SURIGAO STATE COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY

DEL CARMEN CAMPUS

Learning Module

Integrated
Science
BSEd I-Science
First Semester I 2020-2021

Organized by:

SHIELA E. RUBIO
SSCT Faculty
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THE BASIC
UNIT
OF LIFE

Module 1
THE CELL
Time Frame: 7 hours
Core Concept:
All living things are composed of cells

The cell is the simplest structure capable of existing

as an individual living unit. Within this unit, many
chemical reactions are required for maintaining life.
These reactions do not occur at random but are
associated with specific parts of the many kinds of
cells. These are embryonic stem cells with the
potential to repair damaged tissue.

Outline:

1.1 Characteristics of Life

Integrated Science A : Chemistry
Macromolecules needed for Life
1.2 Cell Types: Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic
History of Science
Cell Theory
1.3 Tour of Eukaryotic Cell
1.4 The Cell Membrane
1.5 Transport into and out of cells
1.6 How cells reproduce
Science and Society
Stem cells
1.7 Photosynthesis
1.8 Cellular respiration and Fermentation

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 SURIGAO STATE COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY
DEL CARMEN CAMPUS

1.1 Characteristics of Life

Time Frame: 30 minutes
Name:
Year Level: Contact details:
Set type: Seat no.
Date Finished: Remarks:

Introduction:
It’s a rock. Or wait-could it be a well-disguised stonefish waiting for a juicy crab
to come near? We know a s a rock. Or wait—could it be a
living thing when we see one, even if our eyes fool us sometimes. But what,
exactly, is a living thing? Do living things all share characteristics that
differentiate them from nonliving things? Do they all reproduce? Use energy?
Evolve? Are all living things made up of one or more cells? What are cells? How
do cells “talk” with each other? How do cells make new cells? How do cells
obtain energy, and how do we take advantage of this process when we bake
bread and brew beer? How do plant cells use sunlight, air, and water to build
living tissue, and how is this process the basis of life as we know it? In this
chapter, we will explore the nature of life and the world of the cell.

Learning Objective: EXPLAIN THIS

List and describe the characteristics How can you tell a plant is alive even though it doesn’t talk or run
of living things. around?

Biology is the study of life and living organisms. But what is a living organism? What distinguishes living things from
nonliving things? Living things share certain characteristics. For one thing, they use energy. Living things, such as the
sunflowers and lions in Figure 1, take energy from the environment and convert it into other forms of energy for their own
use. Plants take electromagnetic energy from sunlight and convert it into chemical energy, which they can use to build
their stems and leaves or fuel their activities. Animals eat, converting the energy they get from food into chemical energy,
which they store in their bodies. This chemical energy is eventually converted again into kinetic and potential energy and
heat as animals crawl, or fly, or grow. Of course, all the ways in which living things convert energy are consistent with the
laws of physics. This means, first, that energy is always conserved and, second, that in any energy conversion, some
energy is lost to the environment as heat.
Another characteristic of living things is that they develop and grow. When chicks hatch, they are small and covered
with downy yellow feathers. Over time, they
grow bigger, and their downy feathers are
replaced by stiff adult feathers (Figure 2).
Living things maintain themselves. They
generate structures, such as stems and leaves
or skin and bones, and they repair damage
done to those structures. When you scrape
your knee, your blood clots to stop the
bleeding, and the wounded skin scabs over
and heals.
Living things also maintain their internal
environment, keeping it stable in the face of
changing external conditions. Whether it is
freezing cold or blisteringly hot, your body
temperature stays right around 37C (98.6°F).
Living things have the capacity to reproduce.
They make offspring that are exact or inexact
copies of themselves. Figure 3 shows the two
ways living things reproduce, asexually and
sexually. In asexual reproduction a living
organism reproduces all by itself, such as by
dividing into two. Bacteria and sea anemones
are organisms that are able to reproduce asexually. In sexual reproduction organisms form special sex cells, such as sperm
and eggs, that join to develop into new
individuals. Humans, penguins, beetles, and oak
trees reproduce sexually.
Finally, living things are parts of populations
that evolve. Populations do not remain constant
from one generation to the next but change over
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time. Often, populations change in response to their environments. During the Industrial Revolution, when cities became
polluted and blackened with soot, peppered moth populations evolved so that better-camouflaged dark-winged moths
became more prevalent than light-winged moths. After antipollution laws were passed and cities were cleaned up, light-
winged moths again became more common.

Integrated Science A: Chemistry

Macromolecules Needed for Life
EXPLAIN THIS
Learning Objective: Do the same ingredients go into both you and a fried egg sandwich?
Describe the structure and functions
of macromolecules.

The four main types of macromolecules in living organisms are proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, and nucleic acids. You
will see that they are called macromolecules for a reason—each of these “big molecules” consists of multiple smaller
molecules joined together.
Proteins perform a wide range of functions in living
organisms. The protein keratin provides structure—it
is a major component of skin, hair, and feathers.
Insulin is a protein that acts as a hormone, enabling
one type of cell in the body to communicate with other
types. Actin and myosin are proteins that allow
muscles to contract. Hemoglobin, a protein found in
red blood cells, transports oxygen to body tissues.
Proteins called antibodies protect the body from
disease. And proteins known as digestive enzymes
break down food during digestion. What are proteins?
Proteins are folded chains of organic molecules called
amino acids. All amino acids include a central carbon
(C) atom bonded to an amino group (NH2), a carboxyl
group (COOH), a hydrogen atom (H), and a side chain
(called R) that varies from one amino acid to another.
The amino acid leucine is shown in Figure 4a.
Although only 20 different amino acids are found in
living organisms, they can be strung together and folded in practically countless ways to create proteins with unique three-
dimensional structures. This is why proteins are able to perform such a wide variety of functions.
Carbohydrates store energy in living organisms. Simple sugars, such as glucose (Figure 4b) and fructose, are
carbohydrates. More complex carbohydrates are made up of chains of simple sugars. Starch and glycogen the primary
energy-storage substances in plants and animals, respectively—consist of linked glucose molecules. Carbohydrates can
also have structural functions. Cellulose, found in plant cell walls, is a structural carbohydrate built from glucose
subunits—and it is the most abundant organic compound in the world.
Carbohydrates are made up of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms, generally
in the form of (CH2O)n.
Lipids serve diverse functions in living organisms. As fats or oils, lipids are
used by many living organisms to store energy. Lipids store energy much more
efficiently than carbohydrates—that is, 1 gram of fat or oil contains a lot more
energy than 1 gram of carbohydrate. For this reason, lipids are used for long-
term energy storage by many organisms, including humans. Lipids can have
structural functions as well; for example, phospholipids are an essential
component of cell membranes. One of the most familiar lipids is cholesterol,
which the body uses to make such hormones as estrogen and testosterone.

Lipids have a variety of chemical

structures, but many include fatty
acids—strings of hydrocarbons
(carbon and hydrogen atoms) with a
carboxyl (COOH) group at one end—
as a major component (Figure 4c).
Lipids are hydrophobic; that is, they
are not soluble in water.
The role of the fourth type of macromolecule, nucleic acids, is to store genetic information in living organisms—all our

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 SURIGAO STATE COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY
DEL CARMEN CAMPUS

genes are made up of nucleic acids, and genes carry the information that cells need to build proteins.) Nucleic acids are
made up of strands of smaller units called nucleotides. A nucleotide includes a sugar molecule, a phosphate group, and a
nitrogenous base. The two kinds of nucleic acids found in living organisms are deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and
ribonucleic acid (RNA). DNA consists of two nucleic acid strands twisted into a spiral, which is why it is sometimes
called a double helix. There are four kinds of nucleotides in DNA—adenine, cytosine, guanine (Figure 4d), and thymine,
or A, C, G, and T for short. All the genetic information in living organisms is expressed using this four-letter alphabet.

Cell Types: Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic

1.2 Time Frame: 30 minutes
Two distinct types of cells are found in different living organisms today:
Learning Objective: prokaryotic cells and eukaryotic cells. They are distinguished primarily
Describe the key differences of the by the presence or absence of a nucleus, a distinct structure within the
two basic types of cells. cell that contains the cell’s DNA. Prokaryotic cells do not have a
nucleus (pro means “before” and karyote refers to “nut” or “nucleus”).
Eukaryotic cells (“true nucleus”) have a nucleus as well as
other structures not present in prokaryotic cells.
Organisms with prokaryotic cells are called prokaryotes,
and organisms with eukaryotic cells are called
eukaryotes. Figure 6 compares typical prokaryotic and *Viruses, which possess
some of the characteristics
eukaryotic cells. Prokaryotes have existed on Earth far of life and straddle the line
longer than eukaryotes. Prokaryotes first evolved 3.5 between living and non-
billion to 4 billion years ago and were the only living living, are not composed
of cells.
things on Earth until about 2 billion years ago, when the
first eukaryotes appeared.

Prokaryotes now include two major lineages, the bacteria and the
archaea. Prokaryotes are single-celled organisms and are very small,
ranging from about 0.1 to 10 micrometers (10-6meter) in diameter.
Their structure is simpler than that of eukaryotes. The DNA of
prokaryotes is found in a single circular structure and is not contained
within a nucleus. Most prokaryotes have an outer cell wall that helps
protect the cell. The prokaryote Escherichia coli, an occupant of the
human digestive tract and one of the best-studied organisms in the
world, is shown in Figure 7. Eukaryotes can be single-celled, like prokaryotes, or they can be composed of many cells.
The fungus known as baker’s yeast, commonly used in
baking and brewing, is a single-celled eukaryote
(Figure 8). Humans are multicellular eukaryotes.
Eukaryotes include all animals, plants, fungi, and
protists. Eukaryotic cells have their DNA inside a
distinct nucleus, a feature that distinguishes them from prokaryotes. In addition, the DNA of eukaryotic cells is found in
linear, rather than circular,
chromosomes. Eukaryotic cells
also have numerous organelles,
structures that perform specific
functions for the cell. Finally,
eukaryotic cells are larger than
prokaryotic cells—whereas
prokaryotic cells measure 0.1 to
10 micrometers, eukaryotic
cells usually measure 10 to 100
micrometers. Some eukaryotic
cells are even larger than that.

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Tour of Eukaryotic cell

1.3 Time Frame: 30 minutes

Learning Objective:
Describe the main features of
eukaryotic cell.

The Cell Membrane

1.4 Time Frame: 30 minutes

Learning Objective: EXPLAIN THIS

Describe the structure and functions Why is a cell membrane called a fluid musaic?
of cell membrane

The cell membrane defines a cell’s boundary, separating the inside of the cell from the outside. One of its main
functions is to serve as a gate- keeper, controlling what goes into the cell and what comes out of it. To see how the cell
membrane performs this function, let’s look at its structure. The three primary components of the cell membrane are
phospholipids, proteins, and short carbohydrates.
Phospholipids are part hydrophilic and part hydrophobic. Have you ever noticed the
way oil and water separate after they have been combined? The oil floats on top of the
water in a distinct layer, rather than mixing with it (Figure 12). This is because oil is
hydrophobic, or insoluble in water. (Hydrophobic literally means “afraid of water.”) The
opposite of hydrophobic is hydrophilic, or soluble in water. (Hydrophilic literally means
“water-loving.”) Phospholipids have hydrophilic “heads” and hydrophobic “tails” (Figure
13). The hydrophilic heads are naturally drawn to the watery environment inside and
outside the cell, whereas the hydrophobic tails naturally try to avoid it. The result is that
the phospholipids form a double layer, or bilayer, with the hydrophobic tails pointing
inward and the hydrophilic heads pointing outward (Figure 14). You can think of the

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 SURIGAO STATE COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY
DEL CARMEN CAMPUS

phospholipids as making a sandwich,

with the heads as two slices of bread
and the tails as the peanut butter
inside.
The cell membrane also includes a
large number of membrane proteins
embedded like toothpicks in the
phospholipid sandwich. Membrane
proteins serve a variety of functions:
They help cells communicate with
other cells, control transport into and
out of cells, and join cells to one
another. Because different cells have
different functions, membrane proteins also differ from one cell type to another.
Short carbohydrates are attached to the membrane proteins and phospholipids on the outside surface of the cell. These
carbohydrates play an important role in cell recognition, the ability to distinguish one type of cell from another. For
example, certain immune-system cells use these short carbohydrates to identify foreign cells, such as disease-causing
bacteria. Because the cell membrane includes a mosaic of phospholipids and proteins, and because the phospholipids and
many membrane proteins slide freely around the cell surface, the cell membrane is often described as fluid mosaic. The
fluidity of the cell membrane is essential to its ability to control the flow of materials into and out of the cell.

1.5 Transport into and out of the cells

Time Frame: 1 hour

EXPLAIN THIS
Learning Objective:
Why does oxygen go right into your cells, whereas potassium ions have
Describe the different ways
to be pumped in?
molecules move into and out of the
cell

Cells need to take in a variety of resources, including water, oxygen, and organic molecules. Cells also generate
wastes that they must dispose of. Now that we know the structure of the cell membrane, we can discuss how it performs
the essential task of controlling how things move into and out of cells. Transport across the cell membrane occurs in a
number of ways—through diffusion, facilitated diffusion, active transport, endocytosis, and exocytosis
Diffusion
Some molecules are able to cross the phospholipid bilayer of
the cell membrane directly. Hydrophobic molecules, such as the
gases oxygen and carbon dioxide, can pass directly through the
double layer of hydrophobic tails. Certain small hydrophilic
molecules—such as water—can also cross the cell membrane
this way.
What
governs the
way these
substances
move into
and out of
cells? A
process known as diffusion, the movement of molecules from an
area of high concentration to an area of low concentration—that
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is, down a concentration gradient. Diffusion is a direct result of the second law of thermodynamics, which states that
natural systems tend to degrade from concentrated states to diffuse states. A familiar example of diffusion is the way a
drop of food coloring spreads in a beaker of water (Figure 15).
Let’s look at how molecules diffuse across the cell membrane. For example, consider how oxygen diffuses from the
fluid surrounding our cells into the cells themselves (Figure 16). Oxygen molecules are found both inside and outside
the cell, and they move around randomly. Sometimes an oxygen molecule drifts from
outside the cell to inside, and sometimes an oxygen molecule drifts from inside the cell to outside. However, because
there is a higher concentration of oxygen molecules outside the cell than inside, the net effect of diffusion is to move
oxygen molecules into the cell. (Note that there are fewer oxygen molecules inside cells because cells use up oxygen in
cellular respiration, a process we will discuss later in this chapter.) Diffusion works best over small distances. Because
of this, bodily processes that depend on diffusion require very thin structures. The walls of our capillaries are very thin
so that oxygen can diffuse efficiently from our bloodstream to our tissues. Processes that depend on diffusion also
require large surface areas. The intricate branching of our lungs creates a lot of surface area so that a lot of oxygen can
diffuse into the bloodstream. If you know that amphibians get much of their oxygen from diffusion across the skin, can
you develop a hypothesis for why the giant salamander in Figure 17 has such wrinkly skin? The diffusion of water has a
special name—osmosis. Like other substances, water diffuses from an area with a high concentration of water
molecules to an area with a low concentration of water molecules.
Because a higher concentration of water molecules means a lower
concentration of solutes, and vice versa, another way to say this is that
diffusion moves water from an area of lower solute concentration to an
area of higher solute concentration (Figure 18). This is important
because controlling water flow is important to all cells—with too much
water, they could burst; with too little, they shrivel.

Facilitated Diffusion
Many of the molecules that cells need,
including ions and large hydrophilic
molecules such as proteins and
carbohydrates, cannot pass freely across the
phospholipid bilayer of the cell membrane.
How do these molecules get into and out of
cells? They use special “gates” in the cell
membrane. These gates are membrane
proteins called transport proteins. Transport
proteins are very specific about the
molecules they let through the cell
membrane. A molecule fits into its transport protein the way a key fits into a lock—only the right key will work in a given
lock (Figure 19). In facilitated diffusion, a transport protein moves molecules down a concentration gradient, from an area
of high concentration to an area of low concentration (Figure 20). One example of facilitated diffusion is the movement of
the sugar glucose (the basic fuel that cells burn for energy) into red blood cells. Water, in addition to diffusing directly
across the phospholipid bilayer, can also use facilitated diffusion to cross the cell membrane. The transport proteins used
by water are called aquaporins. Aquaporins allow
water to move more quickly across the cell
membrane than it can through diffusion alone.
Like diffusion, facilitated diffusion requires no
energy from the cell. For this reason, diffusion and
facilitated diffusion are both examples of passive
transport.
Active Transport
In active transport, a transport protein moves

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molecules against a concentration gradient, from an area of low concentration to an area of high concentration (Figure
21). In this case, the second law of thermodynamics tells us that energy is required, since natural systems do not move
spontaneously from more diffuse states to more concentrated states. Active transport is used to move many organic
molecules, including most proteins, into cells. Active transport is also used to control the concentration of many ions
inside and outside cells. An example of active transport, the movement of sodium and potassium ions by the sodium-
potassium pump, is described later in this chapter.
Endocytosis and Exocytosis
Larger amounts of material can be moved into
and out of cells through endocytosis and exocytosis
(Figure 22). In endocytosis, a portion of the cell
membrane folds inward and pinches off, enclosing
material within a vesicle inside the cell.
Endocytosis is used by certain white blood cells of
the human immune system to engulf invading
bacteria. In exocytosis, the opposite process
occurs—a vesicle fuses its membrane with the cell
membrane and dumps its contents outside the cell.
Many endocrine cells use exocytosis to release
hormones into the bloodstream.
Neurotransmitters—the chemicals that neurons use
to signal one another—are also released through
exocytosis.

1.6 How cells Reproduce

Time Frame: 1 hour

Learning Objective: EXPLAIN THIS

Describe the process of cell division When a cell reproduces, does it produce two identical cells?

Cells reproduce by dividing. Cell

division enables single-celled organisms to
reproduce themselves and multicellular
organisms to develop, grow, and maintain
their tissues (Figure 25). Mitosis is a form
of cell division in which one parent cell
divides into two daughter cells, each of
which contains the same genetic
information as the parent ell. Cells that are
preparing to divide enter the cell cycle,
shown in Figure 26. The cell cycle is
divided into four stages—gap 1, synthesis,
gap 2, and mitosis and cytokinesis. Gap 1,
synthesis, and gap 2 are collectively
known as interphase. During interphase,
the cell makes the necessary preparations
for division. During mitosis and
cytokinesis, the cell divides.
During gap 1 (G1), a cell prepares to
divide by growing to approximately
double its original size. All the important
components of the cytoplasm, including
the mitochondria and other organelles, also
double in number. (Calling this stage a
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“gap” is a little misleading in that it suggests that nothing is going on. In fact, important events occur during both “gap”
stages. They are gaps only from the point of view of someone focused exclusively on whether the cell’s DNA is doing
anything interesting.) During synthesis (S), the cell creates an exact copy of its genetic material—its DNA.
During gap 2 (G2), the cell builds the machinery necessary for division. This includes the structures that will separate
the two copies of the genetic material and divide the cell into two daughter cells.
During mitosis and cytokinesis (M), the cell divides. Mitosis describes the division of the nucleus, which takes place in
four steps, or “phases” (Figure 27).
During prophase, the normally loosely packed chromosomes condense and the membranes surrounding the nucleus
break down. When the chromosomes condense, it becomes clear that each consists of two identical sister chromatids
attached at a point called the centromere. The mitotic spindle also forms during prophase. The mitotic spindle, which
consists of a series of fibers that attach to the duplicated chromosomes, is responsible for splitting the genetic material
between the two daughter cells. During metaphase, the chromosomes line up at the equatorial plane, the plane that passes
through the imaginary “equator” of the cell. During anaphase, the two sister chromatids are pulled apart by the shortening
of the mitotic-spindle fibers and move to opposite poles of the cell. During telophase, new nuclear membranes form
around each set of chromosomes, and the chromosomes return to their loosely packed state. The division of the nucleus is
followed by cytokinesis, the division of the cytoplasm to yield two separate daughter cells.
Cells are not always in the cell cycle. Many cells are neither dividing nor preparing to divide, but simply carrying out
their regular functions. These cells are said to be in gap 0 (G0). Some cells are in G0 temporarily and then eventually
reenter the cell cycle. Other cells, such as many neurons, are in permanent G0 and will never divide agai

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Photosynthesis
1.7 Time Frame: 1 hour

EXPLAIN THIS
Learning Objective: What happens to plant that is kept in the dark?
Explain how plant uses light, energy
from the sun, carbon dioxide, and water
to make sugars.

Plants and certain other organisms use photosynthesis to convert light energy from the Sun into chemical energy in
organic molecules. Almost all life on Earth depends ultimately on photosynthesis for organic molecules and energy. This
is because plants and other photosynthesizers (such as algae and certain bacteria) are food for herbivores, and herbivores
are food for carnivores. So, photosynthesizers are the ultimate source of all food.
The chemical reaction for photosynthesis is:
6 CO2 + 6 H2O + sunlight -------- C6H12O6 + 6 O2
Carbon dioxide, water, and sunlight go in; glucose and oxygen come out. (Keep in mind, though, that this is a
summary of the overall process of photosynthesis. In fact, a large number of chemical reactions are needed before the

reactants in photosynthesis are

converted into the products.) The
oxygen released during photosynthesis
is the source of the oxygen we
breathe—yet another way
photosynthesis is fundamental to life
as we know it.
Photosynthesis takes place in the
chloroplasts of plant cells (Figure
33a). It occurs in two steps: light-
dependent reactions and light-
independent reactions (Figure 33b).
During the light-dependent reactions,
energy is captured from
sunlight. During the light-independent
reactions, carbon is fixed—that is,
carbon atoms are moved from atmospheric carbon dioxide to the organic molecule glucose.
The light-dependent reactions begin when sunlight strikes a chlorophyll molecule inside
a chloroplast. Chlorophyll is a pigment, meaning it is a molecule that absorbs light. (Visible
light is just one part of the electromagnetic spectrum, which also includes radio waves,
ultraviolet light, X-rays, and gamma rays.) Chlorophyll absorbs blue-violet light and red-
orange light best, as you can see
in Figure 34. The light that
chlorophyll does not absorb—
green light—is reflected by
plants. This is why plants are
green.
When sunlight strikes a
chlorophyll molecule, the energy
in sunlight excites an electron in
the chlorophyll molecule and
knocks it out (Figure 35). The
chlorophyll molecule, which is
now missing an electron, extracts
an electron from water (H2O),
producing oxygen (O2).
Meanwhile, the high-energy
electron that was knocked out of
the chlorophyll molecule passes down an electron transport
chain. The electron transport chain consists of a series of
carrier molecules, each of which receives the electron and then
passes it on to the next carrier. You can imagine the electron
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transport chain as a cartoon fire brigade, in which a bucket of water is passed from one person to the next until the last
person tosses it over the flames (Figure 36). The electron is the bucket of water, passed from one carrier to the next. As
the electron passes down the transport chain, it loses energy. This energy is used to convert ADP into ATP. At the end of
the transport chain, a second, different chlorophyll molecule receives the electron. This chlorophyll molecule is struck by
sunlight, and the electron is knocked out again and passed down a second electron transport chain. This time, the energy
lost by the electron as it passes down the transport chain is used to convert a molecule called NADP+ into NADPH.
To summarize, two important things happen during the light-dependent reactions. First, energy from sunlight is
converted into chemical energy in the form of ATP and NADPH. Second, oxygen is released.
In the light-independent reactions, also known as the Calvin cycle, the cell uses the energy stored in ATP and NADPH
to fix carbon (see Figure 33b). Duringthe Calvin cycle, six molecules of carbon dioxide (CO2) are taken in and used to
make a molecule of glucose (C6H12O6). Cells use glucose as a starting point for making other carbohydrates, lipids, and,
with the addition of nitrogen, amino acids and nucleic acids—in short, all the macromolecules of life.

Cellular Respiration and Fermentation

1.8 Time Frame: 1 hour

EXPLAIN THIS
Learning Objective: Why can’t you live without oxygen?
Explain how cells breakdown to
glucose to obtain energy in the form
of ATP

All cells need ATP, which provides the energy required for many
essential cellular processes. In order to obtain ATP, cells break down
glucose and
other organic molecules. The aerobic, or oxygen-using, breakdown
of glucose is
known as cellular respiration. The equation for cellular respiration
is
C6H12O6 + 6 O2 + about 38 molecules of ADP
S 6 CO2 + 6 H2O + about 38 molecules of ATP

Glucose, oxygen, and ADP go in; carbon dioxide, water, and ATP
come out. This equation summarizes the process of cellular respiration. The many chemical reactions that occur from the
beginning to the end of cellular respiration can
be divided into three steps: glycolysis, the Krebs cycle, and electron transport
(Figure 37).

Glycolysis
The first step in breaking down glucose is glycolysis (which literally means “sugar
splitting”). Glycolysis takes place in the cell cytoplasm. During glycolysis, the sixcarbon glucose molecule is
split into two molecules of pyruvic acid, each of which contains three carbon atoms. Two molecules of ATP are
produced in the process.
The Krebs Cycle and Electron Transport
The Krebs cycle and electron transport occur in the mitochondria. Before entering the Krebs cycle, the
pyruvic acid that is produced during glycolysis is converted into acetic acid and bound to a molecule of
coenzyme A. This entire complex is called acetyl-CoA. During the Krebs cycle, acetyl-CoA is broken down
into carbon dioxide. Two molecules of ATP are produced, and additional
energy is stored in two other molecules, NADH and FADH2. During electron transport, electrons carried by
NADH and FADH2 are sent down electron transport chains (Figure 38). As electrons are passed from one

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SHIELA E. RUBIO
rubioshiel@gmail.com BSEd I- ScienceIFirst Semester, 2020-2021
09463097859 The Basic unit of Life- The Cell
 SURIGAO STATE COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY
DEL CARMEN CAMPUS

carrier in the transport chain to the next, they lose energy. This energy is used to pump hydrogen ions (H+) across a
membrane inside the mitochondrion. At the end of the electron transport chain, the electrons combine with an oxygen
molecule to generate water. (This is what all the oxygen we breathe is for—it is
needed to catch those electrons at the end of electron transport chains.) The concentration gradient of hydrogen ions
across the inner mitochondrial membrane is then used to make ATP. As hydrogen ions move back across the inner
mitochondrial membrane (down their concentration gradient), they pass through a protein
complex called ATP synthase and turn ADP into ATP. This process generates the bulk of the ATP harvested during
cellular respiration.
Fermentation
In certain cells, glycolysis is sometimes followed by an anaerobic
(non–oxygen using) process known as fermentation instead of the
aerobic process just described. Fermentation yields no ATP, but it does
regenerate the molecules necessary to keep glycolysis going. In this way,
cells can continue to obtain ATP through glycolysis. Alcoholic fermentation
is an anaerobic process used by yeast. It takes place in the cytoplasm of yeast
cells. In alcoholic fermentation, the pyruvic acid from glycolysis is broken
down into ethanol and carbon dioxide. Alcoholic fermentation is essential
both to making wine and to baking bread. Yeast cells ferment the sugar in
grape juice to turn it into wine. The same process makes bread rise—yeast
cells ferment the sugars in bread dough, releasing tiny bubbles of carbon
dioxide gas. (And, yes, fermentation also produces ethanol in bread dough, but it evaporates during baking.
This is why you don’t have to be 21 to purchase dinner rolls.) Lactic acid fermentation is an anaerobic process that occurs
in some animal cells as well as in certain species of bacteria and fungi. It takes place in the
cytoplasm of these cells. In lactic acid fermentation, the pyruvic acid from glycolysis is broken down to lactic acid. In
animal muscle cells, lactic acid fermentation occurs during strenuous exercise, when the oxygen supply—despite heavy
breathing—can’t quite meet the demand. By regenerating the molecules required for glycolysis, lactic acid fermentation
allows muscle cells to continue to make ATP without oxygen. The lactic acid produced during strenuous exercise causes
a burning sensation in the muscles. Red blood cells, which lack mitochondria, also rely on lactic acid fermentation to
obtain ATP. Finally, lactic acid fermentation by certain species of bacteria and fungi is used to make cheese and yogurt.
Table 2 compares cellular respiration and fermentation.

In. Sci - Integrated Science Page 13 of 14

SHIELA E. RUBIO
rubioshiel@gmail.com BSEd I- ScienceIFirst Semester, 2020-2021
09463097859 The Basic unit of Life- The Cell
 SURIGAO STATE COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY
DEL CARMEN CAMPUS

Post-Test
Choose the BEST answer to each of the following: example of
1. Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of living (a) diffusion.
things? (b) facilitated diffusion.
(a) use energy (c) active transport.
(b) maintain themselves (d) endocytosis.
(c) have the capacity to reproduce
(d) are part of populations that remain constant from one 7. During which stage of the cell cycle does a cell duplicate
generation to the next its genetic material?
(a) gap 1
2. The macromolecules made from folded chains of amino (b) gap 2
acids are (c) synthesis
(a) proteins. (d) mitosis and cytokinesis
(b) carbohydrates.
(c) lipids. 8. Which of these statements about enzymes is true?
(d) nucleic acids. (a) Enzymes provide energy for specific chemical reactions in
cells.
3. One difference between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells (b) Enzymes are catalysts that enable specific chemical
is that reactions in cells to happen more quickly than they
(a) prokaryotic cells have a nucleus, whereas eukaryotic would otherwise.
cells do not. (c) Both statements are true.
(b) eukaryotic cells have existed on Earth far longer than (d) Neither statement is true.
prokaryotic cells.
(c) the DNA of eukaryotic cells is found in linear 9. The products of photosynthesis are
chromosomes, whereas the DNA of prokaryotic cells is (a) carbon dioxide and water.
found in a single circular chromosome. (b) carbon dioxide, water, and sunlight.
(d) eukaryotic cells are usually smaller than prokaryotic (c) glucose.
cells. (d) glucose and oxygen.

4. In plant cells, which organelles break down organic 10. Which of the following processes requires oxygen?
molecules to obtain energy in a form that cells can use? (a) glycolysis
(a) mitochondria (b) Krebs cycle and electron transport
(b) ribosomes (c) fermentation
(c) chloroplasts (d) none of these
(d) lysosomes

5. Which of the following is not a component of the cell

membrane?
(a) phospholipids
(b) proteins
(c) nucleic acids
(d) carbohydrates References:

6. A transport protein moves a molecule across the cell Hewitt, P.G et.al. 2017.Conceptual Integrated Science.
membrane against its concentration gradient. This is an 3rd Edition. Pearson Education Limited.

In. Sci - Integrated Science Page 14 of 14

SHIELA E. RUBIO
rubioshiel@gmail.com BSEd I- ScienceIFirst Semester, 2020-2021
09463097859 The Basic unit of Life- The Cell