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National Institute of Justice J US T I C E P

National Institute of Justice

R e s e a r c h i n B r i e f
Jeremy Travis, Director November 1996

Issues and Findings Methamphetamine Use Among Adult

Discussed in this Brief: Trends in
methamphetamine use, based on Arrestees: Findings From the Drug Use
data from the Drug Use Forecast-
ing (DUF) program of the National
Institute of Justice (NIJ). In the DUF
Forecasting (DUF) Program
program, arrestees in 23 major cit-
by Thomas E. Feucht, Ph.D., and Gabrielle M. Kyle
ies across the country are tested on
a regular basis for evidence of re-
cent use of several drugs, including The apparent increase in the production, Focus of analysis: the eight high-
methamphetamine. distribution, and use of methamphetamine rate sites
Key Issues: DUF data have dem- is a matter of growing concern. A powerful
The 1995 DUF data were analyzed to de-
onstrated that more than half of all central nervous system (CNS) stimulant,
termine the extent of methamphetamine
adults arrested and booked in the the drug is relatively easy to manufacture,
use among adult male and female
23 sites for serious crimes tested and the required precursor drugs1 (such as
arrestees. (See “Testing for Methamphet-
positive for use of drugs. In the ephedrine or pseudoephedrine), widely
past few years, methamphetamine
amine Use” for a discussion of how evi-
available in Mexico, are believed to be
appears to have become a signifi- dence of methamphetamine use is detected
smuggled into the United States in sub-
cant presence in many communi- in urine specimens collected in the DUF
stantial quantities. The process of produc-
ties across the country, though its program.) Overall, approximately 6 percent
ing methamphetamine results in a host of
prevalence seems highest in the of all adult arrestees from the 23 DUF sites
toxic and corrosive substances. For this
West and Southwest. DUF data tested positive for methamphetamine, 41
were obtained from EMIT™ and
reason, seizing clandestine methamphet-
percent for cocaine, 28 percent for mari-
gas chromatography urinalysis amine laboratories poses grave risks to law
juana, 8 percent for opiates, and about 2
techniques and examined for enforcement personnel.
percent for PCP.
trends in methamphetamine use
among adult arrestees. Historically, methamphetamine production
While overall the prevalence of metham-
and distribution have been associated with
Key Findings: Highest rates of
phetamine use is modest, there is consid-
motorcycle gangs. Recently, Mexican drug
methamphetamine use were found erable variation from site to site. Eight sites
gangs have increased their share of the
among arrestees in far Western and (San Diego, Phoenix, San Jose, Portland,
U.S. wholesale methamphetamine market.
Southwestern cities, though the Omaha, Los Angeles, Denver, and Dallas)
This is consistent with most reports that
data suggest some expansion into reported significant rates of methamphet-
place the bulk of increased methamphet-
the Midwest. White arrestees are amine use among arrestees in 1995. (See
much more likely than black or His-
amine use in the Southwest. Concern con-
exhibit 1.) Their geographic distribution is
panic arrestees to test positive for tinues to grow, however, that the increased
shown in exhibit 2. Other sites reported
methamphetamine; female arrestees number of seizures of clandestine opera-
rates among arrestees at or near zero.
are more likely than male arrestees tions and methamphetamine-related fatali-
to test positive. ties in other parts of the country might
signal an impending methamphetamine
Target Audience: Drug enforce-
pandemic.
ment and drug treatment practitio-
ners; individuals responsible for
coordinating drug policy at the lo-
cal and national level.
 R e s e a r c h i n B r i e f

Details of the analysis

● Methamphetamine rates are
Testing for Methamphetamine Use highest in western and south-

A lthough the term “amphet-

amine” designates the specific sub-
counter medications—particularly some
antihistamines—because of similarities
in their chemical structures. Conse-
western DUF sites.

Methamphetamine appears prominently

in drug use patterns at the eight sites. Its
stance phenylisopropylamine, it
quently, all DUF specimens identified by use rivals or surpasses that of cocaine,
commonly refers to a class of related
EMIT™ as presumptive positive for am- marijuana, and opiates at some of these
central nervous system (CNS) stimu-
phetamines are further analyzed by gas
lants, including dextroamphetamine sites, particularly San Diego, Phoenix,
chromatography. This confirmatory pro-
and methamphetamine. While they and San Jose. (See exhibit 3.)
cedure identifies with a high degree of
were once frequently prescribed as a
accuracy the specific CNS stimulant ● Rates are typically higher among
general stimulant and appetite sup-
used. The data reported here are based
pressant, amphetamines were female arrestees.
on gas chromatography results.
placed among Schedule II drugs in
1971. (Schedule II drugs are those Among arrestees age 21 to 35—the age
High rates of methamphetamine use (as
that have some medical uses but groups with the highest use rates—females
opposed to use of other amphetamines)
also present significant potential for are more likely than males to test positive
among arrestees are no doubt due in
abuse.) for methamphetamine. The peak age of use
part to the relative ease with which this
particular amphetamine can be illegally among adult male arrestees is 26 to 30;
EMIT™, an immunoassay screening
test, cannot reliably distinguish am- manufactured. among adult female arrestees, it is 21 to
phetamines from several over-the- 25. (See exhibit 4 for rates of methamphet-
amine use by age and gender.)

Analysis by gender and charge at arrest

shows higher rates of methamphetamine
Exhibit 1: Methamphetamine Use in DUF Sites, 1995 use among female arrestees in each of-
fense category. (See exhibit 5.) Among
DUF Cities
females arrested for violent offenses, 11
MalesMiami 0 percent tested positive for methamphet-
Cleveland 0 amine compared to 10 percent among
New Orleans 0
Chicago 0
male arrestees. Similarly, among people
Washington, D.C. 0.1 arrested for drug offenses or “other” of-
Ft. Lauderdale 0.1 fenses (a category that includes all prop-
Detroit 0.1
Manhattan 0.1
erty offenses), females were more likely
Birmingham 0.1 than males to test positive for metham-
Houston 0.4 phetamine. (The number of male prosti-
St. Louis 0.5
Indianapolis 0.5 tution arrestees is too small to make
Atlanta 0.5 statistical comparisons.)
Philadelphia 0.6
San Antonio 1.5 ● Use among white arrestees
Dallas 2.7
Denver 3.8 far exceeds that among black
Los Angeles 7.5 or Hispanic arrestees.
Omaha 8.1
San Jose 18.5 In the eight sites with the highest meth-
Portland 18.7
Phoenix 21.9 amphetamine rates, white arrestees were
San Diego 37.1 much more likely than others to test
positive for methamphetamine use: 26
0 10 20 30 40
percent of white male arrestees and 28
Percent Positive percent of white female arrestees tested

2
 R e s e a r c h i n B r i e f

Exhibit 2: DUF Sites Where Methamphetamine Use Was Highest in 1995

In 1995 eight sites had significant levels of methamphetamine

positives

Portland, OR
18.7%

San Jose, CA Omaha, NE

18.5% 8.1%

Denver, CO
3.8%

Los Angeles, CA
7.5%

San Diego, CA
37.1% Phoenix, AZ
21.9%

Dallas, TX
2.7%

Note: Data on exhibits 2 through 8 are for these eight sites only.

positive for the drug, compared to 3 positive for methamphetamine. (See Discussion
percent among both black male and exhibit 7.) Comparison of urinalysis
The DUF data offer several key in-
black female arrestees. Eleven percent results for the two drugs shows only a
sights into methamphetamine use, at
of Hispanic male arrestees and 15 per- small proportion of arrestees (2 per-
least as it is manifested among people
cent of Hispanic female arrestees cent) test positive for both.
entering criminal justice supervision
tested positive. (See exhibit 6.)
● Five-year trend data indicate (i.e., arrestees). First, in this popula-
● Few arrestees test positive increasing use of methamphet- tion, methamphetamine use remains
for both methamphetamine amine. largely a regional phenomenon, though
and cocaine. the most recent data suggest that sites
Trend data from 1991 through 1995 in like Denver, Omaha, and St. Louis
DUF data have consistently demon- the eight cities show an overall in- could experience significant increases
strated high rates of cocaine use by crease in methamphetamine use in use if current trends continue.
arrestees. (Cocaine, another CNS among arrestees. (See exhibit 8.)
stimulant, is commonly used in a While San Diego and Phoenix con- Some observers caution that since
smokable form known as crack co- tinue to report the highest rates, these DUF data do not tap into the wide
caine but can also be injected or taken two cities showed a slight moderation range of potential users outside the
intranasally. Urinalysis cannot distin- from 1994 to 1995. At the same time, criminal justice system, the apparent
guish among these routes of adminis- Omaha reported a sharp increase in regional pattern of methamphetamine
tration, however.) At the eight sites, 33 the percentage of arrestees who tested use may not accurately reflect use of
percent of adult arrestees tested posi- positive for methamphetamine (from 3 this drug in the general population.
tive for cocaine, and 15 percent tested percent in 1994 to 8 percent in 1995). The degree to which these data can be

3
 R e s e a r c h i n B r i e f

generalized to other, noncriminal jus-

Exhibit 3: Drug Positives Among Arrestees at DUF Sites, 1995
tice populations is limited. Neverthe-
less, it is not clear why arrestees in
Percent Positive western sites should evidence very
high rates compared to those in east-
50
ern sites if there were no significant
regional trend in distribution and use
40 of the drug. Clearly, DUF data suggest
a leading edge of methamphetamine
30
use in western and southwestern cities;
data recently received from Denver
and Omaha indicate that use may be
20 expanding to the Midwest.

Second, methamphetamine use among

10
arrestees is largely confined to white
(and to a lesser degree, Hispanic)
0 arrestees. This pattern contrasts
Sa Ph Sa Po O Lo D D sharply with that of cocaine, in which
n oe n rt m s en al
D Jo la ah A ve la
ie ni se nd a ng r s rates among black arrestees are often
go x el
es twice those among white arrestees.

Methamphetamine Cocaine Marijuana Opiates Third, female arrestees test positive for
methamphetamine at rates higher than
those for male arrestees. It is unclear
whether this finding is a function of
law enforcement practices that target
males and females differently, slower
Exhibit 4: Methamphetamine Use by Age and Gender, 1995 metabolization of the drug by women
(and thus an increased likelihood of
testing positive hours after arriving at
Percent Positive the lockup), differential effects of dos-
age by virtue of body size, or simply
25 more widespread use by women.
21.3
20.4 Ways to approach the problem
20 19.1
18.3
17.3 Some law enforcement and drug treat-
15.4 15.1 ment experts assert that methamphet-
15 13.9
12.9
12.0
12.9
12.5
amine use is not limited to urban drug
11.1 users and is widely available in many
10 8.5 8.8 smaller, rural communities. This belief
7.5
is consistent with intelligence reports
5
4.8 that frequently have found remote
1.8
rural locations to be sites for the
manufacture and distribution of meth-
0
16–20 21–25 26–30 31–35 36–40 41–45 46–50 51–55 56–60
amphetamine. Since the DUF program
is in central-city areas only, the data
Males Females cannot be used to test these assertions.
NIJ is exploring the possibility of

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 R e s e a r c h i n B r i e f

expanding DUF coverage to arrestees

Exhibit 5: Methamphetamine Use by Top Charge Classification, 1995
in rural and suburban communities.
Unquestionably, this would provide
40 Percent Positive more accurate empirical evidence of
the use of methamphetamine and other
35 drugs in communities throughout the
30 28.1 country.
25
21.6
A heads-up for law enforcement.
20
Given the sharp rise in methamphet-
15.9 amine rates at the Omaha DUF site, the
15 12.9 potential for increased use throughout
11.2
9.9 the Midwest (and, ultimately, other ar-
10
eas of the country) cannot be ignored.
5 4.1
Law enforcement agencies should re-
0 main alert to the potential for increased
Violent Offenses Drug Offenses Prostitution * Other Offenses ** availability and use of methamphet-
Males Females
amine, and treatment providers should
have at hand strategies that anticipate a
* Number of male prostitutes too small to make statistical comparisons. significant increase in methamphet-
** All property crimes are included in the "Other" category. amine referrals, especially from the
criminal justice system. (See “Some
Street Names for Methamphetamine.”)

Pilot programs. A useful approach to

Exhibit 6: Methamphetamine Use by Race, 1995 developing such a strategy might be to
create a demonstration program for
methamphetamine-involved offenders
Percent Positive in one or more jurisdictions that have
significant numbers of methamphet-
35 amine users. NIJ has begun to explore
the feasibility of a demonstration
30 27.9
25.8 project that would test drug treatment
25 protocols designed specifically for
people in the criminal justice system
20 who are involved with methamphet-
14.8 amine. Drawing on the expertise of
15
11 10.8 10.5 drug treatment professionals, NIJ hopes
10 to facilitate the advancement of treatment
approaches that can meet the challenge
5 3.1 3.1 posed by methamphetamine and that
0 could be integrated into the criminal
Black White Hispanic Other justice system as it confronts the continu-
ing challenges of drugs and crime.
Males Females

5
 R e s e a r c h i n B r i e f

Exhibit 7: Percentage of Arrestees Testing Positive for Cocaine/Crack and/or

Methamphetamine, 1995

S ome Street Names for

Methamphetamine2
● Crank*
● Crypto
2.45% positive for both drugs
● Crystal*
● Crystal meth
cocaine/crack
users 32.5% ● Meth
● Quill
● Speed*
● Tweek (a methamphetamine-like
substance)
● White cross*
● Yellow bam
methamphetamine
users 14.7%
Some smokable forms

● Cristy
● Hanyak
● Ice
● L.A. glass
● Quartz
* Amphetamine or methamphetamine
Exhibit 8: Methamphetamine Trends, 1991–1995

% 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995

Males
40

30

20

10

Portland San Diego Phoenix Los Angeles

Dallas Omaha San Jose Denver
General trend in all 8 sites

6
 R e s e a r c h i n B r i e f

Recent NIJ Publications on

About NIJ’s Drug Use Forecasting (DUF) Program Drug Abuse and Crime
The DUF program is a measure- DUF data play a key role in Listed below are some recent NIJ pub-
ment system established in 1987 helping policymakers, law en- lications related to issues of illicit drug
by NIJ to test booked arrestees forcement professionals, and citi- use. These publications are free, ex-
for illicit drug use. On a quar- zens better understand the cept as indicated, and can be obtained
terly basis, through anonymous, Nation’s drug problem. The find- from the National Criminal Justice
voluntary interviews and urinaly- ings are published in the DUF Reference Service (NCJRS): telephone
sis, data are collected from adult annual report. The most recent 800–851–3420, e-mail
and juvenile booked arrestees in annual report is 1995 Drug Use askncjrs@ncjrs.org, or write NCJRS,
central lockups in 23 cities Forecasting: Annual Report on Box 6000, Rockville, MD 20849–
across the country. Urinalysis Adult and Juvenile Arrestees, 6000.
can reveal evidence of recent use Research Report, U.S. Depart-
These documents also can be down-
of any of 10 illicit substances, in- ment of Justice, National Insti-
loaded through the NCJRS Bulletin
cluding opiates, cocaine, meth- tute of Justice, June 1996. (NCJ
Board System or at the NCJRS Anony-
amphetamine, and marijuana. 161721).
mous FTP site in ASCII or graphic for-
Response rates are consistently
The data collected in the DUF mats. They can be viewed online at the
high: more than 90 percent of
program are archived at the In- Justice Information Center World
arrestees agree to the interview,
teruniversity Consortium for Po- Wide Web site. Call NCJRS for more
and over 80 percent of these
litical and Social Research, information.
agree to provide a urine speci-
men. The resultant data are ana- University of Michigan, and are
Please do note that when free printed
lyzed to furnish estimates of available for use by qualified re-
publications are out of stock, they are
recent drug use in this high-risk searchers. Information may be
available as photocopies or through in-
subgroup. obtained from the ICPSR by call-
terlibrary loan.
ing 800–999–0690 or 313–763–
5011. 1995 Drug Use Forecasting: Annual
Report on Adult and Juvenile Arrestees,
NIJ Research Report, 1996, NCJ
Notes Thomas E. Feucht, Ph.D., is Direc- 161721.
1. A precursor drug is one that is nec- tor of the NIJ Drug Use Forecasting
essary in the manufacture of another. program. Gabrielle M. Kyle is a Blumstein, Alfred, Ph.D., Youth Vio-
Precursor drugs are usually legal but social science analyst at NIJ. Data lence, Guns, and Illicit Drug Markets,
controlled substances. analysis was conducted as part of VHS videotape, 1995, NCJ 152235,
NIJ’s Intramural Research Program. U.S. $19, Canada and other foreign
2. For a more complete list of street countries $24. Also a brief summary is
names for methamphetamine and other Points of view in this document do not necessarily available at no cost. Ask for
drugs, see Street Terms: Drugs and the represent the official position or policies of the U.S. FS000129.
Drug Trade, Drugs & Crime Data, Of- Department of Justice.

fice of National Drug Control Policy, Case Management with Drug-Involved

Drugs & Crime Clearinghouse, Febru- The National Institute of Justice is a Arrestees, NIJ Research Preview, 1996,
ary 1995. (NCJ 151622). Copies can component of the Office of Justice FS000098.
Programs, which also includes the Bureau
be obtained from the Clearinghouse by of Justice Assistance, Bureau of Justice Chaiken, Marcia R., The Rise of Crack
calling 800–666–3332. Statistics, Office of Juvenile Justice and and Ice: Experiences in Three Locales,
Delinquency Prevention, and the Office for
NIJ Research in Brief, 1993, NCJ
Victims of Crime.
139559.

NCJ 161842

7
 R e s e a r c h i n B r i e f

Finn, Peter, The Manhattan District Ireland, Timothy, and Cathy Spatz Correction Notice
Attorney’s Narcotics Eviction Program, Widom, Childhood Victimization and In the 1995 Drug Use Forecasting
NIJ Program Focus, 1995, NCJ Risk for Alcohol and Drug Arrests, NIJ
Annual Report on Adult and
153146. Research Preview, 1995, FS000108. Juvenile Arrestees, published by
Harrell, Adele, William Adams, and Lipton, Douglas L., The Effectiveness the National Institute of Justice in
Caterina Gouvis, Impact of Systemwide of Treatment for Drug Abusers under June 1996, the data on the front and
Drug Testing in Multnomah County, Criminal Justice Supervision, NIJ Re- back covers represent combined
NIJ Update, 1995, FS000083. search Report, 1995, NCJ 157642. adult and juvenile arrestees’ meth-
amphetamine use. Accordingly, the
Inciardi, James A., Ph.D., A Correc- Tunis, Sandra, et al., Evaluation of same data presented in figure 1 of
tions-Based Continuum of Effective Drug Treatment in Local Corrections, the DUF Annual Report (page 12)
Drug Abuse Treatment, VHS video- Research Report, 1996, NCJ 159313. also represent combined adult and
tape, 1995, NCJ 152692, U.S. $19, juvenile arrestee use. The data in
Canada and other foreign countries figures 2 and 3 (page 13), also illus-
$24. Also a brief summary is available trating arrestee methamphetamine
at no cost. Ask for FS000145. use, reflect adults only.

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