Ross Broiler Manual 09

13335 Aviagen Broiler Cover-Dividers 15/1/09 11:59 Page 1
BROILER Management
Manual
2009
13335 Aviagen Broiler Text Single pages 15/1/09 11:48 Page 3
The Manual
The purpose of this Manual is to help Aviagen’s customers to achieve
optimum performance from their birds. It is not intended to provide
definitive information on every aspect of management. The Manual draws
attention to important issues, which, if overlooked or inadequately
addressed, may depress flock performance. The management techniques
contained in this Manual have the objectives of (a) achieving good overall
bird performance, when live and through processing, and (b) maintaining
bird health and welfare.
Aviagen applies a balanced approach to genetic progress in

characteristics of commercial importance, such as growth rate, feed
conversion ratio, liveability and meat yield, while improving bird welfare
traits such as leg health, cardiovascular fitness and robustness. Achieving
the genetic potential created within the birds depends on:
• Management to provide birds with their required environment.

• A dietary regime that offers nutrients in the appropriate profile.
• Effective biosecurity and disease control.
If any one of these elements is sub-optimal, broiler performance will suffer.

The three sectors, environment, nutrition and health, are also
interdependent. Therefore, a shortfall in any one will bring negative
consequences to the others.
In practice, the guidance of a Manual such as this cannot wholly protect

against performance variations which may occur for a wide variety of
reasons. While every attempt has been made to ensure the accuracy and
relevance of the information presented, Aviagen accepts no liability for the
consequences of using this information for the management of chickens.
Information presented in this Manual combines data derived from internal

research trials, published scientific knowledge and the expertise, practical
skills and experience of the Aviagen Technical Transfer and Service teams.
Technical Services
For further information on the management of Ross stock, please contact
your local Technical Service Manager or the Technical Department.
Newbridge Cummings Research Park

Midlothian 5015 Bradford Drive
EH28 8SZ Huntsville, Alabama
Scotland, UK 35805, USA
Tel: + 44 (0) 131 333 1056 Tel: +1 256 890 3800
Fax: + 44 (0) 131 333 3296 Fax: +1 256 890 3919
infoworldwide@aviagen.com info@aviagen.com
www.aviagen.com
3
ROSS BROILER MANAGEMENT MANUAL: Contents
Using this Manual

Finding a Topic
Coloured tabs appear on the right-hand side of the Manual. These allow
readers immediate access to those sections and topics in which they are
particularly interested.
The Contents List gives the title of each section and subsection.
An alphabetical Keyword Index is given at the end of the Manual.
Key Points
Where appropriate, Key Points have been included which emphasise
important aspects of husbandry and management. They are highlighted
in a red box.
Performance Objectives
Supplements to this Manual contain performance objectives that can
be achieved with good management, environmental and health control.
Contents
06 Introduction
Section 1
Chick Management
11 Principles
12 Chick Quality and Broiler Performance
13 Chick Arrival
16 Environmental Control
18 Brooder Management
Section 2
Provision of Feed and Water
27 Principles
27 Supply of Nutrients
29 Feeding Programme
30 Feed Form and Physical Feed Quality
30 Whole-Wheat Feeding
31 Feed and Heat Stress
32 Environment
32 Litter Quality
32 Water Quality
34 Drinking Systems
38 Feeding Systems
Section 3
Health and Biosecurity
43 Principles
43 Biosecurity
45 Vaccination
46 Disease Investigation
50 Disease Recognition
4
ROSS BROILER MANAGEMENT MANUAL: Contents
Section 4
Housing and Environment
55 Principles
57 Housing and Ventilation Systems
60 Minimum Ventilation Systems
61 Transitional Ventilation Systems
62 Tunnel Ventilation Systems
63 Evaporative Cooling Systems
65 Lighting for Broilers
69 Litter Management
70 Stocking Density
Section 5
Monitoring Live Weight and
Uniformity of Performance
77 Principles
77 Predictability of Live Weight
78 Flock Uniformity (CV%)
80 Separate-Sex Growing
Section 6
Pre-Processing Management
85 Principles
85 Preparation for Catching
86 Catching
90 Processing
Section 7
Appendices
95 Appendix 1: Production Records
98 Appendix 2: Conversion Tables
101 Appendix 3: Efficiency Calculations
102 Appendix 4: Feather Sexing
103 Appendix 5: Classification of Months
104 Appendix 6: Problem Solving
106 Appendix 7: Ventilation Rates and Calculations
109 Keyword Index
5
ROSS BROILER MANAGEMENT MANUAL: Introduction
Introduction
Aviagen produces a range of genotypes suitable for different sectors of
the broiler market. All Aviagen products are selected for a balanced range
of characteristics in both parent stock and broiler birds. This approach
ensures that the products are capable of performing to the highest
standards in a wide variety of environments.
The range of Ross genotypes allows users to select the Ross product
which best meets the needs of their particular operation.
Aviagen applies a balanced approach to genetic progress. Characteristics

of commercial importance such as growth rate, feed conversion ratio
(FCR), liveability and meat yield are consistently improved together with
genetic advances made in bird welfare, leg health, cardiovascular fitness
and robustness.
Achievement of the genetic potential inherent in the birds depends upon:
• An environment that is managed to provide birds with all their

requirements for ventilation, air quality, temperature and space.
• The prevention, detection and treatment of ill health.
• The provision of nutrient requirements through the compounding of
appropriate feed ingredients, and the proper management of the
provision of feed and water.
• Attention to bird welfare throughout, especially prior to processing.
All of these are interdependent. If any one element is sub-optimal,

then broiler performance overall will suffer.
Figure 1: Limits to Broiler Growth and Quality
Health
Feed supply Nutrition
Lighting Temperature
Ventilation Water supply
Stocking density Vaccinal status
6
Economic and commercial issues continue to influence the way broilers

are managed:
• An increasing consumer demand for product quality and food safety.

• The need for flocks of broilers which can be grown to ever more
predictable and pre-defined specifications.
• A requirement to minimise variability within flocks and hence variability
of the final product.
• The demand for bird welfare enhancement.
• Full utilisation of the genetic potential available in the bird for FCR,
growth rate and meat yield.
• Minimisation of avoidable diseases such as ascites and leg
weaknesses.
As broiler production systems become more sophisticated, their

management requires ever higher levels of responsiveness and the
availability of ever better information.
The broiler growing phase is only one part of the integrated total meat
production process. This encompasses parent stock farms, hatcheries,
broiler growing units, processors, retailers and consumers.
Figure 2: Producing Quality Broiler Meat - The Total Process
Location Operation Objective
Parent Stock Farm Parent Stock Management
Egg Collection
Egg Storage
Transport
Hatchery Egg Hatchery
Incubation
The Key To produce high quality chicks
Production Chick Processing & Handling To maintain chick quality
Management
Phases Transport
To develop appetite
Broiler Farm Brooding To develop immune function
Disinfection To allow optimum development
Growth Management of skeleton and cardiovascular system
Cleanout Depletion To optimise carcase quality
Transport
Processing Plant Processing
Retail
7
The objective of the broiler manager should be to achieve the required

flock performance in terms of live weight, feed conversion, uniformity and
meat yield. The first two weeks of life in a broiler flock are critical and
require particular attention. Chick handling, brooding and early growth
management are all of major importance. Broiler production is a
sequential process, with ultimate performance being dependent on each
step being completed successfully. For maximum performance to be
attained, each stage must be assessed critically and improvements made
wherever required.
The complexity of broiler production means that livestock managers

should have a clear understanding of the factors affecting the whole
production process as well as of those directly influencing bird
management on the farm. Changes may be necessary in the hatchery, on
the broiler farm, during transport or in the processing plant.
Within broiler production, there are several stages of development of the

bird. The hatchery deals with hatching eggs and chicks. The broiler farm
deals with chicks and growing broilers. The processing plant deals with
broilers and carcases. Between each of these stages is a transition phase.
Transitions must be managed with minimum bird stress. The key
transitions for the broiler producer are:
• Chick emergence.
• Take off, storage and transportation of the chick.
• Development of good appetite in the young chick.
• Change over from supplementary feeding and drinking systems
to the main system.
• Catching and transport of the broiler at depletion.
Aviagen’s Technical Transfer Team has designed this Manual with the
following principles in mind:
• Consideration of bird welfare at all times.

• Understanding of the production chain and transition phases.
• Attention to quality of the end product throughout the entire process.
• The need for observation of changes in the birds and their environment.
• Appropriate management in response to the constantly changing
requirements of the bird.
No two broiler houses are the same, and every flock of broilers will differ
in its requirements. The broiler farm manager should understand the birds’
requirements and, through application of responsive management as
described in this Manual, supply the individual requirements to ensure
optimum performance in every flock.
8
CHICK MANAGEMENT
Section 1:
CHICK
MANAGEMENT
Objective
To promote early development of feeding and drinking

behaviour, which will allow the target body-weight
profile to be achieved with maximum uniformity
and good welfare.
Pages Contents
11 Principles
12 Chick Quality and Broiler Performance
13 Chick Arrival
16 Environmental Control
18 Brooder Management
ROSS BROILER MANAGEMENT MANUAL: Chick Management
Chick Management
Principles
For the best broiler performance, the chicks should be delivered to the
broiler farm as soon as possible and fed immediately. They must be
provided with the correct environment which should be managed to meet
all their requirements.
During the first ten days of life, the chicks’ environment changes from that
of the hatcher to that of the broiler house. Deficiencies in the early
environment will depress both current and final flock performance. Chicks
must adapt to establish healthy feeding and drinking behaviours if they are
to achieve their genetic potential for growth.
A chick experiences a series of critical transitions in the first seven to ten

days of its life, all of which affect how and from where it receives its
nutrients. This is why the management in this period is so essential for
optimum flock performance.
In the final stages of incubation and as a very new hatchling, the chick
receives all of its nutrients from the egg yolk. Once on the farm, the chick
is offered a Starter feed in a sieved crumb or mini-pellet form in the
automated feeding system and on paper on the house floor. As soon as
feed enters the gut, the residual yolk within the chick is mobilised, and,
provided the chick is fed promptly after hatch, it will receive a useful boost
to growth from these nutrients.
Residual egg yolk provides the chick with a protective store of antibodies
and nutrients for the first three days. Absorption of the yolk sac precedes
the initiation of growth and therefore growth will be minimal until the chick
starts to eat feed. Normally, residual yolk sac absorption is rapid during
the first 48 hours and it should be less than one gramme by three days of
age. A flock in which some of the chicks have not started to eat for one or
two or even three days will be uneven and the average flock weight at
slaughter will be significantly reduced.
Having found feed at floor level in the first days of its life, the chick has
then to find it again in the automated feeding system, whether pan or
track, between four and six days of age. Next, the chick has to cope with
a further change from a crumbled feed or mini-pellet to a pelleted feed at
ten days of age. It is important that both these transitions are made as
easy as possible for the chick if performance is not to be adversely
affected. Feed should be easily accessible from the automated feeding
system; flooding pan feeders, for example, will encourage feeding. The
provision of a good quality pellet at ten days of age will limit the impact of
the change in feed texture at this time.
If the entire flock has coped well with all of these transitions, and
presuming that no environmental or nutritional factors are impeding
growth, then the seven day weight should be 4.5-5 times greater than the
day-old chick weight.
11
Seven day live weight should be routinely monitored and action taken
where the target is not achieved. Performance targets can be found in the
Ross Broiler Performance Objectives.
Chick Quality and Broiler Performance

Final broiler performance and profitability are dependent upon attention to
detail throughout the entire production process. This involves good
management of healthy parent stock, careful hatchery practice and
efficient delivery of chicks which are of good quality and uniformity. Chick
quality may be influenced at every stage of the process.
Planning
Chick quality results from the interaction between parent stock
management, parental health and nutrition as well as incubation
management. If a good quality chick is provided with proper nutrition and
brooding management during the first seven days, mortality should be
less than 0.7% and target live weight achieved uniformly.
• Placements of broiler flocks should be planned to ensure that

differences in age and/or immune status of donor parent flocks are
minimised. One donor flock per broiler flock is the ideal. If mixed flocks
are unavoidable, keep similar parent flock ages together.
• Vaccination of donor parents maximises maternal antibody protection
in the offspring and is successful in protecting broilers against
diseases which compromise performance (such as infectious bursal
disease, chicken anaemia virus and reovirus).
• A good quality chick should be clean after hatch. It should stand firmly
and walk well, be alert and active. It should be free of deformities, with
the yolk sac fully retracted and have a healed navel. It should vocalise
contentedly.
• If chick quality is lower than desired, the grower can provide timely,
accurate, systematic, specific and measurable feedback to the
hatchery.
• A chick quality problem will be made worse by incorrect brooding
management.
The hatchery and transport system should ensure that:

• The correct vaccines are administered to all chicks at the correct
dosage and in the correct form.
• After being sexed and vaccinated, chicks are held in a darkened area
in which the environment is controlled correctly to allow them to settle
before transport.
• Chicks are loaded through controlled-environment loading bays into
preconditioned lorries for transport to the broiler farm (Table 1).
• The expected delivery time of the chicks is established beforehand so
that they may be unloaded and correctly placed as quickly as possible.
• Chicks are fed and have access to water as soon as possible
after hatch.
12
Table 1: Summary of Optimum Conditions – Chick Holding and Transport
22-24°C Ambient Temperature+

Chick Holding
Minimum 50% Relative Humidity (RH)
Conditions
0.71 m3/min per 1,000 chicks Air Exchange
22-24°C Ambient Temperature+
Transport
Minimum 50% Relative Humidity (RH) for long haul++
Conditions
0.71 m3/min per 1,000 chicks Air Exchange
NOTES
These conditions in the holding area or transport vehicle should give temperatures of 30-35°C and RH of
70-80% amongst the chicks. It is more important to obtain these temperatures rather than just following the
advised temperature setting for the transport truck, as settings may vary depending on the manufacturer's
recommendations.
+
Temperatures should be adjusted according to actual chick temperature. Vent temperatures should
be between 39-40°C.
++
Humidity should be provided during long haul transport in cold weather, when heaters are operational
for long periods or where the air is dry.
Key Points
• Plan placements to minimise physiological and immune differences
between chicks. Use single donor flocks if possible.
• Hold and transport chicks in conditions which prevent dehydration
and other types of stress in chicks.
• Provide feed and water to the chicks as soon as possible after
take-off from the hatcher.
• Maintain high standards of hygiene and biosecurity in the hatchery
and during transport.
Chick Arrival
Farm Preparation for the Next Cycle
Individual sites should manage birds of a single age (that is they should be
managed on the principles of ‘all-in, all-out’). Vaccination and cleaning
programmes are more difficult and less effective on multi-age sites and it
is far more likely that health problems will occur and sub-optimal
performance will be achieved.
Houses, the areas surrounding the houses, and all equipment must be
thoroughly cleaned and disinfected before the arrival of the bedding
material and chicks (see Section 3, Health and Biosecurity). Subsequently,
management systems should be in place to prevent pathogens entering
the building. Before entry, vehicles, equipment and people should be
disinfected.
Litter material should be spread evenly to a depth of 8-10 cm. Where floor
temperatures are adequate (28-30°C) the litter depth can be reduced
when litter disposal costs are an issue. Uneven bedding material can
restrict access to feed and water and may lead to a loss in flock uniformity.
13
Key Points
• Provide chicks with biosecure, clean housing.
• Control spread of disease by using single-age, (i.e. ‘all-in, all-out’)
housing.
• Spread litter evenly.
Chick Placement
Chicks cannot regulate their own body temperature until they are around
12-14 days of age. Optimal body temperature must be attained through
provision of optimal environmental temperature. Floor temperature at
chick placement is as important as air temperature, so preheating of the
house is essential. Temperature and relative humidity should be stabilised
for at least 24 hours prior to chick arrival. Recommended values are:
• Air temperature of 30°C (measured at chick height in the area where

feed and water are positioned).
• Litter temperature of 28-30°C.
• Relative humidity of 60-70%.
These should be monitored regularly to ensure a uniform environment

throughout the whole brooding area, but by far the best indicator of
temperature is chick behaviour.
Prior to delivery of chicks, a final check must be made of feed and water
availability and distribution within the house. All chicks must be able to eat
and drink immediately on placement in the house.
The longer the chicks remain in the boxes, the greater the degree of
potential dehydration. This may result in early mortality and reduced
growth as indicated by seven day and final live weight.
Chicks must be placed quickly, gently and evenly onto paper within the
brooding area. Feed and water should be freely and immediately available.
The empty boxes should be removed from the house without delay.
Chicks should be left to settle for one to two hours to become

accustomed to their new environment. After this time, a check must be
made to see that all chicks have easy access to feed and water.
Adjustments should be made to equipment and temperatures where
necessary.
For the first seven days, provide 23 hours light with 30-40 lux intensity to
help the chick adapt to the new environment and encourage feed and
water intake.
14
Adequate fresh, clean water must be available at all times to all birds with
access points at an appropriate height (see Section 2, Provision of Feed and
Water). Nipple lines should be installed at 12 birds per nipple and bell drinkers
at a minimum of six drinkers per 1,000 chicks. In addition, six supplementary
mini-drinkers or trays per 1,000 chicks should also be provided.
Initially, textured feed should be provided as a dust-free crumble or

mini-pellet on feeder trays (1 per 100 chicks) and on paper to give a
feeding area occupying at least 25% of the brooding area. Chicks should
be placed directly onto paper so that feed is immediately found.
Automated feeding and drinking systems should be placed in the vicinity
of the paper.
If the mixing of chicks from different parent flocks is unavoidable, chicks

from different parent sources should be brooded in separate areas within
the house. Chicks from a young donor flock of less than 30 weeks will
require a warmer start temperature (+1°C warmer than the given
temperature profile) compared to an older flock of more than 50 weeks.
Key Points
• Pre-heat the house and stabilise temperature and humidity prior
to arrival of chicks.
• Unload chicks and place them quickly.
• Make feed and water available to the chicks immediately.
• Arrange equipment to enable the chicks to reach feed and water
easily.
• Position supplementary feeders and drinkers near the main feeding
and drinking systems.
• Leave chicks to settle for one to two hours with access to feed and
water.
• Check feed, water, temperature and humidity after one to two hours
and adjust where necessary.
Chick Start Assessment

In the period immediately after the chicks are introduced to feed for the
first time, they are hungry, which means that they should eat well and fill
their crops. Check a sample of birds eight and 24 hours after arrival on the
farm to make sure that all the chicks have found feed and water. To do
this, samples of 30-40 chicks should be collected at three or four different
places in the house. Each chick’s crop should be felt gently. In chicks that
have found food and water, the crop will be full, soft and rounded (Figure 3).
If the crop is full, but the original texture of the crumb is still apparent, the
bird has not yet consumed enough water. Target crop fill at eight hours
after delivery is 80% and at 24 hours after delivery 95-100%.
15
Figure 3: Crop Fill After 24 Hours
The chick on the left has a full, rounded crop while the chick on the right
has an empty crop.
Environmental Control
Introduction
Optimal temperature and humidity are essential for health and appetite
development. Temperature and relative humidity should be monitored
frequently and regularly; at least twice-daily in the first five days and daily
thereafter. Temperature and humidity measurements and sensors for
automatic systems should be sited at chick level. Conventional
thermometers should be used to cross-check the accuracy of electronic
sensors controlling automatic systems.
Ventilation without draughts is required during the brooding period to:
• Maintain temperatures and relative humidity (RH) at the correct level.

• Allow sufficient air exchange to prevent the accumulation of harmful
gases such as carbon monoxide (from oil/gas heaters placed inside
the poultry house), carbon dioxide and ammonia.
It is good practice to establish a minimum ventilation rate from day one,

which will ensure that fresh air is supplied to the chicks at frequent, regular
intervals (see Section 4, Housing and Environment). Internal circulation
fans can be used to maintain evenness of air quality and temperature at
chick level.
If a choice has to be made, maintenance of brooding temperatures should

take priority over ventilation and air exchange. Young chicks are prone to
wind-chill effects, therefore actual floor/air speed should be less than
0.15 metres per second or as low as possible.
16
Key Points
• Monitor temperature and relative humidity regularly.
• Ventilate to provide fresh air and remove waste gases.
• Avoid draughts.
Humidity
Relative Humidity (RH) in the hatcher at the end of the incubation process
will be high (approx. 80%). Houses with whole-house heating, especially
where nipple drinkers are used, can have RH levels lower than 25%.
Houses with more conventional equipment (such as spot brooders, which
produce moisture as a by-product of combustion, and bell drinkers, which
have open water surfaces) have a much higher RH, usually over 50%. To
limit the shock to the chicks when transferring from the incubator, RH
levels in the first three days should be 60-70%.
RH within the broiler house should be monitored daily. If it falls below 50%
in the first week, the environment will be dry and dusty. The chicks will
begin to dehydrate and be predisposed to respiratory problems.
Performance will be adversely affected. Action should be taken to
increase RH.
If the house is fitted with high-pressure spray nozzles (foggers or misters)

for cooling in high temperatures, then these can be used to increase RH
during brooding. Alternatively, RH can be increased by using a backpack
portable sprayer to spray the walls with a fine mist.
As the chick grows, the ideal RH falls. High RH (above 70%) from 18 days
onwards can cause wet litter and its associated problems. As the broilers
increase in live weight, RH levels can be controlled using ventilation and
heating systems.
Interaction Between Temperature and Humidity

All animals lose heat to the environment by evaporation of moisture from
the respiratory tract and through the skin. At higher RH, less evaporative
loss occurs, increasing the animals’ apparent temperature. The
temperature experienced by the animal is dependent on the dry bulb
temperature and RH. High RH increases the apparent temperature at a
particular dry bulb temperature, whereas low RH decreases apparent
temperature. The target temperature profile in Table 2 assumes RH in the
range of 60-70%. The right hand side of Table 2 shows the dry bulb
temperature required to achieve the target temperature profile in situations
where RH is not within the target range of 60-70%.
17
Table 2: Dry Bulb Temperatures Required to Achieve Target Apparent

Equivalent Temperatures at Varying Relative Humidities
Target Dry Bulb Temperature at RH%

Age
(days) Temp °C RH% range Ideal
40 50 60 70 80
Day Old 30.0 60-70 36.0 33.2 30.8 29.2 27.0
3 28.0 60-70 33.7 31.2 28.9 27.3 26.0
6 27.0 60-70 32.5 29.9 27.7 26.0 24.0
9 26.0 60-70 31.3 28.6 26.7 25.0 23.0
12 25.0 60-70 30.2 27.8 25.7 24.0 23.0
15 24.0 60-70 29.0 26.8 24.8 23.0 22.0
18 23.0 60-70 27.7 25.5 23.6 21.9 21.0
21 22.0 60-70 26.9 24.7 22.7 21.3 20.0
24 21.0 60-70 25.7 23.5 21.7 20.2 19.0
27 20.0 60-70 24.8 22.7 20.7 19.3 18.0
Source: Dr Malcolm Mitchell (Scottish Agricultural College)
Table 2 illustrates the relationship between RH and effective temperature. If

RH is outside the target range, the temperature of the house at chick level
should be adjusted in line with the figures given in Table 2. For example, if
RH is lower than 60% the dry bulb temperature may need to be increased.
At all stages, chick behaviour should be monitored to ensure that the chick
is experiencing an adequate temperature (see Brooder Management below).
If subsequent behaviour indicates that the chicks are too cold or too hot, the
temperature of the house should be adjusted accordingly.
Key Points
• Achieve target seven day live weight by managing the brooding
environment correctly.
• Use chick behaviour to determine if temperature is correct.
• Use temperature to stimulate activity and appetite.
• Maintain RH between 60-70% for the first three days and above
50% for the remainder of the brooding period.
• Adjust temperature settings if RH increases above 70% or falls
below 60%, whilst responding to changes in chick behaviour.
Brooder Management
Two basic systems of temperature control are used for brooding broiler chicks:
• Spot brooding (canopy or radiant heaters). The heat source is local so

chicks can move away to cooler areas and thus select for themselves
a preferred temperature.
• Whole-House brooding. The heat source is larger and more widely
spread so chicks are less able to move to select a preferred
temperature. Whole-House brooding refers to situations where the
whole-house or a defined part of the house is heated by ‘forced air
heaters’ only and the aim is to achieve one temperature in the house
or air space.
18
In both spot and whole-house brooding systems, the objective is to

stimulate both appetite and activity as early as possible. Achieving the
optimum temperature is critical. Brooding temperatures, for RH 60-70%,
are given in the table below.
Table 3: Brooding Temperatures
Spot Brooding
Age Whole-House Temp°C
(days) Brooding
Edge of 2 m from Edge
Temp °C
Brooder (A) of Brooder (B)
Day Old 30 32 29
3 28 30 27
6 27 28 25
9 26 27 25
12 25 26 25
15 24 25 24
18 23 24 24
21 22 23 23
24 21 22 22
27 20 20 20
Spot Brooding
The layout for a spot brooding set up is shown in Figure 4, which would
be typical for 1,000 chicks on day one. Chicks are placed in a 5x5 m
square (25 m2), which gives an initial stocking density of 40 chicks per m2.
If stocking density is increased, the number of feeders and drinkers, and
the heating capacity of the brooder, should also be increased accordingly.
Figure 4: Typical Spot Brooding Layout (1,000 chicks)
Brooder
KEY
60% Paper Cover
Automatic Pan Feeders
Nipple Line
Mini-Drinker
2m 2m
5m
Within the context of the set up in Figure 4, Figure 5 shows the areas
of temperature gradients surrounding the spot brooder. These are marked
A (Edge of Brooder) and B (2 m from Edge of Brooder). Respective
optimum temperatures are shown in Table 3.
19
Figure 5: Spot Brooding – Areas of Temperature Gradients
Brooder
2m 2m KEY
A – Edge of Brooder
B – 2 m from Edge of Brooder
B A A B
Spot Brooding Behaviour

Chick behaviour is the best indicator of correct brooder temperature.
With spot brooding, correct temperature is indicated by chicks being
evenly spread throughout the brooding area as shown in Figure 6. In the
diagram, the brooder is shown as the light blue centre circle.
Figure 6: Bird Distribution Under Brooders
Temperature too high Temperature correct

Chicks make no noise Chicks evenly spread
Chicks pant, head and wings droop Noise level signifies contentment
Chicks away from brooder
Temperature too low Draught

Chicks crowd to brooder This distribution requires investigation
Chicks noisy, distress-calling Influenced by draught,
uneven light distribution,
external noises
20
A picture of contented spot-brooded birds at the right temperature

is shown below.
Figure 7: Chicks in Correct Spot Brooding Conditions
Whole-House Brooding
In whole-house brooding, there is no temperature gradient within the
house, although supplementary brooders might also be provided.
The main whole-house heat source can be direct or indirect (using hot air).
A layout for whole-house brooding is shown below.
Figure 8: Typical Layout of a Whole-House Brooding System
KEY
60% Paper Cover
Automatic Pan Feeders
Nipple Line
Mini-Drinker
Within the context of the set up in Figure 8, optimum temperatures are as

shown in the left-hand side of Table 3.
Whole-House Brooding Behaviour

Chick behaviour is the best indicator of correct temperature. Figure 9
shows the different distribution of chicks in whole-house brooding at
different temperatures. With whole-house brooding, correct temperature
is indicated by chicks forming groups of 20-30, with movement occurring
between groups. There should be continuous feeding and drinking within
the flock.
21
Figure 9: Typical Behaviour of Chicks in Whole-House Brooding

at Different Temperatures
Too High Correct Too Low
When whole-house brooding is practiced, particular attention must

be paid to monitoring and controlling house temperature and humidity
(see Interaction between Temperature and Humidity).
A picture of contented whole-house brooded birds is shown below.
Figure 10: Chicks in Correct Whole-House Brooder Conditions
Key Points
• Temperature is critical and should be maintained as recommended.
• Temperatures should be checked manually at chick level.
• Chick behaviour should be closely and frequently observed.
22
Notes
23
Notes
24
PROVISION OF FEED AND WATER

Section 2:
PROVISION OF
FEED AND WATER
Objective
To provide a defined feeding programme to supply

a range of balanced diets which satisfy the nutrient
requirements of broilers at all stages of their development
and which optimise efficiency and profitability without
compromising bird welfare or the environment.
The drinking and feeding systems employed, together

with the management of those systems, will impact upon
feed and water intake, and thereby on bird performance
and efficiency.
Pages Contents
27 Principles
27 Supply of Nutrients
29 Feeding Programme
30 Feed Form and Physical Feed Quality
30 Whole-Wheat Feeding
31 Feed and Heat Stress
32 Environment
32 Litter Quality
32 Water Quality
34 Drinking Systems
38 Feeding Systems
ROSS BROILER MANAGEMENT MANUAL: Provision of Feed and Water
Provision of Feed and Water

Principles
Feed is a major component of the total cost of broiler production. To
support optimum performance, broiler rations should be formulated to
give the correct balance of energy, protein and amino acids, minerals,
vitamins and essential fatty acids. The choice of feeding programme will
be dependent on the target of the business; for instance whether the
focus is on maximising profitability of live birds or optimising yield of
carcase components.
Recommended nutrient levels and feed programmes can be found in the

current Ross Broiler Nutrition Specifications, which offer further
information on:
• The choice of feeding programme for a range of production and

market situations.
• Optimum levels of dietary digestible amino acid levels for growth,
efficiency, processing yield and profitability.
More detailed nutritional information for nutrition professionals can be

found in the current Ross Broiler Nutrition Supplement. This contains
further information on:
• Separate feeding of male and female broilers.

• Safe inclusion rates for the use of whole wheat.
• Nutritional recommendations relating to heat stress.
• Guidance on feeding in relation to environmental issues.
Supply of Nutrients
Energy
Broilers require energy for growth of tissue, maintenance and activity.
Carbohydrate sources, such as corn and wheat, and various fats or oils
are the major source of energy in poultry feeds. Energy levels in diets are
expressed in Megajoules (MJ/kg) or kilocalories (kcal/kg) of Metabolisable
Energy (ME), as this represents the energy available to the broiler.
Protein
Feed proteins, such as those in cereals and soybean meal, are complex
compounds which are broken down by digestion into amino acids. These
amino acids are absorbed and assembled into body proteins which are
used in the construction of body tissue, e.g. muscles, nerves, skin and
feathers.
Dietary crude protein levels do not indicate the quality of the proteins in
feed ingredients. Diet protein quality is based on the level, balance and
digestibility of essential amino acids in the final mixed feed.
27
The Ross broiler is particularly responsive to dietary digestible amino acid

levels and will respond well, in terms of growth, feed efficiency and
profitability, to diets properly balanced as recommended. Higher levels of
digestible amino acids have been shown to improve profitability by
increasing broiler performance and processing yield. This becomes
particularly important when broilers are grown for portioning or de-boning.
Macro Minerals
The provision of the correct levels of the major minerals in the appropriate
balance is important for high-performing broilers. The macro minerals
involved are calcium, phosphorus, sodium, potassium and chloride.
Calcium and Phosphorus: Calcium in the diet of broilers influences

growth, feed efficiency, bone development, leg health, nerve function and
the immune system. It is vital that calcium is supplied in adequate
quantities and on a consistent basis. Phosphorus, like calcium, is required
in the correct form and quantity to optimise skeletal structure and growth.
Sodium, Potassium and Chloride: These minerals are needed for

general metabolic functions. Shortages can affect feed intake, growth and
blood pH. Excess levels of these minerals result in increased water intake
and subsequent poor litter quality.
Trace Minerals and Vitamins
Trace minerals and vitamins are needed for all metabolic functions.
Appropriate vitamin and trace mineral supplementation depends on the
feed ingredients used, the feed manufacture and on local circumstances.
Due to differences in vitamin levels of various cereals, the level of

supplementation of some vitamins must be modified. Accordingly,
separate recommendations are usually proposed for some vitamins,
depending on the cereals (e.g. wheat versus maize) upon which the diets
are based.
Enzymes
Enzymes are now being routinely used in poultry feeds to improve

digestibility of feed ingredients. In general, feed enzymes are available that
act on carbohydrates, proteins and plant-bound minerals.
Key Points
• Use recommended digestible amino acid levels for optimum broiler
performance.
• Ensure high-quality protein sources are used.
• Provide the correct levels of the major minerals in the appropriate
balance.
• Vitamin and mineral supplementation depends on feed ingredients
used, feed manufacturing practices and local circumstances.
28
Feeding Programme
Starter Feeds
The objective of the brooding period (0-10 days of age) is to establish
good appetite and maximum early growth in order to meet the Ross
seven-day body-weight objective. It is recommended that a Broiler Starter
feed be fed for ten days. The Starter represents a small proportion of the
total feed cost and decisions on Starter formulation should be based
primarily on performance and profitability rather than purely on diet cost.
The benefit of maximising nutrient intake on early broiler growth and

subsequent performance is well established. Feeding broilers the
recommended nutrient density will ensure optimal growth is established
during this critical period of life.
Grower Feeds
Broiler Grower feed is generally fed for 14-16 days following the Starter.
Starter to Grower transition will involve a change of texture
from crumbs/mini-pellets to pellets. Depending on the pellet size
produced, it may be necessary to feed the first delivery of Grower as
crumbs or mini-pellets.
During this time broiler growth continues to be dynamic. It therefore needs

to be supported by adequate nutrient intake. For optimum feed
intake, growth and FCR, provision of the correct diet nutrient density,
especially energy and amino acids, is critical.
Finisher Feeds
Broiler Finisher feeds account for the major volume and cost of feeding a
broiler. It is therefore important that feeds are designed to maximise
financial return for the type of products being produced.
Finisher feeds should be given from 25 days until processing. Birds

slaughtered later than 42-43 days may need a second Finisher feed
specification from 42 days onwards.
The use of either one or more broiler Finisher feeds will depend on:
• Desired slaughter weight.

• Length of the production period.
• Design of the feeding programme.
Withdrawal periods for drugs will dictate the use of a special Withdrawal
Finisher feed. A Withdrawal feed should be fed for sufficient time prior to
slaughter to eliminate the risk of pharmaceutical product residues in
the meat. Statutory withdrawal periods for prescribed medicines that
are specified in product data sheets must be followed. It is not
recommended that extreme dietary nutrient reductions be made during
the withdrawal period.
29
Key Points
• It is recommended to feed the Starter diet for ten days. Decisions
on Starter feed formulation should be based on performance and
profitability.
• The Grower feed must ensure that nutrient intake supports the
dynamic growth during this period.
• Broiler Finisher feeds should be formulated to maximise financial
return and be adjusted for bird age, but extreme nutrient withdrawal
is not recommended.
Feed Form and Physical Feed Quality

Broiler growth and efficiency of feed use will generally be better if the
Starter feed is crumbs or mini-pellets, and the Grower and Finisher feeds
are pellets (Table 4). Depending on pellet size fed, it may be necessary to
provide the first delivery of Grower feed as crumbs or mini-pellets.
Poor quality crumbs and pellets will reduce feed intake and performance.
On the farm, attention should be given to reduce breakage of crumbs and
pellets during handling.
Table 4: Form of Feed by Age in Broilers

Age Feed Form and Size
0-10 days Sieved crumbs or mini-pellets
11-24 days 2-3.5 mm diameter pellets or coarse grinded mash
25 days to processing 3.5 mm diameter pellets or coarse grinded mash
Good quality crumbled and pelleted feeds are preferred to mash feed;
however, if feeding a mash feed, feed particles should be sufficiently
coarse and uniform in size. Mash feeds may benefit from the inclusion of
some fat in the formulation to reduce dustiness and improve homogenicity
of feed components.
Key Points
• Poor physical feed quality will have a negative impact on
broiler performance.
• Use good quality crumbled and pelleted feeds for
optimum performance.
• When feeding mash, ensure a coarse uniform particle size
is achieved. Minimise fine particle (<1 mm) levels to less than 10%.
Whole-Wheat Feeding
Feeding of compound feed with whole wheat may reduce feed costs per
tonne. However, this must be offset against loss of eviscerated and breast
meat yield.
30
The level of inclusion of whole wheat must be precisely accounted for in

formulating the compound or balancer feed. If an appropriate adjustment is
not made, live bird performance will be compromised, as the diet will now
have an inappropriate nutrient balance. Safe inclusion guides are given below.
Table 5: Safe Inclusion of Whole Wheat in Broiler Rations

Ration Inclusion Rate of Wheat
Starter Zero
Grower Gradual increase to 10%+
Finisher Gradual increase to 15%+
+ Higher inclusions of wheat are possible if fed in combination with higher concentration compound
or balancer feeds.
Whole wheat must be removed from the feed two days before catching
to avoid problems of contamination during evisceration at the
processing plant.
Key Point
• Dilution of diets with whole wheat may reduce performance if the
compound feed is not properly adjusted.
Feed and Heat Stress

Correct nutrient levels and balance, together with the use of feed
ingredients with higher levels of digestibility, will help to minimise the
effect of heat stress.
Providing optimum crumb and pellet textures will minimise the energy
expended to eat the feed and thereby reduce the heat generated during
feeding. Optimum feed form will also improve feed acceptability and help
compensatory feed intake to occur during cooler periods.
Providing an increase in feed energy from feed fats (rather than

carbohydrates) during hot weather has been shown to be beneficial in
some situations due to reducing the heat increment of the diet.
Readily available cool, low-salt water is the most critical nutrient during
heat stress.
Strategic use of vitamins and electrolytes, either through the feed or water,
will help the bird deal with environmental stresses.
Key Points
• Providing the correct nutrient levels and using more digestible
ingredients will help to minimise the effects of heat stress.
• Optimal feed form will minimise heat stress and allow
compensatory feed intake to occur.
• Provide cool, low-salt water.
• Ensure feed is available to the birds during the coolest part of the day.
31
Environment
Nitrogen and ammonia emissions can be reduced by minimising excess
crude protein levels in the feed. This is achieved through formulating diets
to balanced recommended levels of digestible essential amino acids,
rather than to minimum crude protein levels.
Phosphorus excretion rates can be reduced by feeding closely to the

bird’s requirement and utilising phytase enzymes.
Key Points
• Formulating feeds to balanced levels of digestible essential amino
acids will minimise nitrogen excretion.
• Phosphorus excretion can be minimised by feeding closely to the
bird’s requirements.
Litter Quality
Litter quality directly affects the health of the bird. Lower moisture levels
in the litter reduce the amount of ammonia in the atmosphere, which helps
reduce respiratory stress. Foot pad dermatitis incidence is also reduced if
the litter is of good quality.
Provided suitable management, health and environmental practices are

followed, the following nutritional strategies will help to maintain good
litter quality:
• Avoid excessive levels of crude protein in diets.

• Avoid high salt/sodium levels, as this will increase bird water intake
and cause wet litter.
• Avoid using poorly digestible or high-fibre feed ingredients in the diets.
• Provide good-quality feed fats/oils in the diet, as this helps avoid
enteric disorders which produce wet litter.
Water Quality
Water is an essential ingredient for life. Any reductions in water intake or
increased water loss can have a significant effect on the lifetime
performance of the chick. More detailed information can be found in the
Ross Tech 08/47 – Water Quality.
Water supplied to broilers should not contain excessive amounts of

minerals. Water should not be contaminated with bacteria. Although water
supplied as fit for human consumption will also be suitable for broilers,
water from bore holes, open water reservoirs or poor quality public
supplies can cause problems.
The water supply should be tested to check the level of calcium salts
(water hardness), salinity and nitrates.
32
After house cleaning and prior to chick delivery, water should be

sampled for bacterial contamination at the source, the storage tank and
the drinker points.
The table below shows the maximum acceptable concentration of

minerals and organic matter in the water supply.
Table 6: Maximum Acceptable Concentrations of Minerals and Organic

Matter in the Water Supply
Acceptable
Material Concentration Comment
(ppm or mg per litre)
Total Dissolved Solids 0-1,000 Higher levels will cause wet
(TDS) droppings and reduce
performance
Faecal Coliforms 0 Higher levels indicate
contaminated water
Chloride 250 If sodium is higher than 50,
acceptable chloride
concentrations are much
lower (less than 20)
Sodium 50
Calcium Salts (hardness) 70
pH 6.5-8.5 Acid water will corrode
equipment and disrupt
health interventions
Nitrates trace
Sulphates 200-250 Maximum desirable level.
Higher levels will increase
wetness of droppings
Potassium 300
Magnesium 50-125 Higher levels will exacerbate
influence of sulphates
Iron 0.30
Lead 0.05
Zinc 5.00
Manganese 0.05
Copper 0.05
The levels presented in Table 6 are unlikely to be exceeded if water is

taken from a mains supply.
Water from wells or bore holes however, may have excessive nitrate levels
and high bacterial counts. Where bacterial counts are high, the cause
should be established and rectified. Bacterial contamination can often
reduce biological production performances both on the farm and at the
processing factory.
Water that is clean at the point of entry to the broiler house can become
contaminated by exposure to bacteria within the house environment
(Figure 11). Chlorination of three to five ppm at drinker level will reduce
the bacterial count, especially where drinker systems with open water
surfaces are in use. Ultra Violet (UV) irradiation is also effective in
controlling bacterial contamination.
33
If the water contains high levels of iron or calcium salts and is hard, drinker
valves and pipes may become blocked. Sediment will also block water
pipes and, where this is a problem, it is advisable to filter the supply with
a mesh of 40-50 microns.
Figure 11: Increase in Bacterial Count in Drinkers Where Water is Exposed

to the Broiler House Atmosphere
40,000
40,000
35,000
30,000
Bacterial Count
25,000
20,000
15,000
15,000
KEY
10,000
10,000 Total Count
5,000 S.aureous
0 0 0 0 0 0
E.coli
0
After Clean-Out Day Old 5 Days Old
Key Points
• Provide unrestricted access to fresh, good-quality clean water.
• Test the water supply regularly for bacteriological and mineral
contaminants and take any necessary corrective action.
Drinking Systems
Water must be available to broilers 24 hours per day. Inadequate water
supply, either in volume or in the number of drinking points, will result in
reduced growth rate. To ensure that the flock is receiving sufficient water,
the ratio of water to feed consumed each day should be monitored.
Water consumption measurement can be used to monitor system failures

(feed and water), to monitor health and to assess performance.
At 21°C, the birds are consuming sufficient water when the ratio of water
volume (litres) to feed weight (kg) remains close to:
• 1.8:1 for bell drinkers.

• 1.6:1 for nipple drinkers without cups.
• 1.7:1 for nipple drinkers with cups.
Water requirement will vary with feed consumption.
Birds will drink more water at higher ambient temperatures. Water

requirement increases by approximately 6.5% per degree centigrade over
21°C. In tropical areas prolonged high temperatures will double daily
water consumption.
34
Very cold or very warm water will reduce water intake. In hot weather, it is
good practice to flush the drinker lines at regular intervals to ensure that
the water is as cool as possible.
Adequate water storage must be provided on the farm, in case of failure

of the mains supply. Ideally, sufficient storage to provide 24 hours water at
maximum consumption is required.
The measurement of water consumption by metering is a vital daily

management practice. Typical water consumption at 21°C is given in
Table 7. A reduction of water consumption gives an advanced warning of
potential health and production issues.
Water meters must match flow rates with pressure. A minimum of one
meter is required per house, but preferably more to allow within-house
zoning.
Table 7: Typical Water Consumption by Broilers at 21°C in Litres per 1,000

Birds per Day
Age of Nipple Drinkers Nipple Drinkers Bell

Birds without cups with cups Drinkers
(days)
M F AH M F AH M F AH
7 62 58 61 66 61 65 70 65 68
14 112 101 106 119 107 112 126 113 119
21 181 162 171 192 172 182 203 182 193
28 251 224 237 267 238 252 283 252 266
35 309 278 293 328 296 311 347 313 329
42 350 320 336 372 340 357 394 360 378
49 376 349 363 400 371 386 423 392 409
56 386 365 374 410 388 398 434 410 421
M = Males, F = Females, AH = As-Hatched (mixed males and females)
Nipple Drinkers
Nipple drinkers should be installed at 12 birds per nipple; additional
supplementary drinkers should be supplied (six per 1,000 chicks) for the
first three to four days.
The actual number of birds per nipple will depend on flow rates, depletion
age, climate and design. Water lines need to be managed daily during the
flock to obtain optimum performance.
A high drinker line water pressure can result in more water wastage and
wet litter. A low drinker line water pressure can result in reduced water
intake and a subsequent reduction in feed intake.
Drinker line height should be started low at the beginning of the flock and
increased as the birds get older. Drinker lines that are too high can restrict
bird water consumption while water lines that are too low can result in
wet litter.
35
In the initial stages of brooding, the nipple lines should be placed at a

height at which the bird is able to drink. The back of the chick should form
an angle of 35-45° with the floor whilst drinking is in progress. As the bird
grows, the nipples should be raised so that the back of the bird forms an
angle of approximately 75-85° with the floor and so that the birds are
stretching slightly for the water (Figure 12).
Figure 12: Nipple Drinker Height Adjustment
35°-45° 75°-85°
Figure 13: Example of Nipple Drinker
Bell Drinkers
At day-old, a minimum of six bell drinkers (40 cm diameter) should be
provided per 1,000 chicks; additional sources of water in the form of six
mini-drinkers or plastic trays per 1,000 chicks should also be available.
As the broilers become older and the area of the house in use is
expanded, a minimum of eight bell drinkers (40 cm diameter) must be
provided per 1,000 chicks. These should be placed evenly throughout the
house so that no broiler is more than two metres from water. As a guide
water level should be 0.6 cm below the top of the drinker until
approximately seven to ten days. After ten days there should be 0.6 cm of
water in the base of the drinker.
36
Additional mini-drinkers and trays used at day-old should be removed

gradually so that by three to four days all chicks are drinking from the
automatic drinkers.
Minimum drinker requirements per 1,000 birds post-brooding are given

in the below table.
Table 8: Minimum Drinker Requirements per 1,000 Birds Post-Brooding
Drinker Type Drinker Requirements per 1,000 Birds Post-Brooding

Bell Drinkers 8 drinkers (40 cm diameter) per 1,000 birds
Nipples 83 nipples per 1,000 birds (12 birds per nipple
or for broilers >3 kg 9-10 birds per nipple)
Drinkers should be checked for height daily and adjusted so that the base
of each drinker is level with the broiler’s back from day 18 onwards, see
the figure below.
Figure 14: Height of Bell Drinker
Key Points
• Drinking water should be available to the birds 24 hours a day.
• Provide supplementary drinkers for the first four days of a flock’s life.
• The feed to water ratio should be monitored daily to check that
water intake is sufficient.
• Make allowances for increased water consumption at high
temperatures.
• Flush drinker lines in hot weather to ensure that the water is as cool
as possible.
• Adjust drinker heights daily.
• Provide adequate drinker space and ensure that drinkers are easily
accessible to all birds.
37
Feeding Systems
Feed should be provided in the form of sieved crumbs or mini-pellets for
the first ten days of life. Feed should be placed in flat trays or on paper
sheeting so that it is readily accessible to the chicks. At least 25% of the
floor should be covered with paper.
The change to the main feeding system should be made gradually over
the first two to three days as chicks begin to show interest in the main
system. Where photoperiod duration and pattern are used to modify
growth, particular attention should be paid to feeding space, to allow for
the extra competition created.
Actual diets provided to the birds will depend on live weight, depletion
age, climate and type of house and equipment construction.
Insufficient feeding space will reduce growth rates and cause poor
uniformity. The number of birds per feeding system will ultimately depend
on the live weight at slaughter and design of system.
The main automated feeding systems available for broilers are:
• Pan feeders: 45-80 birds per pan (the lower ratio for bigger birds).
• Flat chain/auger: 2.5 cm per bird (40 birds per metre of track).
• Tube feeders: 38 cm diameter (70 birds per tube).
All types of feeder should be adjusted to ensure minimum spillage and

optimum access for the birds. The base of the trough or pans should be
level with the birds’ backs (Figure 15). The height of pan and tube feeders
may have to be adjusted individually. The height of chain feeders is
adjustable by winch.
Figure 15: Height of Feeders
Incorrect feeder adjustment can increase feed spillage. When this

happens, estimates of feed conversion will become inaccurate and the
spilled feed, when eaten, is likely to carry a higher risk of bacterial
contamination.
38
With all feeding systems it is good practice to allow the birds to clear the
feeders, by consuming all the feed available in the tracks or pans, once
daily. This will reduce feed wastage which results in improved efficiency of
feed use.
Adjustment of feed depth is easier with chain feeder systems, as a single

adjustment to the hopper only is required. Careful maintenance of chain
feeders will minimise incidence of leg damage.
Pan and tube feeder systems require adjustments to be made to each

individual feeder.
Pan and tube feeders (if filled automatically) have the advantage that all
are filled simultaneously, making feed available to the birds immediately.
When chain feeders are used, however, feed distribution takes longer to
accomplish and feed is not immediately available to all the birds.
Uneven distribution of feed can result in lowered performance and

increased scratching damage associated with competition at feeders.
Key Points
• Supplement the main feeding system using paper and/or trays over
the first three days.
• Supply sufficient feeders for the number of birds in the house.
• Increase feeder space per bird if photoperiod duration and pattern
are modified to allow for increased competition at the feeder.
• Adjust feeder height daily so that the birds’ backs are level with
the base of the feeder.
39
Notes
40
HEALTH AND BIOSECURITY

Section 3:
HEALTH AND
BIOSECURITY
Objective
To maximise flock performance by minimising or

preventing poultry diseases and infections of public
health concern through good husbandry, biosecurity
and welfare practices.
Pages Contents
43 Principles
43 Biosecurity
45 Vaccination
46 Disease Investigation
50 Disease Recognition
ROSS BROILER MANAGEMENT MANUAL: Health and Biosecurity
Health and Biosecurity

Principles
Bird health is of utmost importance in broiler production. Poor chick health
will have a negative impact on all aspects of production and flock
management, including growth rate, feed conversion efficiency,
condemnations, liveability and processing traits.
The flock should start with day-old chicks of good quality and health.
The chicks should be sourced from a minimal number of breeder flocks
with similar health status; ideally, one donor flock per house.
On-farm disease control programmes involve:
• Disease prevention.
• Early detection of ill health.
• Treatment of identified disease conditions.
Regular monitoring of production parameters is vital for early detection

and targeted intervention. Early intervention in one flock will help prevent
disease in surrounding and successive flocks.
Production parameters, such as birds dead on arrival (D.O.A.), seven-day

body weight, daily and weekly mortality, water consumption, average daily
gain, feed conversion efficiency and processing condemnations, should
be reviewed closely and compared with company targets. When
monitored production parameters fail to meet their established goals, a
proper investigation should be conducted by trained veterinary personnel.
Biosecurity and vaccination are both integral to successful health

management. Biosecurity to prevent the introduction of disease in the
first place and appropriate vaccination programmes to address
endemic disease.
Biosecurity
A robust biosecurity programme is critical to maintain flock health.
Understanding and following agreed biosecurity practices must be part of
everyone’s job. Regular education and staff training is essential to ensure this.
Biosecurity will prevent flock exposure to disease-causing organisms.

When developing a biosecurity programme, three components should be
considered:
• Location: Farms should be located so that they are isolated from other
poultry and livestock. Single-age sites are preferable so that recycling
of pathogens and live vaccine strains is limited.
• Farm Design: A barrier (fence) is necessary to prevent unauthorised

access. Housing should be designed to minimise traffic flow, to
facilitate cleaning and disinfection, and constructed to be bird and
rodent proof.
43
• Operational Procedures: Procedures must control the movement of

people, feed, equipment and animals on the farm to prevent the
introduction and spread of disease. Routine procedures may have to
be modified in the event of a change in disease status.
The figure below presents many of the potential routes of disease exposure.
Figure 16: Elements of Disease Exposure
Chicks Other Poultry,

Livestock & Pets
Feed People
Housing Litter
Rodents Insects
Water Hatchery
Wild Birds Equipment & Vehicles
Key Points
• Restrict visitors.
• Establish visitation requirements for any visitor, which includes
a risk assessment protocol for that individual, which must be
completed prior to entry.
• Stipulate farm entry protocols, including a change of clothing and
footwear for staff and visitors.
• Provide a change of footwear or disposable boots at the entrance
to every house.
• No equipment should be brought onto the farm unless it has been
cleaned and disinfected.
• All vehicles must be cleaned prior to farm entry.
• Establish clear and implemented procedures for house cleaning
and disinfection.
• Establish clear and implemented procedures for litter management
and disposal.
• Reduce pathogen carryover by allowing adequate down-time for
farm cleaning.
• Establish clear and implemented procedures for feed hygiene,
transport and delivery.
• Establish clear and implemented procedures for water
management and sanitation.
• Establish an integrated pest control programme.
• Establish procedures for dead bird disposal.
44
Vaccination
The table below lays out some essential factors for successful vaccination
of broilers.
Table 9: Factors for a Successful Vaccination Programme
Vaccination Vaccine Vaccine

Programme(s) Design Administration Effectiveness
Programmes must be based Follow manufacturer Seek veterinary advice prior

on veterinary advice tailored recommendations for product to vaccinating sick or stressed
to specific local and regional handling and method of birds.
challenges based on health administration.
surveys and laboratory analysis.
Single or combined vaccines Properly train vaccine Periodic and efficient house
must be carefully selected administrators to handle cleaning, followed by placement
according to age and health and administer vaccines. of new litter material, reduces
status of flocks. the concentration of pathogens
in the environment.
Vaccination must result in Maintain vaccination records. Adequate down-time between

the development of consistent flocks helps to reduce the
levels of immunity while build-up of normal house
minimising potential adverse pathogens that can affect
effects. flock performance when
re-using litter.
Breeder programmes should When live vaccines are given Regular audits of vaccine
provide adequate and uniform in chlorinated water, use a handling, administration
levels of maternal antibodies vaccine stabiliser (such as techniques and post-vaccinal
to protect chicks against non-fat powdered or liquid milk) responses are critical to control
several viral diseases during added to the water prior to challenges and improve
the first weeks of life. the vaccine to neutralise the performance.
chlorine. Chlorine can reduce
vaccine titre or cause
inactivation.
Maternal antibodies may Ventilation and management

interfere with the chick’s should be optimised post-
response to some vaccine vaccination, especially during
strains. Levels of maternal times of vaccine-induced
antibodies in broilers will reaction.
decline as the breeder source
flock ages.
45
Key Points
• Vaccination alone cannot protect flocks against overwhelming
disease challenges and poor management practices.
• Vaccination programmes for broilers should be developed
in consultation with trained poultry veterinarians.
• Vaccination is more effective when disease challenges are
minimised through well-designed and implemented biosecurity and
management programmes.
• Vaccination programmes must be based on local disease
challenges and vaccine availability.
• Every bird must receive the intended dose of vaccine.
• Breeder flock vaccination programmes must be factored into
the design of an appropriate vaccination programme for
broiler progeny.
Disease Investigation
Disease investigation requires knowledge of what to expect at what age
and how to detect what is abnormal for the flock.
When health problems are seen or suspected in broiler flocks, veterinary

advice should be sought at the earliest possible opportunity.
When investigating the cause of disease, care must be taken in

associating a bacterium or virus isolated from the infected flock as the
cause of the disease. Ill health arises from a wide variety of causes and
interactions.
Many non-pathogenic bacteria or viruses may also be isolated from

healthy broilers.
Continuous improvement of broiler health within a broiler operation

requires good record keeping and sample collection throughout the lives
of the flocks and across the whole production process.
It is helpful to keep up-to-date with local and regional health concerns in

order to prepare for the unexpected.
46
A systematic approach is helpful when troubleshooting health issues on

the farm.
These are the things to look at:
• Feed: availability, consumption, distribution, palatability, nutritional

content, contaminants and toxins and withdrawal.
• Light: adequate for efficient growth and development, uniform
exposure and intensity.
• Litter: moisture level, ammonia level, pathogen load, toxins and
contaminants, depth, material used, distribution.
• Air: speed, contaminants and toxins, humidity, temperature,
availability, barriers.
• Water: source, contaminants and toxins, additives, availability,
pathogen load, consumption.
• Space: bird density, feed availability, water availability, limiting
obstacles, limiting equipment.
• Sanitation: hygiene of premises (inside and outside of house), pest
control, maintenance, cleaning and disinfection practices.
• Security: biosecurity risks.
Tables 10 and 11 highlight examples of mortality parameters possibly

related to bird quality and bird health. The tables also suggest potential
investigative actions using the approach for troubleshooting health issues
outlined above.
47
Table 10: Troubleshooting Common Issues in the 0-7 Day Brooding Phase
Observe Investigate Likely Causes

Poor Chick Quality: Feed, Sanitation, Air and Water:
Increased dead on arrivals Source flock health and Inadequate diet of source flock
(D.O.A.) hygiene status Health and hygiene status
Sluggish chick behaviour Egg handling, storage and of source flock, hatchery
transport and equipment
General chick appearance: Hatchery sanitation, incubation Incorrect parameters for egg
and management storage, relative humidity,
• Unhealed navels temperatures and equipment
• Red hocks/beaks Chick processing, handling
and transport management
• Dark wrinkled legs
• Discoloured or malodorous Inadequate moisture loss
yolks or navels during incubation
Dehydration caused by
excessive spread of hatch time
or late removal of chicks from
the hatchers
Small Chicks Days 1-4 Feed, Light, Air, Water
and Space:
Crop fill at 24 hours post chick Less than 95% of chicks with
placement adequate crop fill by 24 hours
Availability and accessibility post placement
to feed and water Weak chicks
Bird comfort and welfare Inadequate feeders and drinkers
Inadequate feed and water
levels
Equipment location and
maintenance issues
Inappropriate brooding
temperature and environment
Runted and Stunted Chicks: Feed, Light, Litter, Air, Water,

Space, Sanitation and Security:
Small birds, as early as Flock source Flock source variation
4-7 days Hydration status of chicks Dehydration of the chicks
Brooding conditions Poor quality feed
Feed quality and accessibility Poor quality brooding
Down-time between flocks conditions
Disease challenge Short down-times between
flocks
Inadequate cleaning and
disinfection
Disease
Poor biosecurity and hygiene
practices
48
Table 11: Troubleshooting Common Issues after Seven Days of Age
Observe Investigate Likely Causes

Disease: Feed, Light, Litter, Air, Water,
Space, Sanitation and Security:
Metabolic Broiler farm hygiene Poor environmental conditions
Bacterial Local disease challenge Poor biosecurity
Viral
Vaccination and disease High disease challenge
Fungal
Protozoal prevention strategies Low disease protection
Parasitic Feed quality and supply Inadequate or improper
Toxins Lighting and ventilation implementation of disease
prevention
Stress Potential stressors: Poor feed quality
Temperature Inadequate feed supply
Management Excessive or insufficient lighting
Immunosuppressive Disorders Excessive or insufficient
ventilation
Inadequate farm management
Inadequate equipment
Inadequate bird comfort
and welfare
High Number of Birds D.O.A. Feed, Light, Litter, Air, Water,
to the Processing Plant Space, Sanitation and Security:
High plant condemnation rate Flock records and data Health issues during grow-out
Health status of flock Management of relevant
History of flock during the historical events affecting bird
grow-out period (such as health and welfare
feed, water or power outages) Improper bird handling and
Potential equipment hazards hauling by crews
on the farm Harsh conditions (weather or
Bird handling by the catchers, equipment related) during
handlers and hauliers handling, catching or transport
to the processing plant
Experience and training level
of individuals handling and
hauling birds
Conditions during catching
and hauling (such as weather
and equipment)
Key Points
• Know what to expect and be alert to deviations from the expected.
• Observe...Investigate...Identify...Act.
• Use a systematic approach.
49
Disease Recognition
The recognition of health problems involves several steps.
In diagnosing a disease problem, and planning and implementing a

control strategy, it is important to remember that the more thorough the
investigation, the more thorough the diagnosis and the more effective the
controlling actions.
Early disease recognition is critical.
The table below highlights some of the ways in which signs of disease can
be recognised.
Table 12: Recognising Signs of Disease
Observations by Farm and Data and

Farm Personnel Laboratory Monitoring Trend Analysis
Daily assessment of bird Regular farm visitation Daily and weekly mortality
behaviour
Bird appearance (such as Routine post-mortem Water and feed consumption

feathering, size, uniformity, examinations of normal
colouring) and diseased birds
Environmental changes (such Proper sample collection size Temperature trends

as litter quality, heat or cold and type.
stress, ventilation issues) Proper choice of subsequent
analysis and actions following
post-mortem examination
Clinical signs of illness (such Routine microbiological testing D.O.A. after placement on the
as respiratory noise or of farms, feed, litter, birds, and farm, or after arrival at the
distress, depression, faecal other appropriate material processing plant
droppings, vocalisation)
Flock uniformity Appropriate diagnostic testing Condemnation at slaughter

Appropriate serology
Key Points
• Daily observation.
• Accurate recording.
• Systematic disease monitoring.
50
Notes
51
Notes
52
HOUSING AND ENVIRONMENT

Section 4:
HOUSING AND
ENVIRONMENT
Objective
To provide an environment that permits the bird to

achieve optimum performance in growth rate, uniformity,
feed efficiency and yield, while ensuring that the health
and welfare of the bird are not compromised.
Pages Contents
55 Principles
57 Housing and Ventilation Systems
60 Minimum Ventilation Systems
61 Transitional Ventilation Systems
62 Tunnel Ventilation Systems
63 Evaporative Cooling Systems
65 Lighting for Broilers
69 Litter Management
70 Stocking Density
For more detailed environmental control information, please refer

to the Ross publication Environmental Management in the
Broiler House, 2009.
ROSS BROILER MANAGEMENT MANUAL: Housing and Environment
Housing and Environment

Principles
The principle means of controlling the birds’ environment is by control of
ventilation. It is essential to deliver a constant and uniform supply of good
quality air at bird level. Fresh air is required at all stages of growth to allow
the bird to remain in good health and achieve full potential.
Ventilation helps to maintain in-house temperatures within the birds’

comfort zone. During the early part of the production period keeping birds
warm enough is the primary concern, but, as they grow, keeping birds
cool enough becomes the main objective.
The housing and ventilation systems used will depend upon climate, but
in all cases effective ventilation should remove excess heat and moisture,
provide oxygen and improve air quality by removing harmful gases.
Sensors which monitor ammonia, carbon dioxide, relative humidity and

temperature are available commercially and can be used in conjunction
with automated ventilation systems.
As broilers grow they consume oxygen and produce waste gases and
water vapour. Combustion by brooders contributes further waste gases in
the broiler house. The ventilation system must remove these waste gases
from the house and deliver good air quality.
Air
The main contaminants of air within the house environment are dust,
ammonia, carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide and excess water vapour.
When in excess, they damage the respiratory tract, decreasing the
efficiency of respiration and reducing bird performance.
Continued exposure to contaminated and moist air may trigger disease

(e.g. ascites or chronic respiratory disease), affect temperature regulation,
and contribute to poor litter quality, as shown in the table below.
Table 13: Effects of Common Broiler House Air Contaminants
Ammonia Can be detected by smell at 20 ppm or above

>10 ppm will damage lung surface
>20 ppm will increase susceptibility
to respiratory diseases
>50 ppm will reduce growth rate
Carbon Dioxide >3,500 ppm causes ascites and is fatal at high levels
Carbon Monoxide 100 ppm reduces oxygen binding and is fatal at
high levels
Dust Damage to respiratory tract lining and increased
susceptibility to disease
Humidity Effects vary with temperature. At >29°C and
>70% relative humidity, growth will be affected
55
Water
Birds produce a substantial volume of water, which passes into the
environment and must be removed by ventilation (whilst maintaining
required air temperatures). A 2.5 kg bird will consume some 7.5 kg of
water in its lifetime and emit into the house atmosphere some 5.7 kg
of water. This indicates that for 10,000 birds some 57 tonnes of water is
lost into the environment as expired moisture into the air or excreted
in droppings. This water load must be removed by the house ventilation
system during the life of the flock. If water consumption is elevated for
any reason, the requirement for moisture removal will be even greater
than this.
Heat Stress
The normal body temperature of a broiler chicken is approximately 41°C.
When the environmental temperature exceeds 35°C, the broiler is likely to
experience heat stress.
The longer the broiler is exposed to high temperatures, the greater the
stress and its effects. Figure 17 refers to the relationship between
environmental temperature and exposure.
Figure 17: Relationship between Environmental Temperature, Exposure

Time and Body Temperature
Death
KEY
Death
Temperature of
Environment ºC
Broilers regulate their body temperature by two methods; sensible and

insensible heat loss. Between 13-25°C, sensible heat loss occurs as
physical radiation and convection to the cooler environment. When the
temperature rises above 30°C insensible heat loss occurs through
evaporative cooling and panting and increased respiration rate. The
relationship between the two types of heat loss and environmental
temperature is illustrated in Table 14.
56
Table 14: Heat Loss in Broilers
Heat Loss %
Environmental
Temperature Sensible Insensible
(Radiation & Convection) (Evaporation)
25°C 77 23
30°C 74 26
35°C 10 90
Panting allows the bird to control its body temperature by evaporation of

water from the respiratory surfaces and air sacs. This process uses
energy. In conditions of high humidity panting is less effective. Where high
temperatures are maintained for long periods, or humidity is high, panting
may be insufficient to control body temperature and the bird may then
experience heat stress. As the bird passes into a condition of heat stress,
vent temperature goes up, heart rate and metabolic rate increase and
oxygenation of the blood decreases. The physiological stress induced by
these reactions can be fatal.
If the birds are observed to be panting, then general house temperature

may be too high, or local house temperature may be elevated due to a
problem with uniformity of the air distribution.
To reduce heat stress:
• Reduce stocking density.

• Ensure cool, fresh, low-salt drinking water is available at all times.
• Feed during the coolest part of the day.
• Increase airflow over the bird to two to three m/sec.
• Minimise the effects of radiant heat from the sun.
• Reduce effects of excessive temperatures by placing sexes separately
at lower stocking densities.
Housing and Ventilation Systems

There are two basic types of ventilation system: natural and power.
Natural (Open-sided Housing), which can be:
• Non-mechanically assisted
• Mechanically assisted
Power (Controlled Environment Housing), which can be:
• Minimum
• Transitional
• Tunnel
• Evaporative Pad
• Fogging/Misting
57
Natural Ventilation: Open-Sided Housing

Natural ventilation refers to an open-sided house with curtains, flaps or
doors (Figure 18). Natural ventilation involves opening up the side of the
house to allow convection currents to flow air into and through the house.
Sidewall curtains are the most common and natural ventilation is often
referred to as curtain ventilation. When it gets warm, the curtains are opened
to let in outside air. When it gets cold, the curtains are closed to restrict
the flow of air.
Figure 18: An Example of Natural Ventilation
Curtain ventilation requires continuous 24 hour management if house

environment is to be satisfactorily controlled. The constant monitoring of
conditions and adjustment of curtains is required to compensate for
changes in temperature, humidity, wind velocity and wind direction.
Open-sided, naturally-ventilated housing is now less popular on account
of its high management demand and controlled environment housing is
seen as delivering better liveability, growth rate, feed conversion efficiency
and bird comfort.
When open, house curtains allow a large volume of outside air through the
house, equalising inside and outside conditions. Curtain ventilation is ideal
only when outside temperature is close to the target house temperature.
The air exchange rate depends on outside winds, and fan assistance
improves the efficacy of air circulation. On warm to hot days with little
wind, fans provide a wind chill cooling effect. Foggers or misters should
be used with circulation fans to add a second level of cooling.
In cold weather, when curtain openings are small, heavy outside air enters
at low speed and drops immediately to the floor, which can chill the birds
and create wet litter. At the same time, warmer air escapes from the
house, which results in large temperature swings. In cold weather,
circulation fans help to mix incoming cold air with in-house warm air. In
cool climates, automatic curtain operation is recommended, with sidewall
fans also operated by timers with thermostat overrides.
58
Power Ventilation Systems: Controlled Environment Housing

Power or negative pressure ventilation is the most popular ventilation
method used to control house environment. Better control over air
exchange rates and airflow patterns provides more uniform conditions
throughout the house.
Power ventilated systems use electric exhaust fans to draw air out of the
house and so create a lower pressure within the house than that outside
the house (Figure 19). This creates a partial vacuum (negative or static
pressure) inside the house so that outside air can pass in through
controlled openings in the sidewalls. The speed at which air enters a
house is determined by the amount of vacuum within the house. This, in
turn, is a function of fan capacity and air inlet area.
Figure 19: An Example of Power Ventilation
The key to achieving correct negative (or static) pressure is the matching
of the amount of sidewall openings to the number of exhaust fans in
operation. Mechanical controls will automatically adjust inlet openings to
the number of fans running. The amount of negative pressure generated
can be monitored by a hand-held or wall-mounted static pressure gauge.
As broilers grow, ventilation rates must be increased. Additional

automatically-controlled fans should be set to begin operating as needed.
This is achieved by equipping the house with temperature sensors or
thermostats placed in the centre of the house or (preferably) at multiple
points at bird level.
Negative pressure ventilation can be operated in three different modes

according to the ventilation needs of the birds:
• Minimum Ventilation
• Transitional Ventilation
• Tunnel Ventilation
With any powered system, a standby emergency generator is required.
59
Minimum Ventilation Systems

Minimum ventilation is used for cooler weather and for young birds.
The aim of minimum ventilation is to bring in fresh air and exhaust

in-house stale air, sufficient to remove excess moisture and harmful gases
whilst maintaining required air temperature.
Temperature
Temperature requirements for chicks up to 21 days are given in Section 1,
Chick Management, of this Manual. Guideline temperatures at chick level
fall from a recommendation of around 30°C at day-old to 20°C at 27 days.
Subsequently, the recommendation is for 20°C through to slaughter.
Actual and effective temperatures will, of course, vary from these
guidelines according to circumstance and chick behaviour as detailed
here and in Section 1.
Ventilation
No matter what the outside temperature, it is essential to ventilate the
house for at least some minimum amount of time. Table 15 gives typical
minimum ventilation rates for a 20,000 bird house.
Table 15: Minimum Ventilation Rates (20,000 Bird House)
Bird Age (days) m3 per hour per bird Total m3 per hour
1-7 0.16 3,200

8-14 0.42 8,400
15-21 0.59 11,800
22-28 0.84 16,800
29-35 0.93 18,600
36-42 1.18 23,600
43-49 1.35 27,000
50-56 1.52 30,400
The key to successful minimum ventilation is creating a partial vacuum

(negative pressure) so air comes through all inlets at sufficient speed. This
will ensure that incoming air is mixed with warm in-house air above the
birds rather than dropping directly onto the birds and chilling them. The
speed of incoming air should be the same through all inlets to ensure
uniform airflow.
This type of ventilation is preferably timer-driven, calculated as shown on

the following page. As birds grow or as outside air temperatures increase,
the timer should be overridden to provide adequate ventilation according
to bird needs. The override should be operated by thermostats set to
operate for each 1°C rise in temperature.
60
Calculation for Minimum Ventilation Fan Timer Settings

To determine the interval fan timer settings for achieving minimum
ventilation the following steps are employed (all these steps are laid out
with example calculations in Appendix 7):
• Obtain the appropriate minimum ventilation rate as recommended in

Appendix 7. The exact rates will vary with breed, sex and for each
individual poultry house. Check with the company of manufacture and
local Aviagen Technical Services Representative for more specific
information. The rates given in Appendix 7 are for temperatures
between -1 and 16°C; for lower temperatures a slightly lower rate may
be required and for higher temperatures a slightly higher rate.
• Calculate the total ventilation rate required for the house (total cubic
metres per hour (cmh)) as:
total minimum = minimum ventilation x the number of birds

ventilation rate per bird in the house
• Calculate the percentage time for running the fans as:
total ventilation needed

percentage of time =
total capacity of the fans used
• Multiply the percentage of time needed by the total fan timer cycle
to give the time that the fans require to be on in each cycle.
Key Points
• Minimum ventilation is used for young chicks, night-time or winter
ventilation.
• It is essential to provide some ventilation to the house, no matter
what the outside temperature, to provide fresh air and remove
waste gases and excess moisture.
• Minimum ventilation should be timer-driven.
Transitional Ventilation Systems

Transitional ventilation operates using two ventilation principles based on
the outside temperature and the age of the birds. It is used where both hot
and cold periods are experienced.
Whereas minimum ventilation is timer-driven, transitional ventilation is

temperature-driven.
Transitional ventilation begins when a higher than minimum air exchange

rate is required. That is, whenever temperature sensors or thermostats
override the minimum ventilation timer to keep fans running.
61
Transitional ventilation works in the same way as minimum ventilation, but

a larger fan capacity gives a larger volume of air exchange. Successful
transitional ventilation requires sidewall inlets linked to a static pressure
controller so heat can be removed without switching to tunnel ventilation.
Usually, transitional ventilation may be used when outside temperature is
not greater than 6°C above the target house temperature, or if the outside
temperature is not greater than 6°C below the target house temperature.
If outside temperature is more than 6°C above the target house
temperature, then the fans used for transitional ventilation will not provide
adequate cooling and tunnel ventilation will need to be employed. If
outside temperature is more than 6°C below the target house
temperature, then the fans used for transitional ventilation will risk chilling
the birds.
Key Points
• Transitional ventilation is temperature-driven based on the outside
temperature and the age of the birds.
• Transitional ventilation is used when a higher than minimum air
exchange is required.
• In general, transitional ventilation may be used when outside
temperature is not greater than +/- 6ºC of target house temperature.
Tunnel Ventilation Systems

Tunnel ventilation keeps birds comfortable in warm to hot weather and
where large birds are being grown by using the cooling effect of
high-velocity airflow.
Tunnel ventilation provides maximum air exchange and creates a wind

chill cooling effect. Each 122 cm fan for birds under four weeks of age will
generate a wind chill of 1.4°C. For birds over four weeks, this figure drops
to 0.7°C.
As air velocity increases, the effective temperature felt by the birds falls. The
rate of fall is twice as great for younger birds as compared to older birds.
Thus, with outside air at 32°C, an air velocity of 1 metre per second will
cause a younger (four week old) bird to feel an effective temperature of
about 29°C. If air velocity increases to 2.5 metres per second, the same
bird will feel an effective temperature of about 22°C, a fall of 7°C. In the
case of an older bird (seven weeks), the fall is about half of that
(around 4°C).
Bird behaviour is the best way to assess bird ‘comfort’. If the house design
permits tunnel ventilation only, then considerable caution should be
practiced with young chicks which are prone to wind chill effects. For young
chicks, actual floor air speed should be less than 0.15 metres per second,
or as low as possible.
62
In tunnel houses birds will tend to migrate toward the air inlet end in hot
conditions. Where airflow is correct, temperature differences between
inlets and exits should not be large. A house with bird migration problems
can lose the production advantage of the tunnel environment. Installing
migration fences at 30 metre intervals prior to 21 days of age will prevent
bird migration problems. Solid migration fences should be avoided as they
will restrict airflow.
Key Points
• Tunnel ventilation is used in warm to hot weather or where large
birds are grown.
• Cooling is achieved through high-velocity airflow.
• Use bird behaviour to assess if environmental conditions are correct.
• Care should be taken with young chicks which are prone to wind
chill.
• Installation of migration fences should be considered.
Evaporative Cooling Systems

The high-velocity airflow of tunnel ventilation means that it is well suited to
the addition of an evaporative cooling system. Evaporative cooling is used
to improve environmental conditions in hot weather and enhances the
efficiency of tunnel ventilation. Evaporative cooling systems use the
principle of water evaporation to reduce the temperature in the house.
Evaporative cooling is best implemented to maintain a required

temperature in the house, rather than to reduce temperatures that have
already become stressfully high.
The three factors which directly affect evaporative cooling are:
• Outside Air Temperature.

• Relative Humidity (RH) of Outside Air.
• Evaporation Efficiency.
There are two primary types of evaporative cooling systems - pad cooling
with tunnel ventilation and fogging or misting.
Pad Cooling with Tunnel Ventilation

Pad cooling systems cool air by drawing it through wetted cellulose pads
(see Figure 20).The dual effect of pad cooling and air speed allows control
of environment when house temperatures are above 29°C. Excessively
high house humidity can be minimised by making sure that evaporative
cooling pads/fogging systems do not operate at temperatures below 27°C
in areas where the ambient humidity is high (greater than 80%).
63
Figure 20: Pad Cooling with Tunnel Ventilation
Airflow
Water
Evaporative Cooling Pad
Cooled Air
Entering House Hot Air
Water for Recirculation
Fogging/Misting
Fogging systems cool incoming air by evaporation of water created by
pumping water through fogger nozzles. Fogging lines must be placed near
the air inlets to maximise the speed of evaporation and additional lines
should be added throughout the house.
Figure 21: Example Fogging System
64
There are three types of fogging system:
• Low pressure, 7-14 bar; droplet size up to 30 microns.

• High pressure, 28-41 bar; droplet size 10-15 microns.
• Ultra high pressure (misting), 48-69 bar; droplet size 5 microns.
With low pressure systems larger particle sizes can cause wet litter if
house humidity is high. High pressure systems minimise residual moisture
giving an extended humidity range. Fine droplet size will help avoid wet
litter; which is especially important during the brooding period.
Key Points
• Keep fans, foggers, evaporators and inlets clean.
• Evaporative cooling is used to enhance tunnel ventilation in hot
weather.
• There are two types of system; pad cooling and fogging/misting.
• Pad cooling draws air through wetted cellulose pads and allows
control of the environment when house temperatures are above
29°C.
• Fogging systems cool incoming air by evaporation of water
pumped through foggers. High pressure systems minimise
residual moisture.
Lighting for Broilers

A lighting programme should be simple in design. Complicated lighting
programmes can be difficult to implement successfully. Lighting
recommendations are subject to local legislation and these should be
taken into account before starting a programme.
Light is an important management technique in broiler production. There

are at least four important aspects:
• Wavelength (colour).
• Intensity.
• Photoperiod Length.
• Photoperiod Distribution (intermittent programmes).
Photoperiod length and distribution have interactive effects.
The lighting programme used by many broiler growers has been to

provide what is essentially continuous lighting. This system consists of a
long continuous light period, followed by a short dark period of
30-60 minutes. This short period of dark is to allow birds to become
accustomed to darkness should a power failure occur.
65
Continuous lighting has, in the past, been assumed to help maximise daily
live-weight gain; but this assumption is not correct.
Exposure to darkness influences bird productivity, health, hormonal

profiles, metabolic rate, heat production, metabolism, physiology and
behaviour.
Recent information indicates that darkness exposure:
• Reduces early growth (however, there may be later compensatory

growth that can enable birds to catch up to equal target market
weights, but only if the duration of darkness is not excessive. For
broilers processed at low body weights (e.g. <1.6 kg) compensatory
growth may not be achieved due to insufficient grow-out time).
• Improves feed efficiency due to reduced metabolism during darkness
and/or a change in the growth curve (i.e. a more concave growth
curve).
• Improves bird health by reducing sudden death syndrome (SDS),
ascites and skeletal disorders.
• Affects carcase yield with:
- A decrease in the proportion of breast meat.
- An increase in the proportion of leg portions.
- An unpredictable change (more, or less, or none) in abdominal fat.
All lighting programmes should provide for a long day length such as
23 hours light and one hour dark in the early stages of growth to seven
days of age. This is in order to ensure chicks have good feed intake.
Reducing day length too soon will reduce feeding activity and depress
seven-day body weight.
When comparing various wavelengths of monochromatic light at the same

light intensity, broiler growth rate appears to be better when exposed to
wavelengths of 415–560 nm (violet to green) than in those exposed to
>635 nm (red) or broad spectrum (white) light.
A light intensity of 30-40 lux from 0-7 days of age and 5-10 lux thereafter
will improve feeding activity and growth. The intensity of light should be
uniformly distributed throughout the house (reflectors placed on top of
lights can improve the distribution of light).
Within the European Union, lighting requirements are based on Council

Directive 2007/43/EC. These stipulate that a light intensity of at least
20 lux during the lighting period must be provided at all ages.
To attain a state of darkness, a light intensity of less than 0.4 lux should
be achieved during the dark period. During darkness exposure, care
should be taken to avoid light seepage through air inlets, fan housings and
door frames. Regular tests should be conducted to check the
effectiveness of light proofing.
All birds should have equal, free and ad libitum access to nutritionally
adequate feed and water as soon as the lights are switched on. (See
Section 2, Provision of Feed and Water).
66
Broilers will adapt their feeding behaviour in response to reduced day

length. For example, a change in day length from 24 to 12 hours of light
will initially cause chicks to reduce feed intake by 30-40% during the first
three days. However, as soon as eight days later, the reduction in feed
intake can be less than 10%. Broilers change their pattern of feeding in
the light period by filling their crops in anticipation of the dark period.
When the lights come back on they will do the same again. Birds sent for
slaughter at younger ages have less time to adapt their eating and
drinking behaviours in response to darkness exposure than do those
slaughtered at correspondingly older ages. Thus the effects of darkness
exposure on live performance are more pronounced in broilers
slaughtered at younger ages.
The table below provides lighting programme guidance based on

slaughter weight target.
Table 16: Basic Light Intensity and Photoperiod Recommendations to

Optimise Live Performance
Live Weight Age Intensity Day Length

at Slaughter (days) (lux) (hours)
Less than 2.5 kg 0-7 30-40 23 light 1 dark
8 - 3 days 5-10 20 light 4 dark++
before slaughter+
More than 2.5 kg 0-7 30-40 23 light 1 dark
8 - 3 days 5-10 18 light 6 dark
before slaughter+
NOTES
+
For at least the last three days before slaughter, 23 hours' light : one hour darkness should be provided.
++
The EU Broiler Welfare Directive requires a total of six hours darkness, with at least one uninterrupted
period of darkness of at least four hours.
Aviagen does not recommend continuous lighting for the life of the broiler
flock. A minimum four hours of darkness should be provided after seven
days of age. Failure to provide at least four hours of darkness will result in:
• Abnormal feeding and drinking behaviours due to sleep deprivation.

• Sub-optimal biological performance.
• Reduced bird welfare.
In hot weather conditions, and where environmental control capability is

not available, the period without artificial light should be timed to
maximise bird comfort. For example, when birds are reared in open-sided
housing with no environmental control capability, feed is often removed for
a time period during the heat of the day and continuous lighting is
provided at night to allow birds to feed during this cooler period.
Broilers benefit from a defined pattern of light and dark (day and night) by
having distinct time periods for rest and for activity. A number of important
physiological processes, such as bone mineralisation and digestion,
normally exhibit diurnal rhythms. Therefore, defined cycles of light and
dark allow broilers to experience natural patterns of growth
and development.
67
Subsequent to feeding, normal gut passage time in the broiler is

approximately four hours. Thus, exposure to darkness for more than six
consecutive hours may encourage overly-aggressive feeding behaviour
when the lights come back on. This may result in an increase in skin
scratches, an increase in condemnations and a reduction in carcase grade
at the meat processing plant.
Additionally, darkness exposure beyond four hours will:
• Reduce breast meat yield.

• Increase leg meat yield.
This phenomenon is important to farmers who produce broilers for

de-boning.
Photoperiod distribution can also be modified and this is referred to as an

intermittent programme. An intermittent programme consists of blocks of
time containing both light and dark periods, which are repeated
throughout the 24 hours. The benefits of such a programme are that in
giving broilers discrete meals (i.e. short feeding periods) followed by
periods for digestion (i.e. dark periods), the efficiency of feed utilisation
(i.e. FCR) is improved. The extra activity caused by the regular pattern of
light and dark is thought to be beneficial in improving leg health and
carcase quality e.g. lower incidence of hockburn and breast blisters. If
intermittent lighting programmes are used, the protocol should be
designed as simply as possible to allow for practical implementation.
The extent of the effect of the lighting programme upon broiler production
is influenced by:
• The time of programme application (early application being most

effective in benefiting bird health).
• Age at marketing (older birds being likely to benefit more from
darkness exposure).
• Environment (the effects of increased stocking density will be
exacerbated by longer darkness exposure).
• Nutrition (the effects of limited feeder space will be made worse by
longer darkness exposure).
• Rate of bird growth (the impact of lighting on health will be greater in
rapidly growing birds than in birds fed nutritionally limiting diets).
Several types of light source can be used for broilers and the most
common types are incandescent and fluorescent. Incandescent lights
provide a good spectral range, but are not energy efficient. However,
incandescent lights with higher lumen output per watt will help reduce
operating costs. Fluorescent lights produce three to five times the amount
of light per watt compared to incandescent lights. However, fluorescent
lights lose intensity over time and must be replaced before actually failing.
Fluorescent lighting provides significant savings in electricity costs after
the additional installation costs have been recovered.
There are no differences between these light sources as far as broiler

performance is concerned. Bulbs and reflectors must be cleaned regularly
for maximum effectiveness.
68
Key Points
• Keep it simple.
• Continuous, or near continuous, lighting is not optimal.
• Up to seven days of age chicks should have 23 hours light
(30–40 lux) and one hour dark.
• After seven days of age a period of darkness of four hours or more
(but never more than six hours) is likely to be beneficial.
• The hours of darkness chosen will depend upon circumstances and
market requirement.
• Many aspects of production management interact with the
lighting programme and modify the effects of lighting pattern on
bird performance.
Litter Management
Local economics and raw material availability will dictate the choice
of litter material used. Litter should provide:
• Good moisture absorption.
• Biodegradability.
• Bird comfort.
• Low dust level.
• Freedom from contaminants.
• Consistent availability from a biosecure source.
Soft wood shaving material should be evenly distributed to a depth of
8-10 cm. Where floor temperatures are correct (28-30°C) the litter depth
can be reduced when litter disposal is an issue. Concrete floors are
preferable to earth floors since they are washable and allow more effective
litter management. The characteristics of some common litter materials are
shown below.
Table 17: Characteristics of Common Litter Materials
Material Characteristics
New White Wood Shavings Good absorption and breakdown
Possible contamination by toxic insecticides and other chemical
compounds (giving a musty taint)
Chopped Straw Wheat straw is preferred
Possible contamination by agrochemicals, fungi and mycotoxins
Slow to break down
Best used 50/50 with white wood shavings
Shredded Paper Can be difficult to manage in humid conditions
Glossy paper is not suitable
Chaff and Hulls Not very absorbent
Best mixed with other materials
May be ingested
Sawdust Not suitable
Dusty and may be ingested
Chemically Treated Straw Pellets Use as recommended by supplier
Sand Can be used in arid areas on concrete floors
If too deep bird movement may be impeded
Needs good management
Peat Moss Can be successfully used
69
It is important that the litter is kept loose and dry throughout the life of the
flock. If the litter becomes caked or too wet, the incidence of carcase
downgrades can increase substantially.
The main causes of poor litter quality are given below.
Figure 22: Reasons for Poor Quality Litter
Poor quality litter material

or insufficient depth
High humidity Drinker design and adjustment
Enteritis due to disease Poor Litter Quality Poor ventilation
Poor quality fats High salt, protein diets
High stocking density
Key Points
• Protect broilers from damage and provide a dry warm covering to
the floor by using adequate quantities of a good quality litter
material.
• Avoid nutritional causes of wet litter.
• Ensure adequate ventilation and avoid excess moisture.
• Choose a litter material that is absorbent, non-dusty and clean.
• Litter should be readily available at a low cost from a reliable
source.
• Use fresh litter for each crop to prevent re-infection by pathogens.
• Litter storage facilities should be protected from the weather and
secure from access by vermin and wild birds.
Stocking Density
Stocking density is ultimately a decision based on economics and local
welfare legislation.
Stocking density influences bird welfare, broiler performance, uniformity

and product quality.
Overstocking increases the environmental pressures on the broiler,

compromises bird welfare and will ultimately reduce profitability.
70
Quality of housing and the environmental control system determine the

best stocking density. If stocking density is increased, ventilation, feeding
space and drinker availability must be adjusted.
The floor area needed for each broiler will depend on:
• Target live weight and age at slaughter.

• Climate and season.
• Type and system of housing and equipment, particularly ventilation.
• Local legislation.
• Quality assurance certification requirements.
In certain regions of the world the legislation of stocking density is based

simply on kg/m2. An example of this would be European Union
recommendations.
Within the European Union stocking densities are based on the EU Broiler
Welfare Directive.
• 33 kg/m2; or
• 39 kg/m2 if stricter welfare standards are met; or
• 42 kg/m2 if exceptionally high welfare standards are met over a prolonged
period.
Welfare standards refer to adequate provision of feed and water,

sustainable good indoor climatic conditions and minimal incidence of foot
pad dermatitis.
An alternative best practice recommendation, based on bird husbandry,

takes account of bird numbers and bird mass in the floor area.
An example of this would be based on USA recommendations.
This recommendation is shown below.
Table 18: Guide to Stocking Densities According to Bird Numbers and

Live Weight (USA Recommendations)
Bird Live Weight Birds Bird Weight (kg)

(kg) per m2 per m2
1.36 21.5 29.2
1.82 15.4 28.0
2.27 12.7 28.8
2.73 12.0 32.7
3.18 10.8 34.3
3.63 9.4 34.1
71
Stocking Density in Hot Climates

In hot conditions, the stocking density used will depend on ambient
temperature and humidity. Appropriate changes should be made in
accordance with house type and equipment capabilities.
Example stocking densities used in hot conditions are as follows:
• In houses with controlled environment:

- A maximum of 30 kg per square metre at slaughter.
• In open-sided houses, with poor environmental control:
- A maximum of 20-25 kg per square metre at slaughter.
- At the hottest times of the year a maximum of 16-18 kg per square metre.
• In open-sided houses, with no environmental control:
- It is not recommended to grow birds to live weights above three kg.
Key Points
• Adjust stocking density to allow for age and weight at which the
flock is to be slaughtered.
• Match stocking density to climate and housing system.
• Reduce stocking density if target house temperatures cannot be
achieved due to hot climate or season.
• Adjust ventilation and feeder and drinker space if stocking density
is increased.
• Follow local legislation and requirements of quality assurance
standards set by product purchasers.
72
Notes
73
Notes
74
MONITORING LIVE WEIGHT AND UNIFORMITY OF PERFORMANCE

Section 5:
MONITORING
LIVE WEIGHT AND
UNIFORMITY OF
PERFORMANCE
Objective
To assess live flock performance against targets and

to ensure that defined end product specifications are
as closely met as possible.
Pages Contents
77 Principles
77 Predictability of Live Weight
78 Flock Uniformity (CV%)
80 Separate-Sex Growing
ROSS BROILER MANAGEMENT MANUAL: Monitoring Live Weight and Uniformity of Performance
Monitoring Live Weight

and Uniformity of Performance
Principles
Profitability depends upon maximisation of the proportion of birds closely
meeting target specifications. This requires predictable and uniform
growth.
Growth management depends upon the knowledge of past, present and

likely future growth performance. This knowledge, and safe subsequent
actions, can only be achieved if the measurement of the growth is
accurate.
Predictability of Live Weight

Accurate information on live weight and coefficient of variation (CV%) for
each flock is essential in planning the appropriate age for slaughter and to
ensure that the maximum number of birds fall into the desired weight
bands at slaughter.
As growth rate increases, and as slaughter age becomes earlier,

prediction of live-weight gain over more than two to three days is less
accurate. Accurate estimation and prediction of flock live weight at
slaughter requires large numbers of birds (greater than 100) to be
repeatedly sampled close to slaughter age (within two to three days).
The table below shows the number of birds required to be sampled to give
a live weight estimate of defined reliability and accuracy within flocks of
differing variability.
Table 19: Number of Birds in a Sample to Give Accurate Estimates

of Live Weight According to Flock Uniformity
Uniformity of Flock+ Number of Birds
to be Weighed++
Uniform (CV% = 8) 61
Moderately Uniform (CV% = 10) 96
Poorly Uniform (CV% = 12) 138
NOTES
+
As measured by Coefficient of Variation (CV%; i.e. standard deviation/average body weight*100),
the higher the number, the more variable the flock body weight is.
++
Estimate of live weight will be within +/- 2% of actual live weight and will be correct 95% of the time.
Birds can be weighed using manual or automatic weighing scales.

Unexpected changes in live weight may be indicative of scale error or
malfunction. Scales should be regularly checked for accuracy and
repeatability.
77
When using manual scales the birds should be weighed at least three
times per week. On each occasion, equal sized samples of birds should
be taken from at least two locations in each house.
Automatic weighing systems should be located where large numbers of

birds congregate and where individual birds will remain long enough for
weights to be recorded.
Older and heavier males tend to use auto-weighers less frequently, which
biases the flock mean downwards. Readings from any auto-weigher
should be regularly checked for usage rate (number of completed weights
per day) and the mean live weights achieved should be cross-checked by
manual weighing at least once per week. Inaccurate live weight estimation
will result from small sample sizes.
Key Points
• Bird numbers weighed must be sufficiently large.
• Birds weighed must be representative of the whole flock.
• The scales used must be accurate.
• Birds should be weighed frequently and accurately to ensure
effective prediction of live weight at slaughter.
Flock Uniformity (CV%)

Broiler live weight will follow a normal distribution. The variability of a
population (the flock) is described by the coefficient of variation (CV%)
which is the standard deviation of the population expressed as a
percentage of the mean.
Variable flocks will have a high CV%, uniform flocks a lower one.
Each sex will have a normal distribution of live weight. The As-Hatched
(mixed sex) flock will have a wider CV% than single-sex flocks. (See
Figure 23 which refers to a flock at the end of grow-out).
78
Figure 23: Distribution of Live Weights in a Flock of As-Hatched Broilers

% of Flock at Particular Live Weight
KEY
Female
Male
As-Hatched
1,200 1,400 1,600 1,800 2,000 2,200 2,400 2,600 2,800
Live Weight (grammes)
Figure 24 shows weight distributions at different levels of uniformity

(CV%) for three single-sexed flocks, all achieving a target live weight of
1900 g. It can be seen that the weight distributions within each flock are
quite different.
The lower the CV%, and therefore the less variable the flock, the more
birds achieve the target.
Figure 24: Effect of CV% on Live Weight Bands in a Flock of Sexed Broilers
% of Flock in Live Weight Band
KEY
CV% = 8
CV% = 10
CV% = 12
Flock Details:
- Sexed Flock
(males or females)
- Mean live weight 1,900 g
1,300 1,500 1,700 1,900 2,100 2,300 2,500 2,700
Live Weight (grammes)
The proportion of birds achieving the target relates to the width of the
band allowed for the target and the variability of the flock. Thus, if a live
weight band of 1,800-2,000 g is required, even at a CV% of eight, only
58% of the birds achieve required live weight (see Figure 25).
79
An understanding of these principles of biological variability forms the

basis of effective planning in processing plants.
Figure 25: Effect of CV% on Proportion of Birds in Target Live Weight Band
97
91
% of Flock in Live Weight Band
86 84
76
67
58
49
41
KEY
CV% = 8
CV% = 10
CV% = 12
1,800-2,000 g 1,700-2,100 g 1,600-2,200 g
Target Live Weight Band
Key Points
• Birds in more uniform flocks will be more likely to meet the required
target live weight.
• Variability in performance increases the flock CV%, which
influences both flock profitability and processing plant efficiency.
• Minimise flock variability by monitoring and managing flock
uniformity.
• Uniform flocks (low CV%) are more predictable in performance than
uneven flocks.
Separate-Sex Growing
The number of birds which achieve live weight at, or close to, the flock
mean can be predicted from the CV% of that flock. It follows that
improvements in uniformity can be attained by growing flocks in
single-sex populations from placement. Flocks can be sexed through the
technique of feather sexing, which is described in Appendix 4.
The advantages of separate-sex growing can be best exploited when

males and females are housed separately. Both sexes can be managed
more efficiently with regard to feeding, lighting and stocking density.
Males grow faster, are more feed efficient and have less carcase fat than
females. A different feeding programme can be employed for the different
sexes. The most practical method is to use the same feeds for both sexes, but
to introduce the Finisher feed earlier for females (i.e. before 25 days of age). It
is recommended that the amount or duration of Starter feed be kept the same
to ensure proper early development. For more information on separate-sex
feeding please consult your local Aviagen Nutrition Services Representative.
80
Males may benefit from a modified lighting programme if being killed at

heavier weights compared to females. So where sexed flocks are placed
in a divided single house, with a common environment and feed supply,
careful thought will be needed to optimise the growth management for
each sex without limiting the other.
Key Points
• Minimise flock variability by monitoring and managing flock
uniformity.
• Grow sexes separately to reduce variability.
81
Notes
82
PRE-PROCESSING MANAGEMENT
Section 6:
PRE-PROCESSING
MANAGEMENT
Objective
To manage the final phase of the production process so

that broilers are transferred to the processor in optimum
condition, ensuring that the processing requirements
are met and high standards of welfare are maintained.
Pages Contents
85 Principles
85 Preparation for Catching
86 Catching
90 Processing
ROSS BROILER MANAGEMENT MANUAL: Pre-Processing Management
Pre-Processing Management
Principles
The quality of the bird at the point of sale can be substantially influenced
by management procedures at the end of the growth period, at catching
and through handling and transportation.
Attention to aspects of bird welfare at this time will deliver benefits not
only to the birds themselves, but also to their subsequent eating quality.
Growing conditions influence carcase yield and the incidence of

downgrading, while inadequately managed feed removal will affect faecal
and microbial contamination of the carcases at the processing plant.
Improperly supervised harvesting can inflict damage by bruising, wing
breakage and internal bleeding of the thighs.
There is therefore advantage in maintaining the high quality of broiler

achieved thus far by detailed attention to management of the environment
and to the welfare of the birds during catching, handling between the
broiler house and the transport system, during transportation and at the
processing plant.
It is inevitable that some weight loss will occur during the time the bird is
without feed prior to processing due to loss of gut contents. The effect of
these losses on carcase weight can be minimised by ensuring that the
period without feed does not become excessive.
Birds without feed for more than ten hours will dehydrate, have
compromised welfare and have reduced carcase yield. Birds will usually
lose up to 0.5% of their body weight per hour when off feed for up to
12 hours (with water removed only when absolutely necessary). If they are
allowed to go over 12 hours without feed, weight loss increases to
0.75-1.0% of body weight per hour. This weight loss cannot be recovered.
Preparation for Catching

Light
When growth has been modified through the application of restricted
lighting programmes, it is essential to return to 23 hours of light (5-10 lux).
This will ensure that the birds are calm during collection. The EU Broiler
Directive requires 20 lux to be provided at least three days prior to the
first depletion.
Feed
A Withdrawal feed should be fed for sufficient time prior to slaughter to
eliminate the risk of pharmaceutical product residues in the meat.
Statutory withdrawal periods for coccidiostats and other prescribed
medicines that are specified in product data sheets must be followed.
Where thinning (i.e. partial depletion) programmes are used, it may be
necessary to keep the birds on the Withdrawal feed for longer than the
mandatory period prior to slaughter.
85
Feed should be removed from the birds eight to ten hours before the
expected slaughter time to reduce faecal contamination at the processing
plant. This period should include catching, transport and holding time. If
the time that the birds are without feed is prolonged, water absorbed from
body tissue accumulates in the digestive tract, resulting in reduced yield.
Faecal contamination may also be increased.
The presence of watery droppings from broilers awaiting processing is an

indication of the birds being without feed for an excessive time. Other
indicators include watery yellow fluid in the small intestine and litter in the
crop and gizzard.
Whole wheat, if included in the diet, should be removed two days before
slaughter, to avoid the presence of whole grain in the gut.
Water
Unlimited access to water should be provided for as long as possible and
water should be removed only when absolutely necessary.
Access to water will be prolonged by:
• Use of multiple drinker lines.

• Separation of birds into pens.
• Progressive removal of individual drinkers.
Key Points
• Use a Withdrawal feed (i.e. without coccidiostat) to avoid residues
in meat.
• Allow three days on full light (23 hours light and one hour dark) to
avoid problems during catching.
• Appropriate feed removal from the birds will ensure that the
digestive systems are empty before processing commences,
limiting faecal contamination during transport.
• Remove whole wheat from the ration two days before slaughter.
• Delay the removal of drinkers for as long as possible.
Catching
Catching and handling will cause stress to broilers. Most causes of
downgrading observed at slaughter will have occurred during the period
when the birds were being caught and handled. Catching should be
planned carefully in advance and supervised closely at all stages. The
handling of birds and operation of machinery, such as harvesters and
forklifts, must be carried out by appropriately trained, competent
personnel. Bird activity should be minimised to avoid bruising, scratching
and other injuries.
86
Mortality during the catching and transport process should not be more
than 0.1%.
Pre-catch
Calculate the time it will take to catch and to transport, and start the catch
according to when the birds are scheduled to be slaughtered.
Calculate the number of crates and trailers needed to transport the birds
before the process commences.
Ensure all equipment used (including vehicles, crates, fencing and nets),
is clean, disinfected and in good condition. Broken or damaged crates
may injure birds.
Repair, compact and level the ground at the entrance to the poultry house
(and any secondary roads leading to the house) to ensure a smooth exit
for the loaded trucks. This will prevent bruising and wing damage.
Remove any wet litter from the broiler house that may hinder the efforts of
the catching crew and replace with dry litter.
Raise all feeding equipment above head height (two metres), remove it
from the house or re-position it to avoid obstruction to the birds or
personnel.
Separate birds into pens within larger houses to avoid unnecessary

crowding and allow access to water for birds not immediately due for
catching.
Whenever possible, decrease the light intensity during catching to reduce

stress. For night-time catching, which is preferred, light intensity within the
house should be reduced to a minimum. For day-time catching light
intensity should be reduced as much as possible. In all cases light
intensity must be sufficient to allow safe and careful catching. Blue light
has been found to be satisfactory for this purpose. The best results are
achieved when birds are allowed to settle after lights have been dimmed
and when there is minimum disturbance.
The use of curtains over the main doors of the house is helpful when
catching during daylight hours.
The opening of doors and removal of birds will affect the ventilation of
thermostatically controlled environments. The ventilation system should
be monitored and adjusted carefully throughout the catching procedure to
reduce stress on the broilers and to prevent heat build-up within the
house.
Catch
Broilers should be caught and held by both shanks (never the thighs) to
minimise the distress, damage and injury, which might otherwise result if
they were able to struggle and flap.
87
The birds should be placed carefully into the crates or modules, loading
from the top down. Modules have been shown to result in less distress
and damage than conventional crates.
Crates or modules should never be overfilled. Overheating, stress and

increased mortality can result from the overfilling of crates/modules. The
number of broilers per crate or module must be reduced in high
temperatures.
Improperly operated catching equipment can cause stress and damage to

the broiler. Mechanical equipment (for example, Figure 26) used to catch
birds must be operated at moderate speeds to prevent damage and stress
to broilers. Never crowd or force the birds into the catching equipment.
Properly align the opening chute of the catching equipment with the
opening of the crate or module to prevent damage to the broiler.
Figure 26: An Example of a Mechanical Harvester
Transport
Transport time should be within the local current guidelines or legislation.
At all times up to the arrival at the slaughter house, adequate protection

from the elements is essential. Ventilation, extra heating and/or cooling
should be used when necessary. Vehicles should be designed to protect
the bird from the elements. Stress on the birds will be minimised in trailers
designed to provide adequate ventilation.
In hot weather, consider using fans while loading the birds to keep the air
circulating through the crates or modules on the truck. Allow at least ten
centimetres between every two tiers of crates. While waiting to be
processed, use fans and foggers to help keep birds cool.
88
Heat stress will develop rapidly when the transport vehicle is stationary,
particularly in hot weather or if on-board ventilation is not available. The
journey plan should allow the vehicle to leave the farm as soon as loading
is completed and driver breaks should be short.
Unloading at the holding area at the slaughter house must be completed

without delay. Supplementary ventilation will be required if delay is
unavoidable.
In cold weather, the load should be covered to minimise wind chill during
transport. Check bird comfort frequently.
Delivery
At the slaughter house, the trucks should be parked under cover and any
canvas that may restrict ventilation removed.
Good holding facilities at the slaughter house, providing the required

ventilation and temperature control, are essential for good bird welfare.
Holding areas should be equipped with lights, fans and foggers. Foggers
should be used during periods of high temperatures if relative humidity is
below 70%. In very hot weather water can be sprayed into the fans to
assist evaporation. In summer conditions make sure all fans and foggers
are functional in the holding areas.
Key Points
• Operate harvesting equipment properly.
• Maintain adequate ventilation during mechanical catching to
reduce stress.
• Supervise catching and handling methods carefully to minimise
trauma injuries to the birds.
• Remove or raise obstructions such as feeders or drinkers before
beginning the catching operation and use partitions in large houses
to avoid injuries caused by crowding.
• Reduce light intensity prior to catching to keep the birds calm and
minimise damage and subsequent stress.
• Adjust bird numbers in crates and modules to allow for bird weight
and ambient temperature.
• Plan journey and bird reception.
• Monitor welfare continuously.
89
Processing
Successful production of the maximum number of high quality carcases
with good yield depends on effective integration of the growing, catching
and processing operations.
Careful planning and communication between the farm and processing

plant will allow processing to proceed effectively. Management on the
farm can influence the efficient operation of the killing, plucking and
evisceration processes.
To minimise faecal contamination, carcase damage and downgrading,

close attention should be given to:
• Litter Quality
• Stocking Density
• Feed Removal Times
• Catching Methods
• Transport Time
• Holding Time
Key Points
• Present clean birds to the processor.
• Maintain good litter quality, depth and condition to minimise
hockburn and other carcase quality problems.
• Scratching damage may be increased under high stocking
densities, or when feeder or drinker spaces are inadequate,
especially when lighting or feed control is used.
• Process under conditions that maintain best welfare of the birds.
• Minimise transport and holding times to reduce stress
and dehydration.
90
Notes
91
Notes
92
APPENDICES
Section 7:
APPENDICES
Pages Contents
95 Appendix 1: Production Records

98 Appendix 2: Conversion Tables
101 Appendix 3: Efficiency Calculations
102 Appendix 4: Feather Sexing
103 Appendix 5: Classification of Months
104 Appendix 6: Problem Solving
106 Appendix 7: Ventilation Rates and Calculations
ROSS BROILER MANAGEMENT MANUAL: Appendices
Appendix 1. Production Records

Record keeping and analysis are essential to determine the effects of
changes to nutrition, management, environment and health status.
Accurate production records are essential for the effective management,
assessment of risk, control of the system and active response to
developing problems.
Analysis and interpretation of production data (e.g. live weight, feed

conversion efficiency and mortality) are essential to the upgrading and
improvement of performance.
Hygiene and disease status should be monitored.
It is good practice for all processes in a broiler operation to have standard

operating protocols (SOP). These should include documentation of
established procedures, records, record analysis and monitoring systems.
Records required in broiler production are detailed overleaf.
95
Table 20: Records Required in Broiler Production
Event Records Comment

Chick Placement Number of day-olds Live weight, uniformity, number
Flock of origin and flock age of dead on arrival
Date and time of arrival
Chick quality
Mortality Daily Record by sex if possible

Weekly Record culls and reason for
Cumulative culling separately
Post mortem records of
excessive mortality
Scoring of coccidial lesions will
indicate level of coccidial
challenge
Medication Date As per veterinary instruction

Amount
Batch number
Vaccination Date of vaccination Any unexpected vaccine

Vaccine type reaction should be recorded
Batch number
Expiry date
Live Weight Weekly average live weight More frequent measurement is

Weekly uniformity (CV%) required when predicting
slaughter weight or where
growth is modified through
lighting
Feed Date of delivery Accurate measurement of feed

Quantity consumed is essential to
Date of starting feed withdrawal measure FCR and to determine
Feed type cost effectiveness of broiler
operation
96
Table 20 (continued): Records Required in Broiler Production
Event Records Comment

Water Daily consumption Plot daily consumption in graph
form, preferably per house
Water to feed ratio Sudden fluctuation in water
consumption is an early
indicator of problems
Water quality Mineral and/or bacteriological –
Level of chlorination especially where bore holes or
open water reservoirs are used
Environment Temperature: Multiple locations should be

• Daily minimum monitored, especially in chick
• Daily maximum litter area
• During brooding, 4 to 5 times Automatic systems should
per day be cross-checked manually
• Litter during brooding each day
• External temperature – daily
Relative humidity – daily
Air quality Ideally record dust, CO2, NH3
or as a minimum observe levels
of dust and NH3
Litter quality
Depletion Number of birds removed

Time and date of removal
Information from Slaughter Carcase quality

House Health inspection
Carcase composition
Type and % condemnations
Cleaning Out Total bacterial counts After disinfection, salmonella,

staphylococcus or E. coli may
be monitored if required
House Inspection Record time of daily checks
97
Appendix 2. Conversion Tables

Length
1 metre (m) = 3.281 feet (ft)
1 foot (ft) = 0.305 metres (m)
1 centimetre (cm) = 0.394 inches (in)
1 inch (in) = 2.54 centimetres (cm)
Area
1 square metre (m2) = 10.76 square feet (ft2)
1 square foot (ft2) = 0.093 square metres (m2)
Volume
1 litre (l) = 0.22 imperial gallons (gal) or 0.264 US gallons (gal US)
1 imperial gallon (gal) = 4.54 litres (l)
1 US gallon (gal US) = 3.79 litres (l)
1 imperial gallon (gal) = 1.2 US gallons (gal US)
1 cubic metre (m3) = 35.31 cubic feet (ft3)
1 cubic foot (ft3) = 0.028 cubic metres (m3)
Weight
1 kilogramme (kg) = 2.205 pounds (lb)
1 pound (lb) = 0.454 kilogrammes (kg)
1 gramme (g) = 0.035 ounces (oz)
1 ounce (oz) = 28.35 grammes (g)
Energy
1 calorie (cal) = 4.184 Joules (J)
1 Joule (J) = 0.239 calories (cal)
1 kilocalorie per kilogramme (kcal/kg) = 4.184 Megajoules per kilogrammes (MJ/kg)
1 Megajoule per kilogramme (MJ/kg) = 108 calories per pound (cal/lb)
1 Joule (J) = 0.735 foot-pounds (ft-lb)
1 foot-pound (ft-lb) = 1.36 Joules (J)
1 Joule (J) = 0.00095 British Thermal Units (BTU)
1 British Thermal Unit (BTU) = 1,055 Joules (J)
1 kilowatt-hour (kW-h) = 3,412.1 British Thermal Units (BTU)
1 British Thermal Unit (BTU) = 0.00029 kilowatt-hours (kW-h)
Pressure
1 pound per square inch (psi) = 6,895 Newtons per square metre (N/m2) or Pascals (Pa)
1 pound per square inch (psi) = 0.06895 bar
1 bar = 14.504 pounds per square inch (psi)
1 bar = 105 Newtons per square metre (N/m2)
or Pascals (Pa)
= 100 kilopascals (kPa)
1 Newton per square meter (N/m2) or Pascal (Pa) = 0.000145 pounds per square inch (lb/in2)
98
Stocking Density
1 square foot per bird (ft2/bird) = 10.76 birds per square metre (bird/m2)
10 birds per square metre (bird/m2) = 1.08 square feet per bird (ft2/bird)
1 kilogramme per square metre (kg/m2) = 0.205 pounds per square foot (lb/ft2)
15 kilogrammes per square metre (kg/m2) = 3.08 pounds per square foot (lb/ft2)
34.2 kilogrammes per square metre (kg/m2) = 7.01 pounds per square foot (lb/ft2)
40 kilogrammes per square metre (kg/m2) = 8.20 pounds per square foot (lb/ft2)
Temperature
Temperature (°C) = 5/9 (Temperature °F - 32)
Temperature (°F) = 32 + 9/5 (Temperature °C)
Table 21: Temperature Conversion Chart
°C °F °C °F
0 32.0 22 71.6
2 35.6 24 75.2
4 39.2 26 78.8
6 42.8 28 82.4
8 46.4 30 86.0
10 50.0 32 89.6
12 53.6 34 93.2
14 57.2 36 96.8
16 60.8 38 100.4
18 64.4 40 104.0
20 68.0
Operating Temperature
Operating temperature is defined as the minimum house temperature plus
2/
3 of the difference between minimum and maximum house
temperatures. It is important where there are significant diurnal
temperature fluctuations.
e.g. Minimum house temperature 16°C.

Maximum house temperature 28°C.
Operating Temperature = [(28-16) x 2/3 ] + 16 = 24°C
99
Ventilation
1 cubic foot per minute (ft3/min) = 1.699 cubic metres per hour (m3/hour)
1 cubic metre per hour (m3/hour) = 0.589 cubic feet per minute (ft3/min)
Insulation
U value describes how well a building material conducts heat and is
measured in Watts per square kilometre per degree Centigrade
(W/km2/°C)
R value rates the isolative properties of building materials, the higher the
R value the better the insulation. It is measured in km2/W (or ft2/°F/BTU).
Insulation
1 square foot per degree Fahrenheit per = 0.176 square kilometres per Watt (km2/W)
British Thermal Unit (ft2/°F/BTU)
1 square kilometer per Watt (km2/W) = 5.674 square feet per degree Fahrenheit per
British Thermal Unit (ft2/°F/BTU)
Light
Light
1 foot candle = 10.76 lux
1 lux = 0.093 foot candles
A simple formula to calculate the number of lamps required for a broiler

house is as follows:
Floor area (m2) x max. lux required

Number of Lamps+ =
Wattage of lamp x K factor
NOTE
+
This formula is for tungsten bulbs at a height of two metres above bird level. Fluorescent lights provide
three to five times the number of lux per Watt as tungsten bulbs.
K factor depends on lamp wattage as shown below.
Table 22: Lamp Wattage and K Factors
Power of Lamp K Factor

(Watts)
15 3.8
25 4.2
40 4.6
60 5.0
100 6.0
100
Appendix 3. Efficiency Calculations

Production Efficiency Factor (PEF)+
Liveability x Live Weight in kg
x 100
Age in days x FCR
e.g
Age 42 days, live weight 2,652 g
Mortality 2.80%, FCR 1.75
97.20 x 2.652
x 100 = 351
42 x 1.75
e.g
Age 46 days, live weight 3,006 g
Mortality 3.10%, FCR 1.83
96.90 x 3.006
x 100 = 346
46 x 1.83
NOTES
The higher the value the better the technical performance.
This calculation is heavily biased by daily gain. When comparing across different environments comparisons
should be made at similar ages at slaughter.
+
Also referred to as European Efficiency Factor (EEF)
101
Appendix 4. Feather Sexing

Identification of males and females at day-old may be accomplished
easily at the hatchery as most strains of Ross Broiler are feather sexable.
In feather sexable broilers, fast-feathering chicks are female,
slow-feathering chicks are male. The type of feathering is identified by
observing the relationship between coverts (upper layer) and the primaries
(lower layer) which are found on the outer half of the wing.
In the slow-feathering male chick the primaries are the same length
or shorter than the coverts, see the figure below.
Figure 27: Ross Male Broiler Chick Wing Feathers
Same-Length Primaries
Shorter Primaries
102
In the fast-feathering female chick the primaries are longer than

the coverts, see the figure below.
Figure 28: Ross Female Broiler Chick Wing Feathers
Longer Primaries
Appendix 5. Classification of Months

Table 23: Classification of Months with Regards to Northern and Southern
Hemispheres
Spring Summer Autumn Winter

N.H. S.H. N.H. S.H. N.H. S.H. N.H. S.H.
March September June December September March December June
April October July January October April January July
May November August February November May February August
NOTE
N.H. - Northern Hemisphere
S.H. - Southern Hemisphere
103
Appendix 6. Problem Solving
Table 24: Problem Solving
Problem Possible Causes Action
High Early Mortality Poor Chick Quality Check hatchery practice and egg hygiene
(>1% in first week) Check chick transport
Incorrect Brooding Re-adjust brooders
Disease Post mortems on dead chicks, take
veterinary advice
Appetite Measure and achieve target crop fill levels
High Mortality Metabolic Diseases (ascites, Check ventilation rates
(post 7 days) sudden death syndrome) Check feed formulation
Avoid excessive early growth rates
Check hatchery ventilation
Infectious Diseases Establish cause (post mortem)
Take veterinary advice on medication
and vaccination
Check water consumption
Leg Problems Check calcium, phosphorus and vitamin D3
levels in diet
Use lighting programmes to increase bird activity
Poor Early Growth Nutrition Check starter ration –
and Uniformity availability and nutritional and physical quality
Check water supply - availability and quality
Chick Quality Check hatchery procedures: egg hygiene,
storage, incubation conditions, hatch time,
transport time and conditions
Environmental Conditions Check temperature and humidity profiles
Check day length
Check air quality – CO2, dust, minimum
ventilation rate
Appetite Check poor stimulation of appetite –
low proportion of birds with full crops
Poor Late Growth Low Nutrient Intake Check feed nutritional and physical
and Uniformity quality and formulation
Check feed intake and accessibility
Excessive early restriction
Lighting programme too restrictive
Infectious Disease See High Mortality
Environmental Conditions Check ventilation rates
Check stocking density
Check house temperatures
Check water and feed availability
104
Table 24 (continued): Problem Solving
Problem Possible Causes Action
Poor Litter Quality Nutrition Poor quality fats in diet

Excess salts in diet
Excess protein in diet
Environment Insufficient litter depth at start
Inappropriate litter material
Drinker design and adjustment
(spillage problems)
Humidity too high
Stocking density too high
Insufficient ventilation
Infectious Disease Causing enteritis, take veterinary advice
Poor Feed Poor Growth See Poor Early Growth, Poor Late Growth
Conversion High Mortality (esp. late mortality) See High Mortality
Feed Wastage Check settings/adjustments of feeders
Allow birds to clear feeders twice daily
Environment Check house temperature is not too low
Infectious Disease See High Mortality
Nutrition Check feed formulation and quality
Poor Feather Cover Environment Check house temperature is not too high
Nutrition Check ration for methionine and
cystine content and balance
Factory Downgrading Ascites See High Mortality
Blisters and Burns Check stocking density
(e.g. Hockburn) Check litter quality
Increase bird activity (e.g. feeding or lighting
programmes)
Bruises and Breaks Check handling procedures at
weighing and catching
Scratching Excessive light stimulation
Check handling procedures at weighing
and catching
Check access to feed and water
Oregon Disease (also known Birds excessively disturbed during growth
as Deep Muscular Myopathy e.g. at partial depletion (thinning), weighing etc.
or Green Muscle Disease) Poor feed distribution
Excessive Fatness Check nutritional balance of diet
Check house temperature not too high
105
Appendix 7. Ventilation Rates and Calculations

Table 25: Ventilation Rates (per bird) for Temperatures Between -1 and 16°C
Live Weight Minimum Ventilation Maximum Ventilation

(kg) Rate (m3/hour) Rate (m3/hour)
0.050 0.074 0.761
0.100 0.125 1.280
0.200 0.210 2.153
0.300 0.285 2.919
0.400 0.353 3.621
0.500 0.417 4.281
0.600 0.479 4.908
0.700 0.537 5.510
0.800 0.594 6.090
0.900 0.649 6.653
1.000 0.702 7.200
1.200 0.805 8.255
1.400 0.904 9.267
1.600 0.999 10.243
1.800 1.091 11.189
2.000 1.181 12.109
2.200 1.268 13.006
2.400 1.354 13.883
2.600 1.437 14.420
2.800 1.520 15.585
3.000 1.600 16.412
3.200 1.680 17.226
3.400 1.758 18.028
3.600 1.835 18.817
3.800 1.911 19.596
4.000 1.986 20.365
4.200 2.060 21.124
4.400 2.133 21.874
NOTES
For further explanation see Section 4, Housing and Environment.
Minimum ventilation rate is the quantity of air required per hour to supply sufficient oxygen to the birds and
maintain air quality.
Maximum ventilation rate in controlled environment sheds in temperate climates is the quantity of air
required per hour to remove heat produced by the birds such that the temperature within the building is
maintained at not greater than 3°C above external temperature.
Maximum ventilation rates will be exceeded when cooling birds using convective heat loss
e.g. tunnel ventilation.
Source: UK Agricultural Development and Advisory Service
106
Calculation for Minimum Ventilation Fan Timer Settings

To determine the interval fan timer settings for achieving minimum
ventilation the following steps are employed:
Obtain the appropriate minimum ventilation rate as recommended in

Table 25. The exact rates will vary with breed, sex and for each individual
poultry house. Check with the company of manufacture and local Aviagen
Technical Services Representatives for more specific information. The
rates given in Table 25 are for temperatures between -1 and 16°C; for
lower temperatures a slightly lower rate may be required and for higher
temperatures a slightly higher rate.
Calculate the total ventilation rate required for the house (total cubic
metres per hour (cmh)) as:
minimum ventilation the number of

Total minimum ventilation = x
rate per bird birds in the house
Calculate the percentage time for running the fans as:

Percentage of time =
Multiply the percentage of time needed by the total fan timer cycle to give
the time that the fans require to be on in each cycle.
107
Fan Timer Setting Calculation

Step 1: Calculate the total ventilation rate required for the house (total
cubic metres per hour (cmh))
Total minimum ventilation = minimum ventilation x the number of

rate per bird birds in the house
Example:
One house of 30,000 broilers weighing 800 g at 20 days of age.
Minimum ventilation rate is 0.594 cmh per bird (see Table 25).
Total ventilation required is 0.594 cmh x 30,000 birds = 17,820 cmh.
Step 2: Calculate the percentage time for running the fans
Assuming fan combinations commonly used for minimum ventilation

e.g. three 91 cm fans each with a capacity of 16,978 cmh, the percentage
of time fans need to run in order to achieve the total ventilation rate
required needs to be calculated.

Percentage of time =
Example:
Assuming the use of three 91 cm fans each with a capacity of 16,978 cmh.
Total fan capacity = 16,978 cmh x 3 = 50,934 cmh.
Percentage time = 17,820 cmh ÷ 50,934 cmh = 0.35 = 35%.
Therefore, the three 91 cm fans will have to be run for 35% of the time.
Step 3: Assuming that a five minute timer is used, the run time setting is
calculated by multiplying the percentage of time needed by the total fan
timer cycle of five minutes (300 seconds).
Example:
Using three 91 cm fans.
35% of five minutes (300 seconds) = 1.75 minutes or 105 seconds.
The fans will be on for 105 seconds in every five minutes.
108
ROSS BROILER MANAGEMENT MANUAL: Keyword Index
Keyword Index
Air, air quality 16, 18, 48, 49, 55, 60 Day length, dark period 65, 66, 67, 68, 69
Air exchange, flow 13, 16, 58, 60, 62, 63 Dead on arrival (DOA) 48, 49
All-in/all-out 13 De-boning 28, 68
Amino acids 27, 32 Dehydration of birds 14, 17, 48, 85
Ammonia 16, 32, 55 Density of stocking 70
Antibodies 12, 45 Depletion 85, 97
Ascites 55, 66, 104, 105 Diagnosis of disease 50
Automatic feeding, weighing, ventilation 38, 55, 58 Digestible essential amino acids, ingredients 31, 32
Bacterial contamination 32, 33, 38, 46, 49 Disease 14, 43, 46, 50, 70, 95, 104, 105
Barrier fence 43 Disease investigation 46
Behaviour 18, 20, 22, 50, 62, 67 Disinfection of environment 13, 44, 48
Biosecurity 43, 46, 48, 49 Disposal 44
Body temperature 57 Donor flock 12, 15
Bore holes 32, 33 Down-time 48
Breeder flocks 43 Down-grading 85, 90, 105
Brooding systems, conditions 14, 15, 18, 19, 20 Draughts, air 16, 17
21, 22, 48, 104 Drinker systems 14, 15, 17, 19, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37,
Calcium 28, 34 48, 70, 71, 86, 89, 90
Carbon dioxide, monoxide 16, 55 Dust 30, 55, 69
Carcase; quality, damage, yield 66, 68, 85, 90 Eating quality of birds 85
Catching 49, 86, 87, 89, 90 Effective temperature 62
Chick placement 14, 96 Energy 27
Chick quality 12, 104 Enteric disorders 32
Chilling; environmental 58, 60, 62 Environment 14, 17, 49, 55, 97, 105, 106
Chloride, Chlorine 28, 33, 45 Environmental conditions, changes, control 16, 50,
Cleaning; disinfection 43, 45, 48, 97 63, 104
Coccidiostats 85 Enzymes 28
Coefficient of variation (CV%) 78 European Efficiency Factor (EEF) 101
Comfort zone 49, 55, 62, 69, 89 Evaporation, cooling 56, 57, 63, 64, 89
Competition; feeding 38 Evisceration 90
Condemnation at slaughter 49 Fans, fan use 16, 59, 61, 65, 66, 88, 107, 108
Contamination; air, litter, feed 55, 69, 85 Fatness at slaughter 105
Controlled environment; housing 12, 59 Fats/oils 31, 32, 70
Convection heat loss 56, 58 Feather cover 105
Cooling, cold 17, 50, 62, 65, 88 Feather sexing 102
Copper 33 Fecal contamination 86, 90
Coverts; feathers 102 Feed, food 14, 15, 48, 49, 85, 96
Crates 87, 88 Feed conversion (FCR) 29, 38, 105
Crop, Crop-fill 15, 48 Feed cost 29
Crude protein 32 Feed distribution 39
109
Keyword Index
Feed form, type 11, 29, 30, 31, 38 Holding; time, area 13, 86, 89, 90
Feed formulating 31 Hot weather 31, 37
Feed hygiene 44 House inspection 97
Feed intake, appetite 18, 29, 31, 48, 50, 67, 104 Housing system 55, 57, 106
Feed quality 30 Hulls, chaff; litter 69
Feed removal, withdrawal 90 Humidity 14, 15, 16, 22, 48, 55, 57, 58, 63, 65, 69,
Feed spillage, waste, use 39 70, 72, 89
Feed to water ratio 37 Hygiene 48, 95
Feeder area, spaces 15, 38, 49, 71, 90 Immune status 12, 45
Feeder height 38 Incandescent lights 68
Feeder systems 11, 14, 15, 19, 21, 38, 49, 87, 89 Incubation 12
Feeding activity 66 Injuries, catching, processing 86, 87, 105
Females 80 Inlets, ventilation 59, 60, 62, 63, 64, 66
Fencing 87 Insulation 100
Fibre 32 Iron 33, 34
Flaps, ventilation 58 Isolation; biosecurity 43
Flock source, donor flock 48 Lead 33
Flock uniformity, variability 50, 80 Leg damage 39, 48, 104
Floor, floor area 14, 69, 71 Leg portions 66
Flow rate, of water 35 Light, light pattern, lux 14, 48, 49, 65, 66, 67, 68,
69, 100
Fluorescent lights 68
Light; catching 85, 86, 87, 89
Foggers, misters 17, 57, 58, 63, 64, 88, 89
Litter 13, 44, 47, 48, 49, 69, 86, 90
Footpad, Foot Pad Dermatitis 32, 71
Litter material 69
Fungal disease 49
Litter quality 32, 55, 105
Gases 16, 55, 60
Litter; in crop, gizzard 86
Genetic potential 11
Live weight 77, 79, 96
Growth 29, 66, 104
Live weight requirement 79
Growth management 77, 105
Lumen output 68
Growth; early 29, 104
Magnesium 33
Handling 49, 85, 86
Manganese 33
Harvesting equipment 86, 89
Meat yield 30
Hatchery 12, 48
Medication 85, 96
Hauling 49
Metabolic disease 49
Health 43, 45, 68
Microbiological testing 50
Heat increment 31
Micron size; misting 65
Heat loss 56
Migration fences 63
Heat stress 31, 50, 56, 57, 89
Minerals 28, 32
Heating 17
Mini-drinker 15, 21
Hocks, hockburn 48, 90
Minimum ventilation 61
110
Keyword Index
Misters see Foggers Potassium 28
Mixing of chicks 15 Pre-catch 87
Modules 88 Pressure gauge 59
Moisture; environmental 48, 55, 60 Primaries; feathers 102
Moisture loss during incubation 48 Problem solving 104
Mortality 12, 14, 50, 88, 96, 104 Processing 49, 85, 90
Multi-age sites 13 Production data, records 95
Muscular Myopathy 105 Production Efficiency Factor (PEF) 101
Musty taint, wood shavings 69 Protein 27, 70
Natural ventilation 57 Protozoal disease 49
Navels; unhealed 48 R value 100
Nipple drinkers, lines 15, 17, 19, 21, 36, 37 Radiant heat 56, 57
Nitrogen, nitrates 32, 33 Ratio of water to feed 34
Normal distribution, weight uniformity 78 Records; performance 46, 50, 95
Nutrient density 29 Reflectors; light 66
Nutrient intake 104 Reservoirs; water 32
Nutrition 104, 105 Residues; in feed 29, 86
Open-sided housing 58, 67 Respiration 17, 50, 56
Oregon Disease 105 Rodent; vermin 43
Organic matter in water 33 Salt/sodium 32, 57, 70
Overheating 88 Sampling; for weight estimation 77
Oxygen 55 Sanitation; of environment 44, 48, 49
Pads, cooling 63, 64, 65 Sawdust; litter 69
Pan feeders 11, 21, 38 Scratching 105
Panting 56, 57 Security, biosecurity 48, 49
Paper 11, 14, 15, 19, 21, 38, 69 Sediment; water 34
Parasitic disease 49 Sensible heat loss 56
Parent flocks, donor flock 12, 15 Sex management, separate sex 78, 80, 102
Particle size; feed 30 Side-wall curtains 58, 59
Pathogens 13, 43, 45, 70 Single-age sites 43
Peat moss; litter 69 Skeletal disorders 66
Pest control 43 Slaughter 77, 87, 89, 97
pH of water 33 Sodium 28, 33
Phosphorus 28, 32 Space; bird allowances 47, 48, 49, 71
Photoperiod 38, 68 Spillage; feed 38
Phytase 32 Spot brooders 17, 18, 20
Placement of chicks 12 Standard deviation; live weight uniformity 78
Plucking; processing 90 Stocking Density 19, 57, 70, 90
Post-mortem 50 Storage tanks; water 33
111
Keyword Index
Straw; litter 69 Water contamination 32, 34
Stress 49, 50, 56, 57, 86, 88 Water hardness, quality 33
Stunted chicks, runted 48 Water level 36, 48
Sudden Death Syndrome 66, 104 Water loss 32
Sulphates 33 Water meters 35
Temperature 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 22, 37, 48, 50, Water pressure 35
55, 58, 60, 62, 72, 89 Water systems 34, 35
Temperature regulation 55 Water to feed ratio 34
Temperature sensors 59, 61 Water vapor, evaporation, 55, 63
Temperature; bird, brooding 14 Water; in excreta, droppings 56, 86
Temperature; litter 14 Water; removal of 86
Thermostatically controlled environments 87 Wavelength 65, 66
Thermostats 59, 61 Weak chicks 48
Thinning 85 Weighing; frequency 77
Toxins disease 49 Weighing; manual, auto 78
Trace minerals 28 Weight bands, distributions 77, 80
Trailers 87, 88 Weight loss 85
Training of catchers 49 Welfare 49, 67, 85, 89, 90
Transitional Ventilation Systems 61, 62 Wells; water 33
Transport 12, 13, 44, 85, 87, 88, 90 Wet litter 17, 35, 58, 65, 70
Trays, trough; feed 15, 38 Wheat 30, 86
Tunnel Ventilation Systems 62, 63, 64 Wind chill, velocity 16, 58, 62, 89
Ultra Violet (UV) irradiation 33 Wing damage 85, 87
Uniformity (CV%) 77, 78, 79 Withdrawal period; feed medicines 29, 85
Vaccination 12, 43, 46, 49, 96 Wood shavings; litter 69
Vacuum; ventilation 59 Yolk 11, 48
Variability in body weight 78, 79 Zinc 33
Vehicles see Transport
Ventilation 16, 17, 49, 50, 55, 56, 57, 88
Ventilation control 70
Ventilation rate 59, 61, 106, 107, 108
Ventilation system 55, 57, 60, 62, 87
Vermin control 70
Viral disease 46, 49
Visitors 44
Vitamins 28
Vocalisation of birds 50
Wastage; feed 105
Waste gases 55
Water 14, 15, 32, 34, 44, 48, 49, 56, 97
112
13335 Aviagen Broiler Back cover 15/1/09 11:57 Page 2
13335 Aviagen Broiler Back cover 15/1/09 11:57 Page 1
Every attempt has been made to ensure the accuracy and relevance of the information presented.
However, Aviagen accepts no liability for the consequences of using the information for the
management of chickens.
For further information please contact your local Technical Service Manager.
Newbridge Cummings Research Park

Midlothian, EH28 8SZ 5015 Bradford Drive
Scotland, UK Huntsville, Alabama 35805, USA
t. +44 (0) 131 333 1056 t. +1 256 890 3800
f. +44 (0) 131 333 3296 f. +1 256 890 3919
infoworldwide@aviagen.com info@aviagen.com
www.aviagen.com

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13335 Aviagen Broiler Cover-Dividers 15/1/09 11:59 Page 1

Aviagen applies a balanced approach to genetic progress in

• Management to provide birds with their required environment.

If any one of these elements is sub-optimal, broiler performance will suffer.

In practice, the guidance of a Manual such as this cannot wholly protect

Information presented in this Manual combines data derived from internal

Newbridge Cummings Research Park

ROSS BROILER MANAGEMENT MANUAL: Contents

Using this Manual

An alphabetical Keyword Index is given at the end of the Manual.

ROSS BROILER MANAGEMENT MANUAL: Contents

109 Keyword Index

ROSS BROILER MANAGEMENT MANUAL: Introduction

Aviagen applies a balanced approach to genetic progress. Characteristics

Achievement of the genetic potential inherent in the birds depends upon:

• An environment that is managed to provide birds with all their

All of these are interdependent. If any one element is sub-optimal,

Figure 1: Limits to Broiler Growth and Quality

Feed supply Nutrition

Ventilation Water supply

Stocking density Vaccinal status

ROSS BROILER MANAGEMENT MANUAL: Introduction

Economic and commercial issues continue to influence the way broilers

• An increasing consumer demand for product quality and food safety.

As broiler production systems become more sophisticated, their

Figure 2: Producing Quality Broiler Meat - The Total Process

Location Operation Objective

Parent Stock Farm Parent Stock Management

Hatchery Egg Hatchery

Cleanout Depletion To optimise carcase quality

Processing Plant Processing

ROSS BROILER MANAGEMENT MANUAL: Introduction

The objective of the broiler manager should be to achieve the required

The complexity of broiler production means that livestock managers

Within broiler production, there are several stages of development of the

• Consideration of bird welfare at all times.

To promote early development of feeding and drinking

ROSS BROILER MANAGEMENT MANUAL: Chick Management

A chick experiences a series of critical transitions in the first seven to ten

ROSS BROILER MANAGEMENT MANUAL: Chick Management

Chick Quality and Broiler Performance

• Placements of broiler flocks should be planned to ensure that

The hatchery and transport system should ensure that:

ROSS BROILER MANAGEMENT MANUAL: Chick Management

Table 1: Summary of Optimum Conditions – Chick Holding and Transport

22-24°C Ambient Temperature+

ROSS BROILER MANAGEMENT MANUAL: Chick Management

• Air temperature of 30°C (measured at chick height in the area where

These should be monitored regularly to ensure a uniform environment

Chicks should be left to settle for one to two hours to become

ROSS BROILER MANAGEMENT MANUAL: Chick Management

Initially, textured feed should be provided as a dust-free crumble or

If the mixing of chicks from different parent flocks is unavoidable, chicks

Chick Start Assessment

ROSS BROILER MANAGEMENT MANUAL: Chick Management

Figure 3: Crop Fill After 24 Hours

Ventilation without draughts is required during the brooding period to:

• Maintain temperatures and relative humidity (RH) at the correct level.