z Ltd:
£000
Preference (20% × (£10,000 + £10,000)) 4
Ordinary (60% × (£20,000 + £60,000)) 48
52

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(c) Minority interest:

£000 £000
Z Ltd profit after tax 210
less Preference dividend (20) Minority Share 80% 16
Attributable to ordinary shareholders 190 Minority Share 40% 76
Total 92

(d) Reserves b/f:

£000
X plc 302
Z Ltd 60% × (110 – 100) 6
308

Answer
X plc and Subsidiary
Consolidated Income Statement for Year ended 31 Dec

£000
Gross profit (2,000 + 500 – 50) 2,450
Expenses (1,300 + 200) (1,500)
Profit on ordinary activities before taxation 950
Taxation (210 + 90) (300)
Profit on ordinary activities after taxation 650
Minority interest (as per working (c)) (92)
558
Dividends paid and proposed (240)
Retained profit for the year 318
Reserves b/f (as per working (d)) 308
Reserves c/f 626

C. GROUP ACCOUNTS – EXAMPLE

This example is aimed at consolidating your knowledge of group accounts acquired over this
and the previous unit. You may wish to attempt it without looking at the answer – allow 30
minutes to complete it.
On 1 January Year 1, H plc acquired an 80% ordinary shareholding in S Ltd for £600,000
when the balances on S Ltd share capital and reserves were £400,000 and £100,000
respectively. At the same date, H plc had acquired 25% of the ordinary shares in A Ltd and
had secured board representation with a view to long-term and significant involvement with A
Ltd. The cost of the investment in A Ltd was £140,000 and the balances in A Ltd accounts
for share capital and reserves were £200,000 and £80,000 respectively.

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The summarised financial statements of H plc, S Ltd and A Ltd at 31 December Year 3 are
shown below and you are to prepare a consolidated balance sheet at that date and a
consolidated income statement for the year to 31 December Year 3.
The non-current assets of S Ltd were considered to have a fair value of £1,200,000 at 1
January Year 1 and this has not yet been incorporated in the financial statements.
Assume that the goodwill in the combination with S has been impaired by £6,000 as at 31
December Year 3. The is no evidence of impairment in the fair value of the investment in A.
There are no inter-company items needing adjustment.
Income Statements

H plc S Ltd A Ltd

£000 £000 £000
Pre-tax profit 1,320 260 180
Tax (400) (60) (40)
Profit after tax 920 200 140
Dividends (200) – –
Retained profit 720 200 140

Balance Sheets

H plc S Ltd A Ltd

£000 £000 £000
Non-current assets 2,000 1,000 400
Investment in: Subsidiary 600 – –
Associate 140 – –
Net current assets 660 240 200
3,400 1,240 600
Creditors: amounts falling due after more than 1 year (400) (40) (120)
3,000 1,200 480

Share capital 800 400 200

Reserves 2,200 800 280
3,000 1,200 480

Suggested approach:
(a) Calculate the goodwill for each acquisition and action the impairment if any
(b) Calculate minority interest in S Ltd
(c) Calculate investment in associate for A Ltd
(d) Calculate group reserves at 31 December Year 3
(e) Prepare accounts

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Workings
(a) Goodwill calculations
£000 £000
S Ltd: Purchase consideration 600
80% ordinary share capital 320
80% pre-acquisition reserves 80
80% revaluation reserve (fair value) (1,200 – 1,000) × 80% 160 (560)
Goodwill on acquisition 40

Impairment: £6,000
£000 £000
A Ltd: Purchase consideration 140
25% of ordinary share capital 50
25% pre-acquisition reserves 20 (70)
Goodwill on acquisition 70

(b) Minority interest in S Ltd

£000
20% ordinary shares 80
20% reserves 160
20% revaluation 40
280

(c) Investment in associated company

£000
Cost of investment 140
Group share of post-acquisition retained profits (25% × (280 – 80)) 50
190

Equals: 25% of A Ltd net assets at 31.12. Year 3 (i.e. 480 × 25%) 120
plus Goodwill 70
190

(d) Group reserves (using a "T" account)

GROUP RESERVES
£000 £000
S Ltd pre-acquisition reserve 80 H Ltd 2,200
Minority interests 160 S Ltd 800
Impairment 6 A Ltd (share) 50
Balance c/d 2,804
3,050 3,050

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Group Income Statement for the Year ended 31 December Year 3

£000
Profit before tax (1,320 + 260 + (180 × 25%)) 1,625
Taxation (400 + 60 + (40 × 25%)) (470)
Profit after tax 1,155
Impairment of goodwill (6)
S Minority interest (20% × 200) (40)
Profit after tax and minority interest 1,109
Dividend (100)
Group retained profit for the year 1,009

Group Balance Sheet as at 31 December Year 3

£000
Non-current assets
Intangible (40  6) 34
Tangible (including revaluation) 3,200
Investment in associated undertaking 190
Net current assets 900
4,324
Creditors: amounts falling due after more than 1 year (440)
3,884

Share capital 800

Reserves 2,804
Minority interest 280
3,884

Note that only the unimpaired goodwill in relation to S appears under intangibles.

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Questions for Practice

5. Bold plc purchased 75% of the ordinary share capital of Surf Ltd several years ago
when Surf Ltd's retained earnings were £200,000. Bold plc has also owned 25% of
Tide Ltd since 31 December Year 0. At that date Tide Ltd's reserves were £40,000.
The income statements for the three companies for the year ended 31 December Year
7 were as follows:

Bold plc Surf Ltd Tide Ltd

£000 £000 £000
Sales 1,000 800 500
Cost of sales (600) (450) (200)
Gross profit 400 350 300
Expenses (200) (200) (100)
Operating profit 200 150 200
Dividends receivable 60 – –
Profit before tax 260 150 200
Taxation (70) (48) (60)
Profit after tax 190 102 140
Dividends proposed (100) (60) (60)
Retained profit for year 90 42 80
Retained profit b/f 1,200 800 400
Retained profit c/f 1,290 842 480

Prepare a consolidated income statement and analysis of retained profits for the year
ended 31 December Year 7 for the Bold group. Show also how these profits would be
reflected in reserve movements.

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6. This final question for practice is taken from the December 2007 examination paper.
On 1 October 2005, Helman enterprise acquired 2 million of Sabine enterprises'
ordinary shares paying £4.50 per share. At the date of acquisition, the retained
earnings of Sabine were £4,200,000. The draft balance sheets of the two enterprises
as at 30 September 2007 were as follows:

Helman Sabine
£000 £000 £000 £000
Assets
Non-current assets
Property 11,000 6,000
Plant and equipment 10,225 5,110
Investment in Sabine 9,000
30,225 11,110
Current assets
Inventory 4,925 3,295
Trade receivables 5,710 1,915
Cash 495 11,130 5,210
Total assets 41,355 16,320

Equity and liabilities

Equity
Ordinary shares £1 5,000 2,500
Retained earnings 25,920 8,290
30,920 10,790
Non-current liabilities
10% loans 6,000 2,000
Current liabilities
Trade payables 3,200 2,255
Bank overdraft 285
Tax 1,235 4,435 990 3,530
Total equity and liabilities 41,355 16,320

Extracts from the income statement of Sabine enterprise before inter-group

adjustments for the year ended 30 September 2007 are:

£000
Profit before tax 2700
Taxation 800
Profit after tax 1900

The following information is also relevant:

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312 Group Accounts 2: The Consolidated Accounts

(a) During the year, Sabine sold goods to Helman for £0.9 million. Sabine adds a
20% mark-up on cost to all its sales. Goods with a transfer price of £240,000
were included in Helman's inventory as at 30 September 2007.
(b) The fair value of Sabine's land and plant and equipment at the date of acquisition
was £1 million and £2 million respectively in excess of the carrying values.
Sabine's balance sheet has not taken account of these fair values. Group
depreciation policy is land not depreciated, plant and equipment depreciated
10% per annum on fair value.
(c) An impairment review has been carried out on the consolidated goodwill as at 30
September 2007 and it has been found that the goodwill has been impaired by
£400,000 during the year.
Required
Prepare the consolidated balance sheet of the Helman group as at 30 September
2007.

Now check your answers with those provided at the end of the unit

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ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS FOR PRACTICE

1. H plc Consolidated Balance Sheet as at 31 December Year 9

£000
Tangible non-current assets (1,000 + 1,400 + 200) 2,600
(i.e. including revaluation)
Net current assets (500 + 400) 900
3,500
Represented by:
£1 Ordinary shares 100
Profit & loss account 2,960
3,040
Minority interest 440
3,500

Note that "negative goodwill", in accordance with IFRS 3, is written off to retained
profits.
Workings

COST OF CONTROL
£000 £000
Investment in S Ltd 700 Shares (80%) 80
Negative goodwill (bal. fig.) 20 Pre-acquisition profit and loss
(80% × 600) 480
Revaluation (80% × 200) 160
720 720

GROUP RESERVES
£000 £000
Minority interest (20% × 330 H plc 2,100
1,650)
Pre-acquisition profit and loss 480 S Ltd 1,650
CBS (balancing figure) 2,940
3,750 3,750

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MINORITY INTEREST
£000 £000
CBS (balancing figure) 440 Shares (20%) 20
Preference shares (100%) 50
Revaluation (20%) 40
Profit and loss (20%) 330
440 440

The figure for "profit and loss" included in the minority interest working at £330,000
represents 20% of the total profit and loss a/c of S Ltd. There is no distinction drawn
between the pre- and post- acquisition profits as far as the minority interest is
concerned, whereas the cost of control account includes only the group share of the
pre-acquisition profits. This is a common area for mistakes and you must be sure
that you fully understand it. To clarify:

£000
S profit and loss account 1,650

This has been disposed of as follows:

Taken to cost of control: 80% of pre-acquisition profit (80% × 600) 480
Taken to group profit and loss:
80% of post-acquisition profit i.e. 80% × (1,650 – 600) 840
Taken to minority interest: (20% × 1,650) 330
1,650

2. H plc Consolidated Balance Sheet as at 31 December Year 9

£000
Intangible non-current asset: goodwill 42.75
Tangible non-current assets (800 + 900) 1,700.00
Net current assets (520 + 360 + 20) 900.00
2,642.75
Represented by:
£1 Ordinary shares 100.00
Retained profits 2,252.75
2,352.75
Minority interest 290.00
2,642.75

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Workings

COST OF CONTROL
£000 £000
Investment 420.00 Shares (75%) 150.00
Pre-acquisition reserves
(75% × 300) 225.00
Goodwill 45.00
420.00 420.00

Goodwill is impaired by £2,250.

GROUP RESERVES
£000 £000
Minority interest H plc 1,760.00
(25% × 960) 240.00 S Ltd 960.00
Pre-acquisition reserves 225.00
Goodwill written off 2.25
CBS (balancing figure) 2,252.75
2,720.00 2,720.00

MINORITY INTEREST
£000 £000
CBS (balancing figure) 290.00 Shares (25%) 50.00
Reserves (25% × 960) 240.00
290.00 290.00

Notes
(a) The minority interest could also have been calculated by taking 25% of S Ltd's
net assets, i.e. 25% × 1,160 = 290.
(b) The inter-company accounts cancel on consolidation and an adjustment of
£20,000 is made to net current assets to include the cash in transit at year-end,
which increases recorded group liquid assets.

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3. X plc Consolidated Balance Sheet as at 31 December Year 9

£000
Tangible non-current assets (1,200 + 700) 1,900
Net current assets (260 + 350) 610
Debenture stock (50 – 10) (40)
2,470
Represented by:
£1 Ordinary shares 100
Share premium 100
Retained profits 1,810
2,010
Minority interest 460
2,470

Workings

COST OF CONTROL
£000 £000
Investment 250 Shares (60%) 60
Negative goodwill 2 Share premium (60% × 80) 48
Pre-acquisition reserves
(60% × 240) 144
252 252

COST OF DEBENTURES
£000 £000
Cost of investment 10.5 Nominal value of stock 10.0
Premium on acquisition 0.5
10.5 10.5

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GROUP RESERVES
£000 £000
Minority interest (40% × 720) 288.0 X plc 1,520.5
Pre-acquisition reserves 144.0 Y Ltd 720.0
Premium on acquisition of
debentures 0.5
CBS (balancing figure) 1,808.0
2,240.5 2,240.5

MINORITY INTEREST
£000 £000
CBS 460 Shares (40%) 40
Preference shares (100%) 100
Share premium (40%) 32
Reserves (40%) 288
460 460

Note that negative goodwill is written off to retained profits in accordance with IFRS 3.

4. Consolidated Balance Sheet as at 30 June Year 8

£000
Intangible asset (goodwill) 387.6
Plant & machinery 4,106.0
Inventory (1,120 + 480 – 10) 1,590.0
Debtors 1,560.0
Bank 250.0
Creditors (1,430.0)
6,463.6
Represented by:
£1 Ordinary shares 2,000.0
Reserves 3,839.6
5,839.6
Minority interest 624.0
6,463.6

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Workings
(a) Plant & Machinery and Inventory Unrealised Profits
(i) £000 £000
Hold plc 3,200
Sub Ltd 960
less Profit on sale (60)
plus Excess depreciation 6 906
4,106

The excess depreciation is calculated as follows: £

10% Depreciation on the asset transferred
(cost £300,000) in Sub's books 30,000
10% Depreciation on the cost of the asset to the group 24,000
Thus increase in group reserves 6,000

(ii) Stock from Sub in Hold's books: £30,000

Unrealised profit element (mark-up 50%)
allocated to group reserves: £10,000
(b) Goodwill
This calculation is merely the normal cost of control a/c done using a
memorandum format:
£000 £000
Investment in Sub Ltd 1,200
Shares (60% × 200) 120
Pre-acquisition reserves (60% × 1,040) 624 744
Goodwill 456

Annual amortisation over 20 years: £22,800

(c) Minority Interest
£000
40% ordinary shares in Sub 80
40% Sub profit and loss 544
624

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(d) Consolidated reserves

Again, done using a memorandum format instead of a "T" account:
£000 £000
Hold 3,780.0
Unrealised profit in machinery cost (60.0)
Sub 1,360.0
Unrealised profit in stock (10.0)
Excess depreciation 6.0
1,356.0
Pre-acquisition profits 60% × 1,040 (624.0)
Minority interest 40% × 1,360 (544.0)
Group share of Sub post-acquisition profits 188.0
3,908.0
less Goodwill (3 years at £22,800 pa) 68.4
Balance to CBS 3,839.6

5. Tide is treated as an associated company and is consolidated using the equity method.
Bold plc
Group Consolidated Income Statement for the Year ended 31 December Year 7

£000 £000
Sales (1,000 + 800) 1,800.0
Cost of sales (600 + 450) 1,050.0
Gross profit 750.0
Expenses (200 + 200) 400.0
350.0
Share of associated company profit before tax (200 × 25%) 50.0
400.0
Taxation: Group (70 + 48) 118.0
Associate (25% × 60) 15.0 133.0
Profit after tax 267.0
Minority interest (25% × 102) 25.5
Profit after tax attributable to the group 241.5
Dividend 100.0
Retained profit for year 141.5

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6. Note that the marks allocated within the answer are also shown here.

Helman Group Marks

Consolidated Balance Sheet as at 30 September 2007

£000
Assets
Non-current assets 2
Land and property (11,000 + 6,000 + 1,000) 18,000
Plant and equipment (see workings) 16,935 3
Intangible assets (see workings) 840 4
35,775
Current assets
Inventory (see workings) 8,180 2
Trade receivables (5,710 + 1,915) 7,625 ½
Cash 495 16,300 ½
Total assets 52,075

Equity and liabilities

Equity
Ordinary share capital 5,000 1
Retained earnings (see workings) 28,440 5
Minority interest (see workings) 2,670 3
Total equity 36,110
Non-current liabilities
10% loans (6,000 + 2,000) 8,000 ½
Current liabilities
Trade payables (3,200 + 2,255) 5,455 ½
Bank overdraft 285 ½
Tax (1,235 + 990) 2,225 7,965 ½
Total equity and liabilities 52,075

Presentation 2
Workings
Plant and equipment: 10,225 + 5,110 + 2,000 – 400 (depreciation)
Intangible assets: 1,240 (goodwill) – 400 (impairment)
Inventory: 4,925 + 3,295 – 40 (unrealised profit)
Retained earnings:
25,920 + 80%(8,290 – 4,200 (preacq) – 400 (dep) –40 (urp)) – 400 (impairment)
Minority interest: 20%(10,790 – 400 – 40 + 3,000 (revaluation))

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Calculation of goodwill:
£000 £000
Paid: 2m x £4.50 9,000
Bought:
2m £1 shares 2,000
80% revaluation of assets £3m 2,400
80% retained earnings at date of acquisition £4.2m 3,360 (7,760)
Goodwill 1,240

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 323

Study Unit 13
Financial Accounting Examination – Deleted: The Compulsory
Question
The Compulsory Question

Contents Page

A. The Financial Accounting Examination 324

B. December 2007 Compulsory Question 325

Technique for Answering the Question 326
Answer 328

C. Specimen Examination Compulsory Question 330

Answer 332

Deleted: ¶

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A. THE FINANCIAL ACCOUNTING EXAMINATION Deleted: The Compulsory

Question

The financial accounting examination requires you to answer a compulsory question in

section A and you have a choice of three questions from seven in section B. All questions
carry equal marks – 25 marks – but it is imperative that you make a good attempt at the
compulsory question. This compulsory question will always require you to prepare financial
statements for a business, starting from balances in the books/ledgers of the business and
taking account of further additional information. You may, for example, be asked to prepare
a balance sheet or an income statement, or a statement of changes in equity, or indeed any
combination of the three.
The style of these financial statements is given to you in study unit 4 and we advise you to
study these carefully as marks will be awarded in the question for presentation style. The
additional information you will be given in the question will require you to make adjustments
to the balances in the business books in accordance with IASs that we have covered in this
study manual.
This study unit provides detailed guidance on tackling the compulsory question. We set out
here the compulsory questions, together with their answers, from both the December 2007
examination and the specimen paper for this module. Also included, in respect of the
December 2007 December question, is the marking scheme which give you a guide to what
the examiners are looking for when assessing your answer.

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B. DECEMBER 2007 COMPULSORY QUESTION Deleted: The Compulsory

Question

The trial balance of Mullion enterprise for the year ended 30 September 2007 is as follows:

Debits Credits
£000 £000
Purchases 5,200
Revenue 12,363
Trade receivables (debtors) 1,180
Trade payables (creditors) 550
Distribution costs 920
Administration costs 1,650
Inventory 1 October 2006 1,620
Bank interest 5
Bank overdraft 220
Wages and salaries – administration 420
Provision for bad debts 52
Bad debts written off 5
Property at cost 3,100
Plant and equipment at cost 2,200
Vehicles at cost 900
Property accumulated depreciation as at 1 October 2006 750
Plant and equipment accumulated depreciation as at 1
October 2006 520
Vehicles accumulated depreciation as at 1 October 2006 230
Retained earnings as at 1 October 2006 415
Ordinary share capital £1 shares 700
Other reserves 250
Long term loans 6% redeemable 2012 1500
Bank 350
17,550 17,550

The following information is also available:

1. The inventory (stock) as at 30 September 2007 has been valued at £1,570,000.
2. As at 30 September 2007, rent owing is £90,000 and £25,000 had been paid in
advance for insurance. Both these expenses are chargeable 60% to distribution and
40% to administration.
3. The interest on the long-term loan needs accruing for the year.
4. Tax is to be provided at 20% of profit after charging all expenses and interest.
5. Depreciation is to be provided for the year at the following rates:
(i) Property: 2% on cost, chargeable 50% distribution and 50% administration

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(ii) Plant and equipment: 10% on cost, chargeable 60% distribution and 40% Deleted: The Compulsory
administration Question

(iii) Vehicles: 20% reducing balance, all chargeable to distribution.

6. Provision for doubtful debts is to be set at 5% of trade receivables as at 30 September
2007.
7. Administration costs include £350,000 in relation to spending on research and
development in connection with a new product. The product is set to go on sale on
1 January 2008 and revenue from the product is expected to cover all costs of
production.
Required
Prepare the income statement (profit and loss account) for the year ended 30 September
2007 and the balance sheet as at that date for Mullion in accordance with IASs.

Total 25 marks

Technique for Answering the Question

The best approach in answering questions of this kind is to set up, at the outset, a template
for the financial statements you are asked to prepare. In this case, that would be an income
statement and a balance sheet. You can then start to slot figures into them as you work
through the information provided.
The next step is to deal with the additional information. We'll take you through this carefully.
Note 1
This gives us the closing inventory figure and from this, plus the purchases figure and
the opening inventory (inventory 1 October 2006) from the trial balance, we can
calculate the cost of sales to match against the revenue to commence the income
statement. Note also that this closing inventory figure will need to appear under
current assets on the balance sheet.
Note 2
This refers to accruals and prepayments, and we are also told where we should charge
these in the income statement.
 The rent owing of £90,000 needs to be accrued and charged 60% (that is
£54,000) to distribution expenses, shown in the trial balance as £920,000, and
40% (that is £36,000) to administration expenses, currently in the trial balance at
£1,650,000. This accrual of £90,000 will also appear in the balance sheet under
current liabilities.
 The insurance is a prepayment and therefore 60% of £25,000 (£15,000) needs to
be deducted from distribution expenses and 40% (£10,000) from administration
expenses. This prepayment of £25,000 will also be included on the balance
sheet under current assets.
Note 3
Here we need to accrue the interest on the long term loan due for the accounting
period. The long term loans carry an interest rate of 6% on a nominal value of
£1,500,000, so that is an annual interest payment of £90,000. This will be shown on
the income statement under finance/interest costs. Again the accrual for the interest
will need to be included on the balance sheet under current liabilities.

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Note 4 Deleted: The Compulsory
Question
We cannot calculate the tax figure at this stage – rather, we will need to wait until we
have completed the income statement to the point "net profit before tax". However,
don't forget to enter it in the income statement when you do calculate it, and also to
accrue it under current liabilities on the balance sheet.
Note 5
IAS 16 requires us to depreciate all non-current tangible assets and also test them for
impairment (see study unit 6). In this example, we are not made aware of any
impairment, but we are given the depreciation rates to apply. So, calculate these being
careful to apply the correct methods as specified in the question – i.e. straight line
depreciation for property and plant and equipment, applied to the cost figure, and
reducing balance depreciation for vehicles, to the net book value.
You can see the calculations for depreciation in the answer after the balance sheet.
Ensure that you allocate the charge for depreciation in accordance with the question to
distribution and administration expenses, and don't forget that these charges for
depreciation will also need to be added to the current provision in the trial balance
when you prepare the balance sheet.
Note 6
IAS 37 requires us to provide for provisions when it is probable they will occur and
when we can make a reliable estimate (see study unit 7). Bad debts occur in almost all
businesses and we can generally estimate the provision required from previous years'
data.
In this example, we are told the provision needs to be carried at 5% of trade
receivables as at 30 September 2007. Trade receivables are shown as £1,180,000 in
the trial balance, so the provision needed is £59,000 – BUT there is already a provision
in the trial balance for £52,000, so we only need to provide the increase in this year's
income statement – i.e. £7,000.
In addition, remember that the provision for doubtful debts needs to be deducted from
trade receivables to arrive at the balance sheet figure for trade receivables. This will
be £59,000 – our new provision.
Note 7
Research and development costs are dealt with in IAS 38 (see study unit 7).
Where we can match the costs of development with future income, then we are
permitted to capitalise the development costs as an intangible asset. Remember to
check that this expenditure is likely to meet the criteria laid down in IAS 38 for
capitalisation. In this case, as the product is set to go on sale on 1 January 2008, we
can assume the criteria are met. So, you need to deduct the costs of £350,000 from
administration expenses that appear on the income statement and show them as an
intangible asset under non-current assets on the balance sheet.
At this point you should have several figures slotted into the templates. All that remains to
do is to transfer the rest of the items from the trial balance to the correct place in the
templates of the income statement and balance sheet. For example, bank interest (£5,000)
should be transferred to finance/interest costs on the income statement, and ordinary share
capital (£700,000) is transferred to ordinary share capital under equity on the balance sheet.
(A good technique, by the way, is to tick every note and every item on the trial balance sheet
as you deal with it or transfer it. This way you will not miss anything.)

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Finally, calculate the sub-totals in the income statement and calculate the tax figure as per Deleted: The Compulsory
Note 4 (and remember to show this in the balance sheet), and then transfer the final profit Question
after tax figure (£3,108,000) as an addition to retained earnings on the balance sheet.
Calculate sub-totals in the balance sheet and ensure net assets equals total equity.
The full answer is given below.
Marking
If you look at the marking scheme on the answer, you will see that if you had just dealt with
the notes (excluding the tax) within the question and placed those amounts on the relevant
template, you would have scored 17 marks!!! 2 marks are awarded for presentation, so you
need to remember the formats and where to place sub-totals and totals. 1½ marks are
available for calculating the correct tax figure and entering it in the statements, and ½ mark
for the final figure of retained earnings. Only 4 marks are available for correctly transferring
unadjusted items from the trial balance to the relevant statement.

Answer
Mullion
Income Statement (Profit and Loss Account)
for the year ended 30 September 2007

£000s £000s marks

Revenue 12,363 ½
Opening inventory 1,620 ½
Purchases 5,200 ½
6,820
Closing inventory 1,570 (5,250) ½
Gross profit 7,113 ½
Distribution costs (920 TB + 54 rent – 15 insurance 3
+ 31 + 132 + 134 depreciation) 1,256
Administration costs (1,650 TB + 36 rent – 10 insurance 3½
+ 31 + 88 depreciation – 350 RD + 420 wages) 1,865
Provision for doubtful debts (59 – 52) 7 ½
Bad debts written off 5 ½
Finance costs: – bank interest 5 ½
– loan interest 90 95 (3,228) 1
Net profit before tax 3,885
Tax (777) 1
Profit after tax 3,108

Total marks: 12½

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Mullion Deleted: The Compulsory
th
Balance sheet as at 30 September 2007 Question

£000 £000 £000 Marks

Assets and liabilities
Non-current assets Cost Dep'n nbv
Property 3,100 (812) 2,288 1
Plant and equipment 2,200 (740) 1,460 1
Vehicles 900 (364) 536 1
6,200 (1,916) 4,284
Intangible assets – research and development 350 1
4,634
Current assets
Inventories 1,570 ½
Trade receivables (1,180 – 59 provision) 1121 ½
Insurance 25 ½
Bank 350 3,066 ½
Current liabilities
Trade and other payables (550 + 90 rent + 90 interest) (730) 1½
Tax (777) ½
Bank overdraft (220) (1,727) ½
Total net current assets 1,339
Non-current liabilities
Long terms loans 6% (redeemable 2012) (1,500) ½
Total net assets 4,473

Equity
Share capital 700 ½
Other reserves 250 ½
Retained earnings (415 + 3,108) 3,523 ½
4,473

Total marks: 10½

Additional marks for presentation: 2

Calculations
Depreciation
Amount Allocation
Property: 2% x 3,100 = 62 31 Distribution : 31 Administration
Plant and equipment: 10% x 2200 = 220 132 Distribution : 88 Administration
Vehicles: 20% x (900 – 230) = 134 134 Distribution
Provisions
Provision for bad debts: 5% x 1,180 = 59

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C. SPECIMEN EXAMINATION COMPULSORY QUESTION Deleted: The Compulsory

Question

For this question, we have not included the marking scheme or a detailed work through of Formatted: Bullets and
Numbering
the question. We suggest you attempt this question using the technique as we have
described in section B.
You should also note that the format of the balance sheet in the answer is a little different to
that we used in the answer to the question from the December 2007 examination. This is an
alternative presentation provided in the guidance notes to IAS 1 and either template would
be acceptable. We find the template used in the answer to December 2007 a little clearer as
it shows the net assets figure, but both templates would gain presentation marks.

J. P. Matthew plc are wholesalers. The following is their trial balance as at 31 December
2006.

£ £
Dr Cr
Ordinary Share Capital: £l shares 150,000
Share Premium 10,000
General Reserve 8,000
Retained Profits as at 31/12/2005 27,300
Stock: 31/12/2005 33,235
Sales 481,370
Purchases 250,270
Returns Outwards 12,460
Returns Inwards 13,810
Carriage Inwards 570
Carriage Outwards 4,260
Warehouse Wages 50,380
Salesmen's Salaries 32,145
Administrative Wages and Salaries 29,900
Plant and Machinery 62,500
Hire of Motor Vehicles 9,600
Provision for Depreciation – Plant and Machinery 24,500
accumulated depreciation as at 1/1/06
Goodwill 47,300
General Distribution Expenses 2,840
General Administrative Expenses 4,890
Directors' Remuneration 14,800
Rents Receivable 3,600
Trade receivables 164,150
Cash at Bank 30,870
Trade payables 34,290
751,520 751,520

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 Financial Accounting Examination – The Compulsory Question 331 Formatted: Font: Arial, 10 pt,
Kern at 11 pt
Formatted: Font: Arial, 10 pt,
Kern at 11 pt
You are given the following information: Deleted: The Compulsory
Question
(1) Closing stock at 31/12/06 has been valued at £45,890.
(2) Plant and machinery is to be depreciated at 20% straight line; 60% relates to
distributive expenses, 40% relates to administrative expenses.
(3) Motor vehicle hire is to be split £6,200 to distribution and £3,400 to administrative
expenses.
(4) Audit fees of £600 need to be accrued for the year ending 31/12/06.
(5) A Corporation Tax provision of £29,100 is needed.
(6) A final dividend of 36p per share approved by the directors has not yet been accounted
for.
(7) An impairment review is undertaken in respect of the goodwill and its value is found to
have been impaired by £5,000.

Required
A Trading and Profit and Loss Account for the year ended 31 December 2006 and a Balance
Sheet as at 31 December 2006.
Show all your workings.
(25 marks)

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332 Financial Accounting Examination – The Compulsory Question Formatted: Font: Arial, 10 pt,
Kern at 11 pt
Formatted: Font: Arial, 10 pt,
Kern at 11 pt
Answer Deleted: The Compulsory
Question
JP Matthews plc
Trading and Profit and Loss Account for the year ended 31 December 2006.

£ £
Sales 481,370
Returns Inwards (13,810)
467,560
Cost of Sales
Opening Stock 33,235
Add: Purchases 250,270
Less: Purchases Returns (12,460)
Carriage Inwards 570
271,615
Less: Closing Stock (45,890) (225,725)
Gross Profit 241,835
Other Income – Rent Received 3,600
245,435
Distribution Expenses
Carriage Outwards 4,260
Warehouse Wages 50,380
Salesmen's Salaries 32,145
Plant and Machinery Depreciation 7,500
Motor Vehicle Hire 6,200
General Expenses 2,840
103,325
Administrative Expenses
Wages and Salaries 29,900
Motor Vehicle Hire 3,400
General Expenses 4,890
Directors' Remuneration 14,800
Plant and Machinery Depreciation 5,000
Audit Fee 600*
58,590 (161,915)
83,520
Goodwill impairment (5,000)
78,520
Less: Taxation (29,100)
49,420
Less: Ordinary Dividend (54,000)
Retained Profit for the Year (£4,580)

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 Financial Accounting Examination – The Compulsory Question 333 Formatted: Font: Arial, 10 pt,
Kern at 11 pt
Formatted: Font: Arial, 10 pt,
Kern at 11 pt
JP Matthews plc Deleted: The Compulsory
Balance Sheet as at 31 December 2006. Question

£
NON-CURRENT ASSETS
Tangible 25,500
Intangible 42,300
67,800
CURRENT ASSETS
Stock 45,890
Trade receivables 164,150
Cash at Bank 30,870 240,910
CREDITORS
Due within 1 year
Trade payables 34,290
Dividends 54,000
Tax 29,100
Audit fee 600 (117,990)
122,920
190,720
CAPITAL AND RESERVES
Paid Up Share Capital:
150,000 £1 Ordinary Shares 150,000
RESERVES
Share Premium Account 10,000
General Reserve 8,000
Retained Profits 22,720 40,720
190,720

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334 Financial Accounting Examination – The Compulsory Question Formatted: Font: Arial, 10 pt,
Kern at 11 pt
Formatted: Font: Arial, 10 pt,
Kern at 11 pt
Deleted: The Compulsory
Question

© ABE and RRC