ACTIVITY-1

AIM

To measure resistance, voltage(AC/DC), current(AC) and check continuity of a

given circuit using multimeter

APPARATUS: Three carbon resistors, one standard resistance coil, a battery

eliminator with tapping(2 V, 4 V and 6V),a step down transformer(6-0-6 V) with 2
tappings (2V and 4 V), a resistor of 100 ohm, a plug key and a multimeter

THEORY

Multimeter: It is a single measuring device acting as an Ammeter, a

Voltmeter and an Ohmmeter. For this reason, it is also called AVO meter.
It can measure alternating as well as direct current and alternating as well as
direct voltage in addition to resistance. For this purpose its panel is divided into
five different sections. There are many ranges in each section so that it can
measure from micro (10-6) to mega (106) units. Rotation of a knob changes the
section and the range in one section.
— Rotation of knob for change in ammeter range, brings shunt resistances of
different values in circuit in parallel with the coil.
— Rotation of knob for change in voltmeter range, brings series resistances of
different values in circuit in series with the coil.
— Rotation of knob for change in ohmmeter range, brings different resistances in
circuit in series with the multimeter cell.

1. Carbon resistors are frequently used in electrical and electronic circuits and
their values vary over a very wide range. A colour code is used to indicate the
value of the resistance.
2. A carbon resistance has four different concentric coloured ringe or bands
on its surface. The first three bands a, b and c determine the value of the
resistance and the fourth band d gives the percentage of accuracy called
tolerance. The resistance of carbon resistor R = (ab x 10c ± T %) Ω.
3. To read the value of carbon resistance, the following sentence is found to
be of much more helpful.
B B R O Y Great Britain Very Good Wife
 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

The bold face letter B, B, R, O, Y, G, B, V, G and W, in above sentence

correspond to the colours Black, Brown, Red, Orange, Yellow, Green, Blue,
Violet, Grey and White respectively for a and b, while for the third c, they
correspond to the multipliers 100, 101, 102, 103, 104, 105, 106, 107, 108 and 109
respectively.

Inference 

1. The measured values by multimeter match with decoded values of

resistors.
2. A.C. and D.C. voltages marked on voltage sources match with voltage
measured by multimeter.

Precautions

1. Instructions for handling the multimeter should be gone through

thoroughly as it is a very handy instrument and is likely to get damaged if
carelessly or ignorantly used.
2. Select the appropriate parameter current, voltage or resistance to the
measured and set it on appropriate range.
3. If range of the parameter measured is not known, start with maximum. For
measuring V, never connect more than maximum 600 V.
 ACTIVITY-2
Aim
To assemble a household circuit comprising three bulbs, three (on/off) switches,a
fuse and a power source.

Apparatus and material

Apparatus: No apparatus required in assembling a circuit.
Material: Three bulbs (6 V, 1W) each, fuse of 0.6 A, main switch a power supply
(battery . eliminator), three (on/off) switches flexible connecting wire with red
and black plastic covering,a fuse wire.
Supplementary: Main electric board with a two-pin socket and main switch.

Theory
Electricity supplied to us for domestic purposes is 220 V A.C. and 50 Hz. The
household circuit, all appliances are connected in “parallel” with mains. The
switches are connected in series with each appliances in live wire. 5 A switches
are required for normal appliances like, bulbs, fluorescent tubes fans etc. 15 A
sockets and switches are required for heavy load appliances ‘ like, refrigerator, air
conditioner, geyser, hot plates etc. All appliances must have three wires called
live, neutral and the earth. Total power consumption ‘P’ at a time
P = P1 + P2 + P3 +………..
where P1, P2, P3 are the powers drawn by appliances.
To protect the appliances from damage when unduly high currents are drawn
fuse of  little higher rating, 10 to 20% higher than the current normally drawn by
all appliances. For further safety, a suitable value MAINS FUSE like rating 32 A is
connected in series with supply source.
 ACTIVITY-3
Aim
To assemble the components of a given electrical circuit.

Apparatus and material
Apparatus: A voltmeter and an ammeter of appropriate range, a battery, a
rheostat, one way key.
Material: An unknown resistance or resistance coil, connecting wires, a piece of
sand paper.

Utility 
It is used for measuring an unknown resistance.
 ACTIVITY-4
Aim
To study the variation in potential drop with length of a wire for a steady current.

Apparatus and material

Apparatus: Potentiometer

Material:

 A fully charged 4.5 V battery or battery eliminator, a low resistance rheostat, a

voltmeter of range (0-3.0 V), an ammeter (0-3) A, a one way key, a jockey, a set
square, connecting wires and a piece of sand paper.

Theory
For a potentiometer with wire of uniform material density and thickness (cross-
sectional area) carrying a steady current, potential drop is proportional to the
length of the wire.

We have, V ∝l

then, V=Kl

K=V/l = constant

where K is the drop of potential per unit length. It is called the potential gradient.

RESULT

(i) The graph between V and l is a straight line. Therefore, the potential drop
along the length of wire is directly propotional to its length.
 V ∝l

V=kl

(ii) The potential drop per unit length of wire is, k= …….. V cm-1
 ACTIVITY-5
Aim
To identify a diode, an LED, a transistor, an IC, a resistor and a capacitor
from a mixed collection of such items.

Apparatus and material

Apparatus: Multimeter
Material: Above mixed collection of items.

Theory
For identification, appearance and working of each item will have to be
considered
1. A diode is a two termi8nal; device. It conducts when forward biased and does
not conduct when reverse biased . it does not emit light while conducting. Hence,
it does not glow.
2.A LED is also a two terminal device ,it also conducts when forward biased and
does not conducts when reverse biased it emit light while conducting hence it
glow
3. A transistor is a three terminal device. The terminals represent emitter (E),
base (B) and collector (C).
4. An IC (integrated circuit) is a multi-terminal device in form of a chip. [See
figure (UM 3482 IC Tone Generator)]
5. A resistor is a two terminal device. It conducts when either forward biased
or reverse biased. (In fact there is no forward or reverse bias for a resistor).
It conducts even when operated with A.C. voltage.
6. A capacitor is also a two terminal device. It does not conduct when either
forward biased or reverse biased. When a capacitor is connected to a D.C.
source, then multimeter shows full scale current initially but it decay to zero
quickly. It is because that initially a capacitor draw a charge.
 ACTIVITY-6
Aim
To observe refraction and lateral deviation of a beam of light incident
obliquely on a glass slab.

Apparatus
Glass slab, drawing board, white paper sheet, drawing pins, office pins,
protractor.

Theory
When a ray of light (PQ) incident on the face AB of glass slab, then it bends
towards the normal since refraction takes place from rarer to denser
medium. The refracted ray (QR) travel along straight line and incident on
face DC of slab and bends away from the normal since refraction takes place from
denser to rarer medium. The ray RS out through face DC is called emergent ray.

From figure: (i) The incident ray is parallel to emergent ray i.e. i=e.

(ii) Then emergent ray is latterly deviated from its original path by a distance

d = t sec r sin(i-r).

or d ∝r

Result
1. The ray of light changes its path emerging out of glass slab which proves that
refraction happens when light travels from one medium to another.
Angle of incidence (i) = Angle of emergence (e).
2. The lateral displacement increases with the increase in the thickness of the
slab.
3. The lateral displacement increases with the angle of incidence (i)

Precautions

1. Use sharp pencils for making lines.

2. The pins should be fixed vertically on the drawing board

3. The glass slab should be clean and of uniform thickness

4. Measurement of angles should be done accurately.

5. While viewing the pins, one eye should be kept closed.

Sources of Error:

1. Measurement of angles may not be accurate

2. Glass slab may not have uniform thickness

3. The pin pricks may not be sharp.

4. The pins may not have been inserted on the line

 ACTIVITY-7
Aim
To observe diffraction of light due to a thin slit.

Apparatus
Two razor blades, adhesive tapes, a screen a source of monochromatic
light (laser pencil) black paper and a glass plate.

Theory
Diffraction is a phenomenon of bending of light around the corners or
edges of a opening or aperture. Diffraction takes place when order of
wavelength is comparable or small to the size of slit or aperture. The
diffraction effect is more pronounced if the size of the aperture or the
obstacle is of the order of wavelength of the waves. The diffraction pattern
arises due to interference of light waves from different symmetrical point of
the same wave front. The diffraction pattern due to a single slit consists of a
central bright band having alternate dark and weak bright bands of decreasing
intensity on both sides.

For diffraction, d sinθ=n lambda

Here, d=size of aperture

θ =angle of diffraction

n=order of diffraction

lamda=wavelength of light

Result
When light waves are incident on a slit then it bends away at the corners of slit
showing the phenomenon of diffraction of light

.
Precautions
1. Air gaps should not be left between glass plates and black paper.
2. The razor blades should be placed extremely closed as possible.
3. Diffraction pattern should be seen on a wall of a dark room.
4. A point source of monochromatic light like laser torch should be used.
 ACTIVITY-8
(i) Aim
To study the nature and size of the image formed by a convex lens on a
screen by using a candle and a screen (for different distances of the candle
from the lens).

Apparatus

An optical bench with three uprights ,a convex lens with holder, a burning
candle ,a cardboard screen.

Theory

From lens formula, 1/v-1/u=1/f

When u=infinity v=f
When u=-2f v=2f
When u= -f v=infinity
When u<-f v= becomes negative,(image becomes virtual)

As the object (burning candle) is moved from infinity towards the convex
lens, its image (position of screen) moves from lens focus towards infinity.
For candle distance less than focal length, image becomes virtual and does
not come on screen

Result

This change in position, nature and size of the image is according to theoretical
predictions.
(ii) Aim
To study the nature and size of the image formed by a concave mirror on a
screen by using a candle and a screen (for different distances of the candle
from the mirror).

Apparatus
An optical bench with three uprights, a concave mirror with holder, a
burning candle, a card-board screen.

Theory
From lens formula, 1/v+1/u=1/f
When u=infinity v=-f
When u=-2f v=-2f
When u= -f v=infinity
When u<-f v becomes positive,(image becomes
virtual)
Hence as the object (burning candle) is moved from infinity towards the
concave mirror, its image (position of screen) moves from mirror focus
towards infinity. The two cross each other at distance 2f i.e., at the centre of
curvature of the mirror.
For candle distance less than focal length, image becomes virtual and does
not come on screen.

Result

This change in position, nature and size of the image is according to theoretical
predictions.

Precautions

1. Parallax error must be taken into account.

2. The lens and mirror should have small aperture.

3. Both the activities should be performed at a shaded place but having plenty of
light
4. Do not look directly at the image of the sun while finding the rough focal length

5. The optical needles should be held perpendicular to the optical bench.

Sources of Error:

1. The optical bench may not be in horizontal position.

2. The image formed may not be distinct.

3. Parallax error may not be accurately taken into account

4. The optical needle may not be perpendicular to the optical bench.

5. The lens or mirror may have large aperture.