DIGITAL PHASE SELECTOR

A Mini-Project Report Submitted In Partial

Fulfillment Requirements For The Award Of

BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
IN
ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

SUBMITTED BY

K.MADHU KIRAN (05R91A0216)

SATHISH.BOLLI (05R91A0210)

Under the guidance of

Sir. R.RAMANUJAN PRASAD, (Assist prof.)

Department of Electrical & Electronics Engineering

TEEGALA KRISHNA REDDY ENGINEERING COLLEGE

(Affiliated To JNTU & Approved By AICTE)
Meerpet, Hyderabad.
2005-2009
 TEEGALA KRISHNA REDDY ENGINEERING
COLLEGE
(Approved by AICTE, New Delhi and Affiliated to J.N.T.University)
Hyderabad-500034 A.P.

DATE…………….

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the dissertation work entitled “DIGITAL PHASE

SELECTOR” Is a bonafide work of Mr.K.Madhukiran (Reg. no: 05R91A0216),
MR.SATHISH.BOLLI. (Reg. no: 05R91A0210), which has been submitted as a partial
fulfillment for the award of degree of BACHELOR OF ELECTRICAL AND
ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING, from Jawaharlal Nehru Technological University for
the academic year 2008-2009.

The result embodied in his dissertation has not been submitted to any other university
or Institution for the award of any degree.

MR. R.RAMANUJAN PRASAD Mr. S.VENKAT RAM REDDY

Internal Guide Head of the Department
Electrical and Electronics engg.
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

It a pleasure for us to add heartfelt words for the people who were the
part of this project in numerous ways who gave us ending support right from the
stage the idea was conceived.

It is great opportunity to render our sincere thanks to our internal guide.

MR.R.RAMANUJAN PRASAD, for his continued and valuable support during the
project. We are very much thankful to Prof. S.VENKAT RAM REDDY, Head of the
Department, Electrical and Electronics Engineering.

We express our deep gratitude to all teaching and non teaching staff
members of college for help throughout provoking discussions, valuable suggestions
extended to us with immense care, zeal and cooperation throughout our work.

Our apologies for any oversights or shortcomings in the details provided in this
report. Last but not least we thank our family members and friends for being a
constant source of encouragement throughout this period.
 ABSTRACT

Power instability in developing countries creates the need for automation of phase
selection or alternative sources of power to back-up the utility supply. Most industrial and
commercial applications are dependent on power supply and if the process of change over is
manual ,not only considerable time is wasted but also the device or machine may get
damaged from human error during the change over connections, incurring massive losses.

Here is a digital phase selector that can be installed in residential and office
premises where single-phase equipment is used. When any of the mains phase lines fails, it
automatically selects the available phase line (out of three phase lines or backup lines)
 CONTENTS

1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 Importance of Electrical Energy
1.2 Objective of the Project
1.3 Need for Automation
1.4 High Frequency Switching Technology
1.5 Inverter

2. DIGITAL PHASE SELECTOR

2.1 Introduction
2.2 Block Diagram of Digital Phase Selector
2.3 Circuit Description of Digital Phase Selector
2.4 Advantages of Digital Phase Selector

3. OPTO COUPLER
3.1 Definition of Optocoupler
3.2 Schematic Diagram of IC Mct2e Opto-Coupler
3.3 Working of IC MCT2E Opto Coupler
3.4 Absolute Maximum Ratings
3.5 Typical Electro-Optical Characteristics
3.5.1 Switching Time Test Circuit and Waveforms
3.5.2 Switching Time Wave Form of IC MCT2E
3.6 Application
4. CONTROL LOGIC DEVICES
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Hex Inverter (IC CD4069)
4.2.1 General Description
4.2.2 Features
4.2.3 Pin Diagram
4.2.4 Schematic Diagrams
4.2.5 Absolute Maximum Ratings
4.2.6 Ac Test Circuits
4.2.7 Switching Time Wave Forms
4.2.8 Performance Characteristics
4.3 Quad ‘And’ Gate (IC CD4081)
4.3.1 General Description
4.3.2 Features
4.3.3 Connection Diagram
4.3.4 Schematic Diagrams
4.3.5 Absolute Maximum Ratings
4.3.6 Typical Performance Curves
4.3.7 Physical Dimensions
4.4 Working of Control Logic Device

5. RELAY DRIVERS
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Darlington Sink Driver
5.3 Features
5.4 Pin Configuration
5.5 Schematic Diagram
5.6 Maximum Ratings
5.7 Test Circuits of IC ULN2003
5.8 Relay
 6. POWER SUPPLY
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Features
6.3 Description
6.4 Circuit Diagram
6.5 Internal Block Diagram
6.6 Transformers
6.6.1 Step down Transformer
6.6.2 Transformer Rating

CONCLUSION

FUTURE SCOPE

BIBLIOGRAPHY

APPENDIX-A

APPENDIX-B

APPENDIX-C
 LIST OF FIGURES

Fig1: Block Diagram of Digital Phase Selector.

Fig2: Circuit Diagram of Digital Phase Selector
Fig3: Power Supply Circuit Diagram
Fig4: Schematic Diagram of IC MCT2E Opto Coupler
Fig5: Switching Time Test Circuit and Waveforms
Fig6: Switching Time Wave Form of Mct2e
Fig7: Pin Diagram of IC CD4069
Fig8: Schematic Diagram of IC CD4069
Fig9: Ac Test Circuit of IC CD4069
Fig10: Switching Time Wave Forms IC CD 4069
Fig11: Performance Characteristics of IC CD4069
Fig12: Pin Diagram of IC CD4081
Fig13: Internal Schematic Diagram of IC CD4081
Fig14: Typical Performance Curves of IC CD4081
Fig15: Outline Diagram of IC CD4081 with Physical Dimensions
Fig16: Outline Pin Diagram of IC ULN 2003
Fig17: Pin Connection of IC ULN 2003
Fig18: Schematic Diagram of IC ULN 2003
Fig19: Test Circuits of IC ULN2003
Fig20: Outline Structure of Electromagnetic Relay
Fig21: Physical View of IC LM317
Fig22: Circuit Diagram
Fig23: Internal Block Diagram of IC LM317
Fig24: Step Down Transformer
 LIST OF SYMBOLS

1) Capacitor

2) Capacitor, polarized

3) Capacitor, variable

4) Diode

5) Zener diode

6) LED

7) Photodiode
8) Inductor

9) Transformer

10) NPN transistor

11) Earth or ground

12) Fuse

13) Battery

14) SPST (on-off switch)

15) SPDT (2-way switch)

16) Relay

17) Resistor

18) Variable resistor

19) And gate

20) Not gate

 HARD WARE COMPONENTS USED IN THIS PROJECT
Semi conductors
IC1-IC4 MCT2E optocoupler
IC5 CD4069 hex inverter
IC6 CD4081 quad AND gate
IC7 ULN2003 Darlington array
IC8 LM317 adjustable regulator.
ZD1-ZD4 9V Zener diode
D1-D16 IN4007 rectifier diode.
LED1-LED4 5mm LED
Resistors (all ¼-watt,±5% carbon)
R1-R3,R21 15-kilo-ohm,1W
R4-R6,R22 1-kilo-ohm
R7-R10 10-kilo-ohm
R12-R15 2.2-kilo-ohm
R11 12-kilo-ohm
R16-R19 330-ohm
R20 560-ohm
VR1 5.6-kilo-ohm preset
Capacitors:
C1-C3,C12 10µF, 40V electrolytic
C4-C7 22nF ceramic disc.
C8 2200µF, 25V electrolytic.
C9,C11 0.1µF ceramic disc
C10 10µF, 16V electrolytic.
Miscellaneous:
X1 230V primary to 9V,2A secondary transformer
RL1-RL4 6V,1C/O relay
F1-F4 1A fuse
BATT. 6V rechargeable battery
CHAPTER-1
INTRODUCTION

1.1 Importance of electrical energy:

Electrical energy is the only form of energy which is easily available. The main
advantage of this form of energy is we can easily convert any form of energy into
electrical energy and vice-versa.
 The usage of this electrical energy is increasing day-by-day. The best example is
in India in 1950 the generation of electrical energy was 150MW and now the generation
has been increased to a very large extent. To meet this load demand many power stations
were build across the country.

1.2 Objective of the project:

The load demand is increasing day by day and we are able to generate power to
the requirement and we are able to transmit power to the load centers with maximum
efficiency and minimum losses.
The major problem a consumer facing now a days is power interruption. Due to
this power interruption lot of damage is caused in terms of money and sometimes to life.
Due to this power interruption lot of time is wasted.
But the major problem of power interruption is in distribution system and more
over 70% faults are single phase faults, in this case power is available in other two
phases.
But all the domestic loads are connected to single phase supply and if the fault
occurs, even then power is available in other phases we can not utilize that power. If we
want to utilize that power manual operation is required which results in fire accidents and
also not reliable.
For this we need automatic switching from one phase to other automatically
which is made possible by this “DIGITAL PHASE SELECTOR”.

1.3 Need For Automation:

In order to change from one phase to other manual operation is not possible as we
are dealing with 3-Φ 415V supply which causes fire accidents during change over and
leads to 3-Φ faults which is dangerous to electrical equipment. And more over manual
changing is not possible at every time as identifying the phase of power interruption is
difficult.
 To avoid all this we need automation which is done by “DIGITAL PHASE
SELECTOR”. Here we do not need any manual work and we are no way concerned with
the phase of fault as the digital phase selector automatically switches to the phase where
the power is available.

1.4 High frequency switching technology:

High frequency switching technology is the latest technique which uses infra red
radiation for switching purpose.
For this we use IC MCT2E opto coupler. The main advantage of this technique is,
mechanical switching is reliable for single phase supply, but for three phase supply
sudden mechanical switching causes arching. This can be avoided by using this
technology as it uses infrared radiation to trigger transistors, MOSFETS, IGBTs etc...

1.5 INVERTER:
The digital phase selector has capability to take power from inverter also. Even if
the power failure is in all the three phases the availability of inverter makes this more
reliable. And more over this inverter need not me manually operated just by connecting it
to digital phase selector it can be operated. During normal conditions the inverter is
charged i.e.., the battery is charged and during fault conditions it gives back up.

CHAPTER-2
DIGITAL PHASE SELECTOR

2.1 INTRODUCTION:
Power instability in developing countries creates the need for automation of phase
selection or alternative sources of power to back-up the utility supply. Most industrial and
commercial applications are dependent on power supply and if the process of change
over is manual ,not only considerable time is wasted but also the device or machine may
get damaged from human error during the change over connections, incurring massive
losses.
Here is a digital phase selector that can be installed in residential and office
premises where single-phase equipment is used. When any of the mains phase lines fails,
it automatically selects the available phase line (out of three phase lines or backup lines).

2.2 BLOCK DIAGRAM OF DIGITAL PHASE SELECTOR:

The figure below is the block diagram of digital phase selector. This has mainly
four blocks they are
 Phase sensing and switching block.
 Control logic block.
 Relay driver section.
 Power supply unit.
All the four blocks are inter connected to each other and are independent of load
connected to it. All the blocks get signals simultaneously and we can not decide which
block is operating first physically.
 R PHASE RELAY FOR
SELECTOR R PHASE

Y PHASE RELAY FOR

SELECTOR Y PHASE
CONTROL RELAY
LOGIC DRIVER
CIRCUIT
RELAY FOR
B PHASE B PHASE
SELECTOR

RELAY FOR
INVERTER INVERTER
SELECTOR

POWER
SUPPLY LOAD

Fig1: Block diagram of digital phase selector.

 Control logic block:

The control logic circuitry decides the phase priority for one out of four lines.
The order of phase priority is R-phase followed by Y-phase, B-phase and then back up
(inverter) as shown in truth table given below.
 Phase sensing and switching block:
This gives information to the optocoupler where the phase from which the power
has to be taken is sensed and corresponding switching operation is performed. Thus the
speed of operation of sensing the phase depends directly on the control circuit and not on
optocoupler. The opto coupler just performs the work as according to the instructions
given by the control circuit.

TRUTH TABLE
Line input Control logic output
R phase Y phase B phase Inverter R Y B Inv

1 X X X 1 0 0 0

0 1 X X 0 1 0 0

0 0 1 X 0 0 1 0

0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1

Table1: truth table of digital phase selector.

 Relay driver section:
The control logic circuit not only gives signal to opto coupler but it has to give
signal to relay driver section also simultaneously. This is the reason the control logic
circuit is very important.
The relay driver gets signal from the control logic circuit and according to the
signal it will activate the corresponding relay to operate. The relay driver section gives
electrical signal to the strip of the relay and relay contacts closes thus the power flows to
load.

 Power supply unit:

The digital phase selector has three main blocks which contains four
optocoupler(IC MCT2E), one hex inverter(IC CD4069), one quad and gate(IC CD4081),
one Darlington array (ULN 2003). And more over there is a relay in each phase which
has mechanical contact.
To make all these devices to work a perfect 6V D.C supply is required which does
not contain any ripples. And to drive the relays and the IC we need 2A, 6V supply i.e.., a
pure D.C which is provided by the power supply unit.
 The power supply unit consists of adjustable regulator which varies automatically
the voltage during normal running conditions.
2.3 Circuit description of “DIGITAL PHASE SELECTOR”:
The figure below shows is the circuit of the digital phase selector. The R-phase of
AC mains supply is rectified by half wave rectifier 1N4007 (D1). The rectified signal is
limited to 9Volts by the Zener diode and filtered by 10microFARAD capacitor. The
15kohm resistor acts as the current limiter.

Fig2 : circuit diagram of digital phase selector.

The cathode of the Zener diode is connected to pin1 of opto coupler MCT 2E
through a 1kilo-ohm resistor. The 1-kilo-ohm resistor acts as the current limiter for
MCT2E. Each opto coupler consists of a gallium-arsenide infrared LED and a silicon
NPN photo transistor. When R-phase is present, the internal infrared led drives the
internal photo transistor of MCT2E is used for the logic circuitry.
All the line-/phase-sensing circuits are similar as explained above. The control
logic circuit is isolated from the phase-sensing circuit by opto coupler MCT2E.
The control logic circuit comprises NOT gate, AND gate, diodes and a few passive
components. It is basically a priority encoder and works according to the truth table. If an
input variable is at logic ‘0’, it means that particular phase (line) is absent in the phase
selector, while if an input variable is at logic ‘1’, that particular phase is present in the
phase selector.
The truth table expression may contain any number of lines (any number of inputs
may be at logic’1’), but only one input will be at logic ‘1’. This means that only a
particular phase has the highest priority and must be carried out first. ‘X’ in the truth
table indicates the ‘don’t care, input, i.e., the input may be at logic ‘0’ or ‘1’.
From the truth table, you can easily arrive at the following Boolean equations:
R=R phase
Y=R phase, Y phase
B=R phase, Y phase,
INV. = R’ phase, Y’ phase, B’ phase, inverter

The working of the control logic circuit is as simple as its structure. The presence
of any of four phase lines, namely, R, Y, B and inverter, makes the corresponding
variable high (logic 1). The glowing of a particular LED, bearing the same name as the
output variable, will indicate top priority.
The output from the logic control circuit is fed to relay driver ULN2003 (IC 7). IC
ULN2003 is a high voltage, high current Darlington array containing open-collector
Darlington pairs with common emitters. Each channel is rated at 500mA and can
withstand peak currents of 600mA. Suppression diodes are included for driving inductive
loads.
When all phase lines are present, only relay RL1 energizes and its contacts are
connected to the load. The order of phase lines connected to the load is R phase followed
by Y phase, B phase and then back up (inverter). LED1, LED2, LED3 and LED4
indicating R phase, Y phase, B phase and backup (inverter) respectively, are connected to
the load. Resistors R16 through R19 act as current limiters for LED1 through LED4,
respectively.
The figure below shows the circuit of power supply. The A.C main is stepped
down by transformer X1 to deliver 9V, 2A secondary output.
 Fig3: power supply circuit diagram.
The transformer output is rectified by a full wave bridge rectifier comprising
diodes D6 through D9, filtered by capacitor C8 and regulated by IC LM317 (IC 8). The
LM317 (T package) is adjustable regulator that requires two external components
(resistor R20 and preset VR1) to determine the output voltage. Preset VR1 is used to set
the voltage to 6V.
Diode D10 protects regulator LM317, incase its input shorts to ground if
capacitors above 10 micro Farads are connected to the output of the regulator IC.
Capacitor C11 by passes any ripple in the regulated output. Capacitors C4 through C7 are
connected in parallel to rectifier diode to by pass undesired spikes and provide smooth
and fluctuation-free power.
2.4 Advantages of digital phase selector:
 No mechanical contacts.
 Compact in size.
 High frequency switching technology.
 Can be used for all single phase loads.
 CHAPTER-3
OPTO COUPLER

3.1 Definition of optocoupler:

An opto-isolator circuit. In electronics, an opto-isolator is a device that uses a
short optical transmission path to transfer a signal between elements of a circuit, typically
a transmitter and a receiver, while keeping them electrically isolated since the signal
goes from an electrical signal to an optical signal back to an electrical signal, electrical
contact along the path is broken.
3.2 schematic diagram of IC MCT2E opto-coupler:

Fig:4 schematic diagram of IC MCT2E OPTO COUPLER

The schematic diagram of IC MCT2E opto coupler is shown above and its pin diagram is
also shown. It is a 6-pin IC which has infra red LED and a photo transistor internally which
can be seen in the figure.

Out of the six pins the first pin is anode, second pin is cathode. These two pins act as
supply terminals. The third terminal is given no connection as this terminal is mainly dealt
with dc supply. But here we are only dealing with ac supply and we are no way concerned
with dc supply hence we made the third terminal dead.

3.3 Working of IC MCT2E OPTO COUPLER:

The MCT2E series opto-coupler consists of a gallium arsenide infra red emitting
diode a silicon photo transistor in a 6-pin dual-in-line package.
This consists of a high power infrared emitting diode which emits IR radiation
when it gets 9V supply. This 9V is supplied by Zener diode which is used in series with a
15KΩ resistor.
 This is so accurate that even a pulse of voltage makes the led to emit the radiation.
And this is the reason the switch over is possible which made this device highly accurate
and fast in operation.
When ever the supply is given to the anode, the radiation emitted by the high
power LED triggers the photo transistor. Photo transistor is one which needs radiation to
conduct. The 4, 5, 6 pins of MCT2E is emitter, collector, base respectively. When ever
the radiation falls on base the electron moment starts and electrons flow from emitter to
control logic. This give signal to control logic circuit and activates the logic IC.

3.4 Absolute maximum ratings:

Stress exceeding the absolute maximum ratings may damage the device. The
device may not function or to be operable above the recommended operating conditions
and stressing the parts to these levels is not recommended. In addition, extended exposure
to stresses above the recommended operating conditions may affect device reliability.
The absolute maximum ratings are stress ratings only.
All these ratings are for MCT2E and these values may vary for different
manufacturer depending on the application of the IC. The ratings mentioned here also
include the transistor parameters also. The rating of LED varies depending on the power
input. Since we use here for 3-Φ, 415V supply the LED ratings are low. But the transistor
ratings can’t be varied to the extent as the cost of the transistor increases with increase in
the rating. Even then it is economical and safe to use a photo transistor.
 Table2: absolute maximum ratings of MCT2E

3.5 Typical electro-optical characteristics:

3.5.1 Switching time test circuit and waveforms:

Fig 5: Switching time test circuit and waveforms.

 The above figure shows the switching time test circuit diagram and its corresponding
wave forms. The test circuit consists of a diode NPN transistor and passive elements like
resistor and input supply.
The wave forms of the test circuit which consists of input pulse and output pulse
which also shows the percentage variations also.
The test circuit shown in the figure clearly explains how the infrared radiation
triggers the transistors. Here when ever the radiation hits the base of the transistors a current
IF flows through the emitter and a voltage Vcc=10V is applied. The current If can be
produced by adjusting collector current Ic.
The wave forms of the above test circuit are shown in the next figure. The figure
shown has an input wave and a output wave which clearly explains how the out put varies
with the input. When ever the input reaches from 10% to 90% the output curve is
indicated from off to on state. When ever the input pulse is declined the output gradually
reaches to 10% from 90%.
If the power supply is continuous for that phase the output again picks up to 90%
and this process continues. If in case the power is disconnected in that phase the input
suddenly comes to 0% but the output gradually decreases to 0%.

3.5.2 Switching time wave form of MCT2E.

Fig6: Switching time wave form of MCT2E.

 The above wave form shows the switching time wave forms of IC MCT2E
optocoupler. This explains clearly the saturation state of IC MCT2E opto coupler. The
opto coupler has an LED which has capacity to radiate 10 times more radiation than its
rating but if the radiation increases the transistor conducts more a more and at one state it
reaches to saturation state where the conduction stops and the transistor conducts
maximum power and emits enormous heat. If the same situation continues for more time
the transistor gradually goes into recovery state and finally stops conducting.

3.6 Application:

A simple circuit with an opto-isolator. When switch S1 is closed, LED D1 lights,

which triggers phototransistor Q1, which pulls the output pin low. This circuit, thus, acts
as a NOT gate.

Among other applications, opto-isolators can help cut down on ground loops, block
voltage spikes, and provide electrical isolation.

 One of the requirements of the MIDI (Musical Instrument Digital Interface)

standard is that input connections be opto-isolated.
 They are used to isolate low-current control or signal circuitry from transients
generated or transmitted by power supply and high-current control circuits. The
latter are used within motor and machine control function blocks.
 Most switched-mode power supplies utilize optocoupler for mains isolation.
 CHAPTER-4
CONTROL LOGIC DEVICES
4.1 Introduction:
A control logic circuit is the circuit which controls the phase sensing and
switching operations of optocoupler and relay driver section. For this there are two
components used they are HEX INVERTER (IC CD4069) and the ‘quad AND GATE’
(CD 4081).

4.2 Hex Inverter (IC CD4069):

4.2.1 General Description:

The CD 4069 consists of six inverter circuits and is manufactured using complimentary
MOS (CMOS) to achieve wide power supply operating range, low power consumption, high
noise immunity, and symmetric controlled rise and fall times.
This device is intended for all general purpose inverter applications where the special
characteristics of the IC CD 4069 HEX INVERTER are not required. In those applications
requiring larger noise immunity hex Schmitt trigger is suggested. All inputs are protected from
damage due to static discharge by diode clamps to V DD and VSS.

4.2.2 Features:

 Wide supply voltage range : 3.0 to 15V

 High noise immunity : 0.45 V DD type.
 Low power TTL compatibility : fan out of two driving 74L.
4.2.3 Pin Diagram:

Fig7: Pin diagram of IC CD4069

The above diagram is the pin diagram of IC CD4069. It consists of six not gates and
the two terminals of the NOT gate is brought out as two pins. The pin 14 is Vdd and the pin
7 is Vss and in this project we are not using the pins 8-13 as their applications are not
related to the project. The working of the IC is purely based on the truth table of the NOT
gate.

4.2.4 Schematic Diagrams:

Fig8: Schematic diagram of IC CD4069

The above diagram is the schematic diagram of IC CD4069. It has four terminals
input voltage Vin, Vdd, Vss and Vout. It consists of two diodes, two MOSFETS and a
variable resistor. The two diodes are used for directing the current in a particular direction
and the MOSFETS are used for the switching and driving purpose.
The variable resistor is used to limit the current as the MOSFETS are not capable of
holding currents more than its ratings. The current direction is indicated by arrows and if the
direction reversed then the MOSFETS operation is interchanged and gives unnecessary
signal even in normal condition.

4.2.5 Absolute Maximum Ratings:

 Dc supply voltage (VDD) : -0.5 to +18V
 Input voltage (VIN) : -0.5 to V DD +0.5 VDC
 Storage temperature range (Ts)in °c : -65 to +150
 Power dissipation (Pd)
 Dual-in-line : 700MW
 Small out line : 500MW
 Lead temperature (TL) : 260°c

4.2.6 AC Test Circuits:

Fig9: AC test circuit of IC4069

The above circuit diagram shows the AC test circuit of IC CD4069. it consists of an
NOT gate and a capacitor is connected in between the output and the ground. It consists of
two terminals input Vin and the output Vout. During normal running conditions the
capacitor charges and when fault occurs it discharges and makes the output to drive the
signal.

4.2.7 Switching Time Wave Forms:

Fig10: Switching time wave forms IC CD 4069

The above wave form shows switching time wave form of IC CD4069. This wave
form clearly explains the input and output simultaneously. The output of the IC is zero until
the input reaches to 10% but suddenly the output reaches to 90% when the input gradually
increases from 10% to 90%. When the input reaches to 90% the out put gradually decreases
to 10%. This cycle continues and if there is any fault the output does not follow the input
for some time and after a time delay the output gain comes to normal position.

4.2.8 Performance Characteristics:

 Fig:(a) fig :(b)
Fig11: performance characteristics of IC CD4069
The above graphs show typical performance characteristics. Fig :( a) shows the gate
transfer characteristics input voltage Vin is on X-axis and the out put voltage is on Y-axis.
The dotted line shows the ambient temperature +125°c and the thin line gives the ambient
temperature -55°c.
Fig :( b) shows the relation between propagation delay and ambient temperature,
where the ambient temperature is on X-axis and the propagation delay on Y-axis. The
propagation delay increases with increase in the ambient temperature. In also depends on
the value of the capacitance.

4.3 Quad ‘And’ Gate (Ic Cd 4081):

4.3.1 General Description:

The CD 4081 quad and gates are monolithic complimentary MOS (CMOS) integrated
circuits constructed with n and p channel enhancement mode transistors. They have equal
source and sink current and compatibilities and confirmed to standard B series output drive.
The devices also have buffered outputs which improve transfer characteristics by providing
very high gain. All inputs protected against static discharge with diodes to V DD and VSS.
4.3.2 Features:
  Low power TTL compatibility.
 5V-10V-15V parametric ratings.
 Symmetrical output characteristics.
 Maximum input leakage 1µA at 15V over full temperature range.

4.3.3 Connection Diagram:

Fig12: Pin diagram of IC CD4081

The above diagram shows the connection diagram of IC CD4081. It has 14 pins
where pin 14 is Vdd, pin 7 is Vss. In our project we are using all the pins as it has to drive
the relay driver section and it has to give signals to the opto coupler.
Internally the IC consists of AND gates and each AND gate has three terminals
and all the three terminals are brought out.
The working of AND gate purely depends on the truth table of the AND gate and
the required supply is given by the power supply unit.

4.3.4 Schematic Diagrams:

 Fig13: Internal schematic diagram of IC CD4081

The above diagram is the internal schematic diagram of IC CD4081. It has three terminals
and there are ten MOSFETS internally and each MOSFET consists of three terminals. Each
terminal of all the MOSFETS is interconnected and three common terminals are bought
out. This tells that each MOSFET can handle ten operations at a time with only three
terminals. This we can interconnect any AND gate irrespective of terminals and we can use
different terminals of different gates which are of same operation i.e., if we connect to pin 2
all the MOSFETS connected to pin 2 will work thus enables multiple operations with
single pin and reduces the power consumption.

4.3.5 Absolute Maximum Ratings:

 Voltage at any pin : -0.5 to +0.5
 Power dissipation
 Dual in line : 700mW
 Small out line : 500mW
 VDD range : -0.5 to +18V
 Storage temperature ºc : -65ºc to +150ºc
 Lead temperature : 260ºc
4.3.6 Typical Performance Curves:

Fig14: Typical performance curves of IC4081

The above graph shows the typical transfer characteristics of IC CD4081. It shows
the relation between output voltage V0 and the input current Vi. The input is on X-axis and
the output is on Y-axis.
The out varies in step and for particular value of input the output remains constant
and this value also depends on the temperature. As the temperature increases the output
varies.

4.3.7 Physical Dimensions:

 Fig15: outline diagram of IC CD4081 with physical dimensions

The above diagram is the physical over view of the IC CD4081. This clearly shows the
length of the IC gap between the pins, thickness of IC.
The casing of the IC is molded by 30° as it enables the IC to be easy to assemble. It
also makes the IC to be easily mounted on the PCB boards.
The notch indicates the starting of the pins and the tip of the pins are sharpened so that
it can be easily soldered. The gap between each pin is more because the IC is used for multiple
operations and if the gap is less there is possibility of shot of pins.

4.4 Working of Control Logic Device:

 This control logic circuit receives signal from the phase sensing block and
activates the appropriate element and also gives signal to relay driver and this circuit
needs 6V supply and this can be obtained by a power circuit unit.
The control logic circuitry decides the phase priority for one out of four lines. The order
of phase priority is R-phase followed by Y-phase, B-phase and then back up (inverter)..
The control logic circuit is isolated from the phase-sensing circuit by opto coupler MCT2E.
The control logic circuit comprises NOT gate, AND gate, diodes and a few
passive components. It is basically a priority encoder and works according to the truth
table. If an input variable is at logic ‘0’, it means that particular phase (line) is absent in
the phase selector, while if an input variable is at logic ‘1’, that particular phase is present
in the phase selector.
The truth table expression may contain any number of lines (any number of inputs
may be at logic’1’), but only one input will be at logic ‘1’. This means that only a
particular phase has the highest priority and must be carried out first. ‘X’ in the truth
table indicates the ‘don’t care, input, i.e., the input may be at logic ‘0’ or ‘1’.
From the truth table, you can easily arrive at the following Boolean equations:
R=R phase
Y=R phase, Y phase
B=R phase, Y phase, B phase

INV. = R’ phase, Y’ phase, B’ phase, inverter

The working of the control logic circuit is as simple as its structure. The presence
of any of four phase lines, namely, R, Y, B and inverter, makes the corresponding
variable high (logic 1). The glowing of a particular LED, bearing the same name as the
output variable, will indicate top priority.
The output from the logic control circuit is fed to relay driver ULN2003 (IC 7).

CHAPTER-5
 RELAY DRIVERS
5.1 Introduction:

The relay driver section gives signal to the relay and makes the relay to close its
contacts. As the relay has a small mechanical contact i.e.., a small metallic strip the relay
drier must have capacity to drive it. For this a special IC used which has high signal
carrying capacity and the IC used for this is IC ULN 2003 DARLINGTON ARRAY.

5.2 Darlington Sink Driver:

The IC ULN 2003 series are high voltage, high current Darlington drivers comprised of
seven NPN Darlington pairs.
All units feature integral clamp diodes for switching inductive loads. Applications
include relay, hammer, lamp and display (LED) drivers.

Fig 16: Outline pin diagram of IC ULN 2003

The above diagram shows the out line pin diagram of IC ULN 2003. it has 16 pins and
each pin has some specific application and the two models of the IC are DIP type and SOL
type.

5.3 Features:
 Output current (single output) 500mA MAX.
  High sustaining voltage output 50V MIN.
 Output clamps diodes.
 Inputs compatible with various types of logic.
 Package type-AP : DIP-16 pin
 Package type-AFW : SOL-16 pin

5.4 Pin Configuration:

Fig 17: Pin connection of IC ULN 2003

The above diagram shows the pin diagram of IC ULN 2003 darling ton array. It has 16
pins where the pin 8 is ground pin and pin 9 is used as common pin for all applications which is
also grounded. If we see the internal diagram of IC it has not gates in series with diode and all
are connected in parallel and their output is connected to corresponding terminals.
The ULN2003 are high voltage, high current Darlington arrays each containing
seven open collector Darlington pairs with common emitters. Each channel rated at
500mA and can withstand peak currents of 600mA. Suppression diodes are included for
inductive load driving and the inputs are pinned opposite the outputs to simplify board
layout.
These versatile devices are useful for driving a wide range of loads including
solenoids, relays DC motors; LED displays filament lamps, thermal print heads and high
power buffers.
ULN 2003 is supplied in 16 pin plastic DIP packages with a copper lead frame to
reduce thermal resistance. They are available also in small outline package.
5.5 Schematic Diagram:
 Fig 18: Schematic diagram of IC ULN 2003
The above figure shows the schematic diagram of IC ULN 2003. Here it has an input
terminal, two NPN transistors, four IN 4007 diodes. This diagram is replaced to small size and
embedded in the form of IC.
The schematic diagram consists of four diodes, two transistors and a set of resistors. It
has four terminals input, output, ground and common terminal. The three terminals are given to
three terminals of the relay and the input terminal is connected to control logic circuit.

5.6 Maximum Ratings:

The table shows the maximum ratings of IC ULN2003 where it shows the output
voltage, maximum input voltage, operating temperature, storage temperature etc..,

Table3: maximum ratings of IC ULN 2003

5.7 Test Circuits Of IC Uln2003:

 Fig19: Test circuits of IC ULN2003
The circuit shown above is the test circuit of IC ULN2003. It has a pulse generator
which generates required signal to be given to the relay. As the relay works on DC supply
this pulse generator generates pure ripple free DC.
It also has a NOT gate which makes the relay to open its contacts when the power is
off or when the fault occurs or else when the supply is on spark occurs. To avoid this we
use a NOT gate and a diode connected parallel.

5.8 Relay:

Contact Specifications:
 Configuration : 2CO, 2NO
 Contact rating : 30A at 240V AC/ 24V DC.
 Contact resistance : 100mΏ( max)
 Contact material : Silver alloy.
 Fig20: outline structure of electromagnetic relay

General Performance:
 Operating time : 30msec Max
 Fast switching version : 10msec Max
 Release time : 10maec Max
 Life expectancy
 Electrical : 5X 10^3 operations
 Mechanical : 10^3 operations
 Dielectric strength
 Between open contacts : 1000V AC
 Between coil and contact : 2000V AC
 Between any terminal and earth : 2000V AC
 Insulation resistance : 1000MΏ
 Temp range : -40ºc
 Weight : 130g
 Mounting : Chassis mounting.
 CHAPTER 6
POWER SUPPLY

6.1 Introduction:
The digital phase selector consists of ICs, relays, which needs DC supply for
operation of ICs and we also know the relays need pure DC supply for its operation .this
DC supply can be obtained by the power supply circuit
The major components of the power supply circuit is the adjustable regulator(IC
LM 317)

6.2 Features:
 Output current in excess of 1.5A.
 Output adjustable between 1.2V and 37V.
 Internal thermal over load protection.
 Internal short circuit current limiting.
 Output transistor safe operating area compensation.
 TO-220 package.

6.3 Description:

Fig21: Physical view of IC LM317

 This monolithic integrated circuit is an adjustable 3-terminal positive voltage regulator
designed to supply more than 1.5A of load current with an output voltage adjustable over a 1.2
to 37V. It employs internal current limiting, thermal shut down and safe area compensation.

6.4 Circuit Diagram:

Fig22: Circuit diagram

The above circuit diagram is the complete diagram of IC LM317 and the external
resistors and capacitors indicate that is being used as adjustable regulator. The LM317 (T
package) is adjustable regulator that requires two external components (resistor R20 and
preset VR1) to determine the output voltage. Preset VR1 is used to set the voltage to 6V.
Diode D10 protects regulator LM317, incase its input shorts to ground if
capacitors above 10 micro Farads are connected to the output of the regulator IC.
Capacitor C11 by passes any ripple in the regulated output. Capacitors C4 through
C7 are connected in parallel to rectifier diode to by pass un desired spikes and provide
smooth and fluctuation-free power.

6.5 Internal block diagram:

 Fig23: Internal block diagram of IC LM317
The above diagram is the internal block diagram of IC LM317. It mainly consists of
two blocks they are the voltage reference block and the protection circuitry block. There is an
op amp and a pair of passive devises and the one transistor is used to drive the load and another
transistor is used to control the output.
There are three terminals they are adjusting terminal, output terminal, and input
terminal. The adjusting terminal is a variable resistor which can be varied manually and if we
set a particular value automatic variation is possible by a voltage reference compared with the
output. If the output deviates from the input the difference between voltages reaches to some
finite value which makes to change the value of the resistance.
Since the IC LM317 used here is for adjustable regulator, the variation sin voltage may
lead to continuous stress over the components and this can be avoided by the protection circuit.
Internally the protection circuit consists of series connected resistors and a moving contact.
Depending on the value of the current the metallic contact is moved and as the resistances are
series connected the value of resistance is added.

6.6 Transformers:
 A transformer is a device that transfers electrical energy from one circuit to
another through inductively coupled electrical conductors. A changing current in the first
circuit (the primary) creates a changing magnetic field. This changing magnetic field
induces a changing voltage in the second circuit (the secondary). This effect is called
mutual induction.

If a load is connected to the secondary circuit, electric charge will flow in the secondary
winding of the transformer and transfer energy from the primary circuit to the load. In an
ideal transformer, the induced voltage in the secondary winding (VS) is a fraction of the
primary voltage (VP) and is given by the ratio of the number of secondary turns to the
number of primary turns:

By appropriate selection of the numbers of turns, a transformer thus allows an alternating

voltage to be stepped up — by making NS more than NP — or stepped down, by making it
less.

Transformers are some of the most efficient electrical 'machines', with some large units
able to transfer 99.75% of their input power to their output. Transformers come in a range
of sizes from a thumbnail-sized coupling transformer hidden inside a stage microphone to
huge units weighing hundreds of tons used to interconnect portions of national power
grids. All operate with the same basic principles, although the range of designs is wide.
While new technologies have made transformers in some electronics applications
obsolete, transformers are still found in many electronic devices. Transformers are
essential for high voltage power transmission, which makes long distance transmission
economically practical.

6.6.1 Step Down Transformer:

 So far we’ve observed simulations of transformers where the primary and
secondary windings were of identical inductance, giving approximately equal voltage and
current levels in both circuits. Equality of voltage and current between the primary and
secondary sides of a transformer however is not the norm for all transformers. If the
inductance of the two windings is not equal, something interesting happens. Notice how
the secondary voltage is approximately ten times less than the primary voltage (0.9962
volts compared to 10volts)

Fig24: Step Down Transformer

6.6.2 Transformer Rating:

In our example above we were taking 2A out of the Vsec of 9-0-9V. The
VA required is 9X2A = 18VA. This is a small PCB mount transformer available in
Australia and probably elsewhere. This would be an absolute minimum and if you
anticipated drawing the maximum current all the time then go to a higher VA
rating.

CONCLUSION
The DIGITAL PHASE SELECTOR is an advanced technique which not only used
for automation but also is one of the techniques for power quality improvement. This is a safe
method of for change over of phase as it uses IC MCT2E OPTO COUPLER which is high
frequency switch which works on infrared radiation and it does not contain any mechanical
contacts.
This digital phase selector also takes power from inverter which made this devise
highly reliable and its compact size made this device to be used for house hold purposes.

FUTURE SCOPE
This digital phase selector is used for house hold purpose and by development of high
power opto couples we can extend the use of this device in substations and power stations.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
[1] Automation and Controlling Of Power Systems by s. Sunil Kumar.

[2] Power System Engineering by A. Chakrabarti, M.L.Soni, &P.V.Gupta,

[3] Modern Power System by I.J.Nagarath

WEB SITE: WWW.EFYMAG.COM

 APPENDIX-A
CAPACITORS

A capacitor or condenser is a passive electronic component consisting of a pair of

conductors separated by a dielectric. Capacitors were discovered in 1745 and have
become ubiquitous within electronic and electrical systems. The net charge on the
conductors is proportional to the voltage across the dielectric, and the current is
proportional to the time-derivative of the voltage. The proportionality constant is known
as the capacitance of the device and is measured in units of farads, which correspond to
one coulomb of charge storage per volt.

In DC circuits, a capacitor charges or discharges and energy is stored or released

over time. In AC circuits, the periodic variation in charge yields a nonzero current with a
90° phase lead over the voltage. The capacitor therefore behaves as a short circuit for
high frequency signals and as an open circuit at low frequencies. Multiple capacitors may
be connected in parallel to obtain a higher capacitance or in series to obtain a lower
capacitance.
 Although an ideal capacitor is characterized by its capacitance alone, real devices
exhibit more complex behavior. An equivalent series resistance (ESR) and inductance
exist due to imperfect fabrication and Joule heating of the ESR places a limit on the
ripple currents tolerated by the device. A small leakage current between the conductors
leads to the discharge of the device over time. Above a breakdown voltage, the dielectric
becomes conductive and the capacitor fails. The capacitance is affected by the ambient
temperature, by incident sound waves and by the age of the device.

The behavior of a capacitor depends upon its geometry and the materials from
which it is constructed. A variety of dielectric materials including paper, plastic, glass,
mica, ceramics and liquid electrolytes are in common use. The conductors may take the
form of metallic coatings upon the dielectrics or multiple metallic plates in a stack. The
connecting leads may be arranged axially, or may be omitted entirely in surface mount
components. Variable capacitors allow the capacitance to be varied by mechanically
adjusting the locations of the conductors.

Applications of capacitors are diverse. Their frequency dependent behavior allows

filtering applications including noise filtering, separation of AC and DC components of
signals and the smoothing of power supplies. The charge and energy storage properties of
a capacitor are employed in uninterruptible power supplies, pulsed power applications
and amplifiers. DeEarly capacitors were also known as condensers, a term that is still
occasionally used today. It was coined by Alessandro Volta in 1782 (derived from the
Italian condensatore), with reference to the device's ability to store a higher density of
electric charge than a normal isolated conductor. Most non-English European languages
still use a word derived from "condensatore".
 Charge separation in a parallel-plate capacitor causes an internal electric field. A
dielectric (orange) reduces the field and increases the capacitance.

A capacitor consists of two conductors separated by a non-conductive region.[3]

The non-conductive substance is called the dielectric medium, although this may also
mean a vacuum or a semiconductor depletion region chemically identical to the
conductors. A capacitor is assumed to be self-contained and isolated, with no net electric
charge and no influence from an external electric field. The conductors thus contain equal
and opposite charges on their facing surfaces,[4] and the dielectric contains an electric
field. The capacitor is a reasonably general model for electric fields within electric
circuits.

An ideal capacitor is wholly characterized by a constant capacitance C, defined as

the ratio of charge ±Q on each conductor to the voltage V between them:[3]

Sometimes charge buildup affects the mechanics of the capacitor, causing the
capacitance to vary. In this case, capacitance is defined in terms of incremental changes
vices with variable capacitance are used in sensors and microphones.
 APPENDIX-B

FUSE (ELECTRICAL)

In electronics and electrical engineering a fuse (short for fusible link) is a type of
over current protection device. Its essential component is a metal wire or strip that melts
when too much current flows, which breaks the circuit in which it is connected, thus
protecting the circuit's other components from damage due to excessive current.

A practical fuse was one of the essential features of Thomas Edison's electrical
power distribution system.

Fuses (and other over current devices) are an essential part of a power distribution
system to prevent fire or damage. When too much current flows through a wire, it may
overheat and be damaged or even start a fire. Wiring regulations give the maximum
rating of a fuse for protection of a particular circuit. Local authorities will incorporate
national wiring regulations as part of law. Fuses are selected to allow passage of normal
currents, but to quickly interrupt a short circuit or overload condition.
 APPENDIX-C

LIGHT-EMITTING DIODE

Blue, green, and red LEDs; these can be combined to produce most perceptible
colors, including white. Infrared and ultraviolet (UVA) LEDs are also available.

A light-emitting-diode (LED),[1] is a semiconductor diode that emits light when

an electric current is applied in the forward direction of the device, as in the simple LED
circuit. The effect is a form of electroluminescence where incoherent and narrow-
spectrum light is emitted from the p-n junction in a solid state material.

LEDs are widely used as indicator lights on electronic devices and increasingly in
higher power applications such as flashlights and area lighting. An LED is usually a
small area (less than 1 mm2) light source, often with optics added directly on top of the
chip to shape its radiation pattern and assist in reflection. The color of the emitted light
depends on the composition and condition of the semi conducting material used, and can
be infrared, visible, or ultraviolet. Besides lighting, interesting applications include using
UV-LEDs for sterilization of water and disinfection of devices, and as a grow light to
enhance photosynthesis in plants.