Sinusoidal Oscillators

Fig: An amplifier with transfer gain A and feedback network β, not yet connected to
form a closed loop

The output of the Basic Amplifier, xo =Axi

The output of the feedback network, xf = βxo =Aβxi

The output of the mixing circuit (which is now simply an inverter)

x’f = –xf = –Aβxi

 xf
/


x f
   A
Loop gain
x i xi

The condition xf’ = xi is equivalent to –Aβ = 1, or the loop gain must equal to unity.
Barkhausen Criterion

 The frequency at which a sinusoidal oscillator will operate is the frequency for
which the total shift introduced, as a signal proceeds from the input terminals,
through the amplifier and feedback network, and back again to the input, is
precisely zero or an integral multiple of 2π.

Stated more simply, the frequency of a sinusoidal oscillator is determined by the

condition that the loop-gain phase shift is zero or an integral multiple of 2π.

 Oscillations will not be sustained if, at the oscillator frequency, the magnitude of
the product of the transfer gain of the amplifier and the magnitude of the
feedback factor of the feedback network (i.e. the magnitude of the loop gain) are
less than unity.

The condition of unity loop gain –Aβ = 1 is called the Barkhausen

Criterion. This condition implies, both the magnitude of loop gain i.e.
│Aβ│ = 1 and the phase of –Aβ is zero.

In practical oscillator, the loop gain is slightly larger than unity.

The Phase-Shift Oscillator:

The following figure shows the circuit diagram of the phase-shift oscillator. Oscillation occurs at
the frequency where the total phase shift through the three RC feedback circuits is 180. The
inversion of the op-amp itself provides the another 180 phase shift to meet the requirement for
oscillation of a 360 (or 0) phase shift around the feedback loop.
Rf

+V
C1 C2 C3
0V
Vo

R1 R2 R3
-V

The feedback circuit in the phase-shift oscillator is shown in the following figure. In the
derivation we assume,

R1 = R2 = R3 = R and C1 = C2 = C3 = C

C C C

R Vo
Vi I1 R I2 R I3

Using mesh analysis we have,

(R  1 / jC)I1  RI 2  Vi ... ... (1)
 RI1  (2R  1 / jC)I 2  RI 3  0 ... ... (2)
 RI 2  (2R  1 / jC)I 3 ... ... (3)

In order to get V0, we must solve for I3 using determinants:

(R  1 / jC) R Vi
R (2R  1 / jC) 0
0 R 0
I3 
(R  1 / jC) R 0
R (2R  1 / jC) R
0 R (2R  1 / jC)
R 2 Vi

 
(R  1 / jC) (2R  1 / jC) 2  R 2  R 2 (2R  1 / jC)
 V0 RI 3 R3
 
Now,
Vi Vi  
(R  1 / jC) (2R  1 / jC) 2  R 2  R 2 (2R  1 / jC)
3
R

(R  1 / jC)(2R  1 / jC)  R 2 (R  1 / jC)  R 2 (2R  1 / jC)
2

1

(1  1 / jRC)(2  1 / jRC)  (1  1 / jRC)  (2  1 / jRC)
2

1

(1  1 / jRC)(4  4 / jRC  1 / 2 R 2 C 2 )  (3  2 / jRC)
1

(4  4 / jRC  1 /  R C  4 / jRC  4 / 2 R 2 C 2  1 / j3 R 3 C 3 )  3  2 / jRC)
2 2 2

1

(1  5 /  R C  6 / jRC  1 / j3 R 3 C 3 )
2 2 2

1
 ... ... (4)
(1  5 /  R C )  j(6 / RC  1 / 3 R 3 C 3 )
2 2 2

For oscillation in the phase-shift amplifier, the phase shift through the RC circuit must be equal to
180. For this condition to exist, the j term must be 0 at the frequency of oscillation 0.
 6 / 0 RC  1 / 30 R 3 C3  0
602 R 2 C 2  1
 0
30 R 3 C 3
 602 R 2 C 2  1  0

1
 02 
6R 2 C 2
1
 0 
RC 6
1
 f0 
2RC 6

Now, from the equation (4) we have,

V0 1 1
 
Vi (1  5x 6) 29
The negative sign results from the 180 inversion by the circuit. Thus, the value of voltage gain by
the RC circuit is,
V0 1

Vi 29

To meet the greater-than-unity loop gain requirement, the closed-loop voltage gain of the op-amp
must be greater than 29.

So, Rf  29 R3
R-C Phase-Shift Oscillator:

6
f0 
2RC

C-R Phase-Shift Oscillator:

1
f0 
2RC 6

R-C Phase-Shift Oscillator:

6
f0 
2RC
Exercise:
The Colpitts Oscillator:
The following figure shows the circuit diagram of the Colpitts oscillator. Oscillation occurs at the
frequency where the L-C feedback circuits is at resonance.
Rf

+V L
R1

Vo V2 C1 C2 V1

-V
L-C feedback circuit Z
L

C1 C2

Colpitts oscillator

Assuming R1>>XC1 we have the impedance of the L-C circuit,

( jX C 2 )( jX L  jX C1 )
Z
( jX C 2  jX L  jX C1 )
X C 2 (X L  X C1 )
Z
j(X L  X C 2  X C1 )
At parallel resonance the impedance will be maximum and we can write,
X L  X C2  X C1  0
 X L  X C1  X C2 ... ... (1)
 L  1 / C1  1 / C 2
1 C1  C 2
 L  1 / C1  1 / C 2 
 C1C 2
1 1
 2 
L C1C 2 /( C1  C 2 )
1
 
LC1C 2 /( C1  C 2 )
1 C1 C 2
 where C T 
LC T C1  C 2
1
f 
2 LC T

Again, the voltage gain of the LC circuit,

V2  jX C1  X C1
 
V1 jX L  jX C1 X L  X C1
Here negative sign is for 180 phase shift by the circuit. So magnitude of the voltage gain is,
 X C1

X L  X C1
X
 C1 (from equation (1))
X C2
C
 2
C1
For oscillation to sustain, the loop gain must be equal to or greater than unity ( AV   1 ).
Therefore, the voltage gain of the amplifier should be,
1
AV 

Rf C
  1
R1 C 2
The Hartley Oscillator:
The following figure shows the circuit diagram of the Hartley oscillator. Oscillation occurs at the
frequency where the C-L feedback circuits is at resonance.
Rf

+V
R1
Vo
C
L
-V
V2 L1 L2 V1
C M
L
C-L feedback circuit Z
L1 L2
M

Hartley oscillator

Assuming R1>>XL1 we have the impedance of the C-L circuit,

( jX L 2  jX M )( jX C  jX L1  jX M )
Z
( jX L 2  jX M  jX C  jX L1  jX M )
(X L 2  X M )(X C  X L1  X M )
Z
j(X L 2  X C  X L1  2X M )
At parallel resonance the impedance will be maximum and we can write,
X L 2  X C  X L1  2X M  0
 X L1  X M  X C  (X L 2  X M ) ... ... (1)
 L1  2M  1 / C  L 2
 L1  L 2  2M  1 / C
1 1
 2 
C ( L1  L 2  2M )
1
 
C(L1  L 2  2M)
1
 where L T  L1  L 2  2M
CL T
1
f 
2 CL T
Again, the voltage gain of the C-L circuit,
V2 jX L1  jX M X L1  X M
 
V1 jX L1  jX M  jX C X L1  X M  X C
X L1  X M
 
X L1  X M  X C
 X L1  X M
 (from equation (1))
X L2  X M
Here negative sign is for 180 phase shift by the circuit. So magnitude of the voltage gain is,

X L1  X M

X L2  X M
L M
  1
L2  M
For oscillation to sustain, the loop gain must be equal to or greater than unity ( AV   1 ).
Therefore, the voltage gain of the amplifier should be,
1
AV 

Rf L M
  2
R1 L1  M
If the inductors are wound on separate core, then mutual inductance M = 0 and we can write,
Rf L
 2
R1 L1
Wein Bridge Oscillator:
The following figures show the circuit diagram of the Wein Bridge oscillator. Oscillation occurs
at the particular frequency when ac balance is obtained in the Wein Bride. At the balanced
condition of the bridge we can write,

Z 2 V0 Z 4 V0

Z1  Z 2 Z 3  Z 4

Z2 Z4
 
Z1  Z 2 Z 3  Z 4
(R 2 )(1 / jC 2 ) /( R 2  1 / jC 2 ) R4
 
(R 1  1 / jC1 )  (R 2 )(1 / jC 2 ) /( R 2  1 / jC 2 ) R 3  R 4
(R 2 )(1 / jC 2 ) R4
 
(R 1  1 / jC1 )(R 2  1 / jC 2 )  (R 2 )(1 / jC 2 ) R 3  R 4
jR 2 C1 R4
 
(1  jR 1C1 )(1  jR 2 C 2 )  jR 2 C1 R 3  R 4
jR 2 C1 R4
 
(1  jR 1C1 )(1  jR 2 C 2 )  jR 2 C1 R 3  R 4
jR 2 C1 R4
 
(1  jR 1C1  jR 2 C 2   R 1C1 R 2 C 2 )  jR 2 C1 R 3  R 4
2

jR 2 C1 R4
  ... ... (1)
(1   R 1C1R 2 C 2 )  j(R 1C1  R 2 C 2  R 2 C1 ) R 3  R 4
2

Since, the right hand side of the above equation is a real term, the left hand side must also be a
real term. So, we can write,
1  2 R 1C1R 2 C 2  0
1
  ... ... (2)
R 1C1 R 2 C 2

From equation (1) we have,

R 2 C1 R4
 
(R 1C1  R 2 C 2  R 2 C1 ) R 3  R 4
R 2 C1 R
  4
R 1C1  R 2 C 2 R 3
R R C  R 2C2 R1 C2
 3  1 1   ... ... (3)
R4 R 2 C1 R 2 C1

The op-amp along with the two resistors R3 and R4 constitutes a non-inverting amplifier who’s
voltage gain is,
R
AV  1 3
R4
Using the of R3/R4 obtained in equation (3) we have,

R1 C2
AV  1 
R 2 C1
This corresponds that the attenuation of the feedback network is,
 R C 
1 / 1  1  2 
 R 2 C1 
 R C 
Therefore, AV must be equal to or greater than 1  1  2  to sustain oscillation (as
 R 2 C1 
AV   1). Mathematically,

 R C 
A V  1  1  2  ... ... (4)
 R 2 C1 
R  R C 
 1  3  1  1  2 
R4  R 2 C1 
R 3 R1 C2
  
R 4 R 2 C1
For R1 = R2 = R and C1 = C2 = C we have,

R3
2
R4
 R 3  2R 4
Also from equation (4) we have,
AV  3

From equation (2) we have,

1

RC
1
f 
2RC +V

V0
-V
C1
Feedback network

R1 R3 C1

R1
R2 +V

C2 R4 V0
-V
C2 R3
Wein Bridge R2
R4
Noninverting
amplifier
Conditions:

R3
 2 --------------Sinusoidal wave
R4

R3
 2 -----------------------Square wave
R4

R3
 2 ------------------------ Decaying wave/Decreasing Oscillations
R4
Crystal Oscillator

If a piezoelectric crystal, usually quartz, has electrodes plated on opposite faces and
if a potential is applied between theses electrodes, forces will be exerted on the
bound charges within the crystal. If this device is properly mounted, deformations
take place within the crystal, and an electromechanical system is formed which will
vibrate when properly excited.

The resonant frequency and Q depend on the crystal dimensions, how the surfaces
are oriented with respect to its axes, and how the device is mounted.

Frequencies ranging from a kHz to a few MHz and Q ranges from several thousand
to several hundred thousand.

Figure: A piezoelectric crystal (a) Symbol

(b) Electrical model where

Electrical System Analogs Mechanical System

Inductor, L the mass

Capacitor, C the compliance (the reciprocal

of spring constant)

Resistor, R The viscous-damping factor

C’ represents the electrostatic capacitance between the electrodes with the crystal as a dielectric,
its magnitude (~3.5 pF) is very much larger than C
Figure: reactance function (neglect R)
Since C’>>C, ω p ≈ ωs
And for ωs < ω <ωp , reactance is inductive and outside this range it is capacitive

Figure: A 1-MhZ FET crystal oscillator