 INTRODUCTION ABOUT WATER TREATMENT

Water treatment systems are designed to solve different problems, so consumers

need to determine their specific treatment needs before shopping for a water
treatment system. Some common issues consumers have that require water
treatment include:

 Water hardness
 Chemical and/or virus removal (UV treatment)
 Well water quality
 Other water contaminants, or pollutants.

As important as determining the problem you are trying to solve with a water
treatment system is finding a reliable, professional installer. Due diligence on the
consumer’s part is the best way to assure the success of any trade person’s
installation or product. For do-it-yourself projects, make sure your own skills
match the project or that professional help is available if the project exceeds
them.

A. Contaminants targeted

Water treatment systems are used to remove a variety of different contaminants

from their water. Note that, while some brands may use the term “purify” in their
marketing materials, it is an inaccurate term to describe water treatment. Pure
water is H2O, nothing else, which is a rare substance to encounter in its pure
state.

Bacteria: Some water treatment systems focus on removing bacteria from water;
these companies specialize in UV and other disinfection methods to kill bacteria
that infects water and might make drinkers sick.

Minerals: There are also systems that target excess minerals in water, which
cause the water to be hard. Companies that specialize in removing minerals use
exchange resin.

Multi-contaminant removal: Many water treatment systems companies offer

services to remove a wide variety of materials from water. Some of the
contaminants removed by water treatment systems include heavy metals from
construction projects or damaged pipes that cause water to taste metallic,
sediment that has gotten into a water supply through construction work and
makes water appear muddy and brown and chlorine added by public water
companies to disinfect water sources, which gives water a strong chemical taste.

 Types of systems
There are multiple systems which can remove contaminants from water.
 Point of entry systems: Point of entry water treatment systems are able to treat
all of the water entering a home or business and are installed after a water meter
or storage tank.

Point of use systems: Some water treatment systems are used where people
directly access the water, like a kitchen sink or a shower head.

Multiple systems: A combination of systems can be used to perform several

different types of water treatment, such as treating hardness and removing
pollutants. They can also treat by ionic exchange and Granular Active Carbon
(GAC).

B. Source of water treatment

Water treatment systems can treat drinking and usable water that comes from a
range of different sources.

Groundwater (wells): Systems that treat groundwater specialize in technology

for treating traditional water from the ground, which is a common type of water
used for drinking and bathing in homes and businesses in many parts of the
United States.

Brackish water: Brackish water is water that is part saltwater and part
freshwater, which is often collected in estuaries. Brackish water can be collected
and treated by water treatment companies to desalinate (Reverse Osmosis), then
be used for things like irrigation and watering gardens and lawns.

Surface water: There are water treatment systems that can be used for treating
surface water, which is collected rainwater or water at the top of a natural body of
water. These systems collect the fresh surface water and use treatment to
remove algae, bacteria and solids from the water in order to make it safe to drink
or bathe with.

C. Technology utilized

Depending on the source and intended use, a range of different technologies can
be employed to treat and condition water.

Filtration: Water filtration cleans water by trapping contaminants in a filter,

which then absorbing or breaking the contaminants down.

Ultraviolet technology: UV technology utilize Ultraviolet light rays to disinfect

water and kill bacteria in it.

Reverse osmosis: Reverse osmosis is a process in which dissolved inorganic

solids (such as salts) are removed from a solution (such as water). This is
accomplished by household water pressure pushing the tap water through a
semipermeable membrane.
D. Eco-friendliness

In water treatment, eco-friendly means little or no effluent waste water is required

in treating the water.  Softeners are not eco-friendly even if they claim they are. 
Everything is relative, but all softeners have waste water that is hazardous to
most everything (salt).  Water filtration systems differ from one another based on
how eco-friendly their filtration system is.

Green filtration products: There are some water filtration products are produced
with the environment in mind, and only use “green” materials and products.

Eco-friendly options: Some water treatment systems are available that are
considered eco-friendly products and services, like salt-free treatments—which
use significantly less water in order to get pure water than a traditional salt-based
purification system.

Traditional water treatment systems companies: Many water treatment

systems companies use traditional technology and products, and they are not
particularly focused on environmental-friendliness.

E. Consumer maintenance requirements

Water treatment systems differ from one another based on how much
maintenance a customer must perform on the system. Performing proper
maintenance on your water treatment system is a must if you want it to continue
working.

No maintenance required: Some water treatment companies handle all the

maintenance for the water treatment system, including installation and regular
check-ins and updates.

Minimal maintenance: There are some water treatment systems that require
minimal maintenance from customers, like checking filters to see if they are
clogged or dirty or watching monitors on filters that change colour when they are
ready to be replaced.

Customer maintained: Customers often have to have complete control over the
maintenance of their water filtration system, like replacing filters regularly.
 DIFFERENT TYPES M/F OF FILTRATION SYSTEMS

 NALCO PRE-TREATMENT SOLUTIONS (ASTON, USA)

Nalco PTS sells, installs and services commercial/industrial water treatment

systems used in many different applications. These standard systems can be
customized to meet specific process water requirements, such as size, life span,
design flexibility and budget.

With over 40 years of experience in industrial water treatment equipment design

and manufacturing, Nalco PTS is a qualified provider of many different types of
industrial water treatment system specifically suited to your commercial or industrial
water treatment use.

Systems: -
Cartridge/ Bag Filtration
Condensate Polishers
Conventional/Media Filtration
Dealkalizers
Deionizers/Demineralizers
Ion Exchange
Membrane Filtration
Reverse Osmosis
Side Stream Filtration
Ultrapure Water
Ultraviolet (UV) water Systems
Water Services
 AQUA CARE (GUJARAT)

Aqua care, engaged in manufacturing & supplying a wide range of water purification
and all kinds of water treatment plans. These are fabricated using high grade raw
material to ensure almost client satisfaction. His range includes U.V. System, R.O.
plants, Softner, P.D.W.P, swimming pool filtration systems & D.M. plant, trunky
projects. He can customise his range as per the requirements.

Product list:
Water Softening Plant
Water Filtration Plant
Waste Water Treatment Plant
Drinking Water Plant
Industrial Water Treatment Plant
Swimming Pool Filtration Plant
Boiler Water Filtration Plant
Industrial R.O. Plant
Domestic R.O. Plant
Packing Machinery
Plant Capacity Gallery

Water Filtration Plant

  AQUA FILSEP INC. (AHMEDABAD, GUJARAT)

Water Filtration Systems

Water Filtration Systems
 “AFI – FS”, Aqua Filsep Inc. filters are standard pre-treatment systems
in water treatment process, effectively removing a large percentage of suspended
solids from your process water by straining it through various media.
 Offers a complete range of high quality filter systems that minimize
maintenance and maximize the performance of water treatment systems.
 Manufacturer a wide variety of standard and custom-built pressure filter
systems. Depending on the quality of inlet water and downstream equipment.
 Pressure filters are designed to remove specific contaminants from process
water using specialized filter beds.
 Multi Media Filter (MMF) uses layers of different media to remove high
suspended solids.
 Activated Carbon Filters (ACF) remove free chlorine and other oxidants that
can damage resin and membranes in downstream equipment.
 Green sand filters remove iron and manganese from supply water. Our
standard filtration systems range from 1 m3 to 70 m3/hr.
 “ESP” & “GLH” series filters are made from mild steel and fiber glass
reinforced plastic pressures vessles as per process requirement.
Water Filtration Process

This is a physical process to remove physical impurities like suspended matters,

color and odour. Pressure sand water filtration plants remove suspended particles.
Water purification plants
 TRINITY FILTRATION TECHNOLOGIES PVT. LTD. (Maharastra ,India)

Trinity Filtration Technologies is the leader in the Designing, Manufacturing and

Marketing of advanced filtration, High efficiency separation products and systems and
Hydraulic Oil Purification System serving the Indian Industry. Trinity’s products are
employed in diverse markets including Bio-Pharmaceutical, Food & Beverage, General
Engineering, Petrochemical, Power Generation, Hydraulic Earth Moving Equipment
and Oil & Gas markets.

Self-cleaning filter System:

TRINITY Self Cleaning Filter systems are designed for a wide variety of liquid process
applications. 
The filter system consists of a cylindrical, cleanable filter which rotates against the
stationery cleaning knife causing particles larger than the opening to be retained and
eventually scraped off the element.

 Continuous, operator independent operation 

 No need for disposable filter cartridges thereby reducing the cost of replacement
elements, change-out labour, and downtime. 
 No Operator exposure, hence no health hazards 
 Unique welded wedge wire type mesh, strong, rugged and durable 
 Higher percentage of open area, provides significantly higher flow throughput, lower
pressure drops. 
 Removal Ratings: 25 to 500 Microns. 
 Optional PLC based Panels/ Flame Proof Motor

Applications :
Food & Beverage : Chewing gum base, Chocolate, Sauces, Corn Syrup, Juices, Candy,
Cooking oil 
Inks And Coatings : Solvents, Water, Paint, Clear coat, Inks, Automotive coatings,
Industrial coatings, Lacquers, Wax, Varnish, Adhesives 
Cosmetics : Toothpaste, Lotions, Soaps, Mouthwash, Mineral oils 
Chemical Processing’s : Lube oil, Grease, Wax, Paraffins, Petrochemicals, Fuel oil,
Catalyst Recovery 
Oil And Gas : Crude oil, Drilling fluids, Completion fluids, Catalyst Recovery 
Metal Finishing : Machine coolants, Plating solutions, Stripping solutions, hydraulic press
oil 
Recycling : Automotive oil, Anti-freeze, Hydraulic oil.
Industrial Filter Housings

CE, ASME Code stamp compliant Design for safety and durability 
 Single, Multi round Cartridge, Duplex units expertly engineered for reliability and ease of
use. 
 Sure, sealing covers with swing bolt closure design allows easy disassembly and faster
cartridge filter replacement. 
 MOCK: Carbon Steel, Stainless Steel 304, 316, 316L, 904L, Duplex Steel, Monel®,
Hastelloy® & Rubber/GRP lined vessels 
 Pressure Ratings up to 150 Bar or more
 Aqueous Flow rates up to 4500 GPM or more 
 Unique cup design to accommodate both Double open end (DOE) and 222-0ring style
SOE cartridges without modification 
   in the housing

Applications:
 Municipal Water 
 Condensate Polishing 
 Waste water 
 Desalination 
 Pre RO-application 
 CED & Top coats
 Paints, Resins, Inks
 Lube Oils / Coolants 
 Oil well Injection
 Refinery & Petrochemicals
 Electronics
 AQUA PURO EQUIPMENT PRIVATE LIMITED (MAHARASHTRA, INDIA)

Industrial Water Filters & Purifiers

Multimedia Filter- Aguapuro offers wide series of multimedia filters for removal of suspended
solids and heavy metals. Filters are available FRP (Fibre Reinforced Polymer), Mild Steel and
Stainless Steel. 

Pressure Sand Filter- Pressure Sand Filter is an ideal solution for the systems with high sediment,
silt, sand, and turbidity. Our unique design ensures the maximum utilization of the surface area,
lesser pressure drop across the pressure bed and effective elimination of the impurities. The
strength, stability and micro-porous character of filtration media make sand filter suitable for
virtually every application in the water treatment industry. 
Activated Carbon Filter- Activated carbon is the most common method of treatment for de-
chlorination and removal of taste and odour from water, through adsorption. Adsorption is directly
related to the surface area of the media.

Iron removal Filter- Iron removal filter is processed

catalytic filtration unit where the raw water passes through

the layer of compressed air, processed catalyst & quartz

filter media respectively. The dissolved ferrous iron salts

are converted into insoluble ferric salt and precipitated

over the filter bed and then the iron free filtered water comes out.

Bromide Removal Filter- AGUAPURO offers Bromide removal Filters for various capacity ranging
from 10 M3/hr upto 250 M3/hr.  Water containing Bromide when ozonated, produces Bromate
which is carcinogenic.  The level of bromate is allowed up to 20 ppb in Drinking Water.  However,
AGUAPURO offers systems to reduce Bromide from water to avoid Bromate transformation post
Ozonation.  The removal is possible up to 5 ppb level.

Manganese removal Filter- Manganese produces a brownish colour in laundered clothing, leaves
black particles on fixtures and as with iron, affects the taste of beverages, including coffee and tea.
Aguapuro specializes in manganese removal systems to help water treatment plants deal with
these problems.

Mild Steel Filters

Aguapuro series MILD Steel Filters are available from 200 mm to 3000 mm

diameter sizes and from 1 M3 to 100 M3/hr Flow rate when operated

on 15 - 30 m/hr velocity.

Units are available with either individual valves or Single Lever operated Solo Multi Port Valve
depending on the requirement. Steel Filters are internally Epoxy Painted to have corrosion free
operation. IS 2062 Mild Steel Plate and IS 1239 Pipes are used to fabricate Filters. Rubber lining is
provided (Optional) for Specific applications on request.

Individual Valves OR Multi Port Valve provides ease in operation of Backwash and Rinse which is
indicated using Inlet pressure gauge.
Auto MPVs are available for Specific applications.
Auto Pneumatic Valves OR Solenoid Valves are also available

Stainless Steel Filters

Aguapuro series Stainless Steel 316 Filters are available from 8“to 63“diameter sizes and from 0.5
to 35 M3/hr Flow rate when operated on 15 - 30 m/hr velocity. Higher Flow Rates are designed on
requests.

Units are available with either individual Ball valves or Single Lever operated Solo Multi Port Valve
depending on the requirement. Being constructed from SS 316 vessels with Internal Quartz Lining
vessel and SS 316 Pipe work and valves, it gives complete corrosion free operation.

Individual Ball Valves OR Multi Port Valve in (ABS Plastic) provide ease in operation of backwash
and rinse which is indicated using Inlet pressure gauge.

Stainless Steel Filters have Low Installation cost, Easy and Fast Installation, Almost nil maintenance
cost are the additional features for these units.

Auto MPVs are available for Specific applications.

Auto Pneumatic Valves OR Solenoid Valves are also available

Aguapuro series Stainless Steel 316 Filters are available from 8“to 63“diameter sizes and from 0.5 to
35 M3/hr Flow rate when operated on 15 - 30 m/hr velocity. Higher Flow Rates are designed on
requests.

Units are available with either individual Ball valves or Single Lever operated Solo Multi Port Valve
depending on the requirement. Being constructed from SS 316 vessels with Internal Quartz Lining
vessel and SS 316 Pipe work and valves, it gives complete corrosion free operation.

Individual Ball Valves OR Multi Port Valve in (ABS Plastic) provide ease in operation of backwash and
rinse which is indicated using Inlet pressure gauge.

Stainless Steel Filters have Low Installation cost, Easy and Fast Installation, Almost nil maintenance
cost are the additional features for these units.

Auto MPVs are available for Specific applications.

Auto Pneumatic Valves OR Solenoid Valves are also available.

Water Purification Plants

 INDUSTRIAL WATER TREATMENT GLOSSARY
(Ref. http://www.waterprofessionals.com/learning-center/industrial-water-
treatment-glossary/)

Commercial Water System: - A commercial water system is a set of water

treatment equipment designed for use in commercial operations including:
apartments, restaurants, light manufacturing facilities, hotels, laundries, hospitals,
office buildings, laboratories, etc. to filter, purify, and otherwise improve the quality
of water.

Physical Water Treatment: - Physical water treatment methods consist of

filtration techniques involving the use of screens, media filtration or cross flow
filtration membranes. These methods actually trap and remove contaminants from
the feed water through physical interactions.
 CULLIGAN LIMITED (BUCKINGHAMSHIRE, UK)
(Ref: -http://www.culligan.co.uk/commercial-industrial-water-treatment-
products/water-filtration-systems/)

Culligan is a leading provider of water treatment solutions globally. The Culligan

brand is the most recognized in the industry, with a reputation based on quality,
innovation, service and local water expertise. Culligan has been providing water
treatment solutions in the UK since 1969. Culligan UK is based in High
Wycombe, Buckinghamshire and is part of the Culligan network of over 800
Culligan-branded locations across 90 countries worldwide.

WATER FILTRATION SYSTEMS: -

A. Self-Cleaning Filters
B. Cartridge Micro-filtration
C. Side Stream filter
D. Media Filtration
E. Dynamic Separators.

Cartridge Micro-Filtration: - Mechanical cartridge filtration is a robust and

economical solution for smaller scale water filtration. Ideal as a protection pre-
filtration for expensive treatment systems and equipment.

FGX3
Utilising a quick release clamp system for fast change-out of
cartridges and housed in an AISI 316 stainless steel enclosure
with 1.5”, 2.5” and 3” UNI 338 threaded inlet/outlet connections
the FGX3 filtration system is a robust and economical filtration
system. Able to treat flows of up to 45m3/hr the FGX3 series of filters is available
with a wide range of filtration levels (1 – 5 – 20 microns) and is flexible enough to
allow multiple cartridge lengths to be installed. The system is supplied with a tripod
support for simple floor installation.
 WTE INFRA PROJECTS PVT. LTD. [PUNE, MAHARASHTRA]
(Ref: - http://www.watertreatmentequipments.net/filtration-plants.html)
FILTRATION PLANTS
WTE are engaged in designing high grade Drinking Water Filtration Plant that is made from
quality raw materials. It treats raw water, which contains undesirable sediments, colour,
algae and other harmful organisms. Thus, provides safe water for drinking. In this, PAC is
injected into the water to adsorb odours and toxic compounds produced by the algae
followed by the conventional process, which removes it. The mixture of water and
chemicals is strongly agitated in second time before being distributed by a channel into one
of the three flocculation tanks. Here, large horizontal paddles rotate slowly to encourage
the floc to form and grow bigger. From the flocculation tanks, the water moves into the
sedimentation tanks. As the filtration plant slows down these tanks, the large particles settle
to the floor under gravity. We offer these in three major types, which are grey water
treatment plant, iron removal filter plant and cartridge filter plant. 

 Ultra-Filtration Plant
 Pressure Sand filter
 Activated Carbon filter
 Cartridge filters
 Iron removal Filters

Cartridge Filters
We are engaged in developing excellent Cartridge Filter Plant, which comprises of fabric or polymer-
based filters designed primarily to remove particulate material from fluids. These are usually rigid or
semi-rigid and manufactured by affixing the fabric or polymer to a central core. Cartridge filters are
disposable and are easily replaceable thus preferred widely over other filtration plants. Further,
these are typically housed in a pressure vessel and can be used either individually or as an array of
cartridges in a vessel.
 STUDY OF FILTRATION FOR POINT-OF-USE DRINKING WATER
TREATMENT IN NEPAL
By Junko Sagara
Point-of-use drinking water filtration was studied as a possible drinking water
treatment alternative in Nepal. Three filter/purifier systems, Nepalese ceramic
candle filter, Indian ceramic candle filter and IPI purifier, were tested for turbidity
and microbial removal efficiencies.
The test results indicated that the filter systems had very high turbidity removal
efficiencies. All systems reduced the turbidity level of water to less than 1 NTU.
However, the filtration processes themselves were observed to be not adequate in
terms of removing microbial contaminants. IPI purifier when used together with
chlorine disinfection eliminated all microbial contamination, however, in all other
cases the treated water was still microbiologically contaminated.
In order to improve the microbial removal efficiency of Nepalese ceramic candle
filter, colloidal silver coating was applied onto the ceramic filter candle. The
experiments were conducted for filter candles with several concentrations of silver.
It was observed that the filters with more than 10mg of silver removed all hydrogen
sulfide producing bacteria. However, complete removal of total coliform was not
achieved. Moreover, it was not tested whether the effectiveness of the silver
remains after long term use of the filter, and thus a further study is recommended.
Out of all three filter systems tested, the Nepalese ceramic candle filter remained to
be the most affordable system of all. It is recommended for the Nepalese
households to use Nepalese ceramic candle filters combined with a disinfection
process.

Indian Ceramic Candle Filter

Ceramic candle filters are one of the most commonly used point-of-use treatment
options in many developing countries. The filter element is cylindrically shaped and
is made from white clay. When contaminated water passes through the filter,
contaminants are strained or trapped by the filter element, treating the water. The
typical pore size of the candle filters is 1 micron (Warwick, 1999).
Indian Ceramic Candle Filters are available in Nepal, especially in the city of
Kathmandu. They come in a variety of sizes, since they are used not only in private
households but also at public and private institutions, including offices, hotels and
restaurants. There are many Indian companies that manufacture ceramic candle
filters, such as Puro, Bajaj, Himal, Kamal and Swagat. These companies all claim
that their products produce absolutely safe, hygienic and crystal-clear drinking
water.

The design of the Indian ceramic candle filter system is simple. These units
normally consist of two stainless steel containers, one placed on top of the other.
The top container contains one to four (commonly two) ceramic filter candles. The
bottom container collects treated water that seeps down through the ceramic filter
candle. Individual users assemble the units by fitting the candle into the top
container and a spigot on to the bottom container. The ceramic filter candle must be
boiled for 15 to 20 minutes prior to the assembly for sterilization and also to remove
any fine clay particles from the ceramic candle. The individual users must keep the
ceramic filter candles clean by regularly brushing the surface gently under clean
flowing water. When the rate of filtration slows, the filter must once again be
sterilized by boiling it. The filter should be replaced after 8 to 12 months of
continuous use, depending on the amount of use and the turbidity of the feed water.

Indian Ceramic Candle Filter (Bajaj)

  WORLD DRINKING WATER TRAINING CERTIFICATE MODULE-18 FILTRATION BY
PENNSYLVANIA STATE
Unit 1 - Introduction to Bag Filtration and Cartridge Filtration

Bag filters and cartridges filters are used for a variety of applications, from industrial
processes to water treatment and home use.

Some common examples are:

- Cartridge filters: filtering water that enters a home or an automobile oil filter
- Bag filters: vacuum cleaner bag

Bag Filters

Bag filters are defined as a fabric filter designed primarily to remove

particulate material from fluids. Bag filters are usually non-rigid,
disposable, and easily replaceable.
- Bag filters are typically contained in a pressure vessel.
- Bag filters can be used either individually or as an array of bags in the
vessel.
- Fluids usually flow from the inside of the bag to the outside.

Cartridge Filters

Cartridge filters are defined as fabric or polymer-based filters designed primarily to remove
particulate material from fluids. They are usually rigid or semi-rigid and manufactured by
affixing the fabric or polymer to a central core. Cartridge filters are disposable and easily
replaceable.
- Cartridge filters are typically housed in a pressure vessel.
- Cartridge filters can be used either individually or as an array of cartridges in
a vessel.
APPLICATIONS
Industrial
Currently, bag filtration and cartridge filtration are more widely used for industrial purposes
than in water treatment. Industrial uses include process fluid filtering and solids recovery.
- Process Fluid Filtering: Process fluid filtering is the purification of a fluid by
the removal of undesirable solid material. Process fluids include fluids used
to cool or lubricate equipment. In mechanical equipment, or during the
processing of a fluid, particulate material can accumulate. In order to
maintain the purity of the fluid, the particles must be removed. The oil filter in
 your vehicle is a good example of a cartridge filter being used to maintain
the quality of a process fluid.
- Solids Removal/Recovery: Another industrial application is in solids
recovery. Solids recovery is done to either recover desirable solids from a
fluid or to “purify” the fluid prior to subsequent treatment, use, or discharge.
For instance, some mining operations will use water to convey the minerals
being mined from site to site. After the slurry arrives at its desired location, it
is filtered to remove the desired product from the carrier water.

Water Treatment
There are three general applications for bag filtration or cartridge filtration in a water
treatment plant. They are:

- Filtration of surface water or ground water under the influence of surface water.

- Prefiltration prior to subsequent treatment.

- Solids removal
SYSTEM SIZE
Although bag filter systems and cartridge filter systems are modular and can theoretically
accommodate any flow rate by increasing or decreasing the number of filter or filter arrays,
economics tend to favor their use in smaller water systems. The following items must
consider when determining if a bag filter system or a cartridge filter system would be
feasible.
- Capital Costs: Pressure vessel(s), pumps, chemical feed, and analytical
equipment.
- Operation & Maintenance (O&M) Costs: Filter change-out frequency.

Unit-2 System Design and Configuration

Each manufacturer has a unique way of designing and constructing their filters. The filters
can be different in terms of:
- Length,
- Diameter,
- Construction materials, and
- Manufacturing techniques.
Since this module is an overview, the following discussion of materials and manufacturing
techniques will be as generic as possible, applying to most bag or cartridge systems.

MATERIALS AND CONSTRUCTION

The filter housings can be constructed of many types of materials but are made primarily of
plastic or metal.
The housings usually consist of:
- The body of the housing.
- A lid or a cap which can be easily removed to facilitate filter change-out.
 - Some type of mechanical seal, usually a rubber O-ring, between the two
parts of the housing.
The O-ring is a critical part of the system. It prevents the loss of water pressure by
maintaining a seal between the cap and body of the housing and also prevents unfiltered
water from by-passing around the filter and into the effluent side of the housing.
Although each filter may be unique, there are some common elements on most bag or
cartridge filter housings.
Bag Filter Housing:
The major components of the filter housing in a bag filter system include the body of
the filter housing and the cap or lid.
- The lid may contain the inlet port and taps for pressure gauges.
- There is usually some type of pressure relief valve on either the body or the
lid to allow for the housing to be depressurized for filter change-out.
- The hardware on the body of the housing secures the lid to the top of the
housing and with the help of an O-ring provides the necessary seal between
them.
- A support screen or basket provides rigidity to a bag filter. The screen or
basket helps the bag maintain its shape when it is placed in the filter
housing. This assures that the entire surface of the filter is available for
filtration.
- The body of the housing includes:
- Outlet port.
- Taps or ports for pressure gauges.
- Legs or a stand to support the housing.
- The necessary hardware to hold the lid or cap.

Cartridge Filter Housing:

There are two basic styles of cartridge filter systems. Smaller systems usually use a single
wound cartridge; larger systems usually consist of multiple cartridge filters which can be
either pleated or wound. The type of system determines the configuration of the housing.
Smaller cartridge filter systems such as those used in a home filtering system typically
are constructed from some type of plastic or stainless steel.
 - The body of the vessel usually is made of clear plastic (or stainless steel)
the top of which is threaded to facilitate its connection to the lid or cap.
- The bottom of the body sometimes includes a barb or indentation which
allows for the proper positioning of the cartridge in the housing.
- The lid usually has the female thread which accepts the male threads of the
body and an O-ring to provide the seal between the two portions of the
housing.
- The lid usually contains the inlet and outlet ports as well as the pressure
relief valve used to depressurize the housing for filter change-out.
- Smaller cartridge filter systems may or may not contain taps or ports for
pressure gauges.
Larger cartridge filter systems can use either pleated or wound filters and usually use
multiple filters in a single housing. From the outside, a multiple filter housing looks very
much like the housing for a bag filter. Internally however, the housing has specific slots to
accept the cartridges themselves. The housing itself consists of:
- The body. As with the bag filter housing, the body may include:
− Outlet ports,
− Taps or ports for pressure gauges,
− Legs or a stand to support the housing, and
− The necessary hardware to hold the lid or cap.
- The lid or cap. It may contain:
− An inlet port and
− Taps or ports for pressure gauges.
There is usually some type of pressure relief valve on either the body or lid to allow for the
housing to be depressurized for filter change-out.
Cartridge filters are usually rigid. Therefore, they do not require the use of a support
screen or basket.
ORIENTATION
The filter housing for a bag filter system is usually vertical. The lid is located on the top
of the housing and the bag is placed vertically into the housing.
Most small single cartridge filter systems are vertically mounted. Larger systems are either
horizontally or vertically oriented.

SYSTEM CONFIGURATIONS
Bag and cartridge filtration systems can be configured in many different ways. The
configuration selected depends on a number of factors including source water quality and
desired production capacity.

Bag Filter Systems

Bag filter systems can come in a variety of configurations. For each configuration, the PA
DEP will require full redundancy of all filter stages.

Single Filter Systems: A single filter system would likely be somewhat rare in a water
treatment application. A single filter system would only be applicable for extremely small
systems with an extremely high-quality source water.
Prefilter – Post Filter Systems: Perhaps the most common configuration of a bag filter
system is a prefilter - post filter combination. By using a prefilter to remove the large
particles, the loading on the final filter can be dramatically reduced and substantial cost
savings can be realized.
Multiple Filter Systems: Intermediate filters are placed between the prefilter and the final
filter. Each filtration step would be finer than the previous step.
Filter Arrays: Some bag filter systems utilize more than one bag per filter housing. These
are referred to as filter arrays. These filter arrays allow for higher flow rates and longer run
times than systems with one bag per housing.

Cartridge Filter Systems

Cartridge filter system configurations are similar to the configurations seen in bag filter
systems. For each configuration, the PA DEP will require full redundancy of all filter stages.
Single Filter Systems: As in bag filter systems, a single filter system would likely be
somewhat rare in a water treatment application. A single filter system would only be
applicable for extremely small systems with an extremely high-quality source water. Home
water filter systems are usually single filter systems.
Prefilter - Post Filter Systems: Like bag filter systems this is one of the more common
arrangements in a cartridge filter system. It is configured so that the feed water initially
passes through a filter with a relatively large pore size and then is filtered through the finer
post or final filter.
Multiple Filter Systems: A multiple filtration system is an extension of the prefilter – post
filter configuration described above. Rather than having a prefilter and a post filter, a
multiple filtration system would consist of progressively finer filters plumbed in series.
Filter Arrays: Filter arrays are fundamentally the same as the arrays described in bag filter
systems. Multiple cartridge filters are grouped together in a single filter housing to provide
higher flow rates and longer runtimes between filter change-outs.

UNIT -3 DETERMINATION OF APPLICABILITY

Ultimately the question of whether a bag or cartridge filter system is suitable to a

particular application is determined by the quality of the source water. There are many
constituents in the source water that may affect the operation of the filtration system. These
are:
Turbidity
Color/colloids
Algae
Giardia
Cryptosporidium
Although each manufacturer’s source water quality requirements may be different, some
general guidelines for source water quality can be offered.

An example of Multiple Train Filter System Installed at Paonia

 FILTRATION SYSTEMS,US
(Ref: - https://www.filteringsystems.com/filtering-systems/)

Filtration systems go back at least to the time of the ancient Egyptians and
the peoples of ancient India. Hieroglyphic depictions from the tombs of both
Ramses II and Amenophis II suggest that the Egyptians filtered drinking
water using sand. They chose sand for this task because it caught and
settled suspended particles in the water. Also, we have found ancient texts
written in both Egyptian and Sanskrit, such as the Sushruta Samhita, that
describe methods with which they purified water, including heating under
the sun, boiling, and running through gravel.Another important society in
the ancient world that practiced filtering (to an extent) was Greece. Around
500 BC, the Classical Greek physician Hippocrates invented the first bag
filter or sieve. This filter, which we now call a Hippocratic Sleeve, was a cloth
bag through which he poured boiled water. By filtering the water with his
filtration device, he was able to remove sediments from the water that
would create bad smells or bad tastes. He used filtered water as bathwater
for sick patients.
 Filtration System – Precision Filtration Products
Between Antiquity and the Industrial Revolution, very little changed in filtration
on the European continent. However, in the 8th century in the Middle East, an
Arabian alchemist named Gerber came up with several new water purification
strategies. His methods involved the use of stills connected to wick siphons,
which purified water as they drew it from one still to the next. After the Dark
Ages passed, scientists began experimenting with filtration systems again. First,
in the 1500s, scientists created the first air filtration systems, which functioned
as respirators. In 1627, an Englishman named Sir Francis Bacon started
exploring how he might desalinate, or remove the salt from, saltwater. He tried
to do so using sand. Unfortunately for Bacon, his experiments were a failure.
However, they did spark further research by others of water and the
microscopic organisms that live in it. To that end, in the 1670s Robert Hooke
and Antonie van Leeuwenhoek developed the microscope and they were able
to see pathogens in the water. This demonstrated to them and others the
importance of figuring out how to filter water. Another important filtration
related discovery of this time was the discovery of reverse osmosis. Though
Jean-Antoine Nollet first observed this in 1748, scientists wouldn’t put it to use
in filtration processes until the mid-1900s. Throughout the 19th century, many
scientists made important breakthroughs in filtration. In 1804, John Gibb, a
Scotsman from a town named Paisley, successfully used sand filtration to
reclaim water and sell it. Similarly, in the early 1800s, many people used
ceramic filters to purify their water. By 1830, London had its first water
treatment plant.While manufacturers did make some rudimentary air filter
products in the early days, they did not really become popular until after World
War II. In fact, the U.S. Army Chemical Corps and the U.S. Atomic Energy
Commission designed the HEPA filter during WWII for protection against
radiation while they were working on the Manhattan Project. Once the war
ended, the American government allowed access the HEPA filter designs, and
manufacturers quickly began manufacturing these products for use in both
industrial and home applications.
As time went on, manufacturers and scientists developed better filter medium
materials and more efficient filter systems in general. During the 1970s, the
prevention and reduction of air pollution and water pollution became a point of
interest, and the government issued a number of laws reflecting that. The Clean
Water Act of 1972, for example, mandated that industrial manufacturers
develop better procedures for capturing waste so that it wouldn’t enter the
water source. Since then, air cleaners and industrial water filtration systems
have only become more important. They have also become important for high
stakes applications like aerospace and aeronautics.

How It Works

Material separation does not occur in the same way in every filtration system.
For example, some systems work by suspending solids. Meanwhile, membrane
filtration systems use media to trap contaminants as they pass through the
filter. Some systems trap contaminants in foam. Other filtration options use
centrifugal force, gravity, and even biological filtration agents or electrically
charged particles. They may also employ hydrostatic or rotational pressure in
order to remove heavier particles.
Types
Vacuum filters work by creating pressure at the outlet of the filter media that
is higher than the pressure in the outside atmosphere. In other words, vacuum
filters create a vacuum. This causes the outside to push itself into the vacuum,
where it encounters the filter media.

Pressure filters do their work by applying pressurized fluid or compressed air

to force a fluid stream through their filter media. As the stream moves through
the filter media, the media catches and removes any suspended debris and
separates out unwanted materials.

Membrane filtration is a popular type of filtering system that makes use of a

thin sheet to strain liquids.

In-line filters are filters installed along flow lines. Their job is to catch
contaminants and prevent system clogging.

Chemical filters dissolve contaminants by pulling them out of the solution as it

flows through the filter.

Biological filters can be used to remove organic compounds, but this function

is less common.

Two different types of filtration systems use an electrical charge to cleanse air
or fluids: electrodialysis systems and electrolysis reversal systems.

Electrodialysis systems (ED) have membranes that allow either negatively

charged or positively charged ions to flow through. Note: they do not allow
both ion types to flow through.

Electrolysis reversal systems (EDR) work in a similar way. However, EDRs

periodically reverse the current in order to generate a fresh flow.

Other less common types of filters are reverse osmosis (RO), ultrafication (UF),
and electrodeionization (EDI). Although these are all less common than ED or
EDR systems, they are just as efficient and come with their own distinct
advantages.

Reverse osmosis systems work by pushing pressurized water through a

membrane. They block any impurities from coming along with it.

Ultrafication filters are designed to remove particles and organisms sized

between 0.003 and 0.1 micrometers. Examples of organisms this size include
viruses and bacteria.

Electrodeionization filters use a combination of electricity, membranes, resin,

and ion exchange. To purify water, they deionize it and remove the dissolved
ions.

Progression filtration systems are a good choice in industries where solid

recovery is a priority. This is because these systems sort contaminations based
on its size.

Oil filtration systems are filtration systems designed specifically to filter oil.

They are staples of equipment that run on oil, like cars, trucks, manufacturing
equipment, and agricultural equipment. Oil filtration systems remove particles
from all types of oil, including hydraulic oil and motor oil.

Coalescing filters are another specific filter type designed to meet particular

specifications. Coalescing filters catch and remove mists, vapors, and oils from
process air streams.

Water filters remove contaminants, microorganisms, and particles from tap

water, drinking water and wastewater. In systems that produce ice and water,
they can also serve as refrigerator water filters.

Pool filters are a type of water filter designed specifically to clean pool water.
These water filters are usually designed as small and removable cartridge
filters.
HEPA filters, or High Efficiency Particulate Air filters, are filters designed to
remove up to 99.999995% of particles they process. They are important for use
in airplane cabin ventilation, industrial vacuum systems, respiration, and more.
To be considered HEPA filters, they must be certified.

Design and Customization

When designing and customizing filtration systems, manufacturers must

consider a wide range of application specifications, such as the stream to be
processed, the particles/contaminants to be filtered out, the setting (in the
home, in a factory, in a hospital, etc.), and the standard requirements.

Based on what is being processed, what the filter is intended to capture, and
the particle size, filtration system manufacturers can decide on the filter pore
sizes.

Manufacturers also use these details to consider the best filtration rate, which
is the rate at which a stream can move through a filter as it provides maximum
particle separation/removal. To reach the best filtration rate, manufacturers
may place the filter at the intake, inline, or exhaust of a system. Sometimes,
they may place multiple filters at all of these points. By using multiple filters in a
flow, particles can be separated and removed several times over. Not only will
this improve the quality of the product, but it allows the filters to function with
more efficiency, since they are not being regularly clogged with large particles.

Based on the variables such as filter location, filter rate, load capacity,
absorption, and so on, manufacturers can decide what filter media is best.

Common materials manufacturers use to manufacture filter housings/filter

cartridges include aluminum, plastic, steel, and stainless steel. Common
materials manufacturers use to make filter media include carbon, Teflon, resin,
nylon, sand, and synthetic fibers. Each offer something different. Carbon, for
example, is great at removing chlorine, volatile organic compounds, bad smell,
and odors from water.
filtering Systems

Though single filters may suffice, optimal filtration is often achieved through
the use of several filtration products used in conjunction with one another to
create a complete system.

Filtering Systems – Precision Filtration Products

Filtering systems may employ several different techniques or simply the

succession of similar but progressively restrictive apparatus. Often
incorporated at the point of intake and exhaust as well as inline configurations,
these systems promote safety all throughout the manufacturing process. To
accommodate complete air or fluid systems, filter media include such varied
products as strainers, cartridges, membranes and housings, each of which may
be designed to remove large particles from industrial process streams or with
the precision to purify water for drinking by removing even microscopic
contaminants.

Used to clarify coolants, corrosive chemicals, gasoline, oil, hydraulic fluid,

lubricants, water, air intake and exhaust air, filtering systems are easily divided
into two major categories: air filters and liquid filters. Despite this division,
many of the same techniques are used for each, but with minor adjustments.
Membrane, pressure and vacuum as well as electrically charged filters are
among the most commonly used to remove impurities in flow lines for many
industries, including food and beverage processing, chemical, pharmaceutical,
mining, pulp and paper, automotive and agriculture. Commercial and contexts
likewise utilize filtering systems with great frequency in order to promote
health and safety for homes, offices and for the environment.

With such variability, there are several important factors to consider when
installing a filtration system. The degree of installation must first be considered.
Filtration equipment can be portable, mounted or centralized systems, the
latter being the most complex. This decision also has a significant impact on the
type of filter and collection as it relates to the ease of cleaning or replacing
components.

As some filtering systems should run continually, it is important to consider the

downtime required for maintenance. The pressure drop or ability to operate
through blockages will also impact the frequency of cleaning and repairs.
Additional considerations include filtration rate, filter location, stream viscosity
and temperature, filter load capacity, maximum flow and absorption.

The particular type of filter will determine many of these variables as will the
material used in its construction. Housing and filters may be constructed of
aluminum, steel, stainless steel, steel, carbon, sand, durable plastics, Teflon,
nylon and other synthetic fibers. The particulates themselves should correlate
to the specific filter. Both the size and chemical composition should be
compatible to ensure product longevity and efficiency.
Regulatory bodies, such as the International Organization for Standardization
(ISO), may require certain filters be used in a given application, though many
configurations can result in similar competence.

 FILTRA SYSTEMS, USA

(Ref:-https://www.filtrasystems.com/industries/industrial-water-filters-and-
wastewater-filters/)
INDUSTRIAL WATER FILTRATION & WASTEWATER FILTERS

Filtra-Systems created a wide range of industrial water and wastewater filters plus
industrial water filtration systems for engineering-heavy industries. 
 What do you know about us, our bag filters, cartridge filters or STiR filter oil-water
separation technologies which are leveraged by a wide variety of global industry
leaders because we do things differently?
Discover how these tested and proven filters are used in the treatment of:
 Industrial Process Water
 Produced Water
 Wastewater
 Groundwater
 Cooling Tower Water
 And Many Many More Applications

WASTEWATER TREATMENT OPTIONS

Check out the variety of industrial water filtration systems and products you have to
choose from. 
Custom-engineered industrial water, produced water and wastewater media,
vacuum, pressure, and bag filters and systems are typically used to remove
suspended solids, oils, and other contaminants from water. 
These wastewater filtration systems help get your water recycled for reuse or meet
environmental disposal guidelines.
Each water filter process has different water quality specifications and Filtra-
Systems has the experts and insight to review each of your applications and
suggest the most cost-effective industrial water filter technology for the task.
From pressure filters to cartridge filters, and everything in between, you'll almost
always find the solution that you are looking for in your industrial wastewater
applications.

CONTACT US NOW!

Want more information about the many industrial wastewater filters and systems

Filtra-Systems offers our clients to give them a competitive advantage? Please fill
out the contact form and we'll be happy to help you.
In a hurry? Have questions about wastewater filtration or other filtration systems,
please call us at (248)-427-9090.
We look forward to helping you and your organization solve any filtration issue.

PRODUCTS
STiR Industrial Water Filter

Our STiR fluidization technology is unmatched among industrial water purification systems. Learn
how STiR can remove suspended solids and oils from your water!
Bag Filter Housings

Filtra-Systems has provided bag filter housings to a wide range of industries for almost four
decades. Browse our various bag filter housing products here!
Walnut Shell Media Filter

Filtra-Systems' Walnut Shell Filter has numerous applications in different industries. Visit our website
to learn how the Walnut Shell Filter can help you!
Industrial Cartridge Filter Housings

At Filtra-Systems, we design industrial cartridge filter housings to meet the specific needs of any
relevant industry. Browse our housing products today!

Sanitary Cartridge Filter Housings

Filtra-Systems engineers a variety of sanitary cartridge filter housings for a wide range of industries.
View these products today to find out more!
  HEALTH ORGANISATION MONOGRAPH SERIES NO.42
‘Water Supply for Rural Areas & Small Communities’
By Edmund G. Wagner & J.N. Lanoix
(Ref: - Chapter no.6 Filtration System Page. No. 188)

Filtration.
There are two types of filter commonly used in the treatment of household water supplies:
the sand filter, which is relatively coarse, and the ceramic filter, which is of a finer texture.

Sand Filter: -
The household sand filter, unless skilfully operated, is relatively ineffective against bacteria.
It will, however, remove cysts, ova, cercariae, and similar relatively large organisms, and
will strain out most of the coarse and visible matter in suspension, although it may pass
some fine turbidity or cloudiness. Sand filtration may be made more effective by first
carefully treating the water with alum, as a result of which a clear water can be obtained.
Some household filters also contains charcoal. Charcoal has no purifying effect, its only
function being to absorb certa~nt aste-producing compounds and to make the water "
sweeter "; but even this effect is lost unless the charcoal is frequently renewed. Sand filters
often get partially clogged with organic matter, and under some conditions this results in
bacterial growths in the filter. Reports are common of instances where the filtered water
has a higher bacterial content than the unfiltered water. Household sand filters are not
recommended unless the water is to be boiled or disinfected after filtration. With this
reservation in mind, the household sand filter fills a definite place in water treatment. It can
easily be made for household use wherever fine sand is to be found. The essential points in
making a filter are, first, that the depth of sand through which water passes should be at
least 60 cm (2 ftl-and an additional 15 cm (6 in.) is desirable-and, secondly, that the
maximum rate of flow through the filter should not be greater than 3.6 litres per square
metre per minute (4 gallons per square foot per hour).
A simple filter can be constructed from a steel drum 60 cm (24 in.) in diameter and 75
cm (30 in.) high, with the head cut out. Place the drum on a stand, with a container
underneath, and drill a hole 2 mm (3/32 in.) in diameter in the bottom of the drum to
serve as the filter outlet. Place a few centimetres of small stones, about pea-size, in
the bottom of the drum and fill to within 10 cm (4 in.) of the top with rather fine sand.
Make a hole in the side of the drum just below the top rim for an overflow, and to it
connect a piece of pipe for an overflow line. To operate the filter, keep a continuous
flow of water running into the top, just sufficient to keep the filter filled, with a slight
overflow. It may be necessary to place a small disc on the surface of the sand under
the inlet to avoid a hollow forming in the sand. A filter of these dimensions should
deliver one litre per minute (12 gallons per hour) of clear water, suitable for
chlorination.
Ceramic Filter: -
There are several types of ceramic filter, such as pressure filters, non-pressure filters, and
filter pumps; and there is a wide range of ceramic media having different pore sizes. The
heart of any of these is the filter candle. and the method of getting water through the candle
is only a matter of convenience. Only clean water should be used with ceramic filters:
otherwise, with cloudy or turbid water, the candles clog very quickly.
Coarse-grained filter candles are useful in removing suspended matter, helminth ova,
cercariae, and cysts. They may be only partially effective in removing the smaller disease
organisms, and consequently water should be chlorinated or otherwise disinfected after
passage through a coarse-grained or industrial-type filter. Porcelain filters are made with
pore sizes from a maximum pore radius of 50µ, ~or~ larger down to 0. 30µ.To be
satisfactory for water purification, the pore radius should be about 1.511µ. Examples of
such filters are the Chamberland L2 and the Selas 015. These and similar fine-grained
porcelain filters will remove all disease organisms usually found in drinkingwater, and it is
quite safe to use water after passage through such a filter without further treatment. Filters
and their attachments should be carefully examined at frequent intervals to guard against
cracks or leaks which might possibly permit unfiltered water to get by. Porcelain filters must
be cleaned and boiled at intervals. If a filter gets coated or clogged, it should be scrubbed
under running water with a stiff brush free from soap, grease, or oil, and then boiled for 15
or 20 minutes. Even if the filter does not clog, it should be cleaned and boiled at least once
a week.
Another type of filter candle is known as the Kieselguhr or infusorial earth, or diatomaceous
earth filter. Like the porcelain, this also is made with various pore sizes. The finer-grained
types are effcient in removing all types of bacteria commonly found in water. Among the
well-known Kieselguhr filters are the Berkefeld (see Fig. 70) and Mandler filters. Their
porosity is graded as V (" vie1 ", or coarse), N (normal, or intermediate), and W (" wenig ",
or fine). The V filters are suitable only for the removal of suspended material; and, after
filtration with this type of candle, the water should be further treated to destroy bacteria.
The N filters remove the smallest bacteria, and it is safe to use water filtered through this
grade without further treatment. The same care should be taken of Kieselguhr candles as
of porcelain candles, except that they should be cleaned more frequently, at intervals of no
longer than four or five days at the most.
There is a special type of Kieselguhr candle, known as the " Katadyn " filter, in which the
surface of the filter is coated with a silver catalyst in such a way that the porosity is not
impaired but the bacteria coming in contact with the surface are killed by oligodynamic
action. Such a filter needs cleaning only when it becomes clogged.

Filter Can be mounted in a gravity-type filter, which consists of two reservoirs with
the candle or candles attached to the upper. Water is simply poured in at the top,
trickles through the ceramic candles, and IS stored for use in the lower
compartment. Another mounting is made where piped water is available under
pressure.
The candle is mounted in a pressure case which
is attached directly to the water system, filtered water
being drawn from the filter as needed. A third type
is fitted with a hand pump. The suction tube is put into
a vessel of water, and the pump is operated like a bicycle pump,
the filter candle being inside.
The filtered water is discharged through another tube.

Any one of these systems is satisfactory

if suitable filter candles are selected.
  ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
‘Water Treatment Manual’
By Published by the Environmental Protection Agency, Ireland.
Introduction.
Filtration is the process of passing water through material to remove particulate and other
impurities, including floc, from the water being treated. These impurities consist of
suspended particles (fine silts and clays), biological matter (bacteria, plankton, spores,
cysts or other matter) and floc. The material used in filters for public water supply is
normally a bed of sand, coal, or other granular substance. Filtration processes can
generally be classified as being either slow or rapid.

Filtration Mechanism
Filtration is essentially a physical and chemical process and, in the case of slow sand
filtration biological as well. The actual removal mechanisms are interrelated and rather
complex, but removal of colour and turbidity is based on the following factors:

 chemical characteristics of the water being treated (particularly source water

quality);
 nature of suspension (physical and chemical characteristics of particulates
suspended in the water);
 type and degree of pre-treatment (coagulation, flocculation, and clarification); and
 filter type and operation.

A popular misconception is that particles are removed in the filtration process mainly by
physical straining. Straining is a term used to describe the removal of particles from a liquid
(water) by passing the liquid through a filter or fabric sieve whose pores are smaller than
the particles to be removed. While the straining mechanism does play a role in the overall
removal process, especially in the removal of large particles, it is important to realize that
most of the particles removed during filtration are considerably smaller than the pore
spaces in the media. This is particularly true at the beginning of the filtration cycle when the
pore spaces are clean (that is, not clogged by particulates removed during filtration). Thus,
a number of interrelated removal mechanisms within the filter media itself are relied upon to
achieve high removal efficiencies.

Rapid Gravity and Pressure Filtration

Filtration preceded by coagulation, flocculation and clarification is commonly referred to as

conventional filtration. In the direct filtration process, although coagulation and flocculation
may be used, the clarification step is omitted. Typical treatment processes for these two
filtration methods are shown in Figure 5. The conventional filtration (treatment) process
is used in most municipal treatment plants. This process includes "complete" pre-
treatment (coagulation, flocculation, and clarification/flotation). This system provides
flexibility and reliability in plant operation, especially when source water quality is
variable or the water is high in colour and suspended solids.

Direct filtration is an alternative to conventional filtration, particularly when source waters

are low in turbidity, colour, plankton, and coliform organisms. Direct filtration can be
defined as a treatment system in which filtration is not preceded by clarification or
flotation.
  Rapid Gravity Filtration

In all gravity filtration systems the water level or pressure (head) above the media forces
the water through the filter media as shown in Figure 6. The rate at which water passes
through the granular filter media (the filtration rate) may vary widely, depending on the
purpose for which the water is required. However, for public water supply in Ireland, 5
m/hour may be regarded as the standard rate and most authorities limit the maximum
filtration rate to between 5 and 7.5 rn/hour. Rates in excess of this may be used where
special technology is employed. The rate of water flow through the filter is referred to as the
hydraulic loading or the filtration rate. The filtration rate depends on the raw water quality
and the type of filter media. Various filter media configurations used are illustrated in Figure
7.

 Pressure Filtration

A pressure filter is similar to a gravity sand filter except that the filter is completely
enclosed in a pressure vessel such as a steel tank, and is operated under pressure,
as shown in Figure 8.
Pressure filters have been used in public water supplies, and have limited applicability, for
instance, in the removal of iron and manganese from groundwaters. Their use in Irish
practice is mainly confined to the treatment of water for industrial purposes, but they have
been installed by a number of local authorities. Pressure filters have been found to offer
lower installation and operation costs in small filtration plants. However, they are generally
somewhat less reliable than gravity filters. Maximum filtration rates for pressure filters are in
the 5 to 7.5 rn/hr range.
Filter Control Systems
The filter control system regulates the flow rate through the filter by maintaining an
adequate head above the media surface. This head (submergence) forces water through a
gravity filter. The flow through a filter must be as stable as possible and any changes in
flow rate, whenever operating conditions at the plant change. should be controlled in order
for the filter to yield the optimum outflow quality. The best control system therefore is
one with simple, safe and reliable controllers that controls filtration without hunting,
and includes sensors that monitor the, largest possible water surface areas so that
changes in set-point values are representative.

Without an effective filter control system, sudden flow increases or surges could dislodge
solids trapped on the filter media. If these solids were discharged, they would seriously
degrade water quality. An adequate depth of water above the media surface is essential to
ensure that the inflow does not disturb (scour) the media. In this way, the energy of the
inflow is absorbed before it reaches the media, thus preventing scouring. An essential
element in the control system for rapid gravity filtration is a slow start controller, which
restricts the output from a filter for a period after backwashing while the filter is ripening'. In
new works, slow start controls are generally incorporated in the plant design, while in older
or smaller works hydraulic/mechanical controls are used. The latter depend on the flow