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Towards a Sustainable Built Environment

Article · December 2009

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Towards a Sustainable Built Environment

By Dr David Grierson, University of Strathclyde Glasgow

Sustainable development aims towards improvement and increased Essentially we have gone beyond that which the
quality of life for all on a planet that is finite in its physical resource environment can afford. Excessive levels of production and
and its capacity to absorb waste. As defined by the Brundtland consumption, resulting from economic growth models that
Commission report (WCED, 1987) the term implies that a balance equate success with material throughput, are causing
can be achieved between human socio-economic activities and the excessive levels of environmental impact. Although we
natural environment’s capacity to provide resources and absorb cannot say with certainty at what rate or to what extent,
waste on a global scale. Recent research indicates, however, that evidence suggests that we are now damaging the
globally our demand began to outstrip the Earth’s carrying capacity biosphere, perhaps beyond repair. The application of the
in the 1980s (Wackernagel et al, 2002). Today the ecological precautionary principle (EU, 2003) has been proposed as
footprint of the world population/economy exceeds the total one way of addressing uncertainty and offering a practical
productive area (or ecological space) available on a planet (Rees et way to pursue environmental sustainability (Tickner et al.,
2001).
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Accepting that there can be no sustainable development The scale of resource use and environmental alteration
without a sustainable environment to base it upon recognises currently attributable to the construction industry dwarfs most
the need for a fundamental change in attitude towards other industrial sectors. Globally environmental sustainability
prioritising the preservation of an environment capable of will depend on the successful implementation of measures to
sustaining an acceptable quality of life for everyone (Lovins and reduce the negative impacts of the built environment on the
Lovins, 2001). Agenda 21, the EC’s Sixth Environmental Action natural environment.
Programme: Environment 2010: Our future, our choice, (EU,
2001) and the UK National Strategy for Sustainable A response to the precautionary principle within architecture
Development: Securing the future (DEFRA, 2005) rightly lies in the design of buildings that satisfy needs while
emphasise the need to review development processes in a demonstrating increasing material and energy efficiencies.
holistic way moving towards a more balanced relationship Buildings consume energy and resources and generate
between social, economic and environmental factors. waste on a huge scale. Current construction methods tie us
into future patterns of resource and energy use, waste
Moving away from excessive and damaging activity will mean emissions and environmental damage. When poorly designed
prioritising ways of life that can operate within the current our buildings leave a lasting legacy for the next generation
renewable resources of the ecosystem and the biosphere. that extends adverse social, economic and environmental
Sacrifice will inevitably be part of such a process since we will impacts throughout their life cycle.
have to put the biosphere’s needs before our own
anthropocentric requirements. Remediation will require us to The Scottish Executive’s A Policy for Architecture in Scotland
alter our current material relationships with the surrounding acknowledges that the complex and challenging sustainability
environment. agenda requires fundamental change in our understanding of
the nature and purpose of buildings and the role of building
Although there are many, often conflicting, definitions of what design (Scottish Executive, 2006).
sustainability is, or might become, the move towards the
construction a more sustainable society, if it is be achieved at Governments cannot achieve sustainable development on
all, will be founded upon a redefined relationship between the their own. Making decisions, and developing policies, that
built and natural environments. The Sixth EAP identifies four address issues of global environmental sustainability,
priority areas as climate change, nature and biodiversity, including the better management of natural, community and
environment and health, and natural resources and waste. economic resources, must be made at all levels of our activity
(local, national and international).

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We need visions of a more sustainable future that

For many organisations, the international standard for
environmental management systems, ISO 14001 (International can provide the current generation of designers
Organisation for Standardisation, 1996), forms an appropriate and planners with sufficient motivation without
template for the management of their environmental impairing their capacity to learn what might be the
performance. Since it was introduced in 1996, and with its best direction for change.
subsequent adoption as a key component in the revised Eco-
management and Audit Scheme (EMAS Regulation), there has
been widespread and growing use in many sectors. At the same time we urgently need to improve the
energy and environmental performance of the
Research into the implementation of environmental global built environment.
management systems within the wider context of sustainable
development has raised issues of fundamental importance to An improved building design process aided by
the understanding of the concept if appropriate action is to be
taken. In particular, consideration has been given as to how a appropriate management tools and regulatory
practical realisation of such a system might be applied to the frameworks that address sustainable
lifecycle of a building, including the design phase. development issues is suggested here as a way
forward.
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International Agreements

Viewing sustainability as an integral part of all development has

been embedded in international declarations, conventions and Relevant issues at this scale include:
other plans for action in recent years. The Earth Summit in
June 1992 in Rio de Janeiro was a defining event in the
sustainable development movement and resulted in several
important international agreements including Agenda 21 Building the capacity of local community to participate in
(UNCED, 1992) and the UN Framework Convention on Climate the planning process
Change (UNFCCC 1997). Under Article 12 of the framework
many countries attribute greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions Improved transport infrastructure (access to public
from buildings to be in the range 20-30% of their total national transport, embodied energy, facilities for cyclists, etc.)
emissions. Studies have shown that GHG emissions are
increasing at a rapid rate. Even the most optimistic reports Improved amenities (housing, retail, education,
expect GHG emissions in the housing sector to have increased healthcare, employment, etc.)
by 15% above 1990 levels by 2010. The European Union
Energy Performance of Buildings Directive was published on Social mix (density, tenure, etc.)
the 4th January 2003 (EU, 2003). The overall objective of the
Directive is to promote the improvement of energy performance Accessibility issues (access for those with disabilities,
of buildings within the Community taking into account outdoor DDA compliance, etc.)
climatic and local conditions, as well as indoor climate
requirements and cost-effectiveness. Each EU member state Cultural and historical issues
was required to transpose the Directive into law by the
beginning of 2006 with a further three years being allowed for Site and orientation issues (maximise passive solar
full implementation of specific articles. design, ventilation, views, etc.)

Towards Sustainable Design Air quality issues (external sources of pollution)

The European Commission’s policy document Towards a Land use issues (pollution impact, soil erosion, mixed-
Thematic Strategy on the Urban Environment (2004) outlines use, biomass opportunity, etc.)
problems and challenges facing Europe's urban areas focusing
on 4 priority themes. These themes, selected in conjunction Use of non-renewable resources (appropriate material
with stakeholders, are urban environmental management, selection, building components, recycling potential,
urban transport, sustainable construction and urban durability & adaptability, upgrade, etc.)
design. The themes are cross-cutting in nature and have strong
links with many environmental issues offering scope to make Energy consumption (minimise energy demand by
progress in improving the quality of the urban environment. For design, utilise energy efficient plant, promote renewable
each theme, the Communication sets out the nature of the energy systems etc.)
challenges, what action has been taken so far at the European
level and ideas for what further action should be undertaken to Use of district heating systems (CHP etc.)
address better the challenges identified. The Commission starts
with the premise that the knowledge and techniques needed to Water consumption (water saving devices, grey water
bring about significant improvements in environmental systems, etc.)
performance in urban areas are already known. Whilst there
are some gaps in knowledge, the focus of the Strategy should Environmental impact assessment (air pollution,
then be on achieving clear changes in urban areas rather than greenhouse gas emissions, etc.)
calling for further consideration of the issues. The Commission
recognizes that towns and cities themselves are best placed to Impact on biodiversity (habitat protection, low impact
develop the solutions to the problems they face and proposes maintenance regime, etc.)
that a framework be established to support them in this task. It
proposes that targets should be established at the local level Management (life cycle planning, facilities management,
through the adoption of environmental management plans and environmental management system, waste management
sustainable urban transport plans for urban areas. Appropriate etc.)
strategic design at the planning scale of any new proposal, .
particularly where a large volume of housing is involved, is an
important aspect of achieving sustainable development goals
and in creating the foundations of a sustainable community.
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While not exhaustive the list above indicates the diverse range Ecohomes is a version of BREEAM for homes. Balancing
of issues to be considered at the planning stage of a proposal. environmental performance with quality of life issues it was
Many of the same issues are relevant at the design and developed by the Building Research Establishment (BRE)
construction stages of individual buildings and structures. and offers an authoritative rating for new, converted or
renovated homes, and covers houses and flats.
Building for sustainable development involves using design and
construction methods and practices, which strive for integral In February 2008 the UK Government confirmed that a
quality (including economic, social and environmental mandatory rating against the Code for Sustainable Homes
performance) in a very broad (or holistic) way. Sustainable would be implemented from 1 May 2008. The Code
building design will consider the entire life cycle of buildings, measures the sustainability of a new home against categories
taking environmental quality, functional quality and future of sustainable design, rating the 'whole home' as a complete
values into account. A respect for all people, demonstrated package. It uses a 1 to 6 star rating system to communicate
through the provision of a healthy, functional, accessible and the overall sustainability performance of a new home and
attractive built environment, is vital in promoting social sets minimum standards for energy and water use at each
sustainability. Similarly the efficient use of construction budgets, level and, within England, has replaced the Ecohomes
building material and labour within an organized management scheme.
system will promote economic sustainability. Environmental
sustainability will require the rational use of natural resources The Code provides information to home buyers, and offer
and the appropriate management of the building stock. This will builders a tool with which to differentiate themselves in
in turn help to save scarce resources, promote energy sustainability terms.
conservation and improve environmental quality.
Environmentally sustainable buildings aim to lessen their There are mandatory minimum levels of performance
impact on our environment through energy and resource across 7 key issues:
efficiency. Energy efficiency /CO2
Water efficiency
There are a number of assessment methods and tool designed Surface water management
to help UK construction professionals understand and mitigate Site waste management
the environmental impacts of the developments they design Household waste management
and build. BREEAM buildings can be used to assess the Use of materials
environmental performance of any type of building (new and Lifetime homes (applies to Code Level 6 only)
existing).
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Towards Zero Carbon Homes

Alarmed at the level of carbon emissions in the building design These dates and performance requirements are currently
and construction industry, the UK Government has produced subject to a consultation process directed by the Department
energy efficiency targets to be met through the Building for Communities and Local Government. The greatest
Regulations and the Energy Performance of Buildings Directive. difficulty will be in the transition from the 44% to the 100%.
Housing consumes around 30% of the UK's total energy and This difficulty is compounded by the Code Level 6
generates 27% of it CO2 emissions (DCLG, 2007). If the UK is requirement of 100% on-site renewable power generation.
to continue to meet it's commitment towards reducing CO2 Micro-generation is difficult at this scale with perhaps the only
emissions it must not only upgrade existing housing stock but currently available source of reliable power being biomass
must ensure that new homes are built in a way that works CHP. Employing this technology on a national scale is not yet
towards this goal. viable.

The UK Government's ambition is for all new domestic There are economic challenges to the zero carbon approach.
dwellings constructed by 2016 to meet requirements for a “zero Improving environmental performance will increase capital
carbon” home. Zero carbon is defined by the UK Government costs ad inevitably these will have to be absorbed by the
as a home “that, over a year, the net carbon emissions from home owner. Additional regulation will increase costs for
energy use in the home would be zero” (DCLG, 2007). A series planning and building control. And there will also be
of incremental requirements are applied. These steps as initially increased material costs and assembly costs on site. The UK
proposed in the Building a Greener Future: Towards Zero Government expects that the additional cost of constructing a
Carbon Development document require an initial 25% reduction Code level 3 home to be around 2-3% (around £2000) per
in energy/carbon performance, then 44% by 2013, followed dwelling, increasing to 4-7% (around £4000) for a Code level
finally by zero carbon in 2016. 4 home. It is difficult to estimate the future cost of a Code
level 6 zero carbon home in 2016 however some estimates
suggest up to 30% cost increase (DCLG, 2007).

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Level 1 and Level 2 Strategies
Towards a Sustainable Design Management
However implementing many sustainable building design System
features during the design and construction phases can be
justified on cost grounds because they carry little or no Work undertaken in Scotland at the University of Strathclyde,
additional cost. They can simply be regarded as good design Department of Architecture, in recent years has explored the
practice and essentially become embedded within the general articulation of a generic system for sustainable design on two
design decisions of the scheme. In particular decisions taken specific and interrelated scales; dealing with both planning
early in the design stage of a project, with respect to social issues and building design strategies. The sustainable design
issues, passive solar and low energy principles relating to site management system (SDMS) is aligned with the international
and orientation, the form and fabric of a building, and the standard ISO 14001and involves the development of a
selection of appropriate building services, can have a major template for managing an organisation’s performance set
impact on energy savings throughout the building’s life cycle against pre-determined policy and priority.
and can address issues of fuel poverty. These broad design
aspects have an important role in the energy performance of a The basis for the system has been recently piloted in a
building should be considered at the outset when establishing number of housing development projects around Glasgow. It
sustainable strategies for the building design. These are is important to acknowledge that the system is not a
described as Level 1 strategies. replacement for the creative design process but offers a
supporting framework for the implementation of agreed
Level 2 strategies refer to innovative and technology-based actions by the design and construction team, and various
sustainable building design features, and energy saving stakeholders.
systems and equipment where there is significant additional
capital cost associated and where difficulties can be ISO 14001 (Environmental Management) was first published
encountered in the process of implementation (this may in 1996 and specifies the actual requirements for an
include, for example, the application of renewable energy environmental management system. It applies to those
systems such as photovoltaic (PV) panels or biomass heating). environmental aspects which an organization has control and
over which it can be expected to have an influence. Similar in
The decision on whether or not to adopt level 2 features, intent with regard to wider issues of sustainability, the SDMS
systems and equipment in a building will often made on an is applicable to any organization that wishes to:
economic basis, generally by assessing a rate of return on an implement, maintain and improve a sustainable
investment. A typical way to calculate this has been to use the design management system
simple payback period calculated from the following formula: assure itself of its conformance with its own stated
SD policy (those policy commitments of course must
Payback = Capital cost of energy saving feature (£) be made)
period (y) Value of energy savings per year (£/y) demonstrate conformance
ensure compliance with appropriate laws and
To be deemed worthwhile industry usually requires a payback regulations
period of less than 3 years. seek certification of its SDMS by an external third
party organization
make a self-determination of conformance.

The system involves general requirements, policy, planning,

implementation and operation, checking and taking corrective
action, and management review. A design & construction
organisation would identify elements that impact on issues of
sustainability and access relevant legislation.

Objectives for improvement and a management program to

achieve them would be produced with regular reviews for
continual improvement. An auditing authority can periodically
assess the system and, if appropriate, register the
organisation as SDMS compliant.

The system, as it is currently defined, addresses a number of

key urban planning issues and building design strategies
while considering six key related themes as follows:

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1. Human Impact (including quality of life issues, References

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