Dee NI erten eee) ac AVON MoMA Ae ROE R OOP Ose e ee) Lee neat TECHNICAL MANUAL POPULAR HYDROPONIC GARDENS AUDIO VISUAL COURSE Tg toNN A NolN Sy FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION DEVELOPMENT OF THE UNITED NATIONS PROGRAMME REGIONAL OFFICE FOR LATIN AMERICA AND THE CARIBBEANFOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION OF THE UNITED NATIONS UNITED NATIONS DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMME TECHNICAL MENUAL POPULAR HYDROPONIC GARDENS AUDIO VISUAL COURSE César Marulanda Consultor FAO Juan Izquierdo Regional Plant Production Officer FAO REGIONAL OFFICE FOR LATIN AMERICAN AND THE CARIBBEAN SANTIAGO, CHILE 1993CONTENTS . TECHNICAL MANUAL OF THE AUDIOVISUAL COURSE: "POPULAR HYDROPONIC GARDENS" ... CLASS 1: Location and Installation of a Hydroponic Garden ............... CLASS 2: Containers ....... oc. CLASS 3: Cultivation Substrates or Mediums ...... of Seedbeds ............ stew eens CLASS 5: Methods for Applying Popular Hydroponics .. 1.6.0.0... 2.00 ee eee CLASS 6: Nutrition of the Plants.............. CLASS 7: Pest Management and Control ......... CLASS 8: Cost and Profitability of Popular Hydroponic Gardens .............-5 13Productivity of Hydroponic Crops ............ 114 Water Holding Capacity ................. 115 Density of Different Substrates .............. 116 Characteristics, Advantages and Physical and Chemical Properties of Rice Hull .......... 117 Direct Seeding Species in Popular Hydroponic Gardens (PHG): Periods of Time between Different Stages and Seeding Depth ......... ~. M8 Species Seeded for Transplanting in PHG: Number of Seed per Gramm, Seeding Distances and Depth in the Seedbed ........... ee 120 Species Seeded for Transplanting in PHG: Periods of Time between Different Stages ....... 121 Species for Direct Planting in PHG: Recommended Sowing Distances............. 123 Species Seeded for Transplanting in PHG: Recommended Distances . . Species for Direct Seeding in PHG: Calendar of Seeding Seasons for Chile ......... 126 Species Seeded for the Transplanting System in PHG: Calendar of Planting Seasons in Chile. ............0.20 00000, 127 Aromatic and Medicinal Plants which can be Produced through the Popular Hydroponic System ............ wees 129PROLOGUE The trend towards mega-urbanization of Latin American and Caribbean cities, associated with problems of poverty and socioeconomic marginality of their suburbs, is linked with the serious limitations affecting rural development in the countries of the Region. For rural or suburban inhabitants with scarce resources, low incomes, uncertainty regarding employment, and an increasingly Testricted access to food sources, it is necessary that governments, institutions and agencies, and the entire Region to make a very special effort. The development and appropriation of technologies is part of the mandate of Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations. Through this process, which includes training and the transfer of technologies suited to the countries’ socioeconomic conditions, it is intended to promote the development of tools which will make it possible to improve living conditions, and increment the populations’ income level and food supply. In this respect, popular hydroponics is beginning to become consolidated in the Region as an imaginative option in the struggle against poverty. In a number of countries it is part of the base of national programmes; in others it is still in the process of development. There is no doubt that it represents an option in improving income and the quality of life, which maximizes the components of information, while reducing investment to a minimum and providing an alternative for sustainable development. Popular hydroponics was tried through the Regional Project to Overcome Poverty in Latin America and the Caribbean (RLA/86/004), carried out by the United Nations Development Program in different countries of the Region. The FAO Regional Office for Latin America and the Caribbean, has taken, together with the Office of the United Nations Development Program in Santiago, Chile, the initiative to join efforts and start an integrated activity to disseminate this technology.For this purpose an audiovisual teaching unit and a complementary technical manual were prepared to be placed at the disposal of national programs, non-governmental institutions, Teligious organizations, welfare organizations and other institutions wishing to promote, apply, and above all to transform and strengthen the development of micro enterprises for the Production of fresh, healthy and abundant vegetables. This manual is a follow-up of a FAO publication Prepared by the Plant Production and Protection Division of the Head office in Rome, published in 1990, on soilless cultivation for horticultural production. That document which is of a high technical level, together with others produced by the UNDP Project mentioned before, served as a basis for the preparation of the video and manual. Popular hydroponics has proved to be almost unique in its approach, through which it is possible to make productive use of the time available to housewives and children of popular sectors, who in many cases stay at home most of the day. The ability to cultivate perfect vegetables, which prove to be healthy and competitive in the most exclusive markets, does not only improve the hydro-culturists’ self-esteem, but also allows them access to forms of organization and management (micro-enterprises) which generate cultural Processes for personal development and the defeat of poverty. This approach has always been a basic concern of our Organization. Rafael Moreno R. Assistant Director-General Regional Representative for Latin America and the Caribbean1. INTRODUCTION AND OBJECTIVES Popular Hydroponics or “Soilless Cultivation" makes it Possible to produce, with only little water consumption and a small amount of physical work but with great dedication and constancy, fresh, healthy and abundant vegetables in small spaces at home, often making use of discarded elements, which if not used would be garbage. Popular Hydroponics may be called a technology of waste and smallness. With this urban agricultural technology, productive use is made of part of the spare time always available to some members of the family, which normally is spend to activities which contribute little to the development and projection of the family. The potential productivity of hydroponic crops, when carried out under optimum technologic conditions is higher than the productivity obtained through the traditional horticultural system (Annex 1). The most important objectives of a Popular Hydroponics Garden (PHG) are the following: 1. Improve the quantity and quality of the family’s food supply, without increasing costs. 2. Strengthen the family’s economic position by producing income and decreasing expenditure. 3. Create sources of work in cities or in sectors where there is No easy access to stable employment. 4. Generate and promote positive attitudes toward community self-management. 5. Promote micro enterprises, beginning by making use of the spare time of some of the family members. 6. Provide elderly persons or people with physical and mental limitations, with the possibility of feeling useful and valuable to their family, the community and themselves. 7. Induce an early interest in children for productive activities at family level and for joint work at the very place their develop is being carried out.The purpose of the Audiovisual Course is to place at the disposal of the users, trainers and the final target groups appropriate technology of popular hydroponics, aimed at the promotion and formation of horticultural micro enterprises in suburban and rural areas with characteristics of social and economic poverty and marginality. The Technical Manual “Popular Hydroponic Gardens" complements said information and is part of the technological package provided through the Audiovisual Course for self-instruction (video): “Popular Hydroponic Gardens", prepared by the FAO Regional Office for Latin America and the Caribbean (FAO/RLAC) and the United Nations Development Program (UNDP).PHOTOGRAPH 1 Popular Hydroponic Gardens (PHG) make it possible to use any space and material, no matter how small and useless they may appear. Most important is the will, dedication and desire for constant participation in self-development and in the family’s Progress.PHOTOGRAPH 2 Variety, quality and productivity are the excelent characteristics of the products obtained in PHGs developed up to now in suburban and rural areas in several developing countries.PHOTOGRAPH 3 The product obtained from PHG decreases the risk to human health of consuming vegetables produced under production conditions cultivation and post-harvest management with hygienic deficiencies.PHOTOGRAPH 4 Although the course “Popular Hydroponics Gardens" is designed for self-instruction and provides all the necessary technical elements for a successful location and conduction of a PHG, the Support of technicians or trained persons is necessary in the initial stages. These persons should develop a deep social commitment toward recipients and must feel the desire to contribute to the improvement of the living conditions of signifiant marginal sectors of the suburbs and rural area. 10PHOTOGRAPH 5 Uniform and high quality products are obtained with the PHG system. 11PHOTOGRAPH 6 Childhood is most severely affected by conditions of extreme poverty. PHG can contribute to improve the quality of their food. 122. TECHNICAL MANUAL OF THE AUDIOVISUAL COURSE "POPULAR HYDROPONICS GARDEN" CLASS 1 LOCATION AND INSTALLATION OF A HYDROPONIC GARDEN After deciding to form our Popular Hydroponics Garden (PHG), one of the first steps is to select its location. These gardens may be located in different parts of the dwelling (walls, roofs, patios, windows, terraces). There are some important criteria which must be taken into account to achieve greater efficiency, better results and success with the final product and the commercial enterprise we are proposing to establish. The most important criterion is to find a location for our garden where it will have at least six (6) hours sunlight. Therefore it is recommendable to choose places with good light. Areas shaded by trees, or next to houses or other constructions and sites exposed to strong winds, should be avoided. Most hydroponic crops are grown in the open, but in areas where rainfall is excessive, the installation of some type of transparent plastic roof for agricultural use, should be planned. It is also important to have a source of water for irrigation nearby, to diminish the effort needed to carry the necessary amounts of water. Some elements, such as plastic containers for storing water and nutrients, a watering can and a sprayer, should be kept near the crops in our hydroponic garden, as these are elements that will be used most frequently. It is important to prevent the attack of birds which can cause serious damages, especially when using a solid substrate, such as rice hull. 13The idea that soilless crops can only be obtained under greenhouse conditions is not entirely true. Some experiences conducted in different countries of Latin America and the Caribbean with celery, chard, lettuce, turnips, cucumbers, parsley, radishes, tomatoes and other vegetables, without a plastic covering indicate that it is possible to obtain good products and plants in the open, when they are adapted to the environmental conditions of the area where they are cultivated. The plastic or glass covering is only needed when growing vegetables or plants under conditions other than those to which they are adapted and when it is desired to avoid the risk of infections and the attack of some of their natural enemies. When climatic conditions are severe (frost or very high temperatures) it is possible to compensate for them with better care and nutrition through hydroponic cultivation. There are vegetables which adapt to all climatic conditions in most of the world’s inhabited regions. Thus, it is possible to grow cabbage, peas, onions, strawberries, and aromatic and ornamental plants, in cold seasons or climates; it is also possible to grow string beans, chard, tomatoes, coriander, cucumbers, beets and many other plants, in intermediate seasons or climates; and hot peppers, sweet basil, squash, melons, cucumbers, peppers, watermelon, tomatoes and others, in hot seasons or climates. It is very important and highly recommended that the area chosen for the hydroponic garden be fenced in order to keep out domestic animals (chickens, rabbits, cats, dogs) or irresponsible persons. This is one of the limitations to starting a PHG and making it prosper. If it is not possible to isolate the garden from this type of animals or persons, the recommendation is not to invest any effort, as sooner or latter it will be lost, causing great frustration. Persons who in addition to improving their nutrition, wish to obtain additional income through a popular hydroponic garden, should plan a larger production which will require more space. In 14these cases, however, criteria for locating the garden continue to be the same. Space itself is not the most limiting factor for hydroponic crops. It is possible to cultivate a PHG in less than one square meter or in the largest terraces or patios there may be in urban dwellings. Most PHG’s installed in different countries have an area between ten and twenty square meters, but there are families or groups with areas of more than 200 square meters, which makes it possible for them to market their production. By combining the different forms of PHGs existing (horizontal canals placed on walls, narrow shallow canals; crop beds made of wood; vertical tubular PVC or plastic containers; simple individual plastic containers, etc.) it is possible to have an attractive and useful garden with clean and nutritive vegetables. 15SUMMARY Criteria to define the site in which to locate a popular hydroponic garden: - have a minimum of six (6) hours of daily sunlight in the chosen site, the site should be near to a water source, it should not be exposed to strong winds, it should be near the place where we prepare and store the hydroponic nutrients, the sites should not be excessively shaded by trees or buildings, it should be possible to protect the site in order to keep out domestic animals, timely planning should be possible to protect the crop from severe climatic conditions, it should not be near focusses of contamination with sewage or industrial waste. 16PHOTOGRAPH 7 Every space, no matter how small, is useful for the production of hydroponic crops. What is important is the will, dedication and constancy. a7,PHOTOGRAPH 8 With hydroponic gardens it is possible to produce three or four times more per area unit in small patios than with the traditional system. The physical effort is less, but dedication and constancy must be greater. 18PHOTOGRAPH 9 Well lighted walls or patios for at least six hours a day, allow for the use of very small spaces to develop a PHG. 19PHOTOGRAPH 10 When spaces are very small but there is enough sunlight, trays may be used, placing them one over the other to increase the area available for the PHG. 20PHOTOGRAPH 11 When the terraces and roofs of houses are not exposed to strong winds, they may be used to establish a PHG while resources are found to carry out a new project. 21PHOTOGRAPH 12 Seedbeds, and PHGs in general should be protected from uncontrolled access of animals, small children or persons who are not responsible, in order to avoid damages to the seedbeds or the plants in the containers. 22PHOTOGRAPH 13 Proper location of a PHG requires basic conditions and much imagination.CLASS 2 CONTAINERS The types of containers that can be used or constructed must agree with the available space, technical and financial possibilities and the family group’s needs and aspirations for progress and development. To start a PHG and acquire the initial knowledge we may use, for example, fruit crates; old tires; children’s bath tubs; discarded plastic bowls, or broken plastic containers, cut in half. Containers as small as ice cream cups, discardable plastic containers and oil or margarine containers, are enough to grow chard, onions, coriander, lettuce, parsley, and other vegetables. Black plastic bags or sleeves, such as those used in plant nurseries, are economical and easy to use as containers and very productive in small spaces. Bags are suitable for species such as tomatoes, cucumbers, red peppers and onions. As progress is made in learning about hydroponics and the efficiency of the system is proved, troughs may be installed, made of black plastic and held up with strings attached to the walls, or placed at their base. If there is enough space available it is important to replace the small containers with larger ones; progress in knowledge should be linked with an expansion of crops and diversification of species. An area of thirty square meters of PHG is enough to obtain constant income throughout the year. When enlarging the garden it is possible to include wooden containers of at least 1.5 square meters, vertical sleeves and other types of more productive structures which require the same time and effort as a large quantity of small containers which were initially useful to acquire experience. The video for Class 2 on PHGs, which is complementary to this manual shows us how to construct a container. 25If in addition to producing healthy food for our family we wish to obtain extra income through a Popular Hydroponics Garden we must think about constructing a number of containers to enable us to produce a larger quantity of plant species (vegetables, medicinal, ornamental and forage plants). Characteristics of the containers The size (length and width) of the containers may vary, however, the depth should not be more than 10-12 cm, because with the PHG system it is not necessary to have a larger space for the development of the plant’s roots. There are only two exceptions. When we want to grow carrots the depth of the container should be 20 cm. To grow hydroponic forage maximum depth must be 5 cm. For the other crops, the maximum recommended sizes of the boxes (production unit for PHG) are the following: length 2.00 meters width 1.20 meters depth 0.12 meters Larger sizes imply higher costs for materials (wood, plastic, substrate) and greater management difficulties and risks. Minimum sizes vary considerably, as they depend on available space, the materials that can be obtained at the lowest cost and the purpose of the garden (learning, recreation, experimentation or production for sale). Let us see how to build a wooden box, which we will call “PHG production unit" or "container". It is recommended to take a careful look at diagram 1.Construction materials for the container The following materials are required: - discarded or new boards, depending on financial possibilities (2 of 2 m boards; 2 of 1.20 m boards; 13 of 1.30 m boards; and 6 of 0.32 m boards) a 110, of 1% inch nails, hammer, saw, stapler and a measuring tape. 7 3.68 m? (2.36 x 1.56) of 0.10 thick black plastic : ten cm of black rubber or polyethylene hose, 7 to 10 mm in diameter. 1. After calculating the sizes and measuring the boards, we cut them evenly, obtaining two, 2 m long boards for the length of the box and two 1.20 m boards for the width of the container (this width allows us to work comfortably around the container). 2. Nailing these four boards together we obtain the frame for the container. The 12 cm width of the boards gives us the ideal height. These are the dimensions we will use as an example in this Manual. 3. The 1.30 m long boards are nailed crosswise along the frame to form the bottom of the box. The two end boards must be nailed on first and they must be perfectly aligned with all the sides of the frame. The remaining boards are nailed on leaving a space of 3-4 cm between them, with this the box is completed. Its height should not be more than 12 cm. When nailing the boards, care must be taken that all the corners and edges are even, so that there will be no protuberance which may rip the plastic, as the bed’s waterproofing would be damaged, water and nutrients would be wasted, and the duration of the plastic would decrease. 4. When the box is finished, we nail on six legs, at the four comers and at the center on each side; they must be placed on the outside of the bed, never on the inside where they would make it difficult to place the plastic lining, decrease the useful area and make management tasks more difficult. The function of the legs is to keep 27the bed above the ground to permit good air circulation. This helps to prevent dampening of the area around the crop and to decrease the tisk of diseases and the appearance of insects which could establish themselves under the container without being detected. It is enough for the base of the bed to be twenty (20) cm above ground, but from the viewpoint of the comfort of the person attending the PHG and the prevention of damages which may be caused by children or animals, the ideal height of the legs is one meter, but it must be kept in mind that this involves a greater expense in wood. Placing the plastic lining in the box (waterproofing) To waterproof the container a black 0.10 thick plastic is required; its function is to avoid dampening and rotting of the wood and the quick loss of nutrients. The black color is to avoid the formation of algae and to keep the root area darker. The plastic should never be placed on the floor, without having swept the floor to remove any rough elements which might perforate the plastic or without covering the floor with newspaper first. The plastic should always be held up for measuring and cutting. 5. The dimensions for cutting the plastic are calculated as follows: to the total length of the container we must add three (3) times its height. Taking as an example the measurements we have given, we have two (2) m plus 12 x 3 = 36 cm, which makes a total of two meter and thirty six centimeters. This is what we have to cut for the length. For the width we measure the container which in the case of our example is 1.20 m and add its height (12 cm) three times which gives us a total of one meter and fifty six centimeters. 6. Now we proceed to place the plastic in the container very carefully, so as not to tear or puncture it with wood splinters, salient nails or with our finger nails. At the comers, the plastic must be in perfect contact with the frame and the bottom of the container (see video). The plastic must be stapled on the outside of the container’s frame (see video). 28Putting in the drainage 7. All containers that are to be used for a PHG with solid substrate (this point will be explained later) must have a drainage hole for excess water or nutritive salts to drain off. In wooden containers, this drainage must be located at the center of one of the ends. We make a 7 mm hole at a height of 1.5 centimeters, into which we place a small piece of hose, preferably black, of the same size. This hose should be 10 cm long and should be hermetically adhered to the inside of the plastic and may not stich out into the container for more than 1.5 cm. 8. For the sealing between the hose and the plastic to be hermetic, a hot nail or a lit cigarette is applied at the center of the site where the hose comes into contact with the plastic; the hose is pushed from the outside toward the inside, so that it will be soldered to the plastic in one movement (see video). After introducing the hose in the plastic it is left to cool to obtain a better seal. 9. Then we begin to place the substrate at the end where the drainage is and from there to the rest of the container. This will prevent any movement of the plastic and keep the hose from becoming unstuck (see video). The container is placed on the ground, slightly off level toward the drainage, with a gradient 0.5 and 1% (equivalent to 0.5 - 1 cm off level for each meter of the container’s length). If the container is going to be used to grow lettuce with the floating root system (which will be explained later) it should not be perforated for drainage, as it will be necessary to keep it filled with a nutrient solution for several weeks. If available space allows us to place several production units (containers) in the area, it must be kept in mind that they should be placed in such a way as to leave fifty centimeters (50) of space between them to permit easy circulation around them. A container of this type, well constructed and correctly waterproofed, can last over four years in constant use, without it being necessary to make repairs nor to substitute any of its parts. 29Another type of container Vertical sleeves and horizontal troughs (placed crosswise) constitute another type of container, equally as efficient as the previous one but which is useful in smaller spaces. Vertical sleeves Vertical sleeves come ready made in different widths and thicknesses. A thickness of 0.20, a width of 20 cm and black should be preferred (the 0.20 thickness is important, as the sleeves must support the weight of the substrate). These sleeves are bought by kilos or meters, ready to be perforated where the plants are to be placed. The procedure is the following: ie Cut two meter long pieces of sleeve (see video), or of the length you consider you can handle in the site where they are to be placed and taking into account the tallness of the persons who are to irrigate and tend them. a On a long table, or a clean floor covered with newspaper (so as not to perforate the plastic) extend the sleeve flatly. Trace a twelve centimeter line at each end, using a marker (see diagram 2). 3. Beginning at one of the lines start marking points distanced from one another according to the chosen crop (Annex 5 shows the distances suggested for the different transplant crops) beginning with two parallel points placed at 2 cm from the edge; then mark only one point at the selected distance, but placing it between the first two points forming a triangle. Continue alternating two points and one point in the same manner up to the line marked on the opposite end (see video). Turn over the sleeve, mark the two base lines at 12 cm from the ends and start the same procedure over again, always beginning at the same side. Do not mark two points, but only one at the center of the sleeve and then mark the two lateral points. Continue alternating one and two points at the distances already selected, until reaching the other end, (see video).4. When the sleeve has been marked with points on both sides take a piece of metal tube 20 cm long and with a diameter of 2,5 cm with one outer edge of one of its ends sharpened all around. Take a piece of cardboard or several pages of folded newspaper, of a width a little less than the diameter of the sleeve, and introduce it at one of the ends placing it in the area of the marked points. Now press the sharpened end of the tube (see video) on the center of each of the points marked and turn the tube (pressing down hard) until a circle of plastic has been cut out. Continue advancing toward the other end, repeating this procedure and sliding the piece of cardboard or folded newspaper along the interior of the sleeve so that the tube will only cut the corresponding face of the sleeve. Do not cut all the way through to the other side of the plastic. 5. Tie the ends of the sleeve at 8 cm, with a string, thread or nylon fiber, with several loops and making a tight knot. 6. Now you can begin filling the sleeve with the substrate mixture (it’s composition will be explained later) which should be prepared and dampened at least the day before, especially if it contains rice hull, which takes several hours to become sufficiently dampened. Do not put the substrate into the bag if it has not been wet previously; after it is inside the bag it will not be possible to wet it before planting, which is very important. a After the bag has been filled with the humid substrate, place it vertically and tap it gently on the clean floor, to let down the substrate. The upper part of the sleeve is closed in the same way as the other end, and with a pair of scissors make a 3 cm diameter hole through which the sleeve will be irrigated. With a little more work it is also possible to place part of a discardable bottle in this hole to serve as a funnel, with six small holes punctured in the top. The mouth of the bottle is fixed when making the knot in the upper part of the sleeve. 8. The sleeve may be hung or laid down. Planting should not be done on the same day the sleeve is filled. First it should be 31watered during two or three days with nutritive solution so that the substrate will go down and become stabilized. The seedlings of the chosen species may be transplanted after this, keeping the sleeve in the shade. Holes pointing downward must be made in each of the sleeve’s perforations for planting the seedlings and the roots must be introduced with great patience and care, trying not to break nor damage them. If the weather is sunny and hot, the sleeve must be left in the shade for three days, to make sure that the plants take root. After this period the sleeve is placed in its definite site (see video). Excess water and nutrients will drain at the end where the lower knot was made. This liquid should be collected and applied again in subsequent waterings. Species for direct seeding are not planted in vertical sleeves, only transplant species must be planted in them. Using this system very good results have been obtained with strawberries, parsley (curled or flat), Lettuce, chicory, and small ornamental flowering plants. To prepare the substrate for these sleeves the amount of the heaviest component must be somewhat reduced and the lightest component which retains the most humidity should be increased. Nutrition is applied in the same manner as in a wooden container, irrigating daily with nutritive solution and with plain water if necessary. Horizontal canoes Horizontal canoes or sleeves (see video) can be placed on the ground (at the base of walls) or hung on the walls at various heights. Black 0.15 or 0.20 thick plastic, 50 or 60 cm in diameter is used. It can be bought in the form of a sleeve with these measurements. 1. To make a canoe for hanging, a length of sleeve to fit the available space is cut after measuring the site where it will be placed. It should not be over four meters long (see diagram 3). If 32the canoe is to be placed on the floor, it may be as much as ten meters long. 2. Cut two, nine meter lengths of string, thread or nylon fibre. Fold each in two and make knots along the length of the string at every 80 cm. With the help of another person, introduce the first piece of knotted string in the sleeve until it comes out at the other end and leave 50 cm coming out at each end. Then pull the string tight and let the fold of one side of the sleeve rest on the string. After this, staple at one cm from the fold every 40 cm or secure the plastic on the string with one or two stitches, also using nylon, every 40 cm. Turn the sleeve and introduce the other piece of knotted string forming a sort of hammock 50 or 60 cm wide and four meters long (see video). 3. Next, nail four large nails (5 inches) on the wall, two at a distance of four meters from one another and the other two, ten centimeters above the first two. The sleeve is fixed on the wall drawing the nylon thread very tight to keep it from arching too much when filled with the substrate. It should be as horizontal as possible so that the water and nutrients may circulate slowly along its length. Depending on the height of the wall, as many as four canoes can be placed horizontally one above the other. Each canoe must be off level 0.5% (in our example,2 cm difference in height between the nails which ar at the end). These canoes are filled with a substrate similar to the one recommended for the vertical sleeves. Strawberries, radishes, parsley, coriander, thyme, medicinal plants, aromatic plants and flowers, can be planted in these containers. As we have seen in this class there are a number of container types which can be used to make a popular hydroponic garden, including those which according to financial possibilities, space and projections may be more or less complex making it possible to use larger areas. Many of the materials suggested are found in disuse, due to which in some places users say that PHG is the urban agricultural technology of waste. 33A synthesis of the containers that may be used for hydroponic crops is the following: - wooden boxes lined on the inside with plastic plastic, "Eternit" or bamboo troughs, PVC or plastic tubes old tires, empty oil containers, cut in half, plastic margarine, oil or detergent containers or discardable soda or yoghurt cups. 34PHOTOGRAPH 14 Any type of plastic container may be used for the first experiences in PHG. 35PHOTOGRAPH 15 Used tires or discardable cups are useful elements as containers for a PHG. 36PHOTOGRAPH 16 Containers whose only destiny is the trash bin may be used to grow flowers or vegetables for family consumption. This is only possible with the PHG system, which combines an horticultural technology with a waste technology. 37PHOTOGRAPH 17 Plastic sleeves are excellent containers to grow cucumbers, tomatoes, onions, peppers and other vegetables, at low cost and without requiring large spaces. 38PHOTOGRAPH 18 If it is wished to expand the PHG, the interested persons must obtain the materials themselves and construct their containers in accordance with their financial possibilities and available time and space. 39PHOTOGRAPH 19 In very small spaces, horizontal canoes may be used for PHG, placing them on walls and nearby spaces.PHOTOGRAPH 20 Vertical sleeves produce abundant fresh vegetables in short periods of time. 4DIAGRAM 1 - —_——— — CONSTRUCTION OF A CONTAINER [Construction of framesDIAGRAM 2 PREPARATION OF A VERTICAL SLEEVE _| Cutting the plastic sleeve Marking the holesDIAGRAM 3 Cutting the plastic sleeve Put through the thread and spple | Cut and prepare the thread oS The nine meters are folded knots m: ie every 80 cm Q) Se Canoe ready to be hung up Canoe ready for useCLASS 3 CULTIVATION SUBSTRATES OR MEDIUMS In the previous class it was explained that there are many appropriate containers of different sizes, materials and prices to make a popular hydroponic garden. In this class we will study the types of cultivation substrates or mediums that must be used, their main characteristics and ways to use them. In every country there are materials available, discarded by some industries or provided abundantly and economically by nature. Characteristics of a good substrate Substrates should be very resistant to degrading or to weathering meteorized and it is prefered that they contain no soluble mineral substances so as not to alter the chemical balance of the Nutritive solution to be applied (as will be explained later). The material should not be a carrier of any form of live macro or micro organisms, to decrease the risk of spreading diseases or causing harm to the plants, to animals or to the people who will consume them. The most recommendable characteristics of a good substrate are: = that the particles of wich it is composed are of a size not less than 0.5 and not more than 7 mm - that it retains a good quantity of humidity (see retaining capacity of different materials in the soil in Annex II), but they should also facilitate runoff of excess water from watering or rain - it should not retain a great deal of humidity in the surface = it should not decompose or degrade easily - its colours should preferably be dark - it should not contain nutritive elements - it should not contain micro organisms harmful to human or plant health- it should be abundant and easy to obtain, transport and manage - its cost should be low - it should be light (see the density of the different substrates in Annex III). Materials already tested in several developing countries and which meet most of these requirements are classified as follows: Substrates of organic origin - Tice hull - sawdust or shredded shavings of yellow woods. When wood residues are used, it is preferable that these are not of pine or of red woods, because these contain substances which may affect the roots of the plants. If it is only possible to obtain material of this type of wood, the sawdust or shavings must be washed with abundant water and left to ferment for some time before using it. The total mixture should not contain more than 20% of this material. If rice hull is used it is necessary to wash it, leave it to ferment well, and wet it before planting or transplanting during ten to twenty days, depending on the climate of the area (less days in hotter climates) (see video). The characteristics, physical and chemical properties and advantages of rice hull are described in Annex IV. Substrates of inorganic origin - Burnt mineral coal scoria 7 Volcanic scoria or tufa - Sand from clean rivers or streams wich do not have a high saline content 7 Fine gravel . Coarse sand When coal scoria, volcanic tufa or river sand are used, these materials must be washed four or five times in large containers, to 46eliminate all small floating particles. The substrate is ready to be used when the water from washing comes out clear. If the quantities of substrate needed are very large, sieves or screens may be used during washing to retain particles larger than half a millimeter. Particles over seven millimeters should also be excluded. Excess particles of sizes below the minimum indicated make drainage of water surpluses difficult, and consequently, limit root airing. Larger sizes keep smaller seed from germinating, such as celery and lettuce seeds, and also decrease the consistency of the substrate. The forementioned limits retention of humidity and the correct formation of bulbs, roots and tubers. Some coal or volcanic scoria have very high acid levels and some sands (as the sand from the sea) have very low levels (they are alkaline). These materials must be washed very carefully, until no acid or basic remain. If it is not possible to condition these materials to acidity levels slightly acid or close to neutrality through washing (pH 6.5- 7.0) it is preferable to exclude them and use other materials. This is preferable to hindering the effectiveness of the different solutions to be applied and, therefore, the development of the crops in a PHG. Mixtures All the materials mentioned may be used alone. Nevertheless, some mixtures have been tested successfully, in different proportions, for the cultivation of over thirty plant species. The recommended mixtures according to trials carried out in several developing countries are the following: - 50% rice hull with 50% coal scoria - 80% rice hull with 20% sawdust - 60% rice hull with 40% river sand - 60% rice hull with 40% volcanic scoria 47In the PHG system with solid substrate, the plant’s root grows and absorbs water and nutrients which are applied daily to the solid material mixture. In the liquid substrate or floating root method, water is used for the same purpose, permitting root development, and the absorption of additional water and nutritive substances. This system is only recommended for the cultivation of different varieties of lettuce, celery and sweet basil. Other crops have been tried but results have not been satisfactory everywhere, due to which we prefer not to generalize the recommendation. Cultivation systems in solid or liquid mediums will be explained in detail in Class N° 5.PHOTOGRAPH 21 Substrates must be well mixed, in the proper proportions according to available components. 49CLASS 4 PREPARATION, PLANTING AND MANAGEMENT OF SEEDBEDS In the previous class we saw that the different substrates which can be used to install our popular hydroponic garden can be classified in two groups: solid substrates and the liquid or floating Toot cultivation medium. The species suitable for direct planting (not requiring seedbed-transplanting) in solid substrates are described in Annex V. This class will be devoted to learning how to prepare, plant and manage correctly a seedbed which will supply the seedlings needed for the PHG, using species requiring to be transplanted (see Annex VI). A seedbed is nothing but a small space with adequate (optimum) conditions to ensure seed germination and initial growth of the seedlings. Special care must be taken initially so that there will be no problems in the seedlings’ development. For the seedbeds we will use substrates prepared with greater care than explained in the previous class. Particles which are very large or heavy must be eliminated, because they would not permit the new seedlings to emerge. Humidity must be controlled more closely, as neither the seeds nor the new plants will develop if they do not have a sufficient water humidity. The substrate used for seedbeds in PHG must be very soft, clean and homogeneous. It must be well levelled so that when making the furrows and depositing the seeds they will be placed at an even depth ensuring uniformity of germination and initial development. Seedbeds must not be made using soil when the seedlings are to be transplanted into hydroponic substrates. Plants to be transplanted in hydroponics must be produced in the solid substrates described for PHG in Class 3. After filling the seedbed with 51substrate it should be irrigated gently before making the furrows. The depth and distance of the furrows depends on the size of the seed and the size of the plant’s initial stages (see Annex VI). Planting the seedbed The seeds are dropped in the furrow one by one, at the distances recommended in Annex VI for each species. Plant seedbeds without haste, as all the care taken will be compensated with a high number of healthy and vigorous seedlings (see video, Class 4). After the seeds have been planted, gently press the substrate with the palm of the hand to expel excess air there may be around the seeds and to increase their contact with the substrate. Then water again gently and cover the seedbed with newspaper during normal seasons and with paper plus black plastic during seasons with very low temperatures, to accelerate germination (see the entire operation in Diagram 4). Care of the seedbed During the first days after seeding, the seedbed must be watered once or twice a day to keep the substrate damp. The day on which the seedlings emerge the seedbed must be uncovered and exposed to light, protecting it from excess sun or cold with a simple covering during the hours in which risk of dehydration or freezing is highest. If the seedbed is not uncovered in time (the day on which the first leaves are visible) the seedlings will elongate seeking the light and will no longer be suitable for transplanting. These plants with stems that look like white threads will never be vigorous nor will they become healthy adult plants. As soon as the plants are germinated they must be watered daily, using the nutritive solution as will be explained in Class 6. The substrate must be loosened twice a week (to break the superficial crust formed due to the effect of continuous watering) andhilled up (bring the soil to the base of the plant) to improve the seedlings establishment and root development. Pests that might appear are also prevented and controlled until the seedlings reach the optimum size for transplanting to the definite containers. This takes place approximately between 20 and 40 days after germination, depending on the species and the weather. Hardening of the seedlings The amount of water applied during watering is decreased approximately five days before transplanting and the plants are exposed to light for a longer time so that they will consolidate their tissues better and prepare for the more difficult conditions they will face after being transplanted. This process is called hardening of the seedlings. While doing this care must be taken that the process will not disturb the plants. The supply of nutrients and loosening of the substrate must not be interrupted, only the quantity of water must be decreased and the plants’ exposure to the sun increased. The final development of a crop depends, to a large extent, on good management of the seedbeds and timely and careful transplanting to the definite site. Direct seeding As was explained earlier (Annex V) not all species need to be produced in seedbeds for their development during their first weeks of life. There are some species that are sown directly into the definite site. These species do not resist transplanting or develop vigorously from the beginning and do not require special care to protect them during their first days of life. The opposite, however, is the case of species with very small seeds which, therefore, produce weak seedlings in the first days of life. Other species adapt indistinctly to both systems: transplanting or direct seeding. The species requiring to be sown in a seedbed and then transplanted include: sweet basil, celery, broccoli, onions, cauliflower, lettuce, peppers, cabbage and tomatoes. 53Some of the species which adapt to direct seeding are: peas, coriander, beans, strawberries, melons, watermelon, radishes and carrots. The species which adapt to both systems are less: turnips, kohlrabi and beets. Seeds The seeds used in PHGs are the same as those used in traditional horticulture. As far as possible seeds produced and distributed by well known and accredited seed producers should be sown, as the advantages of hydroponics should not be sacrificed using any type of seed. Except for some hybrid seeds, such as tomato seeds, most seeds are not expensive (barely a few cents per unit). Trying to save on the cost of seeds generally results in more damage than benefits. It is important to understand that the preparation, planting and management of seedbeds is fundamental for the plant’s subsequent development. Great care must be taken with the substrate, planting, watering and regulation of excess light and temperature and with the prevention and control of pests (Class 7) to obtain healthy and vigorous plants to ensure good yields in an adequate period of time.PHOTOGRAPH 22 Correct layout of furrows to plant the seedbed. 55PHOTOGRAPH 23 Protection of seedbeds from the risk of frost. 56DIAGRAM 4 Filling and levelling of the Marking the furrows substrate zCLASS 5 METHODS FOR APPLYING OUT POPULAR HYDROPONICS In this class we will study the two methods most used in practicing PHG. Independently of the system used (solid substrate or floating root) if the species to be sown is for transplanting, the seedbed must always be managed in the same way described in the previous class. Solid substrate system The solid substrate system is efficient for growing over thirty species of vegetables and other small fast growing plants. This is the most applied system by the people who are currently working in PHG, because it is less demanding regarding care than the second which is called floating root system, which does not permit growing a large variety of vegetables. To sown directly or transplant in solid substrates, the first step is to locate the container in the appropriate place, with the necessary inclination (Class 1); then it is filled with the previously mixed and dampened substrate up to two (2)cm from the upper edge of the bed. The substrate should be placed beginning at the end where the drainage is, so as to anchor it to keep it from moving, otherwise the hose could come off the plastic (see video). The foreign elements and particles larger than the size recommended must be eliminated. You must irrigate gently in order to ensure an adequate content of humidity, and the places where the seedlings will be transplanted after hardening should be marked. The seedlings should be irrigated abundantly in the seedbed one hour before they are removed for planting in the definite site. It is important to remember that the substrates should not be placed dry in any container and certainly not in vertical sleeves; they 59must always be mixed and dampened previously. The reason for this is that it is more difficult to achieve an adequate distribution of humidity in the container; the continuous movements that would be necessary to achieve a proper distribution of the water would involve a higher risk of ripping the plastic or of removing the drainage tube. At the places where the positions for the plants have been marked ample and deep holes must be made (as much as the depth of the substrate permits) taking care not to tear the plastic. The root of a plant is placed into each hole, keeping in mind that it should not be twisted and that the neck, which is the place where the root and the stem join, must be placed one centimeter below the surface of the substrate. As substrate is placed around the root, it must be pressed gently to eliminate any air in contact with the root (see video). Annex V contains information about transplanting distances. The bed is watered again and, if possible, some protection against the sun is provided during the first three days to keep the seedlings from dehydrating. In hot weather transplants should always be made during the evening hours; when the weather is cool they can be made at any time. In the case of direct seeding, seeds must be placed at the distances and depths recommended for each species. These are shown in Annex V. After sowing the substrate is watered and covered in the same way as indicated for the seedbeds, taking care to remove the covering the first day in which the emergence of seedlings is noticed. In either case (seeding for transplanting or direct seeding) watering with nutritive solution should be applied daily, as soon as the roots appear within the substrate. Details regarding the nutritive solution its composition, hour and frequency of application, will be discussed in the next class. As watering is applied and time passes crusts will form at the surface of the substrate, keeping air from penetrating into the porous 60spaces, thus limiting the intake of water and nutrients. To avoid these crusts the substrate must be loosened very superficially two or three times a week between the furrows of the plants, being careful not to harm the roots (see video, Class 5). Part of the substrate that is loosened during this operation can be placed at next to the base of the plants to improve their establishment and root development. This task is called hilling up and, as an example, it is essential to practice it in the radish crop beginning on the eighth day after germination, so that the red stem will not remain uncovered, as it is there where thickening will take place, which after 28 or 30 days will result in the well formed root of a fresh radish. The substrate system is also used in vertical sleeves, horizontal sleeves, plastic canoes on the floor, crops planted in old tires and in other types of containers. Floating root system The floating root cropping system has been found to be efficient for the cultivation of sweet basil, celery and several cultwars of lettuce. It is time saving, produces high yields and excellent results. In spite of its greater complexity it is very suitable for popular hydroponics gardens. A liquid medium is used in this method, including water and nutritive elements. Those who apply this system call it "floating root cultivation", as the roots float in the nutritive solution, but the plants are held up by a sheet of styrofoam which floats on the liquid’s surface. This system has proved to be efficient for growing sweet basil, celery and lettuce. The behavior of other species with this system has not been uniform, as it is very demanding requiring careful management, especially of aeration, which in the case of PHG is done manually. As most families to whom this proposal has been made do not have enough financial means nor technical 61knowledge to make installations permitting automatic recycling and aeration of the nutritive solution, manual aeration several times a day is proposed, as will be explained later (see video). As an example we will study the floating root system applied to a lettuce crop; in this system, the container is the same as the one used for solid substrates; the only difference consists in that it is not necessary to connect the drainage to the container. A 2 1/2 cm thick (one inch) styrofoam sheet is cut to a length and width 2 cm smaller than the length and width of the container. We mark the distances at which we intend to place the plants, indicating the points at which each plant will be placed with large dots. In the case of lettuce, sheets with two different distances are used (planting density): 9 by 9 cm between each plant, with a layout in the form of a triangle (more plants per square meter will fit than if we mark them forming squares). These distances are used for the stage called post-seedbed, with a duration of approximately 15 to 20 days. 17 by 17 cm between plants. These are the distances used for the definite planting, which lasts from 25 to 35 days depending on the temperature, luminosity and the variety of lettuce grown. In order to avoid having to make calculations and to measure every time we need a new cultivation sheet, a pattern can be made using paper or cardboard which can be kept for use when it is necessary to perforate a new sheet. To perforate the holes in the sheet a 20 cm long piece of round or square pipe with a diameter of one inche (two and a half centimeters) previously heated at one end, is pressed on each of the marked points (see video), thus perforating the material will be extracted leaving a nearly perfect hole. There will be 126 holes per square meter at the distance of 9 x 9 and 31 holes at the 17 x 17 62distance. The perforated sheet is placed in the container and it should have enough space to permit a slight movement (not too much so that light will not enter the solid, as this would cause the growth of algae and greater water evaporation from the container). Now we cut a piece of plastic sponge, which should be 214 cm thick into 3 x 3 cm cubes, previously marked forming a grid (see video). The squares are cut with a well sharpened knife, without exercising too much pressure on the sponge, so as not to deform the cubes. A vertical slash is made in each one all the way from the top to the bottom of the sponge. The seedling from the seedbed will be placed in this slash. The cubes must be previously dampened with nutritive solution. At the time of transplanting (see Diagram 5), we proceed to extract the seedlings from the seedbeds and wash all the substrate from their roots (without touching nor harming them), immediately placing them in the slash made in the sponge cube, leaving the neck of the plant at exactly one centimeter below the surface of the cube. Then we introduce the cubes with the plants very carefully in each of the holes in the Styrofoam sheet, making sure that the roots are in a vertical position and are submerged in the liquid (see video). When all the holes of the sheet have been filled, it must be lifted to make sure that none of the roots has been caught between the sheet and the sponge. They must all be straight and submerged in the liquid. Then nutritive solution with the proper concentration is placed in the container, as will be explained in the next class. Plants remain in this stage, which is called post-seedbed, between two and three weeks , depending on the climate and variety. After two or three weeks they will have grown to a height of 12 and 15 cm; then they are transplanted to another Styrofoam sheet in which perforations have been made at a distance of 17 cm. The plants are transferred from the first sheet to the new one with the same sponge. When the second transplanting has been completed, nutritive solution is also added at the concentration and in the manner which will be explained in the next class. 63In the sheets or "bags" with perforations at greater distances, plants will grow until they have reached the adequate size for consumption. This will take place five or six weeks after the last transplanting and for this reason these sheets are called definite cultivation sheets. Both in the case of the solid substrate and the floating root system, it is necessary to know the lengths of time required between sowing and germination, germination and transplanting, and transplanting and harvest (Annex VII). This information is useful to plan a PHG. Aeration In the floating root cultivation system it is essential to stir the nutritive solution at least twice a day with the hands, in order to redistribute the nutritive elements throughout the water and to oxygenize the solution. If this is not done, the roots begin to darken and nutrient and water absorption becomes limited. When the nutritive solution is not stirred frequently enough, algae also begin to form giving the crop a poor appearance and altering its development, as algae compete for the nutrients meant for the plants. When aerating the container, the sheets must be lifted slowly taking care not to break them, as they should be good for ten transplantings or five definite crops. If they do not last this long, production costs will increase considerably, as this is the time Tequired to write off the materials. Aeration can be achieved by lifting and letting down the sheet with the plants successively for 15 seconds; it may also be done by lifting and holding up the sheet to introduce a hand and stir the solution until bubbles have formed. When the size of containers exceeds one meter, it is recommended to cut the sheets to appropriate sizes as they must support a lot of weight (especially when the crop has reached 64maturity and each plant may weigh more than 280 grams) and there is greater risk for them to break. Other management tasks In the case of both methods, solid substrate and floating root, it is important at all times to watch for the presence of pests which may affect the quantity and quality of harvests (see Class 7). It is also important to protect crops from excess sun and low temperatures, especially frost. Against excess sun, we may shade the crops with a dark net to reduce solar radiation. In some countries it is called "Polyshade” and in others "Rachel Net". Commercially there are different nets to filter different percentages of light. This enables us to choose the type best suited to our climate. In the case of excess cold, it is recommended to cover the most susceptible crops with transparent plastics, preferably for agricultural use, during the day or at times when it is more likely for low temperatures to occur. Knowledge of the distances for direct seeding (Annex VIII) or for transplanting (Annex IX) recommended for the different species, will permit good planning of space in PHG. It is essential to plan the growing season. Information on the best seasons for species requiring direct planting and transplanting, for Southern conditions as in Chile for example, is given in Annexes X and XI. Aromatic and medicinal plants may also be produced, in addition to vegetables, in PHG. Planting distances and the lapse of time between installation of the crop and the first harvest for this type of plants, are included in Annex XII.DIAGRAM 5 TRANSPLANTING TO THE FLOATING ROOT SYSTEM | Ea Extraction of seedlings trom seedbed Washing the roots Selection the best seedlings \ i Placing seedlings in the Styrofoam sheets © Nutritive solution @|PHOTOGRAPH 24 High productivity and good quality vegetables can be obtained with PHG, using a solid substrate. 67PHOTOGRAPH 25 PHG with solid substrate can produce over 30 species of plants.PHOTOGRAPH 26 The solid substrate ensures proper growth and production of tomatoes. 69PHOTOGRAPH 27 Floating root system. The two types of Styrofoam sheets, prepared for lettuce, are perforated at different distances, for post- seedbed transplanting (right) and definite planting (left). 70PHOTOGRAPH 28 Manner in which seedlings, in the PHG floating root system, are transplanted. The rubber foam holds the neck of the seedling. 1PHOTOGRAPH 29 Post-seedbed transplanting (right) and definite planting (left) in sheets, with floating root system. 2CLASS 6 NUTRITION OF THE PLANTS In the previous class we learned about the methods most used to grow plants through the PHG system, using the solid substrate and liquid medium methods. In this class we will see how to prepare and when and how to apply hydroponic nutrients. Nutrients for the plants cultivated in PHG are supplied in the form of nutritive solutions which may be obtained commercially. Solutions can be prepared by the growers themselves after they have acquired experience in managing the crops or if they have areas large enough to justify making an investment in raw materials to prepare them. Alternatively, in case they are available in the market, it is preferable to buy concentrated solutions, as in this case it is only necessary to dissolve them in a little amount of water in order to apply them to the crop. Concentrated nutritive solutions contain all the elements required by the plants for their proper development and adequate production of roots, bulbs, stems, leaves, flowers, fruit or seed. Composition of nutritive solutions In addition to the elements plants extract from the air and water (Carbon, Hydrogen and Oxygen) they consume varying amounts of the following elements:Essential for plant life: Quantities required by the plants Large Medium Very small (trace elements) Nitrogen Sulphur Iron Phosphorus Calcium Manganese Potassium Magnesium Copper Zinc Boron Molybdenum Usef : ir lif Chlorine Sodium Silicon Cobalt Todine Toxic for the plant Aluminum It is important to keep in mind that any of the aforementioned elements may be toxic to plants if they are added to the medium in inadequate proportions, especially the so-called trace elements. Functions of nutritive elements in the plants Of the 16 chemical elements considered necessary for healthy plant growth, 13 are mineral nutrients. Under natural cultivation 74conditions (soil) these elements enter the plant through the roots. Deficiency of only one of them limits or may decrease yields and, therefore, the producer’s profit. Depending on the amounts of each of these elements plants consume (not all of them are consumed in the same quantity) the 13 nutrients normally extracted from the soil are classified into three groups: The location of deficiency symptoms in the plants is strongly related with the velocity at which nutrients move, beginning at the old leaves towards growing-points; in the case of the more mobile elements (Nitrogen, Phosphorus and Potassium) which are quickly transferred, symptoms appear first in the older leaves. Immobile elements, such as Calcium and Boron, cause deficiency symptoms at the growing-points. In the case of some elements, the degree of mobility depends on the degree of deficiency, the species and the nitrogen level. There is scarce mobility of Copper, Zinc and Molybdenum from the old leaves toward the young ones, when the plants are deficient in these elements. Major elements (Nitrogen, Phosphorus, Potassium) Nitrogen, Phosphorus and Potassium are called “major elements" because the plants normally require large quantities which the soil cannot supply entirely. Large quantities of the following are consumed: Nitrogen (N) is absorbed in the form of NO, and NH, i) Characteristics - gives plants their intense green color - promotes rapid growth - increases leaf production - improves the quality of vegetables - increases the protein content of food and forage crops. 75ii) Deficiency - unhealthy apearance - yellowish green color due to the loss of chlorophyll - retarded stunted - initial yellowing and subsequent drying of the leaves at the base of the plant which continues upwards, if deficiency is very severe and is not corrected; the younger leaves remain green. iii) Toxicity - when the amounts supplied are unbalanced in relation with the other elements, the plant produces a large amount of dark green foliage, but root development is reduced - flowering and fruit and seed production is retarded. Phosphorus (P). Plants absorb it in the form of P,Os i) Characteristics - stimulates rapid formation and growth of roots - facilitates rapid and vigorous initial development of the plants - accelerates maturity and stimulates the coloring of fruits - helps seed formation - gives crops vigour to protect themselves from winter’s harshness. ii) Deficiency - leaves, branches and stems turn purple; this symptom is first noticed in the older leaves - slow development and maturity and feeble aspect of stems - poor seed germination - low fruit and seed yields. iii) Toxicity - excess phosphorus is not noticeable at first sight, but it may cause a deficiency of copper and zinc. 76Potassium (K). Plants take it in the form of K,O i) Characteristics - gives plants great vigour and resistance against diseases and low temperatures ~ helps protein production in plants - increases the seed size - improves the quality of fruit - stimulates the development of tubers - favors the formation of red color in leaves and fruit. ii) Deficiency - Leaves of the lower part of the plant dry up at the edges and tips; the central vein generally conserves its green color; they also tend to roll up - due to poor root development, plants degenerate before they reach the production stage - in legumes it produces wrinkled and disfigured seeds which do not germinate or produce weak seedlings. iii) Toxicity - excess absorption of potassium is not common, but high levels of K in nutritive solutions may cause deficiency of magnesium and also of manganese, zinc and iron. Secondary elements (Calcium, Sulphur and Magnesium) These are called so, because plants consume them in medium quantities, but they are very important in the composition of plant organisms. Calcium (Ca) is absorbed in the form of CaO. i) Characteristics - activates the early formation and growth of rootlets - improves general plant vigour ~ neutralizes toxic substances produced by plants- stimulates seed production ~ increases the calcium content in human and animal food. ii) Deficiency - young leaves and terminal sprouts bend as they appear and their edges and tips dry up - young leaves remain rolled up and tend to become wrinkled - new whitish colored sprouts may appear in the terminal areas - death may occur in the extremes of roots - in the case of tomatoes and watermelons, Calcium deficiency causes the sinking and subsequent rotting of the fruit at the end opposite the peduncle. iii) Toxicity - no toxicity symptoms due to excess are known. However, excess may alter acidity in the root’s development medium and this does affect the availability of other elements to the plant. Magnesium (Mg). Plants absorb it as MgO. i) Characteristics - this is an essential component of chlorophyll - it is necessary for the formation of sugars - it helps to assist in assimilation of other nutrients - it acts as a transporter of phosphorus within the plant - it promotes the formation of fats and oils. ii) Deficiency - loss of the green color, which begins in the lower leaves and continues upwards, but veins remain green - stems grow weak and roots branch out and lengthen excessively - leaves twist upward along the edgesiii) Toxicity - there are no visible symptoms to identify magnesium toxicity. Sulphur (S) i) Characteristics - it is an essential ingredient of proteins - helps to maintain an intense green color - activates the formation of nourishing nodules in some legume species (beans, soy beans, peas, broad beans) - stimulates seed production - helps a more vigorous growth of the plants. ii) Deficiency - when there is deficiency, which is not very frequent, young leaves take on a light green color and their veins are even lighter; the space between nervation dries up - stems are short, weak and yellowish - development is slow and feeble. Trace elements (Copper, Boron, Iron, Manganese, Zinc, Molybdenum and Chlorine Plants require these elements in very small quantities, but they are essential to regulate the assimilation of other nutritive elements. They have very important functions, especially in the enzymatic systems. If one of the trace elements would not exist in the nutritive solution, the plants would grow, but would not produce, or only would produce poor harvests would be of very poor quality. Copper (Cu) i) Characteristics - 70% is concentrated in the chlorophyll and its most important function is participating in the assimilation.ii) Deficiency ~ severe drop in plant development - younger leaves take on a dark green color, they roll up and a mottling appears which gradually dies off - scarce formation of the leaf lamina, decrease of its size and it rolls up inward, which limits photosynthesis. iii) Toxicity - ferric chlorosis, dwarfism, reduction of branch formation and abnormal thickening and darkening of the Toot zone, Boron (B) i) Characteristics - increases yield or improves the quality of fruit, vegetables and forage, it is related with the assimilation of calcium and transfer of sugar within the plants. - It is important for good quality seed of legume species. ii) Deficiency - It nullifies growth of new tissue and may cause swelling and discoloration of the root tips and eventual death of the apical (terminal) zone of the roots. - Causes short stem in celery, brown rot in the head and along the inside of the cauliflower stem, rot in the heart of turnips, blackening and disintegration of the center part of beets, iii) Toxicity - Causes yellowing of the leaf tips, followed by progressive death which advances from the basal part of the leaves, the margins and tips. - Quantities of this element should not be exceeded in nutritive solutions nor in the substrates, because it is highly toxic in doses above those recommended. 80Iron (Fe) i) Characteristics - It is not part of chlorophyll, but is closely linked with its biosynthesis. ii) Deficiency - Causes foliage to turn a pale yellowish color, despite sufficient quantities of nitrogen in the nutritive solution. - Causes a band of light color along the edges of the leaves and the formation of short and very branched out roots. - Iron deficiency is very similar to magnesium deficiency, but iron deficiency appears in the younger leaves. iii) Toxicity - There are known no visual symptoms of toxicity caused by iron absorbed by the root have been established. Manganese (Mn) i) Characteristics - Accelerates germination and maturing. - Increases utilization of calcium, magnesium and phosphorus. - Catalyzes the chlorophyll synthesis and plays a role in photosynthesis. ii) Deficiency - In tomatoes and beets it causes pale green, yellow and red coloring between the veins. - The chlorosis symptom also appears between the veins of both old and young leaves, depending on the species; subsequently these leaves die and fall off. Zinc (Zn) i) Characteristics - It is necessary for a normal formation of chlorophyll and for growth. 81- It is an important activator of enzymes which are related with protein synthesis, due to which plants affected by zinc deficiency are poor in protein content. ii) Deficiency - Its deficiency in tomatoes causes a basal thickening of the petiole of the leaves, but decreases their length; the foliar lamina takes on the pale coloring and a thick, parchment like consistency with an outward twist and undulations on the edges. - The size of the internodes and of the leaves is reduced, especially in their width. iii) Toxicity - Excess zinc produces ferric chlorosis in plants. Molybdenum (Mo) i) Characteristics - It is essential for nitrogen fixation in legumes. ii) Deficiency - Symptoms are similar to those of nitrogen deficiency because chlorosis (yellowing) advances from the older leaves toward the younger ones, which become hollowed and burned at the edges. - The leaf lamina does not form, due to which only the central nervation appears. - It has a negative effect on the development of cruciferous species (cabbage, cauliflower, broccoli), beets tomatoes and legumes iii) Toxicity - Excesses in tomatoes are manifested with the appearance of a bright yellow color; in cauliflower with the appearance of a bright purple color in the first stages of development. 82Chlorine (Cl) i) Deficiency - Produces initial wilting of the leaves, which later become chlorotic causing a bronze color; then they die off. - Root development is poor and an abnormal thickening is produced near their ends. ii) Toxicity - excess produces the drying up the edges and tips of the leaves; their size is reduced and there is little development in general Preparation of a concentrated solution for PHG There are several formulas to prepare nutrients which have been used in different countries. A way to prepare a concentrated solution tested successfully in several developing countries with over thirty species of vegetables, ornamental plants and medicinal plants, involves the preparation of two parent concentrated solutions, which we will call concentrated solution A and concentrated solution B. Concentrated solution A provides plants with the nutritive elements they consume in the highest proportions. Concentrated solution B, provides the elements that are required in small amounts, but which are essential for the normal development of the plant’s physiologic processes, which will make it grow well and produce abundant harvests. Concentrated solution A a) Equipment required for a simple system: - a plastic container of 20 Its - three plastic buckets with a ten liter capacity each ~ two large bottles (demijohn) minimum calibrated 10 Its capacity 83- a two liter precipitate flask, or gauged test tubes or plastic jars - access to a scale ranging from 0.01 to 2000 gr - a glass or PVC stirring rod (a three quarter inch piece of tube) - two long handled plastic spoons (a large one and a small one) - paper for weighing each element - small plastic containers (discardable cups) to deposit the material being weighed b) Elements needed The following products must be weighed on a good scale. Monoammonic phosphate (12-52-0) 340 gr. Calcium nitrate 2080 gr. Potassium nitrate 1100 gr. c) Procedure We measure six liters of water into a plastic container and to this we add one by one the above elements, already weighed, following the order in which they are listed, and start continuously stirring. We add the second nutrient only after the first is totally dissolved and the third when the first two have been dissolved. When very small amounts of the fertilizers applied remain we add water until completing ten liters and stir for another ten minutes, until no solid residues are left. Thus we have obtained concentrated solution A, which must be put into one of the demijohns, labeled and kept in a dark and cool place. Concentrated solution B a) Elements required to prepare four liters 84First group: - Magnesium sulfate 492 grs - Copper sulfate 0.48 grs - Manganese sulfate 2.48 grs - Zinc sulfate 1.20 grs - Boric acid 6.20 grs - Ammonic molybdate 0.02 grs Second group: - Magnesium nitrate 920 ce - Iron chelate 8.46 grs b) Procedure We measure two liters of water into a plastic container and add one by one the above elements, already weighed, following the order in which each of the elements of the first group were weighed; it is preferable not to add any one of them before the previous one is completely dissolved. Then, stirring all the time, we add the magnesium nitrate, which comes in liquid form. Finaly we add iron chelate which comes in granulated commercial form known as "Secuestrene Hierro 138 (R)", although there also are other liquid commercial brands; those in the form of iron chelate should be preferred. We stir for at least ten minutes more, until there are no solid residues left of any of the components; then we complete the volume with water up to four liters and stir for another five minutes. This is concentrated solution B, which contains nine nutritive elements (medium and trace). Observations ~ It is essential not to exceed the recommended quantities, because intoxications might be caused to the crops.- Water used for this preparation is plain water, at normal temperature (20-25°C), although it would be preferable to use distilled water if its cost is not too high. - To prepare, store and stir the nutrients being prepared, concentrated, or already in the form nutritive solution, plastic or glass material should always be used; metal or wooden stirring rods must never be used, however a 50 cm long PVC tube may be used. Preparation of the nuttritive solution to be applied to the crop There are two recommendations that must be made very clear from the beginning: 1. Concentrated solution A must never be mixed with concentrated solution B without the presence of water, because this would inactivate a large part of the nutritive elements in each one of them, due to which the effect of said mixture would be more harmful than beneficial for the crops. The mixture must only be made in water, adding one first and then the other. 2.The original proportion that must be used in the preparation of the nutritive solution is of five (5) parts of concentrated solution A per two (2) parts of concentated solution B per liter of nutritive solution to be prepared (see table below). Later, in the measure that experience is acquired the concentrations may be decreased, always maintaining the same proportion 5:2, as shown below: 86The nutritive solution in solid substrates The preparation of the nutritive solution which is directly applied to the crop in solid substrate is the following: Concentration Quantities a eel ee ee PE [one fourm [i [irscce [osec | Note that in spite of varying the doses of concentrated solutions A and B, the proportion is always of 5:2. a) Application If it is required to apply nutritive solution to small plants (between the first and tenth day after germination) or to newly transplanted plants (between the first and seventh day after transplanting) in warm climates, half concentration is used (2.5 cc of nutrient A and 1 cc of nutrient B per liter of water). The half concentration is used during periods with very high temperatures and much sun, because water consumption in these seasons is higher than that of nutrients. The full concentration (5 cc per 2 cc per liter of water applied) must be used for older plants (the tenth day after germination or the seventh day of transplanting). This is the concentration that must also be applied during cold seasons with high cloudiness, because the plant consumes a greater quantity of nutritients under these conditions. For hydroponic forage crops a concentration of 1.25 cc of solution A and 0.5 cc of solution B are used per liter of water, beginning irrigation one day after germination of the seeds. 87b) Volume of nutritive solution per square meter Depending on the situation from 2.0 to 3.5 Its of nutritive solution per square meter of crop of each of these prepared concentrations are applied. The smallest quantities of nutritive solution are used in cool or cold climates when the plants are small, and the largest are used in hot climates when the plants are preparing to blossom or form their usable harvestable parts (roots, bulbs, tubers). If it is noticed that the substrate becomes too dry during the day, either because of high temperatures or because the crop area is windy or because the substrate does not have a good water holding capacity, an additional amount of water should be applied, but without mixing in nutrients. This additional watering is essential, because if the substrate is dry the plant will not absorb nutrients although they are present in the substrate. Some variations related to the concentration of the solution, the quantity that must be applied and other details related to a good nutrition, will be learned as experience and ability in managing the crops is acquired and always in consultation with technicians or other persons trained in PHGs. Example: Preparation of 10 liters of nutritive solution to be applied to a solid substrate crop (it should be enough to irrigate between 3.5 and 5.0 m? of crop, depending on its age and the temperature of the season in which it is applied). We take a plastic container with 10 liters of water, add 50 cubic centimeters of concentrated solution A, stir and then add 20 cubic centimeters of concentrated solution B and stir. Thus we obtain nutritive solution to apply to the crop. This solution is placed in a watering can or plastic bottle with perforations in the top and isslowly applied to the crop, being careful to apply it uniformly throughout the container, including the edges, but not the outside. The recommended quantity of solution to be applied every day fluctuates between 2 and 3 1/2 Its per square meter. This quantity depends mainly on the stage of the crop’s development and on the climate. ¢) Hour, frequency of application and washing off excesses Application (irrigation) of the nutritive solution must be carried out daily between the first hours of the morning, except one day a week, in which plain water alone should be used for irrigation, applying twice the usual quantity, but without adding nutrient. Excess salts which may have accumulated in the substrate are thus washed away through the drainage, avoiding the damage they would cause if they were left in the substrate. Excess nutritive solution draining from the container after daily irrigation in the morning may be reused in the next applications. At the end of the week, this liquid is not used again. Although it is not better from the viewpoint of efficiency, in very sunny and intensively hot areas, irrigation could be applied in the evening to avoid burns on the leaves, which can also be avoided by applying a small amount of water after irrigating with the nutritive solution to wash away excesses that may have remained on the plant. Recommendations for the use of commercial solutions Commercial formulas, generally imported, of most of the nutrients for hydroponics are prepared according to crop needs, and only need to be mixed with water and applied to the substrate. 89These nutrients, whether in powder or liquid form, must be applied to the root area, trying to wet the leaves as little as possible, to avoid toxicity to the leaves and the outbreak of diseases. Nutrients for hydroponic use should not be confused with foliar nutrients. The first contain the elements required by a plant for its normal development and are absorbed by the root, the second are only a complement to radicular fertilization which is assumed to have been made with other complete fertilizers for radicular absorption. Foliar fertilizers are absorbed through the leaves. Foliar nutrients are a complement to and not a substitute for the nutrition that must be provided through the roots. The above is the reason for which many beginners of hydroponics have failed in their first efforts, because they believe they can meet the food requirements of their plants with a nutrient that is barely a complement, which can be efficiently absorbed by the leaves but which, because of its partial composition, cannot replace nutrition provided via the roots. Foliar fertilizers are made with highly pure salts, precisely so they can be absorbed by the leaves. This mistake, in addition to producing very poor results, increases production costs per square meter considerably, as the preparation process and composition of this type of complementary nutrient is very costly. Hydroponic nutrient solutions must contain and supply properly balanced amounts of all the elements required by a plant to grow healthy and vigorously and to produce good harvests. In every country’s agricultural market, there generally are other complete products to nourish hydroponic crops. When obtaining one of them the salesman should be asked for information on the doses, manner, season and frequency of application. Considering that substrates contain no nutritive elements it is recommended that whatever commercial nutrient is selected, it should also contain minor nutrients in addition to the major and secondary ones. It should be kept in mind that plants require thirteen elements for healthy growth and good production. What is 90not provided with the nutritive solution will not reach the plant, causing nutritional deficiencies which will affect yields in quality and quantity. In some countries there are commercial preparations in granulated form to be mixed into the solid substrate. This type of product, which is more expensive, is applied to the substrate once; after which, for three months, only water needs to be added, because the product releases the nutrients it contains gradually. Some of these gradually released nutrients are not recommended for use on edible plants, restricting their use to ornamental plants, due to which it is necessary to pay attention to the maker’s technical Tecommendations, which are generally printed on the outer label of the container. Application of the nutritive solution to a liquid or floating root medium In the case of the floating root system the first thing we must do is to calculate the quantity of water in our crop container. One way to do this is measuring and then multiplying the length by the width and by the depth of the water. If measurements are taken in centimeters we must divide the result obtained by one thousand. The result is the volume of water contained in the crop bed (expressed in liters). Example: A container measuring: 150 cm length, 100 cm width, 10 cm depth. 150 x 100 x 10 = 150,000 cm? divided by 1000 = 150 It Now, for each liter of water in the container we apply five (5) cubic centimeters (cc) of concentrated solution A and two (2) cubic centimeters of concentrated solution B. This means that in the case of the container in our example which contains 150 liters of water we must apply 750 cc of concentrated solution A and 300 cc 91of concentrated solution B, and stir well so that both solutions will mix homogeneously with the water. Once again we must remember that concentrated solutions A and B must never be mixed together without the presence of water. This nutritive solution is to be applied to a crop of large plants, during the cold season. Maintenance of the nutritive solution in liquid medium - aeration We must stir this liquid medium manually (see video) at least twice a day in such a way as to form bubbles, which makes the airing of the nutritive solution possible. Thus roots may perform their work of absorbing water and nutritive elements better, which has a very positive effect on their development. If there is no air (oxygen) in the root area, roots will first stop absorbing nutrients and water and then they will begin to die. Maintenance of the level of liquid in the containers Every time that the water level drops appreciably we must refill the container only with water. Every third time we refill the container we must add to the quantity of water applied half the concentration used initially. For example, if the third time we refill our crop bed with water we need ten liters to complete the initial volume then we must apply 25 cc of concentrated solution A and 10 cc of concentrated solution B. Review: concentrated solutions must be applied separately after which the liquid medium must be stirred well, forming bubbles. In the case of a liquid medium crop we apply concentrated solutions separately, in accordance with the quantity of water in the container, We only make a new application of nutrient every third time we refill to the initial level. The quantity of nutrients of solution A and B that must be added is half that of the initial concentration for each liter of water required to refill the container the third time.As we have seen in this class, PHG nutrition is essential for our plants to develop well. We must therefore be specially careful when preparing solutions A and B. It is necessary to dilute them in water in the proportions and manner already described. If the recommendations made during this class are not followed carefully, plants will not grow well, either because of deficiencies or excesses and harvests will not be as good as we wish. In our next class we will talk about the pests to which our plants are exposed and the methods we can use so that the damages they cause will not be financially important. 93PHOTOGRAPH 30 Differences in plant growth, due to different composition of the nutritive solutions.PHOTOGRAPH 31 Watering cans for the irrigation of crops in solid substrate. 95CLASS 7 PEST MANAGEMENT AND CONTROL Management of mineral nutrition is essential to the success of the hydroponic garden, as this is the factor which permits plants to develop and produce. However, this process may be altered by external enemies seeking to take advantage of the good development conditions in any stage, from the seedbeds up to harvesting, affecting both the quantity as well as the quality of the vegetable products with their presence. In this class we will study some of the damaging agents commonly called pests and we will make some suggestions to diminish the severeness of their attacks in PHGs to levels which will not be important financially. Emphasis will be placed on methods which do not include the use of chemical insecticides. Under the conditions in which popular hydroponic crops develop, they might be harmful to the persons applying them or to the persons consuming the products sprayed with them. It is important to learn how to recognize the organisms which generally live within the crops, as they are not all harmful to the plants, and on the contrary some are beneficial because they feed on those which are harmful (see video). The first recommendation on which we will insist most, is to examine the garden during five minutes daily, or part of it if it is too large. These examinations are intended to detect the presence of adult insects (which are searching for a place to lay their eggs), to locate the eggs and destroy them, or to find caterpillars or aphids in their first days of development. This must be done in the early hours of the morning or in the evening, because after the sun has risen the temperature rises and insects are not easy to locate, since they hide to protect themselves.