THE CHEMISTRY OF ENGINEERING MATERIALS

CHEMISTRY

The branch of science that deals with the identification of the substances of which matter is composed; the investigation of their properties and ways
in which they interact, combine, and change; and the use of this processes to form new substances.

ENGINEERING MATERIALS

Refers to selecting the correct materials for the application in which the engineered part is being used. This selection process includes choosing the
material, paying attention to its specific type or grade base on the required properties engineers will select a particular grade of material based on its
properties such as malleability or tensile strength. Composites comprise to materials, such as a metallic mesh and a resin, the combination of which
also depends on the properties required. Materials from which the item is to be manufactured are noted on the engineering drawing using standard
material and grade codes, it is important that manufacturers do not interchange materials because the switch may make the products susceptible to
failures.

CLASSIFICATION OF ENGINEERING MATERIALS

► ELASTIC MATERIAL

A material that undergoes deformation when load is applied and then comes back to its original shape on removal of load is referred to as Elastic
Material.

►PLASTIC MATERIAL

A material that undergoes deformation on applying load and does not come back to its original shape is referred to as Plastic material. The
deformation is permanent in case of plastic materials even after removal of load.

► RIGID MATERIAL

A material which does not undergo deformation when load is applied on it is referred to as Rigid Material.

MECHNICAL PROPERTIES OF ENGINEERING MARETIALS

The mechanical properties of a material are those which affect the mechanical strength and ability of a material to be moulded in suitable shape.

● STRENGH

It is the property of material which opposes the deformation or breakdown of material in presence of external forces or load. Materials which we
finalize for our engineering products, must have suitable mechanical strength to be capable to work under different mechanical forces or loads.

● TOUGHNESS

It is the ability of material to absorb the energy and gets plastically deformed without fracturing. It is numerical value is determined by the amount of
energy per unit volume. Its unit is joule/ cubic meter. Value of toughness of a material can be determined by stress-strain characteristics of a material.
For good toughness, materials should have good strength as well as ductility.

● HARDNESS

It is the ability of a material to resist to permanent shape change due to external stress. There are various measure of hardness- Scratch Hardness,
Indentation Hardness and Rebound Hardness.

1. Scratch Hardness- It is the ability of materials to oppose the scratches to outer surface layer due to external force.

2. Indentation Hardness- it is the ability of materials to oppose the dent due to punch of external hard and sharp objects.

3. Rebound Hardness- It is also called as dynamic hardness. It is determined by the height of “bounce” of a diamond tip hammer dropped
from a fixed height on the material.

● HARDENABILITY

It is the ability of a material to attain the hardness by heat treatment processing. It is determined by the depth up to which the material becomes hard.
The SI unit of hardenability is meter (similar to length). Hardenability of material is inversely proportional to the weld ability of material.

●BRITTLENESS

Brittleness of a material indicates that how easily it gets fractured when it is subjected to a force or load. When a brittle material is subjected to a
stress it observes very less energy and gets fractures without significant strain. Brittleness is converse to ductility of material. Brittleness of materials
is temperature dependant. Some metals which are ductile at normal temperature become brittle at low temperature.

● MALLEABILITY

Malleability is a property of solid materials which indicates that how easily a material gets deformed under compressive stress. Malleability is often
categorized by the ability of material to be formed in the form thin sheet by hammering or rolling. This mechanical property is an aspect of plasticity
of a material. Malleability of material is temperature dependent. With rise temperature, the malleability of a material increases.

●DUCTILITY

Is a property of a solid material which indicate that how easily a material gets deformed under tensile stress. Ductility is often categorized by the
ability of material to get stretched into a wire by pulling or drawing. This mechanical property is also an aspect of plasticity of material and is
temperature dependent. With rise in temperature, the ductility of material increases.

●CREEP AND SLIP

●RESILIENCE

Resilience it is the ability of material to absorb the energy when it is deformed elastically by applying stress and release the energy when stress is
removed. Proof resilience is defined as the maximum energy that can be absorbed without permanent deformation. The modulus of resilience is
defined as the maximum energy that be absorbed per unit volume without permanent deformation. It can be determined by integrating the stress-
strain cure from zero to elastic limit its unit is joule/cubic meter.

●FATIGUE

Fatigue is the weakening of material caused by the repeated loading of the material. When the material is subjected to cyclic loading, and loading
greater than certain threshold value but much below the strength of the material (Ultimate tensile strength limit or yield stress limit), microscopic
cracks begin to form at grain boundaries and interfaces. Eventually the crack reaches to a critical size. This crack propagates suddenly and structure
gets fractured. The shape of structure affects the fatigue very much. Square holes and sharp corners lead to elevated stresses where the fatigue crack
initiated.

A. BASIC CONCEPT OF CRYSTAL STRUCTURE

A crystal structure is made of atoms. A crystal lattice is made of points. A crystal system is a set of axes. In other words the structure is an ordered
array of atoms, ions or molecules. Crystal structure is obtained by attaching atoms, groups of atoms and molecules this structure occurs from the
intrinsic nature of the constituent particles to produce symmetric patterns. A small group of a repeating pattern of the atomic structure is known as the
unit cell of the structure. A unit cell is the building block of the crystal structure and it also explains in detail the entire crystal structure and
symmetry with the atom position along with its principal axes. The length, edges of principal axes and the angle between the unit cells are called
lattice constants or lattice parameters.

CRYSTAL SYSTEM

Refers to one of many classes of crystals, space groups, and lattices. In crystallography terms, lattice system and crystal, the system are associated
with each other with a slight difference. Base on their point groups crystals and space groups are divided into seven crystal systems. The seven
Crystal System is an approach for classification depending upon their lattice and atomic structure. The atomic lattice is a series of atoms that are
organized in symmetrical pattern. With the help of lattice, it is possible to determine the appearance and physical properties of the stone. It is possible
to identify to which crystal system they belong. To cubic system crystals are said to represent the element earth.

CRYSTAL SYSTEMS WITH DIAGRAM:

1. TRICLINIC SYSTEM

All three axes are inclined towards each other, and they are of the same length. Based on the three inclined angles the various forms of crystals are in
the paired faces. Some standard Triclinic System include Labradorite, Amazonite, Kyanite, Rhodonite, Aventurine Feldspar, and Turquoise.

2. MONOCLINIC SYSTEM

It comprises three axes where two are at right angles to each other, and the third axis is inclined. All three axes are of different length. Based on the
inner structure the monoclinic system includes basal pinacoids and prism with inclined end faces. Some example include Diopside, Petalite, Kunzite,
Gypsum, Hiddenite, Howlite, Vivianite, and more.

3. ORTHORHOMBIC SYSTEM

It comprises three axes and is at right angles to each other. There are different lengths. Based on their rhombic structure the orthorhombic system
includes various crystal shapes namely pyramids, double pyramids, rhombic pyramids, and pinacoids. Some common orthorhombic crystals include
topaz, Tanzanite, Iolite, Zoisite, Danburite and more.

4. TRIGONAL SYSTEM
Angles and axis in a trigonal system are similar to Hexagonal Systems. At the base of a hexagonal system (cross-section of a prism), there will be six
sides. Crystal shapes in a trigonal system includes three side pyramids, Scalenohedral and Rhombohedra. Some typical examples includes Ruby,
Quartz, Calcite, Agate, Jasper, Tiger’s eyes and more.

5. HEXAGONAL SYSTEM

It comprises four axes. Among them, three axes are of the same length and are on one plane. They intersect each other at an angle of sixty degrees.
The fourth axis intersect other axes at right angles. Crystal shapes of hexagonal systems includes Double Pyramids, Double-Sided Pyramids, and
Four-Sided Pyramids.

6. TETRAGONAL SYSTEM

It consist of three axes. The main axis varies in length; it can be either short or long. The two axis lie in the same plane and are of the same length.
Based on the rectangular inner structure the shapes of crystal in tetragonal include double and eight-sided pyramids, four-sided prism,
trapezohedrons, and pyrite.

7. CUBIC SYSTEM

All three angles intersect at right angles and are equal length. Crystal shape of a cubic system based on inner structure (square) include octahedron,
cube, and hexaciscohedron.

B. METALS

Metals are the most commonly used class of engineering material. Metal alloys are especially common, and they are formed by combining a metal
with one or more other metallic and/or non-metallic materials. The combination usually occurs through a process of melting, mixing, and cooling.
The goal of alloying is to improve the properties of the base material in some desirable way. Metal alloy compositions are described in terms of the
percentages of the various elements in the ally, where the percentages are measured by weight.

► FERROUS ALLOY

Ferrous alloy have iron as the base element. This alloys and include steels and cast irons. Ferrous alloys are the most common metal alloys in use due
to the abundance of iron, ease of production, and high versatility of the material. The biggest disadvantage of many ferrous alloys is low corrosion
resistance. Carbon is an important alloying element in all ferrous alloys. In general, higher levels of carbon increase strength and hardness, and
decrease ductility and weld ability.

● CARBON STEEL

Carbon steels are basically just mixtures of iron and carbon. They may contain small amounts of other elements, but carbon is the primary
alloying ingredient. The effect of adding carbon is an increase and strength and hardness. Most carbon steels are plain carbon steels, of
which there are several types.

● LOW-ALLOY STEEL

Low-alloy steels, also commonly called alloy steels, contains less than about 8% total alloying ingredients. Low-alloy steels are typically
stronger than carbon steels and have better corrosion resistance. Some low-alloy steels are designated as high strength low-alloy (HSLA)
steels. What sets HSLA steels apart from other low-alloy steels is that they are designed to achieve specific mechanical properties rather
than to meet specific chemical composition.

● TOOL STEEL

Tool steels are primarily used to make tooling for use in manufacturing, for example cutting tools, drill bits, punches, dies, and chisels.
Alloying elements are typically chosen to optimize hardness, wear resistance, and toughness.

● STAINLESS STEEL

Stainless steels have good corrosion resistance, mostly due to the addition of chromium as an alloying ingredient. Stainless steel have a
chromium composition of at least 11%.Passivation occurs with chromium content at or above 12%, in which case a protective inert film of
chromic oxide over the material and prevents oxidation. The corrosion resistance of stainless steel is a result of this passivation.

●CAST IRON

Cast iron is a ferrous alloy containing high levels of carbon, generally greater than 2%. The carbon present in the cast iron can take the
form of graphite or carbide. Cast iron have a low melting temperature which makes then well suited to casting.

►ALUMINUM ALLOYS

Pure aluminum is soft and weak, but it can be alloyed to increase strength. Pure aluminum has good corrosion resistance due to an oxide coating that
forms over the material and prevents oxidation. Alloying the aluminum tends to reduce its corrosion resistance. Aluminum is a widely used material,
particularly in the aerospace industry, due to its light weight and carrion resistance. Despite the fact that aluminum alloys are generally not as strong
as steels, they nevertheless have a good strength-to-weight ratio.

►NICKEL ALLOYS

Nickel alloys have high temperature and corrosion resistance. Common alloying ingredients include copper, chromium, and iron. Common nickel
alloys include Monel, K-Monel, Inconel, and Hastelloy.

►COPPER ALOYS

Copper alloys are generally characterized as being electrically conductive, having good corrosion resistance, and being relatively easy to form and
cast. While they are a useful engineering material, copper alloys are also very attractive and are commonly used in decorative applications.

►TITANIUM ALLOYS

Titanium alloys are light, strong, and have high corrosion resistance. Their density is much lower than steel, and there strength-to-weight ratio is
excellent. For this reason, titanium alloys are use fairly commonly, especially in the aerospace industry. One primary downside of titanium alloys is
the high cost.
CORROSION OF METALS

Corrosion is a natural process that converts a refined metal into a chemically stable form such as oxide, hydroxide, or sulphide. It is the gradual
destruction of materials by chemical and/or electrochemical reaction with their environment.

CAUSES OF CORROSION

Metal corrodes when it reacts with another substance such as oxygen, hydrogen, an electrical current or even dirt and bacteria. Corrosion can also
happen when metals like steel are placed under too much stress causing the material to crack.

CORROSON OF IRON

The most common type of iron corrosion occurs when it is exposed to oxygen and presence of water, which creates a red iron oxide commonly called
rust. Rust can also effect iron alloy such as steel. The rusting of iron can also occur when iron reacts with chloride in an oxygen-deprived
environment, while green rust, which is another type of corrosion, can be formed directly from metallic iron or iron hydroxide.

TYPES OF CORROSION:

●UNIFORM CORROSION

This is the most common form of corrosion which usually takes place evenly over large areas of material surface.

●PITTING CORROSION

One of the most aggressive forms of corrosion, pitting, can be hard to predict, detect or characterise. This localised type of corrosion happens when a
local anodic or cathodic point forms a corrosion cell with the surrounding surface. This pit can create a hole or cavity which typically penetrates the
material in a vertical direction down from the surface.

●CREVICE CORROSION

This form of corrosion occurs in areas where oxygen is restricted such as under washers or bolt heads. This localised corrosion usually results from a
difference in the ion concentration between two areas of metal. The stagnant microenvironment prevents circulation of oxygen, which stops re-
passivation and causes a build-up of stagnant solution moving the pH balance away from neutral. The imbalance between the crevice and the rest of
the material contributes to the high rates of corrosion. Crevice corrosion can take place at lower temperatures than pitting corrosion, but can
minimized by proper joint design.

●INTERGRANULAR CORROSION

Intergranular corrosion occurs when impurities at the grain boundaries which form during solidification of an alloy. It can be caused by the
enrichment at the grain boundaries. This type of corrosion occurs along or adjacent to the grains, affecting the mechanical properties of the metal
despite the bulk of the material being an affected.

●STRESS CORROSION CRACKING (SCC)

Stress corrosion cracking refers to the growth of cracks due to corrosive environment which can lead to the failure of ductile metals when subjected
to tensile stress, particularly at high temperatures. This type of corrosion is more common among alloys than with pure metals and is dependent on
the specific chemical environment whereby only small concentrations of active chemicals are required for catastrophic cracking.

●GALVANIC CORROSION

This form of corrosion occurs when two different metals with physical or electrical contact are immersed in a common electrolyte (such as salt water)
or when a metal is expose to different concentration of electrolyte. Where two metals immersed together, known as galvanic couple the more active
metal (the anode) corrodes fast than the more noble metal (the cathode). The galvanic series determines which metal corrode faster, which is useful
when using a sacrificial anode to protect a structure from corrosion.

EFFECTS OF CORROSION

The annual worldwide cost of metallic corrosion is estimated to be over $2 trillion, yet experts believe 25-30% could be prevented with proper
corrosion protection. Poorly planned construction projects can lead to a corroded structure needing to be replaced, which is a waste of natural
resources and contradictory to global concerns over sustainability.in addition corrosion can lead to safety concerns, loss of life, additional indirect
costs and damage to reputation.

HOW TO PREVENT CORROSION:

►Use non-corrosive metals, such as stainless steel or aluminium

►Make sure the metal surface stays clean and dry

►Use drying agents

►Use a coating or barrier product such as grease, oil, paint or carbon fibre coating

►Lay a layer of backfill, for example limestone, with underground piping

►Use a sacrificial anode to provide a cathodic protection system