Chapter 1: MATHEMATICS IN OUR WORLD

Overview/Introduction

Mathematics is perhaps not the first subject that springs to mind when thinking of nature, but
many modern researchers have endeavored to explain nature in mathematical terms, and some
inroads have been made. There are certain areas of mathematics that impact upon various
aspects of nature. In particular, the following areas are worthy of note:

Fractals - A term contracted from the words 'Fraction' and 'Dimensional'. Fractals explain why
some systems in nature are 'self-similar’, such as ferns.
The Butterfly Effect & Strange Attractors - This type of mathematics gives us clues about the
flow of water and the nature of the weather system.
Affine Transformations - The processes of reflection, rotation and scaling are seen to be
operating in nature to generate biological forms.
Geometry & Symmetry - Basic geometrical figures can be found in nature, such as the
hexagonal arrangement of a snow flake.
Spirals - Mathematical spirals are seen to occur naturally in snail shells, nautilus, and galaxies
and in DNA.
Fibonacci Numbers & The Golden Ratio - Number series can indicate the pattern of growth in
rabbit populations and terms may be found in the number of petals of a flower.
Population Dynamics - Certain areas of math such as differential calculus can be shown to
govern how populations grow and collapse.
Animal Skin markings - The mathematics of 'Reaction Diffusion' can explain the patterns on
animal skins.

Learning Outcome/Objective

At the end of this chapter, the students shall be able to:

1. Identify patterns in nature and regularities in the World (K)
2. Articulate the importance of mathematics in one’s life (V)
3. Argue about the nature of mathematics, what it is, how it is expressed, represented and
used (K)
4. Express appreciation for mathematics as a human endeavor (V)
5. Discuss the language, symbols and conventions of Mathematics (K)
6. Explain the nature of mathematics as a language (K)
7. Perform operations on mathematical expressions correctly (S)
8. Acknowledge that Mathematics is a useful language (V)

Learning Content/Topic

LESSON 1: PATTERNS AND NUMBERS IN NATURE AND THE WORLD

A. Fractals
In our world we are used to measuring things in the three dimensions of length, width
and depth. Some of the things we find in nature do not succumb easily to such
measurements and we are forced to explain their shape using fractional dimensions.
Mountain landscapes are a good example of a fractal, as, if we use a one meter rule to
measure around a mountain surface we would miss out all the gaps less than a meter in
length. If we then use a shorter rule to measure the surface we would find that it would
fit in all the gaps and we would end up measuring a longer distance. Fractals are also
representative of those types of structure which exhibit "self-similarity". In the case of a
mountain face, it is made up of smaller and smaller rocks which are vaguely similar.

A better example of such

self-similarity in nature is a
fern, which can readily be
seen to be made up of what
appear to be copies of it at
smaller and smaller scales.
Cauliflower heads and
Broccoli also exhibit patterns
where copies of a main
pattern appear at smaller and
smaller scales. Benoit
Mandelbrot discovered
fractals whilst working for
IBM and now has a set of
numbers named after him.

To generate fractals from the

initiators and generators, we
follow a simple rule:
At each step, replace every
copy of the initiator with a
scaled cop of the
generator, rotating as necessary.

An initiator is a starting shape

A generator is an arranged collection of scaled copies of the initiator.

Example:
Watch these videos: https://youtu.be/uas_HJNAzfw
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ec8Q1q9cbbo

B. The Butterfly Effect

The butterfly effect is the propensity of any dynamic system to be sensitive to initial conditions.
This type of mathematics pertains to such things as water flow and weather systems, where any
slight change in one circumstance can radically alter the outcome. It may also be that our
current interaction with the Earth's environment is having a
more and more pronounced effect upon the weather system
and habitats, as we find that more and more creatures
struggle to find a niche in which they can continue to survive.

The symbolic representation of this effect is engendered by

the Lorenz Attractor, a diagram which is the result of
modelling weather equations. Such equations exist for many
natural processes, including fluid flow. The diagrams which
represent the equations are called "strange attractors" after
their propensity to try and keep the variables in the equations
within certain extremes. In the case of the Lorenz attractor, the
red lines indicate normal weather patterns, and the other
areas may be the points that we don't normally see such as
snow in the desert. Such attractors are behind modern
computing methods used to give us weather predictions and can also be used to predict
catastrophes such as volcano eruptions and earthquakes. It is not just the weather though that
is subject to such phenomena. Any "Newtonian Classical" system where one system is in
competition with another, such as the "Chaotic Pendulum" which plays magnetism off against
gravity will exhibit "sensitivity to initial conditions".

Animal populations may also be subject to the same phenomena. Work done by Robert May
suggests that predator-prey systems have complex dynamics making them prone to "boom" and
"bust", due to the difference equations that model them. Such a system even with two variables
such as Rabbits and Foxes can create a system that is much more complex than would be
thought to be the case. Lack of Foxes means that the Rabbit population can increase, but
increasing numbers of Rabbits means Foxes have more food and are likely to survive and
reproduce, which in turn decreases the number of Rabbits. It is possible for such systems to find
a steady state or equilibrium, and even though species can become extinct, there is a tendency
for populations to be robust, but they can vary dramatically under certain circumstances. Real
populations of course, have more than two variables making them ever more complex. But as
can be seen from the diagram, such systems are not as simple as might be thought.
Watch this video: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1w40fxsyraE

C. Affine Transformations
These are the processes of rotation,
reflection and scaling. Many plant forms
utilize these processes to generate their
structure. In the case of Broccoli and
Cauliflower heads, it can readily be seen that
there is a type of pattern, which also shows
some spiraling in the case of Broccoli.

It is perhaps not so obvious what is

happening in a Cauliflower head, but perhaps
the process of taking a smaller copy and
rotating it is very evident in the case of a fern,
where each branch appears to be a smaller version of the main plant and so on, at smaller
scales.

The branching processes of trees which do not

appear to the naked eye as self-similar can also be
modelled with branching computer programs called
L-systems which attempt to understand the
structure of trees in terms of branching rules.

Watch these videos:

https://youtu.be/oy8caDY1810
https://youtu.be/ZVyi4ykVHJM

D. Symmetry
Symmetry is pervasive in living things. Animals mainly have
bilateral or mirror symmetry, as do the leaves of plants and some
flowers such as orchids. Animals that move in one direction
necessarily have upper and lower sides, head and tail ends, and
therefore a left and a right. The head becomes specialized with a
mouth and sense organs (cephalization), and the body becomes
bilaterally symmetric (though internal organs need not be).

Plants often have radial or rotational symmetry, as do many

flowers and some groups of animals such as sea anemones.

Rotational symmetry is also found at different scales among

non-living things including the crown-shaped splash pattern formed when a drop falls into a
pond, and both the spheroidal shape and rings of a planet like Saturn.

Radial symmetry suits organisms like sea anemones whose adults do not move: food and
threats may arrive from any direction.

Five-fold symmetry is found in the echinoderms, the group that includes starfish, sea urchins,
and sea lilies. The reason for the fivefold (penta-radiate) symmetry of the echinoderms is
puzzling. Early echinoderms were bilaterally symmetrical, as their larvae still are. Sumrall and
Wray argue that the loss of the old symmetry had both developmental and ecological causes.

Among non-living things, snowflakes have striking six-fold symmetry: each flake’s structure
forming a record of the varying conditions during its crystallization, with nearly the same pattern
of growth on each of its six arms.

Crystals in general have a variety of symmetries and crystal habits; they can be cubic or
octahedral, but true crystals cannot have fivefold symmetry (unlike quasicrystals).

It is obvious to us as human beings when we look in the mirror that to a large

degree our own bodies have an axis of symmetry and that the left and right
hand side of us are, to within a degree of error, mirror images of each other.
Elsewhere in nature we can see other such symmetries. The most obvious is
the six-fold symmetry of a snowflake crystal. The same symmetry can be
found in the combs of the social insects such as bees.

Many fruiting bodies such as tomatoes or apples have rotational symmetries

or carry segments such as those of an orange which break the circle up into fractional parts.
The propensity of symmetries and geometries to show up in natural objects can sometimes be
traced to the molecules that make up the object, or possibly because the arrangement of matter
takes up the least space or minimizes the use of energy, or maximizes the use of space whilst
creating structural strength.

It is worth noting that some molecules come in left and right-handed versions which are called
chiral molecules and before the human race new of the consequences of this simple reflection,
it was assumed that the variation in the molecules symmetry made no difference to the chemical
properties of the actual molecule. In fact, we now know that it very much does affect the
properties, and in at least one case, lack of knowledge of Chiral molecules led to a medical
travesty, that of Thalidomide. Chiral molecules are also at large, where there is a variation in
taste, such as lemon and orange fruit.

E. Spirals
The most well-known, if little actually witnessed spiral in nature is our own DNA
inside our cells, this of course is known as the "double-helix" and a helix is slightly
different than a spiral, but as with the above geometry it is interesting that there
are subtle mathematical relationships between the atomic arrangement of
molecules and the symmetries of the forms that those molecules are involved in
creating.

Another, more readily observed spiral in nature, is the

arrangement of the outer skin of a Pineapple. On this
fruiting body, we can see two interlacing spirals
wrapped around the surface of the fruit. We can see a
similar arrangement in the seeds of the seed-head of
the sunflower, and we also find that such spirals are
sometimes a consequence of Fibonacci number
sequences and an attempt by the flower or fruit to
maximize the number of seeds into the space that it
has for them.
 More common spirals in nature appear in snail shells and a particularly
beautiful example is the shell of the Nautilus, whose flotation
chambers are arranged in a mathematical sequence of increasing size
as the animal grows within its shell. We might see from this that the
shell shape is a consequence of the process of increasing size of the
contained animal and that the shape is not 'designed'.

Further out into the cosmos we still find spirals, and so we can see
that mathematics is at large in our universe, from the very smallest
scales of the atom right up to the largest scales that the universe can provide.

Watch this video: https://youtu.be/ijuTBsiG0Oc

F. Fibonacci Numbers
Fibonacci numbers are those that create a sequence, by adding up successive numbers
starting with 1 which is added to itself to get 2, then 2 is added to 1 to get 3 and then 3 is added
to 2 to get 5 and so on. This sequence - which continues 8, 13, 21... -very often is behind the
arrangement or number of petals in a flower head or the number of seeds or spirals in a fruiting
body.

Because it is a relatively simple sequence where the next term is generated from the previous
one, it is something plants can do easily and also easy for computers to copy. Such sequences
can also be behind the spiraling arrangements often seen in biological forms. If we lay the terms
out on a two-dimensional diagram, we can generate spirals.

G. Population Dynamics
This area of mathematics is sometimes controversial because it starts to make statements
about policies such as culling and vaccination, which people often create emotional arguments
about without understanding the facts, or possibly go looking for causes which don't actually
exist.

Currently, for instance, the human race is witnessing a collapse in the population of bees and is
also concerned about over-fishing. There have also been arguments about seal culling, whaling
and also the hunting of foxes. In the public domain, very few people are aware of the work that
has been done analyzing how populations of creatures grow and develop and sometimes
collapse. In particular, the work of Robert May on Chaos Theory as it applies to populations has
shed some sometimes counter-intuitive light on population dynamics.

There are some computer models which capture some of the essences of either populations of
creatures or cellular systems. John Conway's LIFE program attempts to mimic the way a cell
culture might grow or display characteristics or even die off altogether. Most interestingly - the
program only has 3 rules and yet exhibits complex behaviour - including reproduction and
evolution and mutation.

Cells in his program can proliferate or die depending in what environment they start off and it
maybe we have lessons to learn about cause and effect in the environment - if we see that the
dinosaur population crashed - we go looking for a meteor crash site or a virus or an
environmental change.

Mathematical models tell us that this need not be the case, and also instruct us that we might
think we can keep fishing and fishing with given "quotas" and feel safe in doing so - but it may
not in fact be the case.

Those of the country set seem to think they understand how to control 'pests' such as foxes or
maybe even squirrels, but the populations are subject to factors such as availability of food and
the propensity of predators to kill them - all of this must be taken into account before a crass
'cull' is taken up, for we may actually be shooting ourselves in the foot when we discover a
knock-on effect, or indeed Butterfly Effect because of unseen consequences of our actions.

Simple predator-prey modelling is done using differential calculus and can easily be watched on
a home computer, it becomes apparent when doing so that simple meddling with a population
with a cull is ill-advised and it behaves us as humans to understand the complexity of population
dynamics before trying to exhibit control over it.

H. Animal Skin markings

When we look at a Leopard's spots or the
markings of a Dalmatian, or maybe even the
wings of a Butterfly, we maybe apt to think that
these patterns are intrinsically random or
perhaps entirely a property created genetically
via evolution perhaps to enable a species to
survive by creating a warning sign or by
echoing some aspect of the environment for
camouflage purposes.

What may not be apparent is that work done

by Alan Turing suggested ways in which math
might explain such markings, but latterly we
have begun to understand the patterning on
animals in terms of Reaction Diffusion equations. These can produce stable states which may
offer a glimpse as to how chemical systems in a biological system work to create a pattern.

Such systems are equally capable of producing rings such as those seen on certain species of
butterfly, so when we look at the nature around us, it might be worthwhile considering the
phrase "I never did math at school, I didn't see what I would use it for!”

In addition to visual self-similarity, fractals exhibit other interesting properties. For example,
notice that each step of the Sierpinski gasket iteration removes one quarter of the remaining
area. If this process continued indefinitely, we would end up essentially removing all the area,
meaning we started with a 2-dimensional area and somehow end up with something less than
that, but seemingly more than just a 1-dimensional line.
To explore this idea, we need to discuss dimension. Something like a line is 1-dimensional; it
only has length. Any curve is 1 dimensional. Things like squares and circles are 2-dimensional,
since they have length and width, describing an area. Objects like boxes and cylinders have
length, width and height, describing a volume, and are 3-dimensional

Example: If I had a line with length 1 and wanted scale its length by two, I would need two
copies of the original line. If I had a line of length 1, and wanted to scale its length by 3, I would
need three copies of the original

Example: If I had a rectangle with length of 2 and height 1, and wanted to scale its length and
width by 2, I would need four copies of the original rectangle. If I wanted to scale the length and
width by 3, I would need nine copies of the original rectangle.

Example: If I had a cubical box with sides of length 1, and wanted to scale its length and width
by 2, I would need eight copies of the original cube. If I wanted to scale the length and width by
3, I would need 27 copies of the original cube.

Notice that in the 1-dimensional case, copies needed = scale

In the 2-dimensional case, copies needed= scale squared
In the 3-dimensional case, copies needed= scale cube
From these examples, we might infer a pattern

To scale a D-dimensional shape by a scaling factor S, the number of copies C of the original
Shape needed will be given by:

Copies = Scale Dimension, or C = SD

Example: Use the scaling-dimension relation to determine the dimension of the Sierpinski
Gasket.
Suppose we define the original gasket to have side length 1. The larger gasket shown is twice
as wide and twice as tall, so has been scaled by a factor of 2.

Notice that to construct the larger gasket, 3

copies of the original gasket are needed.
Using the scaling-dimension relation C = S D,
we obtain the equation 3 = 2D.
Since 21 = 2 and 22 = 4, we can immediately
see that D is somewhere between 1 and 2;
the gasket is more than a 1-dimensional
shape, but we’ve taken away so much area
its now less than 2-dimensional.

Solving the equation 3 = 2D requires logarithms. If you studied logarithms earlier, you may recall
how to solve this equation (if not, just skip to the box below and use that formula):
3=2D Take the logarithm of both sides
log(3) = log(2 D) Use the exponent property of logs
log(3) = D log(2) Divide by log(2)
log (3)
D= ≈ 1.585
log (2)
The dimension of the gasket is about 1.585

To find the dimension D of a fractal, determine the scaling factor S and the number of copies C
of the original shape needed, then use the formula :
log (C)
D= C= number of copies
log (S)
S= Scaling factor

LESSON 2: MATHEMATICAL LANGUAGE AND SYMBOLS

People frequently have trouble understanding mathematical ideas, not necessarily because the
ideas are difficult, but because they are being presented in a foreign language- the language of
mathematics.

Characteristics of the Language of Mathematics

The language of mathematics makes it easy to express the kinds of thoughts that
mathematicians like to express. It is
  Precise (able to make very fine distinctions)
 Concise (able to say things briefly)
 Powerful (able to express complex thoughts with relative ease)

The language of Mathematics can be learned, but requires the efforts needed to learn any
foreign language. To better understand the Mathematical Language, let’s make an analogy
using English subject. First, let us consider the difference between sentence and vocabulary.

Every language has its vocabulary (the words), and its rules for combining words into complete
thoughts (the sentences).

‘nouns’ of mathematics- use to name mathematical object of interest.

‘sentences’ of mathematics- state complete mathematical thoughts.

People who have no such understanding of mathematical language would probably fall prey to
common syntax errors, inappropriately setting things equal to zero or stringing things together
with equal signs, as if ‘=‘ means “I’m going on to the next step”.

Analogies:
In English…
Nouns are used to name things we want to talk about (like people, places and things); whereas
sentences are used to state complete thoughts. A typical English sentence has at least one
noun, and at least one verb.

In Mathematics…
The mathematical analogue of a ‘noun’ will be called expression. Thus, an expression is a
name given to a mathematical object of interest. Whereas in English we need to talk about
people, places and things, we’ll see that mathematics has much different ‘object of interest’.

The mathematical analogue of a ‘sentence’ will be also called a sentence. A mathematical

sentence, just as an English sentence, must state a complete thought.

Analogy Summary:
ENGLISH MATHEMATICS

Name given to an object NOUN (person, place, thing) EXPRESSION

of interest Examples: Carol, Echague, Book Examples: 5, 2+3, 1/2
SENTENCE
Examples: SENTENCE
• The capital of Isabela is Examples:
A complete thought
Ilagan. • 3+4 = 7
• Carol loves the • (6-3) * 3 = 9
mathematics book.

Since people frequently need to work with numbers, these are the most common type of
mathematical expression. And numbers have lots of different names.

Example: 2+3 10÷2 (6-2) + 1

 5 1+1+1+1+1

All look different, but are all just different names for the same number. This simple idea- that
numbers have lots of different names- is extremely important in Mathematics. English has the
same concept: synonyms are words that have the same meaning. However, this ‘same object,
different name’ idea plays a more fundamental role in mathematics than in English. Next…
some ideas regarding sentences are explored. Just as English sentences have verbs, so do
mathematical sentences.

Example: 3+4 = 7
The verb is “ = “
Three plus four is equal to seven.
The equal sign (=) is one of the most popular mathematical verbs.

Sentences can be true or false. The notion of truth is of fundamental importance in the
mathematical language. Languages have conventions.

In English for example, it is conventional to capitalize the proper names. This convention makes
easy for a reader to distinguish between a common noun and a proper noun. Mathematics also
has its conventions, which help readers distinguish between different types of mathematical
expressions

Example: Classify the entries in the list below as:

• An English Noun or a Mathematical Expression
• An English Sentence or a Mathematical Sentence
1. Cat 1. English Noun
2. 2 2. Mathematical Expression
3. The word cat begins with the letter ‘k’ 3. English Sentence
4. 1+2 = 4 4. Mathematical Sentence
5. 5–3 5. Mathematical Expression
6. 5–3=2 6. Mathematical Sentence
7. The cat is black. 7. English Sentence
8. x 8. Mathematical Expression
9. X=1 9. Mathematical Sentence
10. X–1=0 10. Mathematical Sentence
11. t+3 11. Mathematical Expression

Note that sentences state a complete thought, but nouns and expressions do not.
Next, let’s explore the truthiness of the sentence

Example: Consider the sentences in our previous example. Determine whether the sentence is
true or false.
1. The word cat begins with the letter ‘k’ FALSE
2. 1+2 = 4 FALSE
3. 5–3=2 TRUE
4. The cat is black. The truth of this sentence can’t be determined
5. X=1 Sometimes TRUE/ Sometimes FALSE
6. X–1=0 Sometimes TRUE/ Sometimes FALSE
Additional Readings:
https://www.dpmms.cam.ac.uk/~wtg10/grammar.pdf
http://www.filosoficas.unam.mx/~abarcelo/pdf/6Numbers.pdf

Teaching and Learning Activities

Using the initiator and generator in the figures below, create/ draw a fractal. (Use pencil and
Short Bond Paper ONLY)

Classify the entries in the list below as:

• An English Noun or a Mathematical Expression
• An English Sentence or a Mathematical Sentence
Consider the entries below that are sentences. Classify these sentences as: True, False or
Sometimes True/ Sometimes False
1. Carol
2. Carol loves Mathematics
3. The name ‘Carol’ begins with the letter C
4. 7
5. 3 + 4
6. 7 = 3 + 4
7. t
8. t = 2
9. 0 = 2 – t
10. t – 1
11. t + t + t
12. 0 = 1

Flexible Teaching Learning Modality (FTLM) adapted

Google Classroom, Module, Exercises

Assessment Task

Reference/s:

https://study.com/academy/lesson/patterns-in-nature-definition-examples.html
https://ecstep.com/natural-patterns/
http://www.medlockandtame.org.uk/natnum.html#Fractal
https://vimeo.com/9953368
Chapter 2: PROBLEM SOLVING AND REASONING

Overview/Introduction

Thinking is usually considered to be the process of mentally representing some aspects of the world
(including ourselves) and transforming these representations so that new representations, useful to our
goals, are generated. Thinking is often regarded as a conscious process, in which we are aware of the
process of transforming mental representations and can reflect on thought itself. Problem solving and
reasoning are two key types of thinking. Problem solving encompasses the set of cognitive procedures
and thought processes that we apply to reach a goal when we must overcome obstacles to reach that
goal. Reasoning encompasses the cognitive procedures we use to make inferences from knowledge and
draw conclusions. (Reasoning can be part of problem solving.)

Learning Outcome/Objective

At the end of this chapter, the students shall be able to:

1. Use different types of reasoning to justify statements and arguments made about mathematics and
mathematical concepts (K)
2. Write clear and logical proofs (K)
3. Solve problems involving patterns and recreational problems following Polya’s four steps (S)
4. Organize one’s method and approaches for proving and solving problems (V)

Learning Content/Topic

THE NATURE OF PROBLEM SOLVING

In the context of cognitive psychology, a problem is a situation in which there is no immediately
apparent, standard, or routine way of reaching a goal. The determination of the goal and the degree of
difficulty you face are both important: if you don’t care whether you get to the psychology building in
time for the exam (or at all), or if a satisfactory detour is obvious, no problem faces you. Some problems,
such as those that arise between parents and children as they try to get along with one another, may
have emotional content; others, such as mathematical problems, are less emotional, but may involve
emotions (e.g., anxiety) in certain circumstances, such as when math problems appear on an exam).
Research on problem solving generally makes use of problems that are less emotional in nature, but it is
thought that the types of strategies we use are similar for both emotional and non-emotional problems.

Problem solving, then, is a process of surmounting obstacles to achieve a goal. Knowing how to get the
lights on in your apartment is not a problem when there is power, but it is a problem when there is a
power outage. So, routine situations with routine answers are not regarded as problems. There must be
novelty or nonstandard solutions that the problem solver must discover. Because problem solving is
such an ubiquitous part of our lives, it has become an important area of research that is of both
theoretical and practical importance.

One of the primary reasons people have trouble with problem solving is that there is no single
procedure that works all the time — each problem is slightly different. Also, problem solving requires
practical knowledge about the specific situation. If you misunderstand either the problem or the
underlying situation you may make mistakes or incorrect assumptions. One of our main goals for this
semester is to become better problem solvers. To begin this task, we now discuss a framework for
thinking about problem solving: Polya’s four-step approach to problem solving.

Polya’s Four Steps to Problem Solving 1. PREPARATION: Understand the

Problem
• Learn the necessary underlying mathematical concepts
• Consider the terminology and notation used in the problem:
a. What sort of a problem is it?
b. What is being asked?
c. What do the terms mean?
d. Is there enough information or is more information needed?
e. What is known or unknown?
• Rephrase the problem in your own words.
• Write down specific examples of the conditions given in the problem.

2. THINKING TIME: Devise a Plan

• You must start somewhere so try something. How are you going to attack the problem?
• Possible strategies:
a. Draw pictures
b. Use a variable and choose helpful names for variables or unknowns
c. Be systematic
d. Solve a simpler version of the problem
e. Guess and check. Trial and error. Guess and test
f. Look for a pattern or patterns
g. Make a list
• Once you understand what the problem is, if you are stumped or stuck, set the problem aside
for a while. Your subconscious mind may keep working on it.
• Moving on to think about other things may help you stay relaxed, flexible, and creative rather
than becoming tense, frustrated, and forced in your efforts to solve the problem.

3. INSIGHT: Carry out the Plan

• Once you have an idea for a new approach, jot it down immediately. When you have time, try it
out and see if it leads to a solution.
• If the plan does not seem to be working, then start over and try another approach. Often the
first approach does not work. Do not worry, just because an approach does not work, it does not
 mean you did it wrong. You actually accomplished something, knowing a way does not work is
part of the process of elimination.
• Once you have thought about a problem or returned to it enough times, you will often have a
flash of insight: a new idea to try or a new perspective on how to approach solving the problem.
• The key is to keep trying until something works.

4. VERIFICATION: Look Back

• Once you have a potential solution, check to see if it works.
a. Did you answer the question?
b. Is your result reasonable?
c. Double check to make sure that all of the conditions related to the problem are satisfied.
d. Double check any computations involved in finding your solution.
• If you find that your solution does not work, there may only be a simple mistake. Try to fix or
modify your current attempt before scrapping it. Remember what you tried—it is likely that at
least part of it will end up being useful.
• Is there another way of doing the problem which may be simpler? (You need to become flexible
in your thinking. There usually is not one right way.)
• Can the problem or method be generalized so as to be useful for future problems?

Some Basic Mathematical Principles to Keep in Mind When Problem Solving 1. The
Always Principle:

Unlike many other subjects, when we say a mathematical statement is true, we mean that it is true 100
percent of the time. We are not dealing with the uncertainty of statements that are
―usually true or ―sometimes true.

2. The Counterexample Principle:

Since a mathematical statement is true only when it is true 100% of the time, we can prove that is false
by finding a single example where it is not true. Such an example is called a counterexample. Of course,
when we say a mathematical statement is false, this does not mean that it is never true — it only means
that it is not always true. It might be true some of the time.

3. The Order Principle:

In mathematics, order usually matters. In a multi-step mathematical process, if we carry the steps out in
a different order, we often get a different result. For example, putting your socks on first and then your
shoes is quite different from putting your shoes on first and then your socks.

4. The Splitting Hairs Principle:

In mathematics, details matter. Two terms or symbols that look and sound similar may have
mathematical meanings that are significantly different. For example, in English, we use the term equal
and equivalent interchangeably, but in mathematics, these terms do not mean the same thing. For this
reason, learning and remembering the precise meaning of mathematical terms is essential.
5. The Analogies Principle:
Often the formal terminology used in mathematics has been drawn from words and concepts used in
everyday life. This is not a coincidence. Associating a mathematical concept with its ―real world‖
counterpart can help you remember both the formal (precise) and intuitive meanings of a mathematical
concept.

6. The Three Way Principle:

When approaching a mathematical concept, it often helps to use three complimentary approaches:

• Verbal – make analogies, put the problem in your own words, and compare the situation to
things you may have seen in other areas of mathematics.
• Graphical – draw a graph or a diagram.
• Examples – use specific examples to illustrate the situation.
By combining one or more of these approaches, one can often get a better idea of how to think about
and how to solve a given problem.

Examples:

1. Twice the difference of a number and 1 is 4 more than that number. Find the number.

a. Looking for a “number” Let X = number

b. 2(X-1) = 4+X
c. Solve
d. Answer: 6

Solution
2(x-1) = 4+x

2x-2 = 4+x

2x-x-2-4=0

X-6=0

X=6

2. A math class has 30 students. Approximately 70% passed their last math test. How many students
passed the last math test?

a. Let x is the number of students who passed the exam

b. x = 70% x 30
 c. solve
d. Answer: 21

Solution
X = 0.70 x 30

X = 21

3. In a blueprint of a rectangular room, the length is 1 inch more than 3 times the width. Find the
dimensions if the perimeter is to be 26 inches.
a. Dimensions: let L=length, W=width; but L=3W+1
b. P=2L+2W
P=2(3W+1) + 2W

c. Solve
d. W=3, L=10

4. Find the measure of each angle in the figure below. Note that since the angles make up a straight
line, they are supplementary to each other.
a. Let x and 5x the angles
b. 180deg = x + 5x
c. Solve
d. Answer: 30 degrees

5. The sum of 3 consecutive integers is 258. Find the integers.

a. Let X the first integer
X+1 second

X=2 third

b. (x)+(X+1)+(x+2)=258
c. Solve
d. Answer: 85

Teaching and Learning Activities

Exercise: Using the Polya’s 4 steps, solve the following problems:

1. Out of 230 racers who started the marathon, 212 completed the race, 14 gave up, and 4 were
disqualified. What percentage did not complete the marathon?

2. A project on Kickstarter.com was aiming to raise $15,000 for a precision coffee press. They ended
up with 714 supporters, raising 557% of their goal. How much did they raise?
Flexible Teaching Learning Modality (FTLM) adapted

Google Classroom, Module, Exercises

Assessment Task

Problem Set: Solve the following problems applying the Polya’s 4 steps.

1. A father tells his son, “I was your age now when you were born.” If the father is now 38 years old,
how old was his son 2 years ago.

2. Paula is now 18 years old and her colleague Monica is 14 years old. How many years ago was Paula
twice as old as Monica?

3. At present, the sum of the parents’ ages is twice the sum of the children’s ages. Five years ago, the
sum of the parents’ was 4 times the sum of the children’s ages. Fifteen years hence, the sum of the
parents’ ages will be equal to the sum of the children’s ages. How many children are there?

4. Pedro can paint a fence 50% faster than Juan and 20% faster than Pilar, and together they can paint a
given fence in 4 hours. How long will it take Pedro to paint the same fence if he had to work alone?

5. It takes Butch twice as long as it takes Dan to do a certain piece of work. Working together, they can
do the work in 6 days. How long would it take Dan to do it alone?

6. The sum of two numbers is 21 and one number is twice the other. Find the numbers.

7. A man rows downstream to a place 4.8 miles with the stream and back in 14 hours, but finds that he
can row 14 miles with the stream in the same time as 3 miles against the stream. Find the rate of the
stream.

8. A farmer can plow the field in 8 days. After working for 3 days, his son joins him and together they
plow the field in 3 more days. How many days will it require for the son to plow the field alone?

9. Six years ago, Nilda was five times as old as Riza. In five years, Nilda will be three times as old as Riza.
What is the present age of Riza?

10. The sum of Kim’s and Kevin’s ages is 18. In 3 years, Kim will be twice as old as Kevin. What are
their ages now?

Reference/s:
Tiong, J. R. and Rojas Jr., R. A. 1001 Solved Problems in Engineering Mathematics. JRT Publishers. Cebu
City. ISBN 971 806 000 6.

https://faculty.atu.edu/mfinan/2033/section1.pdf
https://calculate.org.au/2016/04/13/problem -with-problem-solving/
https://study.com/academy/lesson/polyas-four-step-problem-solving-process.html