EAS (HUES errs AN INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER PROGRAMMING IN BASIC LANGUAGE FOR Y=1 Td 10 LET C=0 MC FOR K=1 TO 50 LET F=INTC2*#RNDC1)) JAMES S. COAN IF F=1 THEN 60 PRINT "T'"3 G@Td 100 REM C COUNTS THE NUMBER @F HEADS {re ees | PRINT “H's NEXT X PRINT PRINT "HEADS "3C3"@UT @F SO FLIPS" NEXT Y 130 END seh] ne teas HTTTTTHTTHHT THT TTT TTTTHTHHHHHHTITTTTHTHHH THHHTITHHTT Lalor eat OUT OF SO FLIPS HTTHTHHTTHTTHTHHTTTHHHTTTTTTHHHHT TH TH THHHH THH T HHH HEADS 26 QUT OF SO FLIPS HTHTTTHTTHTTHTTTTTTTITHTTHTT IH THTHTT TH TTT TI THHH THHHT Ey ae QUT OF SO FLIPS ILIRSESS LILI U LIL LOL LPI L LIC Pee ee LOL ketene Patra Yeh) eat @UT OF SO FLIPS TTHHTTTTHTHH T THTH THHHHT THH THHHT TT TT TH THHHHTTHTHHTT alate) oe) OUT OF SO FLIPS HTH THHHHHHH THT TT TTT THT THHHHHH TT THT TTTHTHT THH THH THH Pale) 26 QUT OF SO FLIPS HTTTTTHTTTTHH FTHTTH THHHH TH THH TTHHHH THT TH TH THT TTTHT, PTE} 22 OUT OF SO FLIPS ARCO le aot Ey cr QuT OF SO FLIPS HTTHHTHH RUIEASTER ET LaST CALL un Lek at at rare rs) ery QUT OF SO FLIPS CLLRS LOSE e LLL eeO LCG bebe ater ers) 26 QUT OF SO FLIPS ersBasic BASIC An Introduction to Computer Programming in BASIC LanguageHayden Computer Programming Series COMPREHENSIVE STANDARD FORTRAN PROGRAMMING James N. Haag BASICS OF DIGITAL COMPUTER PROGRAMMING (Second Ed.) John 8. Murphy BASIC BASIC: An Introduction to Computer Programming in BASIC Language (Second Ed.) James 8, Goan ADVANCED BASIG: Applications and Problems vames S. Coan DISCOVERING BASIC: A Problem Solving Approach, Robert E. Smith ASSEMBLY LANGUAGE BASICS Inving A. Dodes PROGRAMMING PROVERBS Henry F. Ledgard PROGRAMMING PROVERBS FOR FORTRAN PROGRAMMERS Henty F. Leogard FORTRAN WITH STYLE: Programming Proverbs: Henry F. Ledgard and Louis J. Chmura COBOL WITH STYLE: Programming Proverbs Louis J. Chmura and Henry F. Ledgard .n Annotated Program Book BASIC WITH STYLE: Programming Proverbs Pau! Nagin and Henry F. Ledgard SNOBOL: An Introduction to Programming Poter R. Newsted FORTRAN FUNDAMENTALS: A Short Course Jack Steingraber THE BASIG WORKBOOK: Creative Techniques for Beginning Programmers Kenneth E, Schoman, Jr. ASIC FROM THE GROUND UP David E. Simon APL: AN INTRODUCTION Howard A. PeelleBasic BASIC SECOND EDITION An Introduction to Computer Programming in BASIC Language JAMES S. COAN Community Computer Corporation Germantown Friends School Lia HAYDEN BOOK COMPANY, INC. Rochelle Park, New JerseyLibrary of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Coan, James S Basic BASIC: an introduction to computer programming in BASIC language. (Hayden computer programming series) Includes indexes. 1, Basic (Computer program language). 2. Electronic digital computers—Programming. 1. Title. QA76.73.B3062 1978 001.6424 ISBN 0-8104-5107-7 ISBN 0-8104-5106-9 pbk. 77-14640 Copyright © 1970, 1978 by HAYDEN BOOK COMPANY, INC. All rights re- served. No part of this book may be reprinted, or reproduced, or utilized in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any in- formation storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the Publisher. Printed in the United States of America 456789 PRINTING 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 YEARPreface With the increasing availability of computer access through remote terminals and time sharing, more and more schools and colleges are able to introduce programming to substantial numbers of students. This book is an attempt to incorporate computer programming, using BASIC language, and the teaching of mathematics. I believe the two activities support each other. Flowcharts are used throughout the text. The general approach is to begin with short complete programs and then simply and methodically build them into larger programs. Each new capability or new organization of capabilities is presented to create a desired effect in a program. Details are introduced only as they become necessary or useful for the writing of a program, rather than as sets of facts to be memorized in case a particular situation should ever arise. Over 125 programs are used to achieve this. All of the elementary BASIC language capabilities are presented in the first five chapters and Chap. 7. Chapter 6 and Chaps. 8-13 emphasize applications. The first seven chapters may be studied in conjunction with, or at any time fol- lowing, a first-year algebra course. Chapters 8-13 are applications oriented, covering many of the popular topics of precalculus mathematics, with all of the required algorithms developed in the text. Thus, this text is suitable for use either as a supplementary text to be incorporated into existing mathematics courses, or as the text for a course or unit to cover programming alone. Appendices A and B, respectively, present information for the operation of programs on paper tape and a few comments on error diagnosis. Appendix C introduces two formatting capabilities that are available on some time- sharing systems. Flowchart shapes are summarized in Appendix D. A sum- mary of BASIC statement types is provided in Appendix E and an index of all the programs in Chaps. 2-13 is provided in Appendix F. Many of the problems in the book are intended to enable the student to develop interesting mathematical concepts upon seeing the printed results of program RUNS. Possible solution programs are given in Appendix G for the even-numbered problems to give the student an indication of the correctnessof his program without being required to run every program. However, par- ticularly at the beginning, students derive greater benelit from seeing programs run (or not run) than from any other programming activity. 1 wish to thank Germantown Friends School for its support in the prepara- tion of this text. Thanks are due Mrs. Geoffrey Wilson for test teaching and numerous students for test learning portions of the manuscript. James S. Coan PhiladelphiaPreface to the Second Edition The First Edition of this book has been significantly enhanced by present- ing character string handling and the use of data files. ce strings and files involve language differences which depend on the computer, two versions are presented. Demonstration programs are presented in Chap. 7 for both General Electric Information Services BASIC and Hewlett-Packard BASIC. The little used statement RESTORE is no longer discussed, and the INPUT statement is now presented in Chap. 1 Thanks are due to the Community Computer Corporation for assistance in the preparation of material for this Second Jaates $, Coan PhiladelphiaChapter Chapter Chapter Chapter Contents 1—Introduction to BASIC 1-1 PRINT 1-2 READ-DATA 1-3 System Commands 1-4 LET 1-5 INPUT 1-6 Sample Progiams . 1-7 Comma and Semicolon in PRINT Statements Summary and Problems for Chap. 1 2-Writing a Program 2-1 Planning 2-2 REM 2-3 Flowcharting 2-4 IF-THEN Summary and Problems for Chap. 2 3—Loops and Lists 3-1 Introduction to Machine-Made Loops Summary and Problems 3-2 More on Loops Summary and Problems 3-3 Introduction to Lists Summary and Problems 3-4 More on Lists Summary and Problems 4—Computer Functions 4-1 Introduction to INT( ), SQR( ), ABS( ), and SGN( ) 5 Summary and Problems 4-2 Reducing Common Fractions and Dimension Conversions Summary and Problems 4-3 Program-Defined Functions Summary and Problems 44 Random Number Generator Summary and ProblemsChapter 5—Elementary Data Processing 73 5-1 introduction to Data Processing 73 and Problems 7 5-2 inays 78 Summary and Problems 84 5-3 A More Detailed Questionnaire Analysis 85 Summary and Problems 89 Chapter 6—Specific Applications 91 6-1 Euclidean Algorithm : 91 Problems 93 6-2 Change Base 93 Problems 98 6-3 Looking at Integers Digit by Digit 98 Problems 100 Chapter 7—Strings and Files 101 7-1 Introduction to Strings 101 7-2 Strings—The Substring Scheme 103 Summary and Problems 105 7-3 The String Array Scheme 106 Summary and Problems 108 7-4 Introduction to Data Files 109 7-5 Hewlett-Packard Files 110 Summary and Problems 114 7-6 General Electric Files 115, Summary and Problems 121 Chapter 8—The Quadratic Function 122 BL Zeros 128 8-2 Axis of Symmetry and Turning Point 123 8-3 Plotting the Parabola 125 Summary and Problems for Chap. 8 131 Chapter 9—Trigonometry 132, 9-1 Introduction to SIN(X), C@S(X), and TAN(X) 132 9-2 Right Triangles and Arctangent 133 Summary and Problems 137 9-3 Law of Sines and Law of Cosines 138 Summary and Problems 142 9-4 Polar Coordinates 143 Summary and Problems 145 Chapter 10—Complex Numbers 147 10-1 Fundamental Operations 147 Summary and Problems 149 10-2 Polar Coordinates 149 Summary and Problems 151 10-3 Powers and Roots 152 Problems 153, 11-Poly 14 11-1 Fundamental Operations 154 Summary and Problems 159 11-2 Integral Zeros 159 Summary and Problems 16311-3 Real Zeros Summary and Problems 11-4 Complex Zeros Summary and Problems Chapter 12—-MAT Instructions in BASIC 12-1 Introduction to MAT Instructions Problems 12-2 Solving a Problem Problems 12-3 Operations and Special Matrices Summary and Problems 12-4 Solving Simultaneous Linear Equations Summary and Problems 12-5 Transpose of a Matrix Problems Chapter 13-Elementary Probability 13-1 Introduction 13.2. Enumeration Summary and Problems 13-3 Simple Probability Summary and Problems 13-4 Random Simulation Problems 13-5 Binomial Trials Problems Appendix A—Storing Programs on Paper Tape Acl Introduction A-2 Punching Paper Tape Off-Line A-3 Reading Paper Tape A-4 Getting the Computer to Punch Paper Tape Appendix B-Error Diagnosis B-1 Introduction B-2 Errors that Prevent RUN B-3 Errors that Terminate a RUN B-4 Errors that Cause Unexpected or Incorrect Results Summary Appendix C—Special Formatting Functions C-1 TAB(X) C-2 IMAGE Statement Appendix D-Summary of Flowchart Shapes Appendix E—Summary of Statements in BASIC Matrix Instructions Functions Files Appendix F—Index of Programs in Text Appendix G—Answers to Even-Numbered Problems Index 163 197Basie BASIC An Introduction to Computer Programming in BASIC LanguageCHAPTER 1 introduction to BASIC In working with a computer, you, the programmer, must communicate with the computer. In order to do that you will have tu use a language that the computer will understand. There are many languages written for this pur- pose. The language of this text is called BASIC. The actual physical com- munication is rather complicated and we will ignore most of the mechanics except for the apparatus at our end of things. The device we will be using is called a remote terminal. It will have a specific name depending on the manu- facturer. The remote terminal has a keyboard, which is the part we are most concerned about. 1-1 PRINT No matter how complicated a particular set of instructions is, you will have to tell the computer to put the results into some form discernible to yourself. Therefore, let us begin with a discussion of the PRINT statement. If you want the computer to write the following statement “THIS IS A SHORT PRO- GRAM,” you will type on the keyboard of the terminal as follows: 10 PRINT “THIS IS A SHORT PROGRAM." 20 END The computer, on proper instruction, will do exactly what you have set out to do. The two lines 10 and 20 constitute a complete program. Several comments are in order here. 1) Note that every line in a program must begin with a positive integer. 2) The statement that we want to write out is in quotes; this may be used to good advantage, for example, for headings and labels 3) In many time-share systems, every program must have as its highest numbered line the END statement. In some systems, the END statement is optional.2 Basic BASIC 4) Note that all the letters are capitals. The terminal you may use or may not be restricted in this way, Note also that the letter “O” has a slash mark to distinguish it from the digit “0.” On some terminals the reverse is true, the digit “O” has a slash and the letter “O” does not. On some printers one is more nearly a circle than the other or one is nearly dia- mond shaped, You can easily determine the method used by your equip- ment by examining some sample output on your screen or “hard copy.” 5) It is conventional although not required to use intervals of 10 for the numbers of adjacent lines in a program. This is because any modifica- umbers. So you can use the Il be ing to know must also have li the progra number os at this point that the line numbers do not have to be typed in order. No matter what order they are typed in, the computer will follow numerical order in executing the program. 6) Each line of a program is called a program statement. You probably think of the computer as something that more commonly produces numerical results and you are partly correct. Suppose you wish to multiply 23.4 by 91, One way of doing this on the computer would be to write a program like thi 10 PRINT 23.4891 20 END ‘Then on proper instruction the computer will type out the following and stop. 2129-4 bone Computers vary as to the message that gets printed here. Notice the absence of quotes. In this case you have instructed the computer to perform an opera- tion. Had you in fact wanted 23.4 ° 91 typed out, then you would change the program. You might write the following: 10 PRINT "23. 48912") 23. 4891 20 END This time the result will be as follows: 236 4n912 212964 pone You have succeeded in instructing the computer not only to perform an opera- tion, but to print out the result in easily understandable form, which is desir- able throughout mathematics. Notice the use of the comma here. The comma may be used to separate the different parts of a PRINT statement. Used in this way, a comma is called a delimiter. Notice too, that there are eight spaces bet i and the number. A way to eliminaie all bui one of them will be explained later. There are many fine points that we will discuss as we progress, but for now we will take it in small quantities. If we were limited to the PRINT and the END instructions, we would quickly return to using pencil and paper or an ordinary desk calculator. With- eheseaial the equalsIntroduction to BASIC 3 out some additional capability, the computer would soon disappear. ‘This brings us to the READ and DATA statements. PRINT Characters in quotes will be printed exactly as typed. Computed results will be typed as decimal numbers or as integers. 1-2 READ-DATA The READ statement says to look for DATA as in the following: 10 DATA 23+ 4491+83+ 19487494) 16+ 598-8 76-918. 20 READ A,B 30 PRINT Ate 35 G3T3 20 40 END The computer ignores the DATA statement until it finds a READ, then it takes the first number in the first DATA statement and assigns that value to the first variable in the READ statement. Then, if there is a comma and another variable in READ as in our example, the computer assigns the second number in the DATA line to it; were there a third variable, the computer would continue until it ran out of variables. In our program, the first time through, A = 23.4 and B = 91. The next line says PRINT the product. Having printed the product the computer looks for the next instruction, which is GOTO 20. This is a new one that means exactly what it says. So the computer will GOT@ line 20 and execute that instruction again. At this point the com- puter “knows” that it has already read and used the first two numbers in the DATA line. So it goes to the third and fourth numbers and assigns them to A and B in order and proceeds to print the product of 83 and 19, then goes back and assigns the fifth and sixth numbers to A and B, and so on until it runs out of numbers in the DATA line. There may be any number of DATA lines in a given program; all you need to realize for the time being is that a comma must be used to separate each discrete item of data and a comma should not be placed after the last item in a particular DATA line. Also, be careful not to use commas to designate thousands, millions, ete. Warning: You may not put variables or operation symbols in a DATA line. Only numbers in decimal form are allowed so far. Here is the computer's response to the above program: 212944 1577 8173 454. 48, B041 68. QUT 9F DATA IN LIVE 204 Basic BASIC Note the explicit message at the completion of the print-out. This will vary from computer to computer. In our examples so far, we have used only multiplication (°). The other arithmetic operations that you may use are addition (+), subtraction (—), division (/), and exponentiation (raising to a power), There are two symbols in common use for exponentiation: one is an upwards arrow (4), and the other is a double asterisk (°°), Symbols used to instruct the computer to perform some operation are called operators. The symbols listed here are specifically designated as the arithmetic operators. The numbers on which the operation is to be performed are called of multiplication symbol mnst he present, AB in al in algebra, the wen for the computer. The computer assigns the same priorities to arithmetic operations as are assigned in algebra. If there are several operations of the same priority to be performed on the same line, the computer does them from left to right. Several sample programs will be given soon. to convent READ The READ statement looks for numbers in a DATA statement. READ X, Y, Z looks for numbers in groups of three. DATA The DATA statement supplies values for the variables designated in the corresponding READ statement. Items of data must be sep- arated by a comma. Numbers only are allowed. 1-3. SYSTEM COMMANDS There are two kinds of instructions of which you should be aware. We have already discussed an instruction given by a program that you have written. We have not yet mentioned an equally important kind of instruction, the system command. We must realize that the computer does nothing by itself. There- fore, there must be what is called an executive program which will respond to your wishes. You need not worry about the executive program; it is taken care of by the people who maintain the computer. The first system command required is referred to as the sign-on or log-on The exact form of this varies from computer to computer. So we really cannot be specific here. It simply notifies the computer that you would like to use it. Once you are signed on, the next most important command is RUN. After you have typed out your prugran, the compuier musi bave a way of knowing that you want it to execute the program. So you must type RUN and then touch the return key on the keyboard. Only then will it respond to the pro- grammed instructions. Possibly next in importance is the command SCR (SCRub or SCRatch) erIntroduction to BASIC 5 CLE (CLEar) followed by depressing the return key. (Which you use will depend on the computer you are connected with.) Suppose you have run a program and someone else would like to run his, The old program may be erased by using the SCR command. So whenever you begin a new program it might be wise to simply type SCR and touch the return key. The system command must not be preceded by a number. There are several other com- mands that we will take up as they seem appropriate. RUN Notifies the computer to execute the program instructions. Must not have a number in front of it. SCR or CLE anew Notifies the computer that you are not going to use the current program. The current program is erased from the working area of the computer. Must not have a number in front of it. 1-4 LET At this point you do have enough information to write quite a few programs. However, another statement type that may be used to make life easier is the LET statement. The LET statement may be used to assign any number or any algebraic expression to any variable. Using a LET statement, the last program would look like this: 10 DATA 23+ 4591+83+ 194879 .4s 76» 5-981 876s 918 20 READ ALB 30 LET Cease 40 PRINT C SO GAT2 20 60 END RUN 2129.4 1577 8173 45.4. 48 804168 QUT 3F DATA IN LINE 20 We obtain the same results as before. In this particular program, we really did not save anything. However, in any situation where we need to write the value of A ° B several times or the expression is more involved, we will see that a saving may result. There are many things that you could not do without a LET capability./ 6 Basic BASIC LET May be used to assign explicit values to a variable as LET X = 4.56, or may be used to assign algebraic expressions to a variable as LET V=X°F+/Y °G. Note: All variables on the right-hand side must have been previously evaluated. On some computers LET is optional. Such systems permit Z = 4.56, for example. 1-5 INPUT ‘The INPUT statement serves much the same purpose as the READ state- ment in that it permits us to provide numbers for the computer to work with. For example, 100 INPUT A will cause the computer to print a question mark and stop at line 100. The question mark is a signal to whoever is operating the terminal that he or she is to type the desired value for A on the keyboard and press the carriage return key to resume the run of the program. Likewise, 100 INPUT A, B, C will call for three numbers separated by commas to be typed at the keyboard. It is advisable to have the computer print a label so that the operator can determine the nature of the numbers required. In the following program, note that the semicolon at the end of line 100 enables us to type the values for A and B on the same line as the printed label. The input numbers 15, 17 following the question mark were typed at the keyboard by the program operator. 100 PRINT "INPUT TW NUMBERS? "5 110 INPUT A,B 120 PRINT THE NUMBERS ARI 130 PRINT THEIR SUM I 140 PRINT 150 END RUN INPUT TWO NUMBERS! 715+17 THE NUMBERS ARE: 15 17 THEIR SUM IS? 32 THEIR PRODUCT IS: 255 DONE INPUT Causes the computer to request data from the keyboard. If we want the computer to obtain a decimal value for a compound frac- tion, there may be several programs that will do the job. Here we will have to use our knowledge of the order of operations as determined in algebra.Introduction to BASIC 7 Three programs follow that find a decimal value for 2/5 + 3/7 3/4--1/3 10 LET N=2/5¢9/7 20 LET 0=374-173 30 PRINT N7D 40 END RUN 1.98857 Dane 10 LET Fa¢carsear 7 C9/ 4-173) 20 PRINT F 30 END RUN 1.98857 bane 10 PRINT €2/5+3/79/¢37 4-1/3) 20 END RUN 1.98857 bane Parentheses serve as a powerful tool in grouping terms properly for the desired results, Keep in mind that priorities are exactly as they are in algebra and that if several operations of the same priority appear in the same line, they are executed from left to right. Carefully study the programs which follow to see how the placement of the parentheses affects the results. 10 PRINT "3/5/3/5="13/5/3/5 20 PRINT "3/€5/3/5)="5 3/¢573/5) 30 PRINT "3/5/¢3/5)2"5 3/5/6375) 40 PRINT "€3/5)/€3/5)="1 (3/59/6375) SO PRINT "C3/573)755"1 (3/5/3)/5 60 PRINT "€3/5)/9/5="1€3/5)73/5, 70 END RUN a/s/3/s= 204 O/C573/5)= 96 375737592 1 ¢37597¢3/5)= 1 €375/30/5= 204 (3/5973/5= .04 Dane 10 PRINT "A=" 21361439241 20 PRINT "5213419439241 30 PRINT "Ca"5213eC143) #241 40 PRINT "Da"; 2r3¢ 143" (241) SO PRINT “E="s2t(3¢143) 9261 60 END RUN8 Basic BASIC 19. 26 2s 36 E= 16385 Dane It is important to know the capacity of the computer you are working with. Notice that according to the computer, (2/5 + 3/7)/(3/4 — 1/3) = 1.98857. If we work that out longhand, the result would be 1.98857142. BASIC pro- vides from 6 to 15 digits, if they are needed, depending on the computer, with the last digit rounded off iu decimal uunibers, If the results require more than the digit capacity of the computer, the computer prints in scientific notation as follows: 10 LET As98 781+ 20 LET A1=8976 30 LET P=AKAL 40 PRINT Al 50 END PALS NE" P 98781. * 8976 = 8+ 866588408 The E + 08 means “times ten to the eighth power” and the decimal number is rounded off to the sixth digit. When the computer uses this notation, it is called E-format. Again we get large spaces using the comma to delimit the printed results. We will discuss this before we wind up chapter one. ‘A new item Al appears in the above program in line 20. There you will find the statement LET Al = 8976. The computer treats this as a new variable. In BASIC you may use any letter of the alphabet and any letter of the alphabet followed by a single digit as a variable. Some computers have additional simple variables. Thus a large number of variables are available. Probably the best way to learn how the computer handles scientific notation is by experience. So, let us run a sample program to see what happens. SPRINT "xX", ty", aM," 10 DATA 1+31E+10,2+13E+1 1s 1+ 16132E-05,2.83E+06 20 READ XY 26 LET Q=x/Y 40 LET Pexey 50 LET S=K+Y 60 PRINT KsYsQ,PsS. 65 GTO 20 70 END RUNIntroduction to BASIC. 9 x Y ° Pp s 1.31000E+10 2+ 13000E+11 6 15023F-02 2. 790OEH21 2+ 2ELODEFII 14161328-05 24830008406 44 10360E-12 32.8654 2+830008+06 OUT OF DATA IN LINE 20 Notice the use of Q for quotient, P for product, ete. This is a technique that is useful not only on the computer, but throughout mathematics. Suppose you wish to write a program to find the total cost of a purchase in which there are different numbers of items at various prices, say 2 @ $.35, 3 @ $2.65, 11 @ $.25, 1 @ $9.49, and 35 @ $1.59. We could have many more, but for a sample this should suffice. This program could of course be written in several ways, but here is one possibility: 10 PRINT “ITEM 20 DATA 2+ +35+ 3p 2+ 6521 Be «25s 1594 As 35e 16 59 25 LET 30 READ NsP 40 LET T=TesP 4S PRINT NoPsNePsT 50 G3T@ 30 70 END RUN 1 TEMS. UNIT PRICE cast SUBTATAL, 2 +35 “7 “7 3 2.65 7695 "1 +25 2.78 1 9.49 9.09 20.39 35 1659 55.65 76.54 OUT OF DATA IV L NE 30 ‘The single figure we set out to obtain is in the lower right-hand corner. The result is $76.54; however, the other information is bound to be useful in at least some situations. Besides, even if we only print the right-hand column, we do not yet know how to dispose of the first four figures in that column. If you only want to print the right-hand column, then lines 10 and 45 may be altered thus: 10 PRINT “SUBT@TAL” 45 PRINT T and only that column will be printed. Notice that line 10 is executed only once and line 45 is executed five times. The G@T@ statement in line 50 only returns the computer back to line 30, So the computer only prints the headings once and only lets T = 0 once. Still, in the last program, the combination of lines 25 and 40 may seem strange, but it will not as soon as you gain a little more insight into how the computer works, Line 25 is said to initialize the value of T at 0, i.e., give it an initial value of 0. When the computer executes the initializing statement, line10 Basic BASIC 25 LET T = 0, it “says” that there is a location in the computer storage area ich thi mi will call T and that thi call T and that this pro; number zero be stored in that location for now. If we then say 26 LET T = 5, then the computer wili put the number 5 in that jocation designated as T and zero will no longer be there. If we write a program that says 25 LET T = 0 followed by 26 LET T = T + 1, then the computer goes to the location where it is storing the value for T, “sees” 0, adds 1 to it, and returns the result to the location from which it just got 0, thereby replacing 0 (the old value) with 1 (the new value). So we see that in BASIC (as in other computer languages) = does not mean “two names for the same thing.” Jt means, insiead, that the number on the right is to be placed in a location whose name is specified on the left. Thus we see that the equals sign as used here really specifies an opera- tion for the computer to perform. So the equals sign is called an assignment operator or a replacement operator, and the LET statement is called the assignment statement or replacement statement. Let us go through the program line by line. The lowest numbered line is a PRINT statement. So, right off, the computer prints the headings. Then it recognizes that the next statement is a DATA statement and ignores it. Line 25 assigns the value 0 to T. Then in line 30 the computer reads the first two numbers in the DATA line. Line 40 says that the previous value of T is to be taken out of storage and added to N times P. So, the first time through line 40, the value of T on the left will be 0 (from storage) plus the cost of two items at $.35, or $.70, and the computer returns the value .70 to the location in storage called T. Line 50 sends the computer back to read the next two numbers in the DATA line and to add their product (7.95) to .70 to get 8.65. It should be clear that we are printing the values of N, P, N times P, and T each time we read two new numbers. This process continues until the com- puter finds no more data. This causes the computer to terminate the RUN. al hat the 1-7 COMMA AND SEMICOLON IN PRINT STATEMENTS Let us look at one more capability. In two of the programs of this chapter, the results were printed out with unnecessary great spaces. You may have noticed that we did not have these spaces in the two programs where semi- colons were used in the PRINT statements. We have two delimiters, i.e., we have two signals that tell the computer how closely we want the results printed. The rules are a little complicated, but in general, the semicolon specifies closer spacing than the comma. The comma sets up zones across the page. The number of characters in the zones does vary from computer to computer, but 15 characters per zone is common. This zone width does not change with the number of digits in the numbers being printed. The semicolon sets up different sized zones depending on the number of digits in the number and whether it is in scientific notation, Here is the pro- gram from p. 8 again. First we run it. Then we insert a line which replaces the comma print delimiters with semicolon delimiters. And we call for another RUN.Introduction to BASIC 11 10 LET A=98781- 20 LET Al=89 76 30 LET PsAKAL 40 PRINT AS MEMS ALS Sty P 50 END RUN 98 7816 * 8976 a 8. 866SHE+08 DONE aL PRINT As "ws 15" RUY 9a 781. * 8976 = 9.866588+08 98781. * 8976 == 8. 86658E+08 DONE The output of this program is much more closely spaced. Notice that in the last line of the printing there is a space between the ° and 8976. The computer leaves a space there for a + sign but does not print it, If the number printed were negative, then there would be a minus sign printed in that space. The same holds true for the space between the = and 8.86658E + 08. Also notice that in all program runs there is a space before the first number printed in any line if the number is positive. However, if we write 10 PRINT “3” in a pro- gram, then when we run the program, 3 will be printed in the very first space. This is because the computer treats things in quotes differently from the values of variables for printing purposes. SUMMARY OF CHAP. 1 1) We now have the PRINT statement which puts results in readable form. It may be used for titles, headings, and labels. 2) Everything in quotes will be printed just as you type it (except more quotes). 3) Commas or semicolons may be used between the different items to be printed to control spacing. 4) The READ statement is used to read data. Several variables may be read with a single READ statement by separating them with commas, or they may be read with different READ statements. Just be sure the data is in proper order to match the READ variables. 5) The DATA statement supplies data for the READ statements. Discrete items of data must be separated with commas 6) The LET statement may be used to a expression to any variable. 7) The INPUT statement allows the operator to enter data from the key- board in response to a question mark. ign any value or any algebraic12 Basic BASIC 8) The GOT statement is used to alter the progress of the computer during the execution of a program. 9) The END statement may or may not be required. If required, it must carry the highest line number in the program. 10) The system commands to date are RUN and SCR or CLE. System com- mands must not be preceded by line numbers. PROBLEMS FOR CHAP. 1° 1) Define the following items: BASIC, PRINT, END, READ-DATA, LET, RUN, GOT, statement, system command, program, remote terminal, comma delimiter, semicolon delimiter, scientific notation, imtialize, and print zone, 2) What is the greatest number of variables permissible in a single BASIC pro- gram thus far? 3) Which of the following are valid BASIC variables? A, XI, 1B, XA, Y12. 4) The statement was made in Chap. 1 that you cannot have the computer print quotes by putting quotes inside quotes. Why not? 5) Write a program to add 2081, 682, 1161, and 72.03, 6) Write a program to add 1E6 and 1E — 3. Comment on the result. 7) Have the computer multiply 2E3 by IE — 1 8) Have the computer print a decimal value fo 9) Modify the purchase program on p. 9 to total the number of items 10) Write a program that will print the sum of the first 10 counting numbers. Put the numbers in as data. 11) Write a program that will print the product of the first 10 counting numbers J 12) Write a program that will multiply two binomials. In other words, for (Ax + BY(Cx + D), you will put in data in groups of four numbers (A, B, C, D), and you want the computer to write out the three numbers that are cocflici product. ¥ 13) Have the computer print products of fractions by putting the numerators and denominators in as data and printing the numerator and denominator of the product as two numbers. ¥ 14) Do the same for adding fractions as in problem 13). 15) Have the computer print all possible atrangements of three digits using each once. Assign the digits in a DATA line and use semicolon spacing. 16) Write programs to print decimal values for the following: @ aes 1/3—1/4 (b) 2/3 + 3/4 3/6 273 « 12 +.3/T7 ) (ae (da) * Check marks (/) in front of problem numbers indicate the more dif it problems:CHAPTER 2 Writing a Program 2-1 PLANNING In Chap. 1 we looked at some programs and tried to analyze them, but we did not really go into the development of the programs themselves. Pro- grams do not just happen, they do not appear whole. They are planned and developed with some considerable care. There are two important tools that we will be using to help us write programs. One is a new BASIC statement type, the REM statement. The other is fowcharting. 2-2 REM XXX REM (REMark), where XXX is a line number in a BASIC program, notifies the computer that what follows is to be ignored during the RUN of the program. This means that you may write any message you like following REM. None of what you type has any effect on the execution of the pro- gram, but you may comment or remark upon the function of a particular line or a group of lines or the entire program. REM Permits the programmer to remark or comment in the body of his program. EXAMPLE 118 REM THE NEXT THREE LINES PRINT THE FIRST SUM. 9 REM THIS PROGRAM ADDS PAIRS OF NUMBERS. 2.3. FLOWCHARTING Flowcharting, or block diagramming as it is sometimes called, is useful in planning programs in any computer language or for that matter in planning the solving of any problem, whether or not you are using a computer. We 1314 Basic BASIC intsoduce flowcharting by an example. Suppose we want to add the counting numbers from 1 to 50 for counting and the other to keep track of the sum. We want to start the counting variable at 1 and the summing variable at 0. Then for every value of the counting variable we want to add the counting variable to the old value of the summing variable to get a new value of the summing variable. Figure 2-1 represents a rough flowchart for such a process. Figure 2-1 attempts to break the problem into its most fundamental steps. By using a diagram of this kind, we are able to show the direction we must follow to do the problem. We would like to have each step smal! enough for the computer to handle with one BASIC statement. However, this will not always be practical. In our example, though, it will be both practical and reasonable to have each step be a BASIC statement. With that in mind we redraw the diagram using statements more nearly like those in BASIC lan- guage. At the same time we will introduce the more standard practice of having different shapes for boxes that indicate different kinds of functions. ‘The shapes used for this example are listed in Fig. 2-2 and the new flow- chart is Fig. 2-3(A). ‘This time we are very close to being able to write the program directly from the flowchart. Of the statements in Fig. 2-3(A), the only one for which we do not yet have a corresponding BASIC language statement is decision- making. BASIC has a statement type that allows us to alter the path of the computer through a program depending on whether an algebraic sentence is true or false. Start counting variable Catt = Start summing variable Sato ‘Add summing variable and counting variable k Paaaeecerereenaa ace) Have we done no Add 1 to all 50? counting variable Le Printsum Fig. 2-1. Diagram for adding counting numbers from 1 to 50.Writing a Program 15 ae Used for beginning and ending of programs. Indicates that a computation isto be performed. Operation Shows that a question is being asked anda decision is being made. Indicates that results are PRINT tobe printed and will also READ be used to indicate the READ statement. Small circle shows that we are going to transfer to another statement in the program. N will match another small circle in the same chart. Fig. 2-2. First five shapes Arrowheads will indicate direction in all cases. used for flowcharting 2-4 IF-THEN XXX IF Z = Q THEN 230 means that if Z does equal Q, then the next line to be executed is line number 230. If Z does not equal Q, then the com- puter is directed to simply execute the line with the next number after XXX. The equals sign appears in the IF~THEN statement. Used here the equals sign is clearly not the assignment operator we defined earlier. In the IF-THEN statement the equals sign specifies a required relation (mathematical equality) to exist between two numbers. Therefore, the equals sign is now designated as a relational operator. With the IF-THEN statement added to our growing list of BASIC state- ments, we should be able to write the program directly from the Sowchart. See Fig. 2-3(B). If we simply copy the program in Fig. 2-3(B) and run it, it looks like the program below. 10 20 30 40 50 LET cece 60 GaT2 30 70 PRINT S 30 £ND Ruy 127516 Basic BASIC leTC=1 10 ETC =1 LETS=0 20 LETS=0 30 LETS=S+C 40 IF C = 50 THEN 70 LETC =C+1 50 LETC=C+1 60 GATS 30 70 PRINTS 80 END “A (B) Fig. 2-3. (A) Flowchart for adding counting numbers 1 to 50. (B) Pro- gram written from flowchart. BASIC allows us to give programs names. This requires a system com- mand and will vary with the system tied in with your terminal. Some systems use the command NAME-, while others use NAME without the hyphen. After the system command, you type the name to be used. Being able to name pro- grams will be helpful to us here as we will be able to refer to programs by name from now on. We will give the last program a name, insert some REM statements to explain the function of certain lines, and add a label to make the printed result clearer. It is always recommended that you write programs with the thought that someone else will be reading them and you may not be there to do the explaining. You may even find that you cannot understand your ownWriting a Program 17 sum 3 REM THE EXECUTIVE PRAGRAM ALLOWS US TO GIVE OUR PROGRAM A NAME, 9 REM THE RESTRICTIONS ON NAMES VARY FRIM SYSTEM To SYSTEM B OREM teeee 9 REM WE ARE ADDING INTEGERS ANE THROUGH SO IN THIS PROGRAM 10 Let 20 Ler 30 LET S=s*c 38 REM HAVE WE ADDED SO (THE LAST NUMBER T@ BE ADDED) YET? 40 IF C=SO THEN 70 48 EM WE HAVEN'T ADDED 50 YET ¢#* S9 WE ADD ONE SO LET C=cel 60 Gata 30 68 REM WHEN C=50 WE PRINT S (THE SUM) IN LINE 70 70 PRINT S BO END RUN SuMI 1275 Done 70 PRINT “THE SUM QF THE INTEGERS FROM ONE To FIFTY 18'S RUN Sum THE SUM OF THE INTEGERS FROM QNE T@ FIFTY IS 1275 Done programs several weeks after you write them, uuless they have good REM statements. See SUM1. Let us do another program, similar to SUMI1, where we will add all the odd integers from 5 through 1191. This time instead of starting the counting variable at 1, we will have to start it at 5. Since we are only interested in odd numbers, we will have to add 2 instead of 1 each time we add the new number to the summing variable. We will test N (the number added) each time through the summing step to decide whether we have reached the desired number, in this case 1191. First we draw the flowchart in Fig, 2-4. This flowchart is very much like the one in Fig. 2-3(A). See SUM2. Again, of 10 LET N=S 20 LET S=0 28 REM LINE 30 ADDS THE NEW NUMBER T@ THE SUMMING VARIARLF. 30 LET S=S+n 40 IF N=1191 THEN 70 48 REM ADD 2 IN LINE SO FOR @DD NUMBERS 50 LET N=Nee 60 GoTo 30 70 PRINT “SUM OF @0D NUMBERS FROM 5 TO 1191 1S"7S 80 END RUN ‘SUM2 SUM OF ODD NUMBERS FROM S TO 1191 1S 355212- pone18 Basic BASIC ~ LETN=5. LETS =0 = LETS=S+N HC) PRINT S no LET N=N42 END Fig. 2-4. Flowchart for adding odd integers from 5 to 1191 course, we use the IF~THEN statement, because we have to decide each time we add 2 whether or not we have reached 1191. The IF-THEN instruction is called a conditional transfer. Unless instructed otherwise, the computer executes the statements of the program in numerical order. The IF-THEN statement allows us to tell the computer to alter that order of execution on the condition that an algebraic sentence is true. If the algebraic sentence is false, then the computer passes to the next line in sequence, On the other hand, the G@TP statement is an unconditional transfer. IF-THEN XXX IF YYYYYY THEN 22Z. If YYYYYY is true, transfer to line ZZZ. If YYYYYY is false, pass to the next line after XXX.Writing a Program 19 You may have more than one conditional transfer in the same place in a program. This would be necessary if you wanted to test for several conditions. Suppose in SUM2 you want to see the sum several times during the RUN. Let us look at the sum for the first two, for N = 731, and the last two. First we should draw a new flowchart. It is clear from the flowchart that we have to decide each time we print the sum whether or not we have finished or have to add 2 and take the sum again. See Fig. 2-5 and SUMS. Note that we test N for three relations: 1) “less than 9,” 2) “equals 731,” and 3) “greater than 1188.” We have already seen the equals sign used as a relational operator. The two new relational operators “less than” (<) and “greater than” (>) are introduced here. LETS=0 + LETS=S+N HG) tervan+24{2) és) Fig, 2-5. Flowchart for changing program SUM2 so that the sum is printed several times during the program20 Basic BASIC sum3 5 PRINT "SUM aF aD0" 6 PRINT “NUMBERS FRO 7 PRINT “FIVE To", "I 10 LET 20 LET 28 REM LINE 30 ADDS THE NEW NUMBER TO THE SUMMING VARIABLE. 30 LET S=S#Nn 40 IF N<9 THEN 90 50 IF N=731 THEN 90 60 IF N>1188 THEN 90 68 REM ADD 2 IN LINE 70 FOR ODD NUMBERS Bu Ube Ss 90 PRINT Nos. 100 IF Ne1191 THEN 70 110 END RUN sum3 SUM OF ODD NUMBERS FROM FIVE 13 Is s 5 7 12 731 133952. 1189 354021. 119th 355212. Dane Other relational operators are “less than or equal to” (< =), “greater than or equal to” (>=), and “not equal to” (<>). Some time-sharing systems require a set of alphabetic relational operators (such as EQ for =) instead of the symbols listed above. Some facts about flowcharts should be becoming clearer. Arrowheads along connecting lines show the direction the computer is to follow. Rectangles and parallelograms have only one exit arrow, but they may have more than one entrance arrow. Diamonds have two exit arrows. Can diamonds have more than one entrance arrow? We said previously that we did not know how to eliminate some of the print- ing in the SUBT@TAL column. Look at the purchase program on p. 9 again. We had no way of preventing the computer from running out of data. Now we can simply tack on some artificial data at the end of the DATA line, which could not possibly be data in the problem, and use the conditional transfer to test each time data is read to see if the computer has read the artificial data. If the computer has read the artificial data, then we do not want to use it; but we have a signal for the computer that it is time to print the total and terminate the run without reading any more data. Artificial data used in this way is called dummy data. If we are talking about prices and numbers of items, we can use 0 or negative numbers for dummy data. Let us use 0 for the number of items and 0 for the price and name the program TOTAL. See the flowchart Fig. 2-6.Writing a Program 21 LETT END =T+NeP Fig. 2-6. Flowchart for using dummy data in program TOTAL, TOTAL 5 KEM THIS PROGRAM IS A MODIFICATION OF A PROGRAM THAT WE DID BEFORE. 10 PRINT “TOTAL COST =s"s 20 DATA 25 435s Bs2+ 65s 1 1p 25s 149+ 494 35 14594040 21 REM THE DUMMY DATA IN THIS DATA LINE IS tot 25 LET Tso 30 READ NsP 34 IF Ne0 THEN 45 40 LET T=T+#P, 42 Gate 30 4S PRINT T 70 END RUN TOTAL ToTAL COST = 16.34 owe Look at lines 10 and 45 and then look at the printed result. These two PRINT instructions are executed on the same printed line. This is accomplished. by using the semicolon at the end of the PRINT instruction in line 10. The semicolon there tells the computer to wait after printing the $ until it executes the next PRINT instruction in the program and to print that on the same line right after the $. Again there is a single space for the plus sign which is not printed. If the number were negative, there would be a minus sign there.22 Basic BASIC SUMMARY OF CHAP. 2 1) We are now able to remark about a program right in the program itself by using REM. You should use REM statements so that whoever reads your program can determine what they are intended to do. It will also help you to remember your own programs weeks or months later when you your- self have forgotten what they will do. 2) Flowcharting will prove a very valuable process that we will use to develop programs to solve problems. 3) The ability to have the computer m e decisions, using IF ions greatly increases the complexity act according ta the ontcome of the de of the problems we may solve by computer 4) We now distinguish between conditional and unconditional transfer statements. 5) Dummy data may be used to gain a greater control over what we can ask the computer to do after it has read the last item of data. PROBLEMS FOR CHAP. 2 Unless instructed otherwise, draw a flowchart for every problem that calls for a computer program to be written. Also use REM liberally, 1) Write a short description of each of the following terms: flowchart, dummy data, IF-THEN, REM, conditional transfer, unconditional transfer. 2) In the program TOTAL, why did we use two O's for dummy data? Why couldn't we have used just one 0 since line 34 only tests to see if N — 0? 3) Bill took four tests. His marks were 100, 86, 71, and 92. What was his average score? 4) Modify the program SUM2 to count the number of odd numbers from 5 to 1191 by first modifying the flowchart. 5) Three pairs of numbers follow in which the first number is the base and the second number is the altitude of a triangle: 10, 21; 12.5, 8; 289, 114. Write a program to print in good form the base, the altitude, and the area for the three triangles. 6) Find the number of and the sum of all positive integers greater than 1000 and less than 2213 divisible by 11 7) Aman is paid 1g the first day on the job, 2¢ the second day, 4¢ the third day, and so on, doubling each day on the job for 30 days. You are to calculate his wages ‘on the 30th day and his total for the 30 days. 8) Write a program to print the integers from 1 to 25 paired with their reciprocals. 9) Write a program to print the integers from 75 to 100 paired with their reciprocals 10) Rewrite the program TOTAL to count the number of different items in the order and print the total. 11) A customer put in an order for four books which retail at $5.95 and carry a 25% discount, three records at $3.98 with a 15% discount, and one record player for $39.95 on which there is no discount. In addition, thae is a 2% discount allowed on the total order for prompt payment. Write a program to compute the amount of the order. 12) Write a program to balance a checkbook that inchides the following transac: tions: Sept. 2, deposit $9.00; Sept. 5, write a check for $3.24; Sept. 10, write aWriting a Program 23 check for $1.98; and Sept. 17, write a check for $3.85. Assume that the balance was $14.23 on Sept. 1. Have the computer print the balance after each transaction. 13) Write a program to find the amount of $100.00 deposited for one year in a savings account at 4% per year compounded four times yearly. J 14) In the song “The 12 Days of Christmas,” gifts are bestowed upon the singer in the following pattern: the first day she received a partridge in a pear tree; the second day two turtle doves and a partridge in a pear tree; the third day three french hens, two turtle doves, and a partridge in a pear tree. This continues for 12 days. On the 12th day she received 12 + H+.» + 2+ 1 gifts, How many gifts were there all together? ¥ 15) For problem 14) have the computer print the number of gifts on each of the 12 days and the total up to that day. V 16) George had test scores of 83, 91, 97, 100, and 89. Write a program to com- pute his average, Have the computer count how many tests George took, ¥ 17) Write a program that will take more than one set of test scores, find the average for cach set, and print the result before going back to read the next set of scores.CHAPTER 3 Loops and Lists 3-1 INTRODUCTION TO MACHINE-MADE LOOPS A computer loop may be defined as a self-repeating sequence of program statements. This being true, loops are not new to us. Most of the programs we wrote in Chap. 2 used a loop. In those programs we initialized a variable with the idea that we would be adding a fixed number repeatedly and doing something each time we added the fixed number. Let us draw a flowchart and write a program to simply print the integers 1 through 6. See LOOP and Fig. 3-1. LETX = PRINT X. LETX=X 44 24 20 30 40 50 99 LETX=1 PRINT X; IF X = 6 THEN 99 LETX=X+1 GOT 20 END 3-1. Flowchart for LOGP1 for printing six integers.Loops and Lists 25 Laopt 10 LET x=I 20 PRINT Xs 30 IF X=6 THEN 99 40 LET X=K+1 so GeTe 20 99 END RUN Laat 1 2 3 4 5 6 ONE In LO@P1 we first print the number and then test to see if we have printed the last number in the sequence. If we have, then we stop. If we have not printed the last number, then we add 1 and print the new number. The results we obtain are entirely equivalent to the results we would get when we test to see if the number we are about to print is too great before we print it. If it is not too great, then we print it. If it is too great, then we stop. Consider the flowchart of Fig. 3-2 and LO@P2. LeT xX PRINT X UETX=X41 Fig. 3-2. Flowchart for LO@P2 for testing X before it is printed Loope 10 LET x=1 20 IF X>6 THEN 99 30 PRINT x3 40 LET X=xe1 50 GaTe 20 99 END RUN Leora 1 2 3 a 8 6 DONE26 Basic BASIC FQOR-NEXT Loops are used so routinely in programming that BASIC provides a machine-made loop. Program L@@P3 is the machine equivalent of our pro gram LGOP2. Notice that the two statements 10 FOR X = 1 TY 6 and 50 NEXT X in L@GP3 do the work of the four statements 10, 20, 40, and 50 in LOBP2. FOR X = 1 T@ 6 indicates doing everything between this statement and NEXT X, beginning with X = 1 and ending with X = 6. NEXT X tells the computer to add 1 to the ol begi again, When X = 6, L@@P3 prints 6. After it ‘prints 6, line 50 says NEXT x. This means, add 1 and go to the beginning of the loop. At this point in the RUN the value of X is 7, not 6 as you might think. Since 7 is greater than 6, the F@R-NEXT combination instructs the computer to execute the next instruction after NEXT X, which in program LO@P3 is END. ne of X and go to th of the loop Laora 10 FOR X=1 Ta 6 30 PRINT xs 50 NEXT x 99 END Lara 1 2 3 4 8 ‘ DONE A machine loop does not have to begin with 1. It may begin wherever you require. The variable that is incremented in the machine loop may be treated in the same way as other variables in the program. However, you are warned against changing the value of that variable. LG@P3+, which is a modification of LO@P3, prints the values of X,2 ° X, X — 10, X °° 3, and X/(—3). Loars+ 3 PRINT "x BAK X10 X43 Ks E-3)" 10 FOR x=1 13 6 30 PRINT Xs 24K3K-103K132K7 0-39 50 NEXT x 99 END RUN Leara+ x 2eK K-10 X13 K/E=3) 1 2 +9 1.333333 2 4-8 8 ++ 666667 3 6 -7 27-1 a a -6 64 =1.33333 5 100 +5 125 1466667 6 120 =a 216-2 DONE Notice lines 80, 100, 150, 220, 240, and 310 in program LUPDEM. ‘They are all of the form XXX PRINT. This statement is sometimes called the blank PRINT. It has the effect of directing the computer to tum up a new