CHAPTER 6:

DISTRIBUTED SYSTEMS
 CHAPTER 16: DISTRIBUTED SYSTEMS
Advantages of Distributed Systems
Types of Network-Based Operating Systems
Network Structure
Communication Structure
Communication Protocols
An Example: TCP/IP
Robustness
Design Issues
Distributed File System
CHAPTER OBJECTIVES
To provide a high-level overview of distributed systems and the
networks that interconnect them
To discuss the general structure of distributed operating systems
To explain general communication structure and communication
protocols
To describe issues concerning the design of distributed systems
 OVERVIEW
nDistributed system is collection of loosely coupled processors
interconnected by a communications network
nProcessors variously called nodes, computers, machines, hosts
l Site is location of the processor
l Generally a server has a resource a client node at a different site wants to use
 REASONS FOR DISTRIBUTED SYSTEMS

Reasons for distributed systems

 Resource sharing
 Sharing and printing files at remote sites
 Processing information in a distributed database
 Using remote specialized hardware devices
 Computation speedup – load sharing or job migration
 Reliability – detect and recover from site failure, function transfer, reintegrate failed
site
 Communication – message passing
 All higher-level functions of a standalone system can be expanded to encompass a distributed system
 Computers can be downsized, more flexibility, better user interfaces and easier
maintenance by moving from large system to multiple smaller systems performing
distributed computing
 TYPES OF DISTRIBUTED OPERATING SYSTEMS

Network Operating Systems

Distributed Operating Systems

NETWORK-OPERATING SYSTEMS
Users are aware of multiplicity of machines
Access to resources of various machines is done explicitly by:
 Remote logging into the appropriate remote machine (telnet, ssh)
 Remote Desktop (Microsoft Windows)
 Transferring data from remote machines to local machines, via the File Transfer
Protocol (FTP) mechanism

Users must change paradigms – establish a session, give

network-based commands
 More difficult for users
DISTRIBUTED-OPERATING SYSTEMS

Users not aware of multiplicity of machines

 Access to remote resources similar to access to local resources

Data Migration – transfer data by transferring entire file, or

transferring only those portions of the file necessary for the
immediate task
Computation Migration – transfer the computation, rather than
the data, across the system
 Via remote procedure calls (RPCs)
 or via messaging system
 DISTRIBUTED-OPERATING SYSTEMS (CONT.)

Process Migration – execute an entire process, or parts of it, at

different sites
 Load balancing – distribute processes across network to even the workload
 Computation speedup – subprocesses can run concurrently on different sites
 Hardware preference – process execution may require specialized processor
 Software preference – required software may be available at only a particular site
 Data access – run process remotely, rather than transfer all data locally

Consider the World Wide Web

NETWORK STRUCTURE
Local-Area Network (LAN) – designed to cover small geographical area
 Multiple topologies like star or ring
 Speeds from 1Mb per second (Appletalk, bluetooth) to 40 Gbps for fastest Ethernet over
twisted pair copper or optical fibre
 Consists of multiple computers (mainframes through mobile devices), peripherals (printers,
storage arrays), routers (specialized network communication processors) providing access
to other networks
 Ethernet most common way to construct LANs
 Multiaccess bus-based
 Defined by standard IEEE 802.3
 Wireless spectrum (WiFi) increasingly used for networking
 I.e. IEEE 802.11g standard implemented at 54 Mbps
LOCAL-AREA NETWORK
NETWORK TYPES (CONT.)
Wide-Area Network (WAN) – links geographically separated sites
 Point-to-point connections over long-haul lines (often leased from a phone company)
 Implemented via connection processors known as routers
 Internet WAN enables hosts world wide to communicate
 Hosts differ in all dimensions but WAN allows communications
 Speeds
 T1 link is 1.544 Megabits per second
 T3 is 28 x T1s = 45 Mbps
 OC-12 is 622 Mbps
 WANs and LANs interconnect, similar to cell phone network:
 Cell phones use radio waves to cell towers
 Towers connect to other towers and hubs
COMMUNICATION PROCESSORS IN A WIDE-AREA NETWORK
COMMUNICATION STRUCTURE
The design of a communication network must address four basic
issues:
Naming and name resolution - How do two processes locate
each other to communicate?
Routing strategies - How are messages sent through the
network?
Connection strategies - How do two processes send a sequence
of messages?
Contention - The network is a shared resource, so how do we
resolve conflicting demands for its use?
NAMING AND NAME RESOLUTION
Name systems in the network
Address messages with the process-id
Identify processes on remote systems by
<host-name, identifier> pair

Domain name system (DNS) – specifies the naming

structure of the hosts, as well as name to address
resolution (Internet)
ROUTING STRATEGIES
Fixed routing - A path from A to B is specified in advance; path
changes only if a hardware failure disables it
 Since the shortest path is usually chosen, communication costs are minimized
 Fixed routing cannot adapt to load changes
 Ensures that messages will be delivered in the order in which they were sent

Virtual routing- A path from A to B is fixed for the duration of one

session. Different sessions involving messages from A to B may have
different paths
 Partial remedy to adapting to load changes
 Ensures that messages will be delivered in the order in which they were sent
 ROUTING STRATEGIES (CONT.)
Dynamic routing - The path used to send a message form site A to
site B is chosen only when a message is sent
 Usually a site sends a message to another site on the link least used at that
particular time
 Adapts to load changes by avoiding routing messages on heavily used path
 Messages may arrive out of order
 This problem can be remedied by appending a sequence number to each message
 Most complex to set up

Tradeoffs mean all methods are used

 UNIX provides ability to mix fixed and dynamic
 Hosts may have fixed routes and gateways connecting networks together may
have dynamic routes
 ROUTING STRATEGIES (CONT.)
Router is communications processor responsible for routing
messages
Must have at least 2 network connections
Maybe special purpose or just function running on host
Checks its tables to determine where destination host is, where to
send messages
 Static routing – table only changed manually
 Dynamic routing – table changed via routing protocol
 ROUTING STRATEGIES (CONT.)
More recently, routing managed by intelligent software more
intelligently than routing protocols
 OpenFlow is device-independent, allowing developers to introduce network
efficiencies by decoupling data-routing decisions from underlying network devices

Messages vary in length – simplified design breaks them into

packets (or frames, or datagrams)
Connectionless message is just one packet
 Otherwise need a connection to get a multi-packet message from source to
destination
CONNECTION STRATEGIES
Circuit switching - A permanent physical link is established for the
duration of the communication (i.e., telephone system)
Message switching - A temporary link is established for the
duration of one message transfer (i.e., post-office mailing system)
Packet switching - Messages of variable length are divided into
fixed-length packets which are sent to the destination
 Each packet may take a different path through the network
 The packets must be reassembled into messages as they arrive

Circuit switching requires setup time, but incurs less overhead for
shipping each message, and may waste network bandwidth
 Message and packet switching require less setup time, but incur more overhead per
message
COMMUNICATION PROTOCOL
The communication network is partitioned into the following multiple
layers:
Layer 1: Physical layer – handles the mechanical and electrical
details of the physical transmission of a bit stream
Layer 2: Data-link layer – handles the frames, or fixed-length
parts of packets, including any error detection and recovery that
occurred in the physical layer
Layer 3: Network layer – provides connections and routes
packets in the communication network, including handling the
address of outgoing packets, decoding the address of incoming
packets, and maintaining routing information for proper response
to changing load levels
 COMMUNICATION PROTOCOL (CONT.)
Layer 4: Transport layer – responsible for low-level network
access and for message transfer between clients, including
partitioning messages into packets, maintaining packet order,
controlling flow, and generating physical addresses
Layer 5: Session layer – implements sessions, or process-to-
process communications protocols
Layer 6: Presentation layer – resolves the differences in formats
among the various sites in the network, including character
conversions, and half duplex/full duplex (echoing)
Layer 7: Application layer – interacts directly with the users, deals
with file transfer, remote-login protocols and electronic mail, as
well as schemas for distributed databases
COMMUNICATION VIA ISO NETWORK MODEL
THE ISO PROTOCOL LAYER
THE ISO NETWORK MESSAGE
THE TCP/IP PROTOCOL LAYERS
EXAMPLE: TCP/IP
The transmission of a network packet between hosts on an Ethernet
network
Every host has a unique IP address and a corresponding Ethernet
Media Access Control (MAC) address

Communication requires both addresses

Domain Name Service (DNS) can be used to acquire IP addresses
Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) is used to map MAC addresses to IP
addresses
 Broadcast to all other systems on the Ethernet network

If the hosts are on the same network, ARP can be used

 If the hosts are on different networks, the sending host will send the packet to a
router which routes the packet to the destination network
AN ETHERNET PACKET
ROBUSTNESS
Failure detection

Reconfiguration
FAILURE DETECTION
Detecting hardware failure is difficult
To detect a link failure, a heartbeat protocol can be used
Assume Site A and Site B have established a link
 At fixed intervals, each site will exchange an I-am-up message indicating
that they are up and running

If Site A does not receive a message within the fixed interval,

it assumes either (a) the other site is not up or (b) the message
was lost
Site A can now send an Are-you-up? message to Site B
If Site A does not receive a reply, it can repeat the message
or try an alternate route to Site B
FAILURE DETECTION (CONT.)
If Site A does not ultimately receive a reply from Site B, it
concludes some type of failure has occurred
Types of failures:
- Site B is down
- The direct link between A and B is down
- The alternate link from A to B is down
- The message has been lost
However, Site A cannot determine exactly why the failure has
occurred
RECONFIGURATION
When Site A determines a failure has occurred, it must
reconfigure the system:
1.If the link from A to B has failed, this must be broadcast to every site in the
system
2.If a site has failed, every other site must also be notified indicating that the
services offered by the failed site are no longer available

When the link or the site becomes available again, this

information must again be broadcast to all other sites
DESIGN ISSUES
Transparency – the distributed system should appear as a
conventional, centralized system to the user
Fault tolerance – the distributed system should continue to
function in the face of failure
Scalability – as demands increase, the system should easily
accept the addition of new resources to accommodate the
increased demand
 Consider Hadoop open source programming framework for processing large
datasets in distributed environments (based on Google search indexing)

Clusters – a collection of semi-autonomous machines that acts as

a single system
DISTRIBUTED FILE SYSTEM
Distributed file system (DFS) – a distributed implementation
of the classical time-sharing model of a file system, where
multiple users share files and storage resources
A DFS manages set of dispersed storage devices
Overall storage space managed by a DFS is composed of
different, remotely located, smaller storage spaces
There is usually a correspondence between constituent storage
spaces and sets of files
Challenges include:
 Naming and Transparency
 Remote File Access
DFS STRUCTURE
Service – software entity running on one or more machines and
providing a particular type of function to a priori unknown
clients
Server – service software running on a single machine
Client – process that can invoke a service using a set of
operations that forms its client interface
A client interface for a file service is formed by a set of
primitive file operations (create, delete, read, write)
Client interface of a DFS should be transparent, i.e., not
distinguish between local and remote files
Sometimes lower level intermachine interface need for cross-
machine interaction
NAMING AND TRANSPARENCY
Naming – mapping between logical and physical objects
Multilevel mapping – abstraction of a file that hides the
details of how and where on the disk the file is actually stored
A transparent DFS hides the location where in the network the
file is stored
For a file being replicated in several sites, the mapping returns
a set of the locations of this file’s replicas; both the existence of
multiple copies and their location are hidden
NAMING STRUCTURES
Location transparency – file name does not reveal the file’s
physical storage location
Location independence – file name does not need to be
changed when the file’s physical storage location changes
 NAMING SCHEMES — THREE MAIN APPROACHES

Files named by combination of their host name and local name;

guarantees a unique system-wide name
Attach remote directories to local directories, giving the appearance
of a coherent directory tree; only previously mounted remote
directories can be accessed transparently
Total integration of the component file systems
 A single global name structure spans all the files in the system
 If a server is unavailable, some arbitrary set of directories on different machines also
becomes unavailable

In practice most DFSs use static, location-transparent mapping for

user-level names
 Some support file migration
 Hadoop supports file migration but without following POSIX standards
REMOTE FILE ACCESS
Remote-service mechanism is one transfer approach
Reduce network traffic by retaining recently accessed disk blocks in
a cache, so that repeated accesses to the same information can be
handled locally
 If needed data not already cached, a copy of data is brought from the server to
the user
 Accesses are performed on the cached copy
 Files identified with one master copy residing at the server machine, but copies of
(parts of) the file are scattered in different caches
 Cache-consistency problem – keeping the cached copies consistent with the master
file
 Could be called network virtual memory
 CACHE LOCATION – DISK VS. MAIN MEMORY

Advantages of disk caches

 More reliable
 Cached data kept on disk are still there during recovery and don’t need to be
fetched again

Advantages of main-memory caches:

 Permit workstations to be diskless
 Data can be accessed more quickly
 Performance speedup in bigger memories
 Server caches (used to speed up disk I/O) are in main memory regardless of
where user caches are located; using main-memory caches on the user machine
permits a single caching mechanism for servers and users
CACHE UPDATE POLICY
Write-through – write data through to disk as soon as they are
placed on any cache
 Reliable, but poor performance

Delayed-write (write-back) – modifications written to the cache and

then written through to the server later
 Write accesses complete quickly; some data may be overwritten before they are
written back, and so need never be written at all
 Poor reliability; unwritten data will be lost whenever a user machine crashes
 Variation – scan cache at regular intervals and flush blocks that have been modified
since the last scan
 Variation – write-on-close, writes data back to the server when the file is closed
 Best for files that are open for long periods and frequently modified
CONSISTENCY
Is locally cached copy of the data consistent with the master
copy?
Client-initiated approach
 Client initiates a validity check
 Server checks whether the local data are consistent with the master copy

Server-initiated approach
 Server records, for each client, the (parts of) files it caches
 When server detects a potential inconsistency, it must react
END OF CHAPTER 6