UNIT-II L 6

The Clean Development Mechanism

The Clean Development Mechanism (CDM), defined in Article 12 of the Protocol, allows a country with an
emission-reduction or emission-limitation commitment under the Kyoto Protocol (Annex B Party) to implement
an emission-reduction project in developing countries. Such projects can earn saleable certified emission
reduction (CER) credits, each equivalent to one tonne of CO2, which can be counted towards meeting Kyoto
targets.
The mechanism is seen by many as a trailblazer. It is the first global, environmental investment and credit
scheme of its kind, providing a standardized emissions offset instrument, CERs. A CDM project activity might
involve, for example, a rural electrification project using solar panels or the installation of more energy-efficient
boilers.
The mechanism stimulates sustainable development and emission reductions, while giving industrialized
countries some flexibility in how they meet their emission reduction or limitation targets.
For more information about offsetting with CDM projects, visit ​Climate Neutral Now​.
__________________________________________________________________ ​ Operating
details of the CDM
A CDM project must provide emission reductions that are additional to what would otherwise have occurred.
The projects must qualify through a rigorous and public registration and issuance process. Approval is given by
the ​Designated National Authorities​. Public funding for CDM project activities must not result in the diversion
of official development assistance.
The mechanism is overseen by the ​CDM Executive Board​,​ answerable ultimately to the countries that have
ratified the Kyoto Protocol.
Operational since the beginning of 2006, the mechanism has already registered more than 1,650 projects and
is anticipated to produce CERs amounting to more than 2.9 billion tonnes of CO2 equivalent in the first
commitment period of the Kyoto Protocol, 2008–2012.

Clean Development Mechanism

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Certified emission reduction units (CERs) monthly spot prices 2012

The ​Clean Development Mechanism ​(​CDM​) is one of the ​Flexible ​ ​Mechanisms ​defined in the
Kyoto Protocol ​(IPCC, 2007) that provides for emissions reduction projects which generate
Certified Emission Reduction ​units (CERs) which may be traded in ​emissions trading ​schemes.​ [1]
The market crashed in 2012 when the value of credits collapsed and thousands of projects were
left with unclaimed credits. The struggle about what to do with the old credits sank the 2019 COP
25 in Madrid.​ [2]

The CDM, defined in Article 12 of the Protocol, was intended to meet two objectives:

∙ ​(1) to assist parties not included in ​Annex I ​in achieving ​sustainable development ​and in contributing
to the ultimate objective of the ​United Nations Framework Convention on ​ ​Climate Change
(UNFCCC), which is to ​prevent dangerous climate change​; and
∙ ​(2) to assist parties included in Annex I in achieving compliance with their quantified emission
limitation and reduction commitments (​greenhouse gas ​(GHG) emission caps).​ [3]

"Annex I" parties are the countries listed in Annex I of the treaty, the industrialized countries.
Non-Annex I parties are ​developing countries​.
The CDM addresses the second objective by allowing the Annex I countries to meet part of their
emission reduction commitments under the ​Kyoto Protocol ​by buying ​Certified Emission
Reduction ​units from CDM emission reduction projects in developing countries (​Carbon Trust​,
2009, p. 14).​ Both the projects and the issue of CERs units are subject to approval to ensure
[4]​
​

that these emission reductions are real and "additional." The CDM is supervised by the CDM
Executive Board (CDM EB) under the guidance of the Conference of the Parties (COP/MOP) of
the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC).
The CDM allows industrialized countries to buy CERs and to invest in emission reductions
where it is cheapest globally (Grubb, 2003, p. 159).​ Between 2001, which was the first year
[5]​
​

CDM projects could be registered and 7 September 2012, the CDM issued 1 billion ​Certified
Emission Reduction ​units.​ As of 1 June 2013, 57% of all CERs had been issued for projects
[6]​
​

based on destroying either HFC-23 (38%) or N​ O (19%).​ Carbon capture and storage ​(CCS)
2​
[7] ​

was included in the CDM carbon offsetting scheme in December 2011.​ [8]

However, a number of weaknesses of the CDM have been identified (World Bank, 2010, p.
265-267) Several of these issues were addressed by the new ​Program of ​ ​Activities (PoA)​,
which moves to approving 'bundles' of projects instead of accrediting each project individually.
In 2012, the report ​Climate Change, Carbon Markets and the CDM: A Call to Action ​said
governments urgently needed to address the future of the CDM. It suggested the CDM was in
danger of collapse because of the low price of carbon and the failure of governments to
guarantee its existence into the future. Writing on the website of the ​Climate & Development
Knowledge Network​, Yolanda Kakabadse, a member of the investigating panel for the report
and founder of Fundación Futuro Latinamericano, said a strong CDM is needed to support the
political consensus essential for future climate progress. "Therefore we must do everything in
our hands to keep it working," she said.​ [9]

Contents

History​[​edit​]
The clean development mechanism is one of the "flexibility mechanisms" defined in the Kyoto
Protocol. The flexibility mechanisms were designed to allow Annex B countries to meet their
emission reduction commitments with reduced impact on their economies (IPCC, 2007).​ The [1]​
​

flexibility mechanisms were introduced into the Kyoto Protocol by the US government.
Developing countries ​were highly skeptical and fiercely opposed to the flexibility mechanisms
(​Carbon Trust​, 2009, p. 6).​ However, the international negotiations over the follow-up to the
[4]​
​

Kyoto Protocol agreed that the mechanisms will continue.

Purpose​[​edit​]
The purpose of the CDM is to promote clean development in developing countries, i.e., the
"non-Annex I" countries (countries that aren't listed in Annex I of the Framework Convention).
The CDM is one of the Protocol's "project-based" mechanisms, in that the CDM is designed to
promote projects that reduce emissions. The CDM is based on the idea of emission reduction
"production" (Toth ​et al​., 2001, p. 660).​ These reductions are "produced" and then subtracted
[10]​
​

against a hypothetical "baseline" of emissions. The baseline emissions are the emissions that
are predicted to occur in the absence of a particular CDM project. CDM projects are "credited"
against this baseline, in the sense that developing countries gain credit for producing these
emission cuts.
The economic basis for including developing countries in efforts to reduce emissions is that
emission cuts are thought to be less expensive in developing countries than developed
countries (Goldemberg ​et al​., 1996, p. 30;​ Grubb, 2003, p. 159).​ For example, in developing
[11]​
​
[5]​
​

countries, environmental regulation is generally weaker than it is in developed countries

(Sathaye ​et al​., 2001, p. 387-389).​ Thus, it is widely thought that there is greater potential for
[12]​
​

developing countries to reduce their emissions than developed countries.

Emissions from developing countries are projected to increase substantially over this century
(Goldemberg ​et al​., 1996, p. 29).​ Infrastructure decisions made in developing countries could
[11]​
​

therefore have a very large influence on future efforts to limit total global emissions (Fisher ​et al​.,
2007).​ The CDM is designed to start developing countries off on a path towards less pollution,
[13]​
​

with industrialised (Annex B) countries paying for the reductions.

There were two main concerns about the CDM (Carbon Trust, 2009, pp. 14–15). One was over
the ​additionality ​of emission reductions produced by the CDM (see the section on ​additionality​).
The other was whether it would allow rich, northern countries, and in particular, companies, to
impose projects that were contrary to the development interests of host countries. To alleviate
this concern, the CDM requires host countries to confirm that CDM projects contribute to their
own sustainable development. International rules also prohibit credits for some kinds of
activities, notably ​nuclear power ​and avoided ​deforestation​.
To prevent industrialised countries from making unlimited use of CDM, the framework has a
provision that use of CDM be ‘supplemental’ to domestic actions to reduce emissions. This
wording has led to a wide range of interpretations - the Netherlands for example aims to
achieve half of its required emission reductions (from a BAU baseline) by CDM.​ It treats [​citation needed​]​
​

Dutch companies' purchases of ​European Union Emission Trading Scheme ​allowances from
companies in other countries as part of its domestic actions.
The CDM gained momentum in 2005 after the Kyoto Protocol took effect. Before the Protocol
entered into force, investors considered this​ a key risk factor. The initial years of
[​clarification needed​]​
​

operation yielded fewer CDM credits than supporters had hoped for, as parties did not provide
sufficient funding to the EB, which left it understaffed.​ [​citation needed​]

The Adaptation Fund was established to finance concrete adaptation projects and programmes
in developing countries that are parties to the Kyoto Protocol.​ The Fund is to be financed with a [14]​
​

share of proceeds from clean development mechanism (CDM) project activities and receive
funds from other sources.
CDM project process​[​edit​]
Outline​[​edit​]
An industrialised country that wishes to get credits from a CDM project must obtain the consent
of the developing country hosting the project and their agreement that the project will contribute
to sustainable development. Then, using methodologies approved by the CDM Executive Board
(EB), the applicant industrialised country must make the case that the ​carbon project ​would not
have happened anyway (establishing ​additionality​), and must establish a baseline estimating the
future emissions in absence of the registered project. The case is then validated by a third party
agency, called a Designated Operational Entity (DOE), to ensure the project results in real,
measurable, and long-term emission reductions. The EB then decides whether or not to register
(approve) the project. If a project is registered and implemented, the EB issues credits, called
Certified Emission Reductions ​(CERs, commonly known as ​carbon credits​, where each unit is
equivalent to the reduction of one metric tonne of CO​ e, e.g. CO​ or its equivalent), to project
2​ 2​ ​

participants based on the monitored difference between the baseline and the actual emissions,
verified by the DOE.
Additionality​[​edit​]
To avoid giving credits to projects that would have happened anyway ("freeriders"), specified
rules ensure the ​additionality ​of the proposed project, that is, ensure the project reduces
emissions more than would have occurred in the absence of the intervention created by the
CDM.​ At present, the CDM Executive Board deems a project additional if its proponents can
[15]​
​

document that realistic alternative scenarios to the proposed project would be more
economically attractive or that the project faces barriers that CDM helps it overcome. Current
Guidance from the EB is available at the UNFCCC website.​ [16]

The determination of ​additionality ​and the calculation of emission reductions depends on the
emissions that would have occurred without the project minus the emissions of the project.
Accordingly, the CDM process requires an established baseline or comparative emission
estimate. The construction of a project baseline often depends on hypothetical scenario
modeling, and may be estimated through reference to emissions from similar activities and
technologies in the same country or other countries, or to actual emissions prior to project
implementation. The partners involved in the project could have an interest in establishing a
baseline with high emissions, which would yield a risk of awarding spurious credits.
Independent third party verification is meant to avoid this potential problem.
Methodologies​[​edit​]
Any proposed CDM project has to use an approved baseline and monitoring methodology to be
validated, approved and registered. Baseline Methodology will set steps to determine the
baseline within certain applicability conditions whilst monitoring methodology will set specific
steps to determine monitoring parameters, quality assurance, equipment to be used, in order to
obtain data to calculate the emission reductions. Those approved methodologies are all coded: ​ [17]

AM ​- Approved Methodology
ACM ​- Approved Consolidated Methodology
AMS ​- Approved Methodology for Small Scale Projects ​ARAM ​- Aforestation and
Reforestation Approved Methodologies
All baseline methodologies approved by Executive Board are publicly available along with
relevant guidance on the UNFCCC CDM website.​ If a DOE determines that a proposed project
[18]​
​

activity intends to use a new baseline methodology, it shall, prior to the submission for
registration of this project activity, forward the proposed methodology to the EB for review, i.e.
consideration and approval, if appropriate.​ [19]

Economics​[​edit​]
According to Burniaux ​et al​., 2009, p. 37, crediting mechanisms like the CDM could play three
important roles in ​climate change mitigation ​:​ [20]

∙ ​Improve the cost-effectiveness of GHG mitigation policies in developed countries ​∙ ​Help to reduce
"leakage" (​carbon leakage​)​ of emissions from developed to developing countries. Leakage is where
mitigation actions in one country or economic sector result in another country's or sector's emissions
increasing, e.g., through relocation of polluting industries from Annex I to non-Annex I countries (Barker
et al.​, 2007).​
[21]

∙ ​Boost transfers of clean, less polluting technologies to developing countries.

According to Burniaux ​et al​. (2009, p. 37), the cost-saving potential of a well functioning
crediting mechanism appears to be very large. Compared to baseline costs (i.e., costs where
emission reductions only take place in Annex I countries), if the cap on offset use was set at
20%, one estimate suggests mitigation costs could be halved. This cost saving, however,
should be viewed as an upper bound: it assumes no transaction costs and no uncertainty on
the delivery of emission savings. Annex I countries who stand to gain most from crediting
include Australia, New Zealand, and Canada. In this economic model, non-Annex I countries
enjoy a slight income gain from exploiting low cost emission reductions. Actual transaction
cost in the CDM are rather high, which is problematic for smaller projects.​ This issue is
[22]​
​

addressed by the ​Program of Activities (PoA) ​modality.

Difficulties with the CDM​[​edit​]
Carbon leakage
In theory, leakage may be reduced by crediting mechanisms (Burniaux ​et al.​, 2009, p. 38). In
practice, the amount of leakage partly depends on the definition of the baseline against which
credits are granted. The current CDM approach already incorporates some leakage. Thus,
reductions in leakage due to the CDM may, in fact, be small or even non-existent.
Additionality, transaction costs and bottlenecks
In order to maintain the environmental effectiveness of the Kyoto Protocol, emission savings
from the CDM must be additional (World Bank, 2010, p. 265).​ Without additionality, the CDM
[23]​
​

amounts to an income ​transfer ​to non-Annex I countries (Burniaux ​et al​., 2009, p. 40).
Additionality is, however, difficult to prove, the subject of vigorous debate.​ [15]

Burniaux ​et al​. (2009) commented on the large ​transaction costs ​of establishing additionality.
Assessing additionality has created delays (bottlenecks) in approving CDM projects. According
to the ​World Bank ​(2010), there are significant constraints to the continued growth of the CDM
to support mitigation in developing countries.
Incentives
The CDM rewards emissions reductions, but does not penalize emission increases (Burniaux
et al​., 2009, p. 41). It therefore comes close to being an emissions reduction ​subsidy​. This can
create a ​perverse incentive ​for firms to raise their emissions in the short-term, with the aim of
getting credits for reducing emissions in the long-term.
Another difficulty is that the CDM might reduce the incentive for non-Annex I countries to cap
their emissions. This is because most developing countries benefit more from a
well-functioning crediting mechanism than from a world ​emissions ​ ​trading ​scheme (ETS),
where their emissions are capped. This is true except in cases where the allocation of
emissions rights (i.e., the amount of emissions that each country is allowed to emit) in the ETS
is particularly favourable to developing countries.
Local resistance
While the C in CDM stands for Clean, most projects might be better defined with the B from Big,
from large hydropower to HFC or waste to energy and clean coal projects (which all together
make the majority of credits generated through CDM). The argument in favor of the CDM is that
it brings development to the South. However, in all continents the mainly Big Development it
stands for is resisted by local people in those countries. A global coalition of researchers
published a large report on African civil society resistance to CDM projects all over the
continent.​ In New Delhi, India, a grassroots movement of wastepickers is resisting another CDM
[24]​
​

project​ on what the makers call 'the waste war' in Delhi. In Panama, a CDM project is blocking
[25]​
​

peace talks between the Panamanian government and the indigenous ​Ngöbe-Buglé people​.​ [26]

Civil society groups and researchers in both North and South have complained for years that
most CDM projects benefit big industries, while doing harm to excluded people. As local protests
against CDM projects are arising on every continent, the notion that CDM 'brings development to
the South' is contested.​ [​citation needed​]

Market deflation
Most of the ​demand ​for CERs from the CDM comes from the ​European Union ​ ​Emissions
Trading Scheme​, which is the largest carbon market. In July 2012, the ​market price ​for CERs
fell to new record low of €2.67 a tonne, a drop in price of about 70% in a year. Analysts
attributed the low CER price to lower prices for European Union emissions allowances,
oversupply of EU emissions allowances and the slowing European economy.​ [27]

In September 2012, ​The Economist ​described the CDM as a "complete disaster in the
making" and "in need of a radical overhaul". Carbon prices, including prices for CERs, had
collapsed from $20 a tonne in August 2008 to below $5 in response to
the ​Eurozone debt crisis ​reducing industrial activity and the over-allocation of emission
allowances under the ​European Union Emissions Trading Scheme​.​ The Guardian ​reported that
[28] ​

the CDM has "essentially collapsed", due to the prolonged downward trend in the price of CERs,
which had been traded for as much as $20 (£12.50) a tonne before the global financial crisis to
less than $3. With such low CER prices, potential projects were not commercially viable.​ In [29]​
​

October 2012, CER prices fell to a new low of 1.36 euros a metric tonne on the London ICE
Futures Europe exchange.​ In October 2012 Thomson Reuters Point Carbon calculated that the
[30]​
​

oversupply of units from the Clean Development Mechanism and Joint Implementation would be
1,400 million units for the period up to 2020 and Point Carbon predicted that Certified Emission
Reduction (CER) prices would to drop from €2 to 50 cents.​ On 12 December 2012 CER prices
[31]​
​

reached another record low of 31 cents.​ Bloomberg ​reported that Certified Emission Reduction
[32] ​

prices had declined by 92 percent to 39 each cents in the 2012 year.​ [33]

Financial issues​[​edit​]
With costs of emission reduction typically much lower in developing countries than in
industrialised countries, industrialised countries can comply with their emission reduction targets
at much lower cost by receiving credits for emissions reduced in developing countries as long as
administration costs are low.
The ​IPCC ​has projected GDP losses for ​OECD ​Europe with full use of CDM and ​Joint
Implementation ​to between 0.13% and 0.81% of GDP versus 0.31% to 1.50%​ with only
[34]​
​

domestic action.
While there would always be some cheap domestic emission reductions available in Europe, the
cost of switching from coal to gas could be in the order of €40-50 per tonne CO​ equivalent.
2​ ​

Certified Emission Reductions ​from CDM projects were in 2006 traded on a forward basis for
between €5 and €20 per tonne CO​ equivalent. The price depends on the distribution of risk
2​ ​

between seller and buyer. The seller could get a very good price if it agrees to bear the risk that
the project's baseline and monitoring methodology is rejected; that the host country rejects the
project; that the CDM Executive Board rejects the project; that the project for some reason
produces fewer credits than planned; or that the buyer doesn't get CERs at the agreed time if
the international transaction log (the technical infrastructure ensuring international transfer of
carbon credits) is not in place by then. The seller can usually only take these risks if the
counterparty ​is deemed very reliable, as rated by international rating agencies.
Mitigation finance​[​edit​]
The revenues of the CDM constitutes the largest source of mitigation finance to developing
countries to date (World Bank, 2010, p. 261-262).​ Over the 2001 to 2012 period, CDM projects
[23]​
​

could raise $18 billion ($15 billion to $24 billion) in direct carbon revenues for developing
countries. Actual revenues will depend on the price of carbon. It is estimated that some $95
billion in clean energy investment benefitted from the CDM over the 2002-08 period.
Adaptation finance​[​edit​]
The CDM is the main source of income for the ​UNFCCC ​Adaptation Fund, which was
established in 2007 to finance concrete adaptation projects and programmes in developing
countries that are parties to the Kyoto Protocol (World Bank, 2010, p. 262-263).​ The CDM is[23]​
​

subject to a 2% levy, which could raise between $300 million and $600 million over the 2008-12
period. The actual amount raised will depend on the carbon price.

CDM projects​[​edit​]

Certified emission reduction units (CERs) by country October 2012

Since 2000, the CDM has allowed crediting of project-based emission reductions in developing
countries (Gupta ​et al​., 2007).​ By 1 January 2005, projects submitted to the CDM amounted to
[35]​
​

less than 100 MtCO​ e of projected savings by 2012 (Carbon Trust, 2009, p. 18-19).​ The EU
2​
[4]​
​

ETS started in January 2005, and the following month saw the Kyoto Protocol enter into force.
The EU ETS allowed firms to comply with their commitments by buying offset credits, and thus
created a perceived value to projects. The Kyoto Protocol set the CDM on a firm legal footing.
By the end of 2008, over 4,000 CDM projects had been submitted for validation, and of those,
over 1,000 were registered by the CDM Executive Board, and were therefore entitled to be
issued CERs (Carbon Trust, 2009, p. 19). In 2010, the World Bank estimated that in 2012, the
largest potential for production of CERs would be from China (52% of total CERs) and India
(16%) (World Bank, 2010, p. 262).​ CERs produced in Latin America and the Caribbean would
[23]​
​

make up 15% of the potential total, with Brazil as the largest producer in the region (7%).
By 14 September 2012, 4626 projects had been registered by the CDM Executive Board as
CDM projects.​ These projects are expected to result in the issue of 648,232,798 certified
[36]​
​

emissions reductions.​ By 14 September 2012, the CDM Board had issued 1 billion CERs,
[37]​
​

60% of which originated from projects in China. India, the Republic of Korea, and Brazil were
issued with 15%, 9% and 7% of the total CERs.​ [38]

The ​Himachal Pradesh Reforestation Project ​is claimed to be the world's largest CDM.​ [39]

Transportation​[​edit​]
There are currently 29 transportation projects registered, the last was registered on February
25, 2013 and is hosted in China. ​ [40]

Destruction of HFC-23​[​edit​]
Some CDM projects remove or destroy industrial gases, such as ​hydrofluorocarbon 23
(HFC-23) and nitrous oxide (N2O). HFC-23 is a potent greenhouse gas (GHG) and is a
byproduct from the production of the refrigerant
gas ​chlorodifluoromethane ​(HCFC-22).​ The gas HFC-23 is estimated to have a global
[4]​
​

warming effect 11,000 times greater than carbon dioxide, so destroying a tonne of HFC-23
earns the refrigerant manufacturer 11,000 certified emissions reduction units.​ [41]

In 2009, the Carbon Trust estimated that industrial gas projects such as those limiting HFC-23
emissions, would contribute about 20% of the CERs issued by the CDM in 2012. The Carbon
Trust expressed the concern that projects for destroying HFC-23 were so profitable that
coolant manufacturers could be building new factories to produce the coolant gas. (Carbon
Trust, 2009, p. 60).​ In September 2010, ​Sandbag ​estimated that in 2009 59% of the CERs
[4]​
​

used as offsets in the ​European Union Emissions Trading Scheme ​originated from HFC-23
projects.​
[42]

An example is the Plascon, Plasma arc plant that was installed by Quimobásicos S.A. de
C.V in Monterrey, Mexico to eliminate of HCFC-23, a byproduct of the production of R-22
refrigerant gas.​ [​citation needed​]

From 2005 to June 2012, 19 manufacturers of refrigerants (11 in China, 5 in India, and one
each in Argentina, Mexico and South Korea),​ were issued with 46% of all the certified [43]​
​

emissions reduction units from the CDM. David Hanrahan, the technical director of IDEAcarbon
believes each plant would probably have earned an average of $20 million to $40 million a year
from the CDM. The payments also incentivise the increased production of the ozone-depleting
refrigerant HCFC-22, and discourage substitution of HCFC-22 with less harmful refrigerants.​ [41]

In 2007 the CDM stopped accepting new refrigerant manufacturers into the CDM. In 2011, the
CDM renewed contracts with the nineteen manufacturers on the condition that claims for
HFC-23 destruction would be limited to 1 percent of their coolant production. However, in 2012,
18 percent of all CERs issued are expected to go to the 19 coolant plants, compared with 12
percent to 2,372 wind power plants and 0.2 percent to 312 solar projects.​ [41]

In January 2011, the ​European Union ​Climate Change Committee banned the use of HFC-23
CERs in the ​European Union Emissions Trading Scheme ​from 1 May 2013. The ban includes
nitrous oxide (N2O) from adipic acid production. The reasons given
were the perverse incentives, the lack of additionality, the lack of environmental integrity, the
under-mining of the ​Montreal Protocol​, costs and ineffectiveness and the distorting effect of a
few projects in advanced ​developing countries ​getting too many CERs.​ From 23 December
[44]​
​

2011, CERs from HFC-23 and N2O destruction projects were banned from use in the ​New
Zealand Emissions Trading Scheme​, unless they had been purchased under future delivery
contracts entered into prior to 23 December 2011. The use of the future delivery contracts ends
in June 2013.​[45]

As of 1 June 2013, the CDM had issued 505,125 CERs, or 38% of all CERs issued, to 23
HFC-23 destruction projects. A further 19% (or 255,666 CERs) had been issued to 108 N​ O 2​

destruction projects.​
[46]

Barriers​[​edit​]
World Bank (n.d., p. 12) described a number of barriers to the use of the CDM in ​least
developed countries ​(LDCs).​ LDCs have experienced lower participation in the CDM to date.
[47]​
​

Four CDM decisions were highlighted as having a disproportionate negative impact on LDCs:

∙ ​Suppressed demand​: Baseline calculations for LDCs are low, meaning that projects cannot
generate sufficient ​carbon finance ​to have an impact.
∙ ​Treatment of projects that replace non-renewable biomass​: A decision taken led to essentially a
halving in the emission reduction potential of these projects. This has particularly affected
Sub-Saharan Africa ​and projects in poor communities, where firewood, often from non-renewable
sources, is frequently used as a fuel for cooking and heating.
∙ ​Treatment of forestry projects and exclusion of agriculture under the CDM​: These sectors are
more important for LDCs than for middle-income countries. Credits from forestry projects are penalized
under the CDM, leading to depressed demand and price.
∙ ​Transaction costs and CDM process requirements​: These are geared more towards the most
advanced developing countries, and do not work well for the projects most often found in LDCs.
L-1

Environmental hazard
An ​environmental hazard​ is a substance, a state or an event which has the potential to threaten the surrounding
natural ​environment​ / or adversely affect people's ​health​, including n]] and ​natural disasters​ such as storms and
earthquakes.
Any single or combination of toxic chemical, biological, or physical agents in the environment, resulting from human
activities or natural processes, that may impact the health of exposed subjects, including pollutants such as heavy
metals, pesticides, biological contaminants, toxic waste, industrial and home chemicals.​[1]
Human-made ​hazards​ while not immediately health-threatening may turn out detrimental to man's well-being
eventually, because deterioration in the environment can produce secondary, unwanted negative effects on the
human ​ecosphere​. The effects of ​water pollution​ may not be immediately visible because of a ​sewage system​ that
helps drain off toxic substances. If those substances turn out to be persistent (e.g. ​persistent organic pollutant​),
however, they will literally be fed back to their producers via the ​food chain​: plankton -> edible fish -> humans. In that
respect, a considerable number of environmental hazards listed below are man-made ​(anthropogenic) hazards​.
Hazards can be categorized in four types:

1. Chemical
2. Physical (mechanical, etc.)
3. Biological

The ​international​ ​pictogram​ for environmental hazard.

4. Psychosocial.
Chemical
Chemical hazards​ are defined in the ​Globally Harmonized System​ and in the ​European Union​ chemical regulations.
They are caused by chemical substances causing significant ​damage to the environment​. The label is particularly
applicable to substances with ​aquatic toxicity​. An example is ​zinc oxide​, a common paint pigment, which is extremely
toxic to aquatic life.
Toxicity or other hazards do not imply an environmental hazard, because elimination by sunlight (​photolysis​), water
(​hydrolysis​), or organisms (biological elimination) neutralizes many reactive or poisonous substances. Persistence
towards these elimination mechanisms combined with toxicity gives the substance the ability to do damage in the
long term. Also, the lack of immediate human toxicity does not mean the substance is environmentally
non-hazardous. For example, tanker truck-sized spills of substances such as ​milk​ can cause a lot of damage in the
local aquatic ecosystems: the added ​biological oxygen demand​ causes rapid ​eutrophication​, leading to ​anoxic
conditions​ in the water body.
Eutrophication​ (from Greek ​eutrophos​, "well-nourished"),​[1]​ ​distrophication​ or ​hypertrophication​, is when a ​body
of water​ becomes overly enriched with ​minerals​ and ​nutrients​ which induce excessive growth of ​algae​.[2]​ ​ This process
may result in oxygen depletion of the water body.​[3]​ One example is an "​algal bloom​" or great increase
of ​phytoplankton​ in a sandy body as a response to increased levels of nutrients. Eutrophication is often induced by
the discharge of ​nitrate​ or ​phosphate​-containing ​detergents​, ​fertilizers​, or ​sewage​ into an aquatic system. Lake
eutrophication has become a global problem of water pollution, Chlorophyll-a, total nitrogen, total phosphorus,
chemical oxygen demand and secchi depth are the main indicators to evaluate lake eutrophication level.​[4]
Biochemical oxygen demand​ (​BOD​) is the amount of ​dissolved oxygen​ needed (i.e. demanded) by aerobic
biological organisms to break down organic material present in a given water sample at certain temperature over a
specific time period. The BOD value is most commonly expressed in milligrams of oxygen consumed per litre of
sample during 5 days of incubation at 20 °C and is often used as a surrogate of the degree of ​organic​ ​pollution of
​
water​.[1]
BOD reduction is used as a gauge of the effectiveness of ​wastewater treatment​ plants. BOD of wastewater effluents
is used to indicate the short-term impact on the oxygen levels of the receiving water.
BOD analysis is similar in function to ​chemical oxygen demand​ (COD) analysis, in that both measure the amount
of ​organic compounds​ in water. However, COD analysis is less specific, since it measures everything that can be
chemically oxidized, rather than just levels of biologically oxidized organic matter.

All hazards in this category are mainly ​anthropogenic​(1)​ although there exist a number of natural carcinogens and
chemical elements like radon and lead may turn up in health-critical concentrations in the natural environment:

● Anthrax
● Antibiotic​ agents in animals destined for human consumption
● Arsenic​ - a contaminant of fresh water sources (water wells)
● Asbestos​ - carcinogenic
● DDT
● Carcinogens
● dioxins
● Endocrine disruptors
● Explosive material
● Fungicides
● Furans
● Haloalkanes
● Heavy metals
● Herbicides
● Hormones​ in animals destined for human consumption
● Lead​ in paint
● Marine debris
● mercury
● Mutagens
● Pesticides
● Polychlorinated biphenyls
● Radon​ and other natural sources of ​radioactivity
● Soil pollution
● Tobacco smoking
● Toxic waste
(1) ​Human impact on the environment​ or ​anthropogenic impact on the environment​ includes changes
to ​biophysical environments​[1]​ and ​ecosystems​, ​biodiversity​, and ​natural resources​[2]​[3]​ caused directly or indirectly by
humans, including ​global warming​,[1]​ ​ [4]​ ​environmental degradation​[1]​ (such as ​ocean acidification​[1]​[5]​), ​mass
extinction​ and ​biodiversity loss​,[6]​
​ [7]​[8]​[9]​ ​ecological crisis​, and ​ecological collapse​. Modifying the environment to fit the
needs of society is causing severe effects, which become worse as the problem of ​human
overpopulation​ continues.​[10]​[11]​ Some human activities that cause damage (either directly or indirectly) to the
environment on a global scale include ​population growth​,[12]​ ​ [13]​ ​overconsumption​, ​overexploitation​, ​pollution​,
and ​deforestation​, to name but a few. Some of the problems, including global warming and biodiversity loss pose
an ​existential risk​ to the human race,​[14]​[15]​ and ​human overpopulation​ causes those problems.​[16]​[17]
The term ​anthropogenic​ designates an effect or object resulting from ​human activity​. The term was first used
in the technical sense by Russian geologist ​Alexey Pavlov​, and it was first used in English by British
ecologist ​Arthur Tansley​ in reference to human influences on ​climax plant communities​.[18]​
​ The atmospheric
scientist ​Paul Crutzen​ introduced the term "​Anthropocene​" in the mid-1970s.​[19]​ The term is sometimes used
in the context of ​pollution​ emissions that are produced from human activity since the start of the ​Agricultural
Revolution​ but also applies broadly to all major human impacts on the environment.​[20]​ Many of the actions
taken by humans that contribute to a heated environment stem from the burning of fossil fuel from a variety
of sources, such as: electricity, cars, planes, space heating, manufacturing, or the destruction of forests.​[21]

Physical
A physical hazard is a type of occupational hazard that involves environmental hazards that can cause harm with or
without contact. There are many types of physical hazards. Some of them are as follows:-

● Cosmic rays
● Drought
● Earthquake
● Electromagnetic fields
● E-waste
● Floods
● Fog
● Light pollution
● Lighting
● Lightning
● Noise pollution
● Quicksand
● Ultraviolet light
● vibration
● X-rays
Biological​[​edit​]
Biological hazards, also known as biohazards, refer to biological substances that pose a threat to the health of living
organisms, primarily that of humans. This can include medical waste or samples of a microorganism, virus or toxin
(from a biological source) that can affect human health.

● Allergies
● Arbovirus
● Avian influenza
● Bovine spongiform encephalopathy​ (BSE)
● Cholera
● Ebola
● Epidemics
● Food poisoning
● Malaria
● Molds
● Onchocerciasis​ (river blindness)
● Pandemics
● Pathogens
● Pollen​ for allergic people
● Rabies
● Severe acute respiratory syndrome​ (SARS)
● Sick building syndrome
See also: ​Toxicology​ and ​List of allergies

Psychosocial Hazards​[​edit​]
Psychosocial hazards include but aren't limited to stress, violence, and other ​workplace stressors​. Work is generally
beneficial to mental health and personal wellbeing. It provides people with structure and purpose and a sense of
identity.
EO018 L-2

Unit 1 Technology and Development

Introduction  to  Technology,  ​https://slideplayer.com/slide/7061916/​;  Appropriate 
Technology;  Role  of  Appropriate  Technology  in  Transformation  of  Society; 
Importance of Technology Transfer; Impact of technology on Society. 

❖ Introduction to Technology

A ​steam turbine​ with the case opened. Such turbines produce most of the electricity used today. Electricity consumption and living
standards are highly correlated.​[1]​ Electrification is believed to be the most important engineering achievement of the 20th century.

Technology​ ("science of craft", from ​Greek​ τέχνη, ​techne​, "art, skill, cunning of hand"; and -λογία, ​-logia[2]​​ ) is the sum
of ​techniques​, ​skills​, ​methods​, and ​processes​ used in the production of ​goods​ or ​services​ or in the accomplishment of
objectives, such as ​scientific investigation​. Technology can be the ​knowledge​ of techniques, processes, and the like,
or it can be embedded in ​machines​ to allow for operation without detailed knowledge of their workings. ​Systems​ (e.g.
machines) applying technology by taking an ​input​, changing it according to the system's use, and then producing
an ​outcome​ are referred to as ​technology systems​ or ​technological systems​.
The simplest form of technology is the development and use of basic ​tools​. The ​prehistoric​ discovery of ​how to
control fire​ and the later ​Neolithic Revolution​ increased the available sources of food, and the invention of
the ​wheel​ helped humans to travel in and control their environment. Developments in historic times, including
the ​printing press​, the ​telephone​, and the ​Internet​, have lessened physical barriers to ​communication​ and allowed
humans to interact freely on a global scale.
Technology has many effects. It has helped develop more advanced ​economies​ (including today's ​global economy​)
and has allowed the rise of a ​leisure class​. Many technological processes produce unwanted by-products known
as ​pollution​ and deplete natural resources to the detriment of Earth's ​environment​. Innovations have always
influenced the ​values​ of a society and raised new questions in the ​ethics of technology​. Examples include the rise of
the notion of ​efficiency​ in terms of human ​productivity​, and the challenges of ​bioethics​.
Philosophical debates have arisen over the use of technology, with disagreements over whether technology improves
the ​human condition​ or worsens it. ​Neo-Luddism​, ​anarcho-primitivism​, and similar ​reactionary​ movements criticize
the pervasiveness of technology, arguing that it harms the environment and alienates people; proponents of
ideologies such as ​transhumanism​ and ​techno-progressivism​ view continued technological progress as beneficial to
society and the ​human condition​.

Science, engineering, and technology

Antoine Lavoisier​ experimenting with combustion generated by amplified sun light

The distinction between science, engineering, and technology is not always clear. ​Science​ is systematic knowledge
of the physical or material world gained through observation and experimentation.​[16]​ Technologies are not usually
exclusively products of science, because they have to satisfy requirements such as ​utility​, ​usability​, and ​safety​.[17]
​
Engineering is the ​goal-oriented​ process of designing and making tools and systems to exploit natural phenomena for
practical human means, often (but not always) using results and techniques from science. The development of
technology may draw upon many fields of knowledge, including scientific, engineering, ​mathematical​, ​linguistic​,
and ​historical​ knowledge, to achieve some practical result.
Technology is often a consequence of science and engineering, although technology as a human activity precedes
the two fields. For example, science might study the flow of ​electrons​ in ​electrical conductors​ by using
already-existing tools and knowledge. This new-found knowledge may then be used by engineers to create new tools
and machines such as ​semiconductors​, ​computers​, and other forms of advanced technology. In this sense, scientists
and engineers may both be considered technologists; the three fields are often considered as one for the purposes of
research and reference.​[18]
The exact relations between science and technology, in particular, have been debated by scientists, historians, and
policymakers in the late 20th century, in part because the debate can inform the funding of basic and applied science.
In the immediate wake of ​World War II​, for example, it was widely considered in the United States that technology
was simply "applied science" and that to fund basic science was to reap technological results in due time. An
articulation of this philosophy could be found explicitly in ​Vannevar Bush​'s treatise on postwar science policy, ​Science
– The Endless Frontier​: "New products, new industries, and more jobs require continuous additions to knowledge of
the laws of nature ... This essential new knowledge can be obtained only through basic scientific research."​[19]​ In the
late-1960s, however, this view came under direct attack, leading towards initiatives to fund science for specific tasks
(initiatives resisted by the scientific community). The issue remains contentious, though most analysts resist the
model that technology is a result of scientific research.​[20]​[21]
 ❖ Appropriate technology

Appropriate technology​ is a movement (and its manifestations) encompassing ​technological​ choice and application
that is small-scale, affordable by locals, ​decentralized​, ​labor-intensive​, ​energy-efficient​, ​environmentally sound​,
and ​locally autonomous​.[1]​
​ It was originally articulated as ​intermediate technology​ by the economist ​Ernst Friedrich
"Fritz" Schumacher​ in his work ​Small Is Beautiful​.​ Both Schumacher and many modern-day proponents of
appropriate technology also emphasize the technology as people-centered.​[2]
Appropriate technology has been used to address issues in a wide range of fields. Well-known examples of
appropriate technology applications include: bike- and hand-powered water pumps (and other ​self-powered
equipment​), the ​universal nut sheller​, self-contained ​solar lamps​ and ​streetlights​, and ​passive solar building designs​.
Today appropriate technology is often developed using ​open source​ principles, which have led to ​open-source
appropriate technology​ (OSAT) and thus many of the plans of the technology can be freely found on
the ​Internet​.[3]​
​ [4]​ OSAT has been proposed as a new model of enabling ​innovation​ for ​sustainable development​.[5]​ ​ [6]
Appropriate technology is most commonly discussed in its relationship to ​economic development​ and as an
alternative to ​technology transfer​ of more ​capital​-intensive technology from ​industrialized nations​ to ​developing
​ [7]​ However, appropriate technology movements can be found in both developing and developed countries.
countries​.[2]​
In developed countries, the appropriate technology movement grew out of the ​energy crisis of the 1970s​ and focuses
mainly on environmental and ​sustainability​ issues.​[8]​ Today the idea is multifaceted; in some contexts, appropriate
technology can be described as the simplest level of technology that can achieve the intended purpose, whereas in
others, it can refer to engineering that takes adequate consideration of social and environmental ramifications. The
facets are connected through ​robustness​ and ​sustainable living​.
Indian ideological leader ​Mahatma Gandhi​ is often cited as the "father" of the appropriate technology movement.
Though the concept had not been given a name, Gandhi advocated for small, local and predominantly village-based
technology to help India's villages become self-reliant. He disagreed with the idea of technology that benefited a
minority of people at the expense of the majority or that put people out of work to increase profit.​[2]​ In 1925 Gandhi
founded the All-India Spinners Association and in 1935 he retired from politics to form the All-India Village Industries
Association. Both organizations focused on village-based technology similar to the future appropriate technology
movement.​[9]
China also implemented policies similar to appropriate technology during the reign of ​Mao Zedong​ and the
following ​Cultural Revolution​. During the Cultural Revolution, development policies based on the idea of "walking on
two legs" advocated the development of both large-scale factories and small-scale village industries.​[2]
E. F. Schumacher​[​edit​]

Despite these early examples, ​Dr. Ernst Friedrich "Fritz" Schumacher​ is credited as the founder of the appropriate
technology movement. A well-known economist, Schumacher worked for the British National Coal Board for more
than 20 years, where he blamed the size of the industry's operations for its uncaring response to the harm ​black-lung
disease​ inflicted on the miners.​[2]​ However it was his work with developing countries, such as ​India​ and ​Burma​, which
helped Schumacher form the underlying principles of appropriate technology.
Schumacher first articulated the idea of "intermediate technology," now known as appropriate technology, in a 1962
report to the Indian Planning Commission in which he described India as long in labor and short in capital, calling for
an "intermediate industrial technology"​[10]​ that harnessed India's labor surplus. Schumacher had been developing the
idea of intermediate technology for several years prior to the Planning Commission report. In 1955, following a stint
as an economic advisor to the government of ​Burma​, he published the short paper "Economics in a Buddhist
Country," his first known critique of the effects of Western economics on developing countries.​[10]​ In addition to
Buddhism, Schumacher also credited his ideas to Gandhi.
Initially, Schumacher's ideas were rejected by both the Indian government and leading development economists.
Spurred to action over concern the idea of intermediate technology would languish, Schumacher, George
McRobie, ​Mansur Hoda​[11]​ and Julia Porter brought together a group of approximately 20 people to form
the ​Intermediate Technology Development Group​ (ITDG) in May 1965. Later that year, a Schumacher article
published in the ​Observer​ garnered significant attention and support for the group. In 1967, the group published
the ​Tools for Progress: A Guide to Small-scale Equipment for Rural Development​ and sold 7,000 copies. ITDG also
formed panels of experts and practitioners around specific technological needs (such as building construction, energy
and water) to develop intermediate technologies to address those needs.​[10]​ At a conference hosted by the ITDG in
1968 the term "intermediate technology" was discarded in favor of the term "appropriate technology" used today.
Intermediate technology had been criticized as suggesting the technology was inferior to advanced (or high)
technology and not including the social and political factors included in the concept put forth by the proponents.​[2]​ In
1973, Schumacher described the concept of appropriate technology to a mass audience in his influential work ​Small
Is Beautiful: A Study of Economics As If People Mattered​.
Growing trend​[​edit​]

The ​Universal Nut Sheller​ in use in Uganda, an example of appropriate technology

Between 1966 and 1975 the number of new appropriate technology organizations founded each year was three times
greater than the previous nine years. There was also an increase in organizations focusing on applying appropriate
technology to the problems of industrialized nations, particularly issues related to energy and the environment.​[12]​ In
1977, the OECD identified in its ​Appropriate Technology Directory​ 680 organizations involved in the development and
promotion of appropriate technology. By 1980, this number had grown to more than 1,000. International agencies and
government departments were also emerging as major innovators in appropriate technology, indicating its
progression from a small movement fighting against the established norms to a legitimate technological choice
supported by the establishment. For example, the ​Inter-American Development Bank​ created a Committee for the
Application of Intermediate Technology in 1976 and the ​World Health Organization​ established the Appropriate
Technology for Health Program in 1977.​[12]
Appropriate technology was also increasingly applied in developed countries. For example, the energy crisis of the
mid-1970s led to the creation of the ​National Center for Appropriate Technology​ (NCAT) in 1977 with an initial
appropriation of 3 million dollars from the U.S. Congress. The Center sponsored appropriate technology
demonstrations to "help low-income communities find better ways to do things that will improve the quality of life, and
that will be doable with the skills and resources at hand." However, by 1981 the NCAT's funding agency, Community
Services Administration, had been abolished. For several decades NCAT worked with the US departments of Energy
and Agriculture on contract to develop appropriate technology programs. Since 2005, NCAT's informational web site
is no longer funded by the US government.​[13]

Energy generation and uses​[​edit​]

Further information: ​Microgeneration​ and ​Remote-area power supply
The term ​soft energy technology​ was coined by ​Amory Lovins​ to describe "appropriate" renewable
energy.​[43]​ "Appropriate" energy technologies are especially suitable for isolated and/or small scale energy needs.
Electricity can be provided from:

● Photovoltaic (PV) solar panels​, and (large) ​Concentrating solar power​ plants. PV solar panels made
from ​low-cost photovoltaic cells​ or PV-cells which have first been concentrated by a ​Luminescent solar
concentrator​-panel are also a good option. Especially companies as ​Solfocus​ make appropriate technology CSP
plants which can be made from waste plastics polluting the surroundings (see above).
● Solar thermal collector
● wind power​ (home do-it yourself turbines and larger-scale)
● micro hydro​, and ​pico hydro​[44]
● human-powered handwheel generators​[45]
● other ​zero emission generation methods
Some intermediate technologies include:

● Bioalcohols as bioethanol, biomethanol and ​biobutanol​. The first two require minor modifications to allow them to
be used in conventional gasoline engines. The third requires no modifications at all.
● Vegetable oils​ which can be used only in internal combustion (Diesel) engines. ​Biofuels​ are locally available in
many developing countries and can be cheaper than ​fossil fuels​.
● Anaerobic digestion​ power plants
● Biogas​ is another potential source of energy, particularly where there is an abundant supply of ​waste​ ​organic
matter​. A generator (running on biofuels) can be run more efficiently if combined with batteries and an ​inverter​;
this adds significantly to ​capital cost​ but reduces running cost, and can potentially make this a much cheaper
option than the solar, wind and micro-hydro options.
● Dry animal dung fuel​ can also be used.
● Biochar​ is another similar energy source which can be obtained through charring of certain types of organic
material (e.g. hazelnut shells, bamboo, chicken manure, ...) in a pyrolysis unit.​[46]​ A similar energy source is ​terra
preta nova​.
● Chemurgy
Finally, ​urine​ can also be used as a basis to generate hydrogen (which is an energy carrier). Using urine, ​hydrogen
production​ is 332% more energy efficient than using water.​[47]
Electricity distribution could be improved so to make use of a more ​structured electricity line arrangement​ and
universal ​AC power plugs and sockets​ (e.g. the CEE 7/7 plug). In addition, a universal system of electricity
provisioning (e.g. universal voltage, frequency, ampère; e.g. 230 V with 50 Hz), as well as perhaps a better ​mains
power system​ (e.g. through the use of special systems as perfected ​single-wire earth returns​; e.g. Tunisia's
MALT-system, which features low costs and easy placement)​[48]​[49]
Electricity storage (which is required for autonomous energy systems) can be provided through appropriate
technology solutions as deep-cycle and car-​batteries​ (intermediate technology), long duration flywheels,
electrochemical capacitors, compressed air energy storage (CAES), liquid nitrogen and pumped hydro.​[50]​ Many
solutions for the developing world are sold as a single package, containing a (micro) electricity generation power
plant and energy storage. Such packages are called remote-area power supply

LED Lamp with GU10 twist lock fitting, intended to replace ​halogen​ reflector lamps.

● White ​LEDs​ and a source of ​renewable energy​ (such as ​solar cells​) are used by the ​Light Up the World
Foundation​ to provide lighting to poor people in remote areas, and provide significant benefits compared to
the ​kerosene lamps​ which they replace. Certain other companies as ​Powerplus​ also have ​LED-flashlights with
​
imbedded solar cells​.[51]
● Organic LEDs​ made by ​roll-to-roll production​ are another source of cheap light that will be commercially
available at low cost by 2015.
● Compact fluorescent lamps​ (as well as regular ​fluorescent lamps​ and ​LED-lightbulbs​) can also be used as
appropriate technology. Although they are less environmentally friendly than LED-lights, they are cheaper and
still feature relative high efficiency (compared to incandescent lamps).
● The ​Safe bottle lamp​ is a safer ​kerosene lamp​ designed in Sri Lanka. Lamps as these allow relative long,
mobile, lighting. The safety comes from a secure screw-on metal lid, and two flat sides which prevent it from
rolling if knocked over. An alternative to fuel or oil-based lanterns is the Uday lantern, developed by Philips as
part of its ​Lighting Africa​ project (sponsored by the World Bank Group).​[52]
● The ​Faraday flashlight​ is an LED flashlight which operates on a capacitor. Recharging can be done by manual
winching or by shaking, hereby avoiding the need of any supplementary electrical system.
● HID-lamps​ finally can be used for lighting operations where regular LED-lighting or other lamps will not suffice.
Examples are car headlights. Due to their high efficiency, they are quite environmental, yet costly, and they still
require polluting materials in their production process.

Optimism and skepticism in the 21st century

This section mainly focuses on American concerns even if it can reasonably be generalized to other Western
countries.
The inadequate quantity and quality of American jobs is one of the most fundamental economic challenges we face.
[...] What's the linkage between technology and this fundamental problem?
— ​Bernstein, Jared, "It’s Not a Skills Gap That’s Holding Wages Down: It’s the Weak Economy, Among Other
Things," in ​The American Prospect​, October 2014

In his article, ​Jared Bernstein​, a Senior Fellow at the ​Center on Budget and Policy Priorities​,[69]​
​ questions the
widespread idea that ​automation​, and more broadly, technological advances, have mainly contributed to this
growing ​labor market​ problem. His thesis appears to be a third way between optimism and skepticism. Essentially, he
stands for a neutral approach of the linkage between technology and American issues concerning ​unemployment​ and
declining wages.
He uses two main arguments to defend his point. First, because of recent technological advances, an increasing
number of workers are losing their jobs. Yet, scientific evidence fails to clearly demonstrate that technology has
displaced so many workers that it has created more problems than it has solved. Indeed, ​automation​ threatens
repetitive jobs but higher-end jobs are still necessary because they complement technology and manual jobs that
"requires flexibility judgment and common sense"​[70]​ remain hard to replace with ​machines​. Second, studies have not
shown clear links between recent technology advances and the wage trends of the last decades.
Therefore, according to Bernstein, instead of focusing on technology and its hypothetical influences on current
American increasing unemployment and declining wages, one needs to worry more about "bad policy that fails to
offset the imbalances in demand, trade, income, and opportunity."​[70]
For people who use both the Internet and mobile devices in excessive quantities it is likely for them to
experience ​fatigue​ and over exhaustion as a result of disruptions in their sleeping patterns. Continuous studies have
shown that increased ​BMI​ and weight gain are associated with people who spend long hours online and not
exercising frequently.​[71]​ Heavy Internet use is also displayed in the school lower grades of those who use it in
excessive amounts.​[72]​ It has also been noted that the use of mobile phones whilst driving has increased the
occurrence of road accidents — particularly amongst teen drivers. Statistically, teens reportedly have fourfold the
number of road traffic incidents as those who are 20 years or older, and a very high percentage of adolescents write
(81%) and read (92%) texts while driving.​[73]​ In this context, mass media and technology have a negative impact on
people, on both their mental and physical health.

Complex technological systems

Thomas P. Hughes​ stated that because technology has been considered as a key way to solve problems, we need to
be aware of its complex and varied characters to use it more efficiently.​[74]​ What is the difference between a ​wheel​ or
a ​compass​ and cooking machines such as an ​oven​ or a ​gas stove​? Can we consider all of them, only a part of them,
or none of them as technologies?
Technology is often considered too narrowly; according to Hughes, "Technology is a creative process involving
human ingenuity".​[75]​ This definition's emphasis on creativity avoids unbounded definitions that may mistakenly include
cooking "technologies," but it also highlights the prominent role of humans and therefore their responsibilities for the
use of complex technological systems.
Yet, because technology is everywhere and has dramatically changed landscapes and societies, Hughes argues
that ​engineers​, ​scientists​, and ​managers​ have often believed that they can use technology to shape the world as they
want. They have often supposed that technology is easily controllable and this assumption has to be thoroughly
questioned.​[74]​ For instance, ​Evgeny Morozov​ particularly challenges two concepts: "Internet-centrism" and
"solutionism."​[76]​ Internet-centrism refers to the idea that our society is convinced that the Internet is one of the most
stable and coherent forces. Solutionism is the ideology that every social issue can be solved thanks to technology
and especially thanks to the internet. In fact, technology intrinsically contains uncertainties and limitations. According
to ​Alexis Madrigal​'s review of Morozov's theory, to ignore it will lead to "unexpected consequences that could
eventually cause more damage than the problems they seek to address."​[77]​ Benjamin R. Cohen and Gwen Ottinger
also discussed the multivalent effects of technology.​[78]
Therefore, recognition of the limitations of technology, and more broadly, scientific knowledge, is needed – especially
in cases dealing with ​environmental justice​ and health issues. Ottinger continues this reasoning and argues that the
ongoing recognition of the limitations of scientific knowledge goes hand in hand with scientists and engineers’ new
comprehension of their role. Such an approach of technology and science "[require] technical professionals to
conceive of their roles in the process differently. [They have to consider themselves as] collaborators in research and
problem solving rather than simply providers of information and technical solutions."​[79]
EO018 L-3 ​Unit 1 Technology and Development

Importance of appropriate technology

Appropriate technology​ is attractive because it makes households and industries more

self-sufficient, and most things can be managed at a local level. We may have to do more hand
labour instead of depending on automation to satisfy our basic needs. However, there are many
advantages to simplifying our lives.

The Universal Nut sheller in Uganda, 2005

The ​universal nut sheller​ (​UNS​; formerly called the ​Malian peanut sheller​) is a simple hand-operated machine
capable of ​shelling​ up to 57 kilograms (126 lb) of raw, sun-dried ​peanuts​ per hour.​[1]
It requires less than $10 USD in materials to make, and is made of ​concrete​ poured into two
simple ​fibreglass​ moulds, some metal parts, one wrench, and any piece of rock or wood that can serve as a hammer.
It accepts a wide range of nut sizes without adjustment. Operators can make necessary adjustments quickly and
easily. It is estimated that one Universal Nut Sheller will serve the needs of a village of 2,000 people. The life
expectancy of the machine is around 25 years.​[2]
The ​Full Belly Project​ is working to establish local, sustainable businesses that manufacture and
distribute ​appropriate technologies​ such as the Universal Nut Sheller.

A comprehensive understanding of the concept of ​Appropriate Technology​ (AT) and brings out its
relevance today both from the standpoints of developing and developed countries. The topic also focuses
on the evolution of AT movement in India and ideological contributions by various thinkers like Gandhi, E.
F. Schumacher, and others to this movement. It also stresses that AT movement as a discursive one is
not about mobilizing activities and people but is about academic discourses on AT.

Operation​[​edit​]
Diagram of the shelling machine

The user loads the desired crop in the space at the top. The user turns the handle, which rotates the rotor
continuously. This movement facilitates the nuts falling down the gradually narrowing gap. The shell of each nut is
broken at the point where the gap is sufficiently narrow and the rotor motion causes sufficient friction to crack open
the shell. The adjustable minimum width of the gap allows a range of nut sizes to be shelled. The kernels and shell
fragments fall into a basket and are later separated by ​winnowing​. The device works best for ​Jatropha curcas​, ​shea​,
dried ​coffee​, and ​peanuts​ (ground nuts).​[​citation needed​]
The ​Full Belly Project​ has developed a pedal powered agricultural processor,​[3]​ which places the universal nut sheller
onto a pedaling chassis. In addition to the shelling method described, the pedaling apparatus is connected to a fan.
The fan automatically winnows the harvest (separates the shells from the nuts). The pedal powered versions are
capable of shelling the same variety of crops as the hand crank powered versions. The processor also provides
access for the winnowing section to be used independently from the sheller. This allows winnowing of crops that are
not shelled, including ​rice​, ​maize​, and ​sorghum​.

Appropriate technology is decentralized​.

Today, many of our basic needs are handled by huge, complex systems These systems are
managed centrally by large private corporations or the government. For example, our electricity
typically comes from utility companies that operate across many states. Similarly, many of the
fruits and vegetables we consume come from large-scale agricultural corporations in California.
In contrast, with appropriate technology the person who produces a service or a product also
becomes the consumer - the person who uses it. This has several advantages: For one,
consumer-producers are more likely to care more about their work. As a result, service and
goods are more reliable and of higher quality. Secondly, centralized systems remust invest a lot
of money to purchase large, complex machinery and to employ thousands of workers. Often
these systems are disrupted due to breakdowns in the technology, problems getting needed
supplies, or labor strikes. When this happens a great many people are affected. Breakdowns such
as a power outage may also occur in communities that use small-scale, appropriate technology.
But these local breakdowns are not nearly so difficult and time consuming to track down and
repair as those that cover a broad geographic area. Thus, a simpler technology tends to be more
reliable, and the effects of breakdowns do not disrupt so many lives.
 
Technologically sophisticated, though simple in design.

It is important to realize that use of appropriate technology does not mean turning the clock back
to the 18th or 19th century. Although the technology involves simple, easy-to use and repair
designs, it is based on sophisticated, 20th-century technologies. One example is the invention of
photovoltaic, or solar cells that convert solar energy, a renewable energy source, into electricity
for homes and businesses.

 
Environmentally friendly​.

Appropriate technology emphasizes the use of renewable resources, like the energy from the sun,
wind, or water. These energy sources are available almost everywhere and need only the right
technology to capture them. Unlike burning coal and oil, these local energy sources do not
contribute to air and water pollution and they do not need to be transported over long distances.
Food, energy, water, and waste disposal are also handled locally by ecological systems. These
are systems that conserve resources by recycling organic nutrients back into the soil and re-using
manufactured goods in innovative ways. Thus, appropriate technology makes it possible to
satisfy our basic human needs while minimizing our impact on the environment.

 
Social problems.

Many people are coming to realize that neither our economy nor our population can continue to
grow forever. We are running out of the natural resources necessary to sustain ourselves. In
addition we are limited in our ability to deal with the social and environmental problems that
result from continuous growth. There seems to be a growing dissatisfaction with the complexity
and hectic lifestyle of 20th-century society. Many people would prefer to return to a simpler way
of life. Appropriate technology is attractive because it makes households and industries more
self-sufficient, and most things can be managed at a local level. We may have to do more hand
labor instead of depending on automation to satisfy our basic needs. However, there are many
advantages to simplifying our lives. By growing more of our own food and producing and
buying goods in our own communitites, we spend less time and money on transportation,
produce less waste and consume fewer environmental resources.
SOME CASE STUDIES:
(1) CASE 1
March 2014
When introducing the EHC-8 Electrohydraulic Hitch Control to the Indian market,
engineers initially made preparations without taking account of the adverse
environmental conditions. Project managers Raman Sheshadri and Uwe Falkenhain
report on how adaptation to local circumstances resulted in a genuine success.

Bosch Rexroth has had excellent results with the Electrohydraulic Hitch Control in both
the European and North American markets. Farmers fully appreciate the advantages it
offers. Precise regulation of power and position makes for exact lifting and lowering the
hitch and, as a result, highly accurate tillage.
Soils are turned over gently and uniformly. That improves yields. And the work is more
convenient, as well. That is why, in 2009, we decided to introduce Electrohydraulic Hitch
Control (EHC) on the Indian subcontinent – an equipment market with enormous
potentials. But the feedback from initial test runs using tractors built by local
manufacturers was not entirely satisfactory. We did see a need for this concept, but it
had to be more rugged and considerably less expensive.
Adapting and new development

When reworking the system for the Indian market, our first step was to conduct a closer
analysis of the operating conditions. The tractors have to survive the most foreboding
conditions: monsoons, high relative humidity on the one hand, and dryness, dust and
heat on the other hand. All this is aggravated by the demands made in rice cultivation.
Here the parts are sometimes submerged in centimeters of packed-down mud. What’s
more, the tractors usually have no sprung suspension and, as a result, generate greater
vibration. In order to cope with these operating parameters and, at the same time, to
drastically cut the costs for the system, we decided simply to modify certain components
and to develop others from scratch.
Brand new: Control panel and angular sensor

Two components in particular are exposed to the extreme weather conditions: the
angular sensor and the control panel. Our standard control panel, designed for
installation inside the operator’s cab, was not suitable for use in Indian tractors without a
protective cab. That is why we needed something entirely new. Not only did it have to
be more rugged. The illumination needed to be brighter since – given the intense
sunlight – it was impossible to see the operating functions.
Placement was yet another question. Following extensive deliberation, the customer
and we agreed to engineer an armrest ready to accept the control panel. This steadies
the farmer’s hand when he presses the various buttons. We replaced the large actuator
lever with a generously dimensioned switch with three positions: lift, lower, off.

The components of the EHC-8 system. The entirely redesigned control unit is at the
upper right.

Another very important item was to offer farmers a service concept. Local workshops
are normally unable to read out the electronic fault diagnosis. That is why we integrated
that function into the control panel, with a display to output the results. Now the farmer
can himself determine whether an electronic component is malfunctioning. To protect
the entire control panel – and above all the display – we have fitted the unit with a
sturdy film to keep out moisture and dust and to reduce mechanical influences.
In questions of resistance to leaks, we had to depart from European thinking. The IP 67
protection class used for the angular sensor in Europe is not sufficient to withstand the
extremely dusty conditions. As a consequence, we had to entirely re-engineer the
sensor. The electrical components are now completely separate from the mechanical
space.
Indian software relationships

We also developed the controller from the ground up. It is installed in the housing Bosch
had designed for the Tata “Nano” city car. That housing is already laid out to handle the
Indian climate. The software had to be adapted to the Indian market as well – shifting
from the European lower linkage control to upper linkage control. This requires only one
power regulation sensor instead of two and helps us reduce costs.
Drawing upon local resources

To achieve a more attractive price for the Indian design, we turned to local suppliers
who manufacture in India. Thus we established local production capacities for the EHR5
valve. This valve regulates the flow of hydraulic fluid to the cylinders, lending precision
to raising and lowering the lifting unit.
On the other hand, we have done away with many complex, automated procedures.
One good example is the rear cover for the angular sensor. In our standard designs,
ultrasonic welding is used. In principle, this would be possible in India, but we decided
to use an appropriate adhesive, which is far less costly.
Engineering for cost savings

Design options offered a further way to reduce costs. The selection of the materials is
one example. The plastics found on the Indian market are far different from those in
Europe. Their strength is aligned exactly with the conditions and they are less
expensive, as well. Glass fiber reinforcement is seldom used, for example.
In addition, we eliminated a large number of parts. In the European version of the
angular sensor, there is a component that lets us program the sensor for various ranges
of angles, depending on the geometry of the lifting system. We have done away with
this in the Indian version and regulate the opening angle using a resistor, which is
soldered in place.
Our research into the potentials for cost reductions will not end when our Indian
customer launches mass production in the first quarter of 2014. At present, we are
working intensively on replacing the existing power measurement sensor with a newly
developed system tailored exactly to the power ranges used in India. We will be able to
achieve savings on the one hand by converting from a magnetic-elastic measurement
principle to a Hall effect sensor. In addition, we can have this draft pin sensor
manufactured locally, in India.
Larger than India

Customizing the system has already paid off – beyond the Indian market. This readies
us for taking the next step in other BRIC nations, where similar conditions prevail. In
addition, individual components will also be of interest to European customers who can
then integrate them into their overall concepts.
Authors
Raman Sheshadri,
Sales and Industry Sector Management, Agricultural and Forestry Machinery,
Bangalore, India

Uwe Falkenhain,
Sales and Product Management Mobile Electronics,
Schwieberdingen, Germany

CASE 2 :
Welcome to Appropriate Technology India 
Appropriate Technology India is a non-government organization that works with mountain
communities of Uttarakhand, offering them innovative alternatives to subsistence agriculture. Its
broad mission is to assist village communities in the Western Himalayan eco-region to conserve
their natural resources while utilizing these resources and non timber forest products (NTFPs) in a
socially equitable, economically efficient and ecologically sustainable manner. The organization
operates under the premise that attaining economic and managerial control over their natural
resources will instinctively provide local communities the impetus to support long-term biodiversity
conservation goals.

The organization has adopted a 'community centric' approach and operates on the principle of
strengthening the local Community Based institutions(CBOs) and work collaboratively to further build
on the indigenous knowledge of the community. The thrust is the promote Climate Resistant
livelihoods. Inclusion of marginalized persons and women is the criterion for engaging with the
community stakeholders.

SERICULTURE
The oak (temperate) tasar silk program has been A T India 'flagship' programme. It best reflects our
synergistic approach of forest conservation through

BEEKEEPING
The rationale for identifying bee-keeping as one of A T India programmes lies in the predominantly
agrarian economy and land use pattern

DAIRY
Dairy has been one of the sub-sectors identified by A T India for intervention due to its potential to
significantly impact the incomes of a large number of rural poor

SPICES
Work in this sector was started after a careful value chain assessment which indicated that local
production of certain organic spices could compete in the end
 EO018 L-4 ​Unit 1 Technology ​Transfer
Technology transfer​ offices play a crucial ​role​ in the process by identifying developments ripe for translation to real world
solutions, obtaining patents and copyrights that protect them, and licensing products and processes to existing companies (or
forming new businesses) to produce and market the products.

❖ What is Technology Transfer?

Universities are society’s greatest conduit for advancing medicine, technology, agriculture and public health, thereby improving
quality of life globally by transforming research into innovation. This process, known as technology transfer, begins with
identifying discoveries that are protectable and marketable from a broad range of invention disclosures, and shepherding those
technologies into the commercial marketplace where they can improve lives and drive growth.

Researchers come up with the best ideas, but unless those ideas are transformed into products and services, they won’t impact
the lives of those around us.”

​https://autmfoundation.com/about/technology-transfer-impact/

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PmCcMJ7PC_A

Technology transfer​, also called ​transfer of technology​ (​TOT​), is the process of transferring
(disseminating) ​technology​ from the person or organization that owns or holds it to another person or organization.
These transfers may occur between ​universities​, ​businesses​ (of any size, ranging from ​small​, ​medium​,
to ​large​), ​governments​, across ​geopolitical​ ​borders​,[ ​is the study of the effects of Earth's ​geography​ (human and physical)
on ​politics​ and ​international relations​.[1]​
​ [2]​ While geopolitics usually refers to ​countries​ and relations between them, it may also
focus on two other kinds of ​states​: ​de facto​ independent states with ​limited international recognition​ and relations
between ​sub-national geopolitical entities​, such as the ​federated states​ that make up a ​federation​, ​confederation​ or a quasi-federal
system.] both formally and informally, and both openly and secretly. Often it occurs by concerted effort to
share ​skills​, ​knowledge​, technologies, manufacturing methods, samples, and facilities among the participants. to
ensure that scientific and technological developments are accessible to a wider range of users who can then further
develop and exploit the technology into new products, processes, applications, materials, or services. It is closely
related to (and may arguably be considered a subset of) ​knowledge transfer​. Horizontal transfer is the movement of
technologies from one area to another. At present ​transfer of technology is primarily horizontal. Vertical transfer
occurs when technologies are moved from applied research centers to research and development departments.​[1]
Technology transfer is promoted at conferences organized by such groups as the ​Ewing Marion Kauffman
Foundation​ [​The ​Ewing Marion Kauffman Foundation​ (​Kauffman Foundation​) is a
registered ​501(c)(3)​ non-profit, ​private foundation​ based in ​Kansas City, Missouri​.​[4]​ The foundation was founded in
1966 by ​Ewing Marion Kauffman​, who had previously founded the drug company ​Marion Laboratories​. The Kauffman
Foundation works with communities to build and support programs that boost entrepreneurship, improve education,
and contribute to the vibrancy of Kansas City.]​and the Association of University Technology Managers, and at
"challenge" competitions by organizations such as the ​Center for Advancing Innovation​ in Maryland. Local venture
capital organizations such as the Mid-Atlantic Venture Association (MAVA) also sponsor conferences at which
investors assess the potential for commercialization of technology.
Technology brokers​ are people who discovered how to bridge the emergent worlds and apply scientific concepts or
processes to new situations or circumstances. A related term, used almost synonymously, especially in Europe, is
"technology ​valorisation​". While conceptually the practice has been utilized for many years (in ancient
times, ​Archimedes​ was notable for applying science to practical problems), the present-day volume of research,
combined with high-profile failures at ​Xerox PARC​ and elsewhere​[​has led to a focus on the process itself.
Whereas technology transfer can involve the dissemination of ​highly complex technology​ from capital-intensive
origins to low-capital recipients (and can involve aspects of dependency and fragility of systems), it also can
involve ​appropriate technology​, not necessarily high-tech or expensive, that is better disseminated,
yielding ​robustness​ and ​independence​ of systems.

❖ Why is technology important in developing countries?

For ​developing countries​, access to ​technology​ can have many benefits — one such improvement being the boost of a nation's
economy. Other ways that ​technology​ is helping ​economies​ in ​developing countries​ include reducing the costs of production,
encouraging the growth of new business and advancing communication

INDIAN SCENARIO REGARDING THE LICENSING AND TECHNOLOGY TRANSFER

Technology in India is growing exponentially and has played an important role in all round development and growth of
economy in the country, India has opted for a wise mix of original and imported technology. Henceforth "Technology
transfer" plays a very important role and is generally covered by a technology transfer agreement.

Developing countries like India generally not follow the usual path for development with regard to technologies but
use their advantage in the cutting edge technology options which is now available and put the tools to use this
modern technology.

Technology transfer is assumed to get benefits from R&D which is shared with the developing and underdeveloped
countries , so taking this to the point of consideration National research laboratories is been constructed by the Indian
government for the purpose of R&D which is yet to be commenced by the private sectors.

India generally comprises of Small and medium enterprises and is growing since liberalization, which has resulted in
growth of The multinational enterprises, which in turn is competing with the international companies which has
enhanced the confidence of India. Not only confined to the pharmaceuticals but is broadly categorized in other areas
too such as agriculture, dairy and other technologies.
Government of India is in the verge to open Technology Transfer Offices, Universities, institutions which will be
funded by central government and will acts as mechanism for transferring or exporting the research conducted and its
outcome to the desired place.

Though some of the Indian Institutes have been already commercializing their research and are successful in
technology transfer in which they have been licensed as technologies to industry. Moreover, numerous cases of
technology transfer are seen in India by various well-known institutions.

FORMS OF TECHNOLOGY TRANSFER:

Technology transfer can be classified into vertical and horizontal technology transfer​2

Vertical transfer refers to transfer of technology where transmission of new technologies is done from the generation
of new technology during the research and development programs into the science and technology organizations, for
instance, to the application related to the industrial and agricultural sectors, or we can say that vertical transfer is the
technology transfer commencing from basic research to applied research, from applied research to development
followed by development to production.

While the horizontal technology transfer is the movement of a well-known technology from one equipped environment
to another (from one company to another) or say refers to the transfer and use of technology used in one place or
organization to another place or organization.

As discussed above generally developed countries follow the route:-

Research -> Development -> Design -> Production

While less advanced and developing countries follow the route:-

Production -> Design -> Development -> Research

Generally there are the reverse trends in the developing countries because the path to be followed depends upon the
transfer, absorption, and adaptation of existing technology

(Habibie (1990), often referred to as the architect of the Indonesian aircraft industry, states that, ​"technology receivers
must be prepared to implement manufacturing plans on a step-by step basis, with the ultimate objective of eventually
matching the added-value percentage obtained by the technology transferring firm."​ He refers to such an approach
as ​"progressive manufacturing"​ and popularized the slogan, ​"begin at the end and end at the beginning"​ implying that
a transferee firm should start with production and move backwards to research.)

Today in the era of advent in technology one could choose any of the routes of the technology transfer which
depends upon how the technology advancement chains of the transferor and transferee are associated.

CONCLUSION
Technology transfer and its licensing have played a crucial role in all round development and the advent of the
technology which in results help in the development of the economy of the country. Hence forth helps in creating the
wealth to the country.

India as a developing country need to work on the technology development and technology transfer and needs to
make a building strategy comprising of the construction of new offices related to technology transfer and to make
youngsters aware to the benefits related to the technology transfer, by establishing the specified universities and
henceforth increasing the pace of the technology transfer and technical research and development in technical
perspective.
Finally as discussed we can conclude that there is the possible advantage and disadvantage of the technology
transfer. But we have to see this in the broader aspect so that our country as well as the citizen of our country should
be benefited.

❖ How is technology transferred to developing countries?

Foreign direct investment(FDI) is one of the channels of ​technology transfer​ to ​developing countries​. Foreign affiliates may
bring new opportunities and challenges that may encourage suppliers to innovate. They may provide direct training to suppliers
and retailers of their products and services.

UNITED NATIONS CONFERENCE ON TRADE AND DEVELOPMENT. ​UNCTAD​.

Many developed countries have adopted measures that directly or indirectly facilitate technology transfer. These measures
include financing support, training, matching services, partnerships and alliances and support for equipment purchase or
licensing. UNCTAD has surveyed 41 agencies and programmes in 23 developed countries that offer ​home-country measures
(HCMs), in one way or another, facilitating technology transfer .HCMs are often provided as part of international cooperation
programmes and/or strategic trade and investment initiatives.

Nineteen of the agencies surveyed provide support for training programmes. Of these, four provide support to
enable affiliates of home-country firms in developing countries to train their workers, three provide training as
part of matching services and five-run independent skills development programmes. Fifteen of the agencies
surveyed provide FDI (foreign direct investment)​-related technology transfer incentives to their enterprises. Of
these 15, five require their firms to seek partnership with local firms, four include training of local partners or
workers as a requirement and three require a demonstration that transfer of technology does take place.

The ​foreign direct investor​ may acquire voting power of an enterprise in an economy through any of the following methods:

● by incorporating a wholly owned subsidiary or company anywhere

● by acquiring shares in an associated enterprise
● through a merger or an acquisition of an unrelated enterprise
● participating in an equity ​joint venture​ with another investor or enterprise​[15]
Forms of FDI incentives

Foreign direct investment incentives may take the following forms:

● Low ​corporate tax​ and individual ​income tax​ rates

● tax holidays
● other types of tax concessions
● preferential ​tariffs
● special economic zones
● EPZ​ – Export Processing Zones
● Bonded warehouses
● Maquiladoras
● investment financial subsidies
● free land or land subsidies
● relocation & expatriation
● infrastructure subsidies
● R&D support
● Energy
● derogation from regulations (usually for very large projects)
Governmental Investment Promotion Agencies (IPAs) use various marketing strategies inspired by the private sector to try and
attract inward FDI, including ​diaspora​ [A ​diaspora​ is a scattered population whose origin lies in a separate geographic locale​ ]
marketing.
Similarly, 10 of the agencies provide technology transfer related to matchmaking services. Seven of the agencies
surveyed provide financing for technology transfer. Of these, three have dedicated financing mechanisms to
facilitate technology transfer. Further, four of the agencies surveyed provide venture capital support to firms in
developing countries or partnership with home-country firms. Some of the HCMs illustrated above provide
examples of best practices in facilitating technology transfer. Overall, the existing home-country programmes are
fragmented, insufficient and narrow in coverage. For instance, the number of programmes whose core objective is
technology transfer is small, and only a few countries are covered. Although many agencies recognize FDI as a
channel for technology transfer, few include requirements to ensure technology transfer does take place in their
FDI-related incentives. There is also limited information on HCMs facilitating technology transfer. There is still a
vast scope for further efforts. Such efforts may include assistance to developing countries to improve technical
standards and certification systems, extensive dissemination of information on HCMs, mobilization of “business
angels” and involvement of developing country firms in complex projects. Home countries may also reserve a
portion of their technical assistance budget to developing countries to support measures facilitating technology
transfer to small businesses, especially in LDCs.​Less-developed countries [(​LDC​) are low-income countries that
face significant structural challenges to sustainable development]. The United Nations's list of ​LDCs​ currently
comprises 47 countries.

The New Delhi Conference, held in February and March 1968, was a forum that allowed developing countries to reach
agreement on basic principles of their development policies. The conference in New Delhi was an opportunity for schemes to be
finally approved. The conference provided a major impetus in persuading the North to follow up UNCTAD I resolutions, in
establishing generalised preferences. The target for private and official flows to LDCs was raised to 1% of the North's ​GNP​, but
the developed countries failed to commit themselves to achieving the target by a specific date. This has proven a continuing point
of debate at UNCTAD conferences.
The conference led to the ​International Sugar Agreement​, which seeks to stabilize world sugar prices.
The ​International Sugar Agreement​s and similarly named agreements were a series of ​International treaties​ that attempted to
establish an "orderly relationship between the supply and demand for sugar in the world market." They eventually established
the ​International Sugar Organization​.
Main article: ​Foreign Direct Investment in India

Foreign investment was introduced in 1991 under ​Foreign Exchange Management Act (FEMA)​, driven by then finance
minister ​Manmohan Singh​. As Singh subsequently became the prime minister, this has been one of his top political problems,
even in the current times. India disallowed overseas corporate bodies (OCB) to invest in India. India imposes cap on equity
holding by foreign investors in various sectors, current FDI in ​aviation​ and ​insurance​ sectors is limited to a maximum of 49%.
Starting from a baseline of less than $1 billion in 1990, a 2012 ​UNCTAD​ survey projected India as the second most important
FDI destination (after China) for transnational corporations during 2010–2012. As per the data, the sectors that attracted higher
inflows were services, telecommunication, construction activities and computer software and hardware. Mauritius, Singapore, US
and UK were among the leading sources of FDI. Based on UNCTAD data FDI flows were $10.4 billion, a drop of 43% from the
first half of the last year.​[40]
Nine from 10 largest foreign companies investing in India (from April 2000- January 2011) are based in Mauritius.​[41]​ List of the
ten largest foreign companies investing in India (from April 2000- January 2011) are as follows​[41]​ --

1. TMI Mauritius Ltd. - Rs 7200 crore/$1600 million

2. Cairn UK Holding - Rs6666 crores/$1492 million
3. Oracle Global (Mauritius) Ltd. - Rs 4805 crore/$1083 million
 4. Mauritius Debt Management Ltd.- Rs 3800 crore/$956 million
5. Vodafone Mauritius Ltd. – Rs 4000 crore/$801 million
6. Etisalat Mauritius Ltd. – Rs 3228 crore
7. CMP Asia Ltd. – Rs 2638.25 crore/$653.74 million
8. Oracle Global Mauritius Ltd. – Rs 2575.88 crore / $563.94 million
9. Merrill Lynch(Mauritius) Ltd. – Rs 2230.02 crore / $483.55 million
10. Name of the company not given (but the Indian company which got the FDI is Dhabol Power company Ltd.)
In 2015, India emerged as top FDI destination surpassing China and the US. India attracted FDI of $31 billion compared to $28
billion and $27 billion of China and the US respectively. India received $63 billion in FDI in 2015. India also allowed 100% FDI
in many sectors during 2016.
Recent Technology Transfer

● Antrix of ​Indian​ Space Research Organisation (ISRO)

● C-​Tech​ of Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO)
● Centre for Scientific and Industrial Consultancy (CSIC) of ​Indian​ Institute of Science.
● Industrial Research & Consultancy Centre (IRCC) of ​Indian​ Institute of ​Technology​,​ ​Bombay.

Antrix Corporation Limited 

  

 
Antrix Corporation Limited (ACL) 
Antrix Complex, 
New BEL Road, Bengaluru - 560 231 
 
Chairman-cum-Managing Director:​ Mr. S. Rakesh 
 
 
 
Antrix  Corporation  Limited  (ACL),  Bengaluru  is a wholly owned Government of India Company under the 
administrative  control  of  the  Department  of  Space.  Antrix  Corporation  Limited  was  incorporated  as  a 
private  limited  company  owned  by  Government  of  India  in September 1992 as a Marketing arm of ISRO 
for  promotion  and  commercial  exploitation  of  space  products,  technical  consultancy  services  and 
transfer  of  technologies  developed  by  ISRO.  Another  major  objective  is  to  facilitate  development  of 
space related industrial capabilities in India. 
As  the  commercial  and  marketing  arm  of  ISRO,  Antrix  is  engaged  in  providing  Space  products  and  
services  to  international  customers  worldwide.  With  fully  equipped  state-of-the-art  facilities,  Antrix 
provides  end-to-end  solution  for  many  of  the  space  products,  ranging  from  supply  of  hardware  and 
software  including  simple  subsystems  to  a  complex  spacecraft,  for  varied  applications  covering 
communications,  earth  observation  and  scientific  missions;  space  related  services  including  remote 
sensing  data  service,  Transponder  lease  service;  Launch  services  through  the  operational  launch 
vehicles (PSLV and GSLV); Mission support services; and a host of consultancy and training services. 

History
Antrix Corporation was incorporated as a ​private limited company​ owned by the Indian government on 28 September
1992. Its objective is to promote the ISRO's products, services and technologies. The company is a ​Public Sector
Undertaking​ (PSU), wholly owned by the ​Government of India​. It is administered by the ​Department of Space​ (DoS)
It had dealings with ​EADS Astrium​,​Intelsat​, Avanti Group, WorldSpace, ​Inmarsat​, and other space institutions in
Europe, Middle East and South East Asia
It was awarded '​Miniratna​' status by the government in 2008​ ​and achieved a turnover of Rs. 18 billion in 2014–15.

Achievements
● Successful launch of ​W2M​ satellite for Eutelsat.
● Successful supply of reliable satellite systems and sub-systems. Some of ​Antrix'​s better known customers
are ​Hughes​, ​Matra Marconi​, ​World Space​ etc.
● Successful Commercial Satellite Launches of SPOT 687 (France), Pathfinder & Dove (U.S), Tecsar
(Israel) ​Kitsat​ (​Korea​), ​Tubsat​ (​DLR​ – Germany), BIRD (DLR – Germany), ​PROBA​ (​Verhaert​, ​Belgium​) aboard
the ISRO's Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV).
● Execution of many IOT / TTC support services to International Space Agencies. Some of the customers
The ​Internet of things​ (​IoT​) is a system of interrelated computing devices, mechanical and digital machines
provided with unique ​identifiers​ (UIDs) and the ability to transfer data over a network without requiring
human-to-human or human-to-computer interaction.​[1]​[2]​[3]​[4]​The definition of the Internet of things has evolved
due to the convergence of multiple technologies, real-time ​analytics​, ​machine learning​, ​commodity​ ​sensors​,
and ​embedded systems​.[1]​​ Traditional fields of ​embedded systems​, ​wireless sensor networks​, control
systems, ​automation​ (including ​home​ and ​building automation​), and others all contribute to enabling the
Internet of things. In the consumer market, IoT technology is most synonymous with products pertaining to
the concept of the "​smart home​", including devices and ​appliances​ (such as lighting fixtures, ​thermostats​,
home ​security systems​ and cameras, and other home appliances) that support one or more common
ecosystems, and can be controlled via devices associated with that ecosystem, such
as ​smartphones​ and ​smart speakers​.There are a number of serious concerns about dangers in the growth
of IoT, especially in the areas of ​privacy​ and ​security​, and consequently industry and governmental moves
to address these concerns have begun including the development of international standards.​[5]

● using ​Antrix​ services are World Space ​PANAMSAT​, ​GE​ ​Americom​, ​AFRISTAT​ etc.,
● LEOP support, IOT, TTC.
● Successful launch of ​TecSar​ (Israel).
● Two satellites; one from France and another from Japan were launched in September 2012.
● Successful ​launch of five satellites​, including French ​SPOT 7​ satellite on 30 June 2014
 ● UK based satellite launch ​UK-DMC 3​ on 10 July 2015

Business agreement
On 29 January 2014, Antrix Corporation Limited (Antrix), the commercial arm of Indian Space Research Organization
(ISRO), signed Launch Services Agreement with DMC International Imaging (DMCii), the wholly owned subsidiary of
Surrey Satellite Technology Limited (SSTL), United Kingdom (UK), for launch of three DMC-3 Earth Observation
Satellites being built by SSTL, on-board ISRO’s Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV). On 5 February 2014, Antrix
signed another Launch Services Agreement with ST Electronics (Satcom & Sensor Systems) Pte Ltd, Singapore, for
launch of ​TeLEOS-1​ Earth Observation Satellite, on-board PSLV. These launches are planned during end 2014 to
end 2015. On 29 September 2014, Canada announced that it has decided to give the contract of the July 2015
launch of its M3M (Maritime Monitoring and Messaging Micro-Satellite) communications satellite to Antrix during the
inauguration of the International Astronautical Congress at Toronto.

Satellite launches
​ ist of foreign satellites launched by India
Main article: L

As of January 2018 ISRO has launched 209 foreign satellites for 23 different countries. All satellites were launched
using the ISRO's ​Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle​ (PSLV) ​expendable launch system​. Between 2013 and 2015, India
launched 28 foreign satellites for 13 different countries earning a total revenue of US$101 million.
Antrix launched 239 satellites between 2016 and 2019 earning a total revenue of ₹6,289 crore (US$880 million).

Controversies​[​edit​]
S-band spectrum scam
Further information: ​Indian Space Research Organisation § S-band spectrum scam

In January 2005, Antrix Corporation signed an agreement with Devas Multimedia (a private company formed by
former ISRO employees and Venture Capitalists from USA) for lease of ​S band​ transponders on two ISRO satellites
(GSAT 6 and GSAT 6A) for a price of ₹14 billion (US$200 million), a huge amount lower than market price, to be paid
over a period of 12 years. Devas shares were sold at a premium of ₹1,226,000 (US$17,000), taking the accumulated
share premium to ₹5.78 billion (US$81 million), thus getting a high profit. In July 2008, Devas offloaded 17% of its
stake to German company ​Deutsche Telekom​ for US$75 million, and by 2010 had 17 investors, including former
ISRO scientists.
In late 2009, some ISRO insiders exposed information about the Devas-Antrix deal, and the ensuing investigations
resulted in the deal being annulled. ​G. Madhavan Nair​ (ISRO Chairperson when the agreement was signed) was
barred from holding any post under the Department of Space. Some former scientists were found guilty of "acts of
commission" or "acts of omission". Devas and Deutsche Telekom demanded US$2 billion and US$1 billion,
respectively, in damages.​[21]​ The CBI concluded investigations into the Antrix-Devas scam and registered a case
against the accused in the Antrix-Devas deal under Section 120-B, besides Section 420 of IPC and Section 13(2)
read with 13(1)(d) of PC Act, 1988 on 18 March 2015 against the then Executive Director, Antrix Corporation Limited,
Bengaluru; two officials of USA-based company; Bengaluru based private multi media company and other unknown
officials of ​Antrix​ Corporation Limited /ISRO/Department of Space.
 

● C-​Tech​ of Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO)

Directorate of Industry Interface & Technology Management (DIITM) became functional in 07 Dec 2009. This was
formed by merger of C-Tech and Directorate of Technology Acquisition. DIITM serves as a Single Window in
DRDO for administering Policies and matters related to Industry Interface and Technology Management.

DIITM plays a vital role in filling gap between Defence R&D and production by facilitating Transfer of
Technologies (ToT) to industries. DIITM facilitates Limited Series Production (LSP) to cater the need of production
of limited quantity of DRDO developed products. It also coordinates the production with industries to produce
 DRDO developed products as per Users’ requirements. DIITM is nodal directorate for the technology acquisition by
DRDO under defence offsets. DIITM also provides necessary policy framework and hand holding support to the
industries for the export of DRDO developed products. The major achievements of DIITM are given below:-

● Framed the “DRDO Policy for Transfer of Technology” and promulgated after approval of Hon’ble RakshaMantri
● Formulated the ‘DRDO Procedures for Transfer of Technology’ with the approval of Secretary DD R&D and
chairman DRDO to implement the new ToT Policy.
● More than 900 Licensing agreements for ToTs have been signed with the Industries including major weapon
systems like Fiber optics Gyro, Varunastra, Medium Power Radar etc.
● Commercialisation of DRDO developed technologies have been done for the benefit of society at large and more
than 100 Licensing agreements signed till date.
● Interaction with more than 900 industries’ at 21 locations all over India.
● DRDO has successfully carried out LSP of NBC recce vehicle, NBC water purification system, etc.
● DRDO has processed more than 300 NoC requests for exports and 150 requests for Industrial License.
● Industry compendium containing details of industry partners who have partnered with DRDO at various stages has
been compiled by DIITM
● Prepared compendium of products which have huge export potential.

● Centre for Scientific and Industrial Consultancy (CSIC) of ​Indian​ Institute of Science.
● Industrial Research & Consultancy Centre (IRCC) of ​Indian​ Institute of ​Technology​,​ ​Bombay.

What is the latest technology in India?

With the introduction of AI, machine learning, IoT, and ​blockchain​, India has adopted some of the
significant-tech trends being observed worldwide. These latest technological advancements have given
rise to a wide variety of opportunities in the field of mobile apps, ​VR​-AR, gaming, web-tech, food-tech,
and so on.

Five technologies that may alter India in 2020

● Here’s a set of fields where disruptive innovation may be imminent, changing the way Indians live, work and
play
● Space-based solar technology is an exciting arena. India and its neighbours, China and Japan, are investing
heavily in these technologies right now

(1).Bengaluru: ​What must it have felt like to be a cotton spinner or an iron maker in England in the
1820s in the midst of an industrial revolution? Exactly 200 years later, we may be on the verge of
another era of momentous change: the internet revolution. With internet access expanding
dramatically post the early 1990s, a slew of new technologies have now matured to a point where
fundamental change constantly seems to be right around the corner.
On the doorstep of a brand new decade—the 2020s—what new frontiers may Artificial Intelligence
(AI) or gene editing open up? Will we soon have robot bosses? Will mixed reality change the way
we consume entertainment and sports? Will we be able to cure 90% of all genetic diseases by the end
of the decade? We take a look at five technologies that could alter India and the world. This may not
be a definitive or even exhaustive list, but it is a list of things that could change the way we live,
work, and play sooner than we think.
Imagine watching a football match, not on your TV but on a virtual reality (VR) headset that streams
the match live and projects interesting stats on the fly with the help of augmented reality (AR).
Mumbai-based VR startup Tesseract, now owned by Mukesh Ambani’s Reliance Jio, is promising a
future like that with its Quark camera, Holoboard headset, and the high internet speeds of Jio Fiber.
Similarly, a Hyderabad-based mixed reality startup called Imaginate enables cross-device
communication over VR and AR wearables for better enterprise collaboration in the industrial sector.
Despite the much-hyped yet unmet expectations from the likes of Google Glass, Microsoft HoloLens
and Facebook’s Oculus, Tesseract and Imaginate simply underscore how the fusion of AR and VR
technologies — the combination of which is popularly known as Mixed Reality or MR — is coming
of age and is no longer in the realm of just sci-fi movies like Blade Runner 2049, where Officer K
played by Ryan Gosling develops a relationship with his artificial intelligence (AI) hologram
companion Joi.
For instance, AI-powered chatbots today can not only conduct a conversation in natural language via
audio or text but they can be made more powerful with a dose of mixed reality. Last May, Fidelity
Investments created a prototype VR financial advisor named Cora to answer client queries using a
Nevertheless, challenges abound when dealing MR-and AI-powered robots, humanoids, and human
avatars. For one, whenever a company generates human bodies and faces, concerns over deep fakes
and cheap fakes will always rear their heads. Second, data collection will continually raise concerns
over security and privacy. Third, there’s always the concern regarding the fairness of an AI algorithm
when it is deployed to do human tasks— like giving financial advice. Last, but not the least, there’s
also the question of whether AI bots should be allowed to pose as humans. This will continually pose
a challenge and opportunity for technologists and policy makers.
Future of solar
Heliogen, a company that has billionaire philanthropist Bill Gates as one of its investors, says it has
created the world’s first technology that can commercially replace fuels with carbon-free, ultra-high
temperature heat from the sun. With its patented technology, Heliogen’s field of mirrors acts as a
multi-acre magnifying glass to concentrate and capture sunlight.
suite of tools from Amazon Web Services. Researchers in Southampton have built a device that
displays 3D animated objects that can talk and interact with onlookers.
The Chinese government-run ​Xinhua ​News Agency has the world’s first AI-powered news anchor,
whose voice has been modelled to resemble a real human anchor working for the agency. Going a
step further, Japan-headquartered DataGrid Inc. uses generative adversarial networks (GANs) to
develop its so-called “whole body model automatic generation AI" that automatically generates
full-length images of non-existent people with high resolutions.
This is just a case in point that solar technologies have evolved a lot since they first made their debut
in the 1960s. For instance, solar roadways—panels lining the surface of highways—have already
popped up in the Netherlands. Floating solar, on its part, is providing a credible option to address
land use concerns associated with wide scale solar implementations. A French firm called Ciel et
Terre, for instance, has projects set up in France, Japan, and England. Other parts of the world,
including India and California in the US, are piloting similar floating solar initiatives.
Space-based solar technology is another exciting arena. India, China and Japan are investing heavily
in these technologies right now. The Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency’s (JAXA) Space Solar
Power Systems (SSPS) aims to transmit energy from orbiting solar panels by 2030. Further,
researchers at the VTT Technical Research Centre in Finland have used solar and 3D printing
technologies to develop prototypes of what they have christened as “energy harvesting trees".
With solar power cheaper than coal in most countries in the world, it’s worth scaling up these
technologies.
Indians and robot bosses
Between 400 and 800 million individuals around the world could be displaced by automation and
would need to find new jobs by 2030, predicted a December 2017 survey by consultancy firm
McKinsey. The ​Future of Jobs 2018​ report by the World Economic Forum (WEF) suggests that 75
million jobs may be lost to automation by 2022, but adds that another 133 million additional new
roles will be created.
Given that many of the automated jobs are being taken away by AI-powered chatbots and intelligent
robots, would humans eventually have to work for a robo boss? This, however, may not be as big a
concern as it is made out to be. According to the second annual ​AI at Work​ study conducted by
Oracle and Future Workplace, people trust robots more than their managers. The study, released this
October, notes that workers in China (77%) and India (78%) have adopted AI over 2X more than
those in France (32%) and Japan (29%). Further, workers in India (60%) and China (56%) are the
most excited about AI, while men have a more positive view of AI at work than women.
Oracle and Future Workplace also found that 82% of the workers believe robot managers are better at
certain tasks, such as maintaining work schedules and providing unbiased information, than their
human counterparts. And almost two-thirds (64%) of workers worldwide say they would trust a robot
more than their human manager. In China and India, that figure rises to almost 90%.
On the other hand, the respondents felt managers can outdo robots when it comes to understanding
their feelings, coaching them, and creating a healthy work culture. Whether humans eventually serve
a robo boss or not remains to be seen. However, we can be certain of one thing: in the near future, we
will increasingly see humans collaborating with smart robots.
Future of payments
Everyone can be a merchant, and every device can be an acceptance device," Accenture noted in its
2017 ​Driving the Future of Payments​ report. This trend has only accelerated over the last two years,
especially with banks coming to terms with the fact that young customers, especially those living in
urban areas, prefer net banking and mobile banking and would seldom, or never, want to visit a bank
branch if offered that choice.
Bitcoin and cryptocurrency investors, for instance, have not lost faith in this disruptive currency
despite the run with volatility, and despite the industry being viewed with a lot of suspicion by most
governments around the world, including India. Fintechs too, with their innovative technology
solutions like AI-powered bots and contactless payments to name a few, have only made the
payments ecosystem more inclusive, disruptive, and challenging. In India, especially, the
government’s Aadhaar-enabled payments system and the Unified Payments Interface (UPI) have
revolutionized the payments ecosystem. The total volume of UPI transactions in the third quarter of
calendar 2019 touched 2.7 billion—a 183% rise over the same July-September quarter a year ago. In
terms of value, UPI clocked ​₹​4.6 trillion—up 189% over the same period a year ago, according to
the Worldline’s ​India Digital Payments Report-Q3 2019​.
However, the number of transactions done on mobile wallets was 1.04 billion—only a 5% rise over
the previous year period.
QR codes, according to the report, will continue to be used for payments, and the internet of things
(IoT) is set to dominate micro payments by transforming connected devices into payment channels,
though the pace of adoption of 5G by countries like India will be the key.
Nevertheless, cash that has been in existence for over 3000 years in different forms is not going to
disappear in a hurry. Trust and security will continue to remain the operative words in digital
payments.
Making sense of gene editing
When Dolly the sheep made news for becoming the first mammal ever to be cloned from another
individual’s body cell, many expected human cloning to follow soon. Dolly died over 16 years ago,
and subsequently animals, including monkeys and dogs, continue to be cloned successfully. Yet, no
human being has yet been cloned in real life.
While human cloning, which may or may not eventually happen, is bound to raise a lot of alarm bells
given the moral implications surrounding the issue, the fact is that human genomes, or genes, are
being routinely edited in a bid to find solutions for what are today considered to be incurable
genetically inherited diseases.
Researchers are using a gene editing tool known as CRISPR-Cas9. CRISPR, which stands for
Clusters of Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats, is a tool that allows researchers to
easily alter DNA sequences and modify gene function. The protein Cas9 (CRISPR-associated, or
Cas) is an enzyme that acts like a pair of molecular scissors capable of cutting strands of DNA.
CRISPR-Cas9 is primarily known for its use in treating diseases like AIDS, amyotrophic lateral
sclerosis (ALS), and Huntington’s disease. Two patients, one with beta thalassemia and one with
sickle cell disease, have potentially been cured of their diseases, reveal results from clinical trials that
were jointly conducted by Vertex Pharmaceuticals and CRISPR Therapeutics. The results released
this November involved using Crispr to edit the genes of these patients.
Researchers are now looking to extend its use to tackle famine, lend a hand in creating antibiotics,
and even wipe out an entire species such as malaria-spreading mosquitoes. Further, by genetically
engineering a person’s bone marrow cells, researchers can reprogram their immune and circulatory
systems. Some new cancer treatments are based on this. Moreover, looking at the DNA of the
collection of microbes in your gut can help with digestive disorders, weight loss, and even help
understand mood changes.
Closer home, scientists at the Institute of Genomics and Integrative Biology (IGIB) and the Indian
Institute of Chemical Biology (CSIR-IICB) are trying to correct genetic mutations in their
laboratories using CRISPR Cas9 with encouraging preliminary results. But due to regulatory and
ethical concerns, it may take a while before they can use this on humans.
IGIB also sells CRISPR products such as Cas9 proteins and its variants to educational institutes at
reduced prices in a bid to encourage use of the technology.
The US Food and Drug Administration (FDA), on its part, considers any use of CRISPR-Cas9 gene
editing in humans to be gene therapy and rules that the sale of DIY kits to produce gene therapies for
self-administration is illegal. India, too, has banned the use of stem cell therapy for commercial use
following concerns over “rampant malpractice".
CRISPR-Cas9, thus, remains a work in progress and countries should have policies to govern its use.
Meanwhile, one can watch out for an upgrade to CRISPR called Prime, which theoretically has the
ability to snip out more than 90% of all genetic diseases.

ADVANTAGES RELATED TO TECHNOLOGY TRANSFER:

The advantages related to technology transfer comprises of the essential gain to the public who benefits from the
manufactured goods that get to the market and ultimately the availability of the jobs which results from the
improvement and sale of the products so formed. And hence it encourages use of technology developed and the
benefiting to the society development which comes from the revenue of the tax payers. And escalating visibility to
researchers and allows researcher to generate and earn royalty income and henceforth attaining financial profits for
the government and the employees from royalty payments for those technology transfers that involve patent licenses.

Moreover resulting in commercialization of the researches and the discoveries made, which was the course of the
investment done for the development and being protected by the patent. Hereafter all the Investments done in the
course of the development in intellectual property are returned to the public through products made for the public,
opportunity of more employment, and revenue in the form of taxes.
Technology transfer strengthens industry by identifying new business opportunities which contributes to enhancing
the know-how and competitiveness of the technology providers, which ultimately results in broadening the business
area and re-focusing to the technologies and systems to serve several different fields. In addition, technology transfer
promotes the wider use and awareness of technology and systems.

Technology transfer brings economic benefits by increasing revenues for both technology donors and receiver's
benefits with new and better products, processes, and services that lead to increased efficiency and effectiveness,
greater market share and increased profits.

Moreover technology transfer helps in earning rewards which is above and beyond the regular salary which is
received through patents, licenses, and other technology transfer awards which help in benefiting intellectually and
professionally through working collaboratively with their peers in the industrial sector.

DISADVANTAGES RELATED TO TECHNOLOGY TRANSFER

As technology transfer is keen or meant for the business oriented activity, hence forth there can be the chances to
have financial or commercial risk, as we are well aware that Licences can generate the income, but patent application
which are not licensed will only cost money.

Even when the transfer programme related to the technology transfer is successful or in particular after technology
transfer institutional tensions may arise within the organization which may be in between the recipient of licensing
income and those who know they will never make utilizable inventions. For the sake of remedy in those
circumstances Institutional policies can be made aiming to have partial rearrangement of income received by license
between all research groups but, using this strategy may not eradicate the problem rather in most of the cases
discoverer will be frustrated or disappointed because the income that they have earned is given to other groups.
Technology transfer activities may put researchers in conflict of interest situations, especially when the transfer
involves the creation of the spin- off company, hence Institutions should be aware of these possible dangers.

Moreover problem can be because of non performance of licensee. And may be the licensee has limited chances
beyond the license scope unless future enhancements to patent included in initial agreement and Unrealistic
expectations and demands from licensor.
L-5 UNIT-1

Role of Appropriate Technology in Transformation of Society ​Appropriate technology

is decentralized​. ​Advantages

Today, many of our basic needs are handled by huge, complex systems These systems are managed centrally
by large private corporations or the government. For example, our electricity typically comes from utility
companies that operate across many states. Similarly, many of the fruits and vegetables we consume come
from large-scale agricultural corporations. In contrast, with appropriate technology the person who produces
a service or a product also becomes the consumer - the person who uses it​. This has several advantages: For
one, consumer-producers are ​more likely to care more about their work. As a result, service and goods are
more reliable and of ​higher quality. Secondly, centralized systems remits invest a lot of money to purchase
large, ​complex machinery and to employ thousands of workers. Often these systems are disrupted due ​to
breakdowns in the technology, problems getting needed supplies, or labor strikes. When this ​happens a great
many people are affected. Breakdowns such as a power outage may also occur in ​communities that use
small-scale, appropriate technology. But these local breakdowns are not ​nearly so difficult and time
consuming to track down and repair as those that cover a broad ​geographic area. Thus, a simpler technology
tends to be more reliable, and the effects of breakdowns do not disrupt so many lives.

Technologically sophisticated, though simple in design.

It is important to realize that use of appropriate technology does not mean turning the clock back to the 18th
or 19th century. Although the technology involves simple, easy-to use and repair designs, it is based on
sophisticated, 20th-century technologies. One example is the invention of photovoltaic, or solar cells that
convert solar energy, a renewable energy source, into electricity for homes and businesses.

Environmentally friendly​.

Appropriate technology emphasizes the use of renewable resources, like the energy from the sun, ​wind, or
water. These energy sources are available almost everywhere and need only the right ​technology to capture
them. Unlike burning coal and oil, these local energy sources do not ​contribute to air and water pollution and
they do not need to be transported over long distances. ​Food, energy, water, and waste disposal are also
handled locally by ecological systems. These ​are systems that conserve resources by recycling organic
nutrients back into the soil and re-using ​manufactured goods in innovative ways. Thus, appropriate
technology makes it possible to ​satisfy our basic human needs while minimizing our impact on the
environment.

Social problems.
Many people are coming to realize that neither our economy nor our population can continue to grow
forever. We are running out of the natural resources necessary to sustain ourselves. In addition we are limited
in our ability to deal with the social and environmental problems that result from continuous growth. There
seems to be a growing dissatisfaction with the complexity and hectic lifestyle of 20th-century society. Many
people would prefer to return to a simpler way of life. Appropriate technology is attractive because it makes
households and industries more self-sufficient, and most things can be managed at a local level. We may
have to do more hand labor instead of depending on automation to satisfy our basic needs. However, there
are many advantages to simplifying our lives. By growing more of our own food and producing and buying
goods in our own communitites, we spend less time and money on transportation, produce less waste and
consume fewer environmental resources.

Artificial intelligence is probably the ​most important ​and ground-breaking trend in ​technology today​. ... The advent
of smart homes, smart cities, and the Internet Of Things means that AI will be integrated more ​ ​and more into our
everyday lives.

Disadvantages
Appropriate technology encompasses such a wide field that it is hard to describe the exact points of
weakness. ​One disadvantage of appropriate technology is that sometimes a ​solution simply does not
work as planned. Some solutions tried have failed because some ​factor was not considered or the
design did not work as planned​. Since it is a relatively new field of study, there is still much work that
needs to be done on the most effective way to apply the resources available in the area of need. What
might be very practical and cheap in one area of the world would be ridiculously expensive or not work
at all in another region. ​Also there is the problem of the different cultures within various countries.
One solution used for a village in Africa was found to be cultural repulsive to another ​village in the
same country. Therefore, appropriate technology takes tremendous study of ​the region’s climate,
resources, location, and people. ​There are also many cases that the long term effects are unknown​.
There are also the problems of a sustainable solution ​creating other problems. For example, a
micro-hydroelectric plant might be built in a ​remote village to provide the village with power. Each hut
would own its own battery that ​could be charged at the micro-hydro then be taken home to provide
power. Batteries, ​however, don’t last for an extremely long time and are filled with toxic materials.
What will ​happen with the batteries when they go bad? How will they be disposed of properly? These
are issues that designers have to deal with. [3]
Most appropriate technology applications are built for small scale use, that work well for ​small, remote
villages. But appropriate technological solutions pose more problems for ​large scale applications. Some
forms of sustainable resources are very expensive and not p​ractical for extensive use. Therefore, the
cost becomes much greater than current methods ​making it not as economically feasible. This is
especially true for countries that are already ​ ​technologically advanced.

Appropriate Technologies in the Globalized World:

By ​ieeessit ​on June 29th, 2017 in ​Commentary​,​ ​Human Impacts​,​ ​Magazine Articles​,​ ​Social
Implications of Technology​,​ ​Societal Impact

Capt. Jacques Viadoy, R.N., a National Guardsman with the Arizona Medical Detachment, applies fluoride treatment
to children during a medical clinic conducted for the residents of Maria Moseoso Espino in support of Beyond the
Horizon 2014 - Guatemala, Tuesday, May 27. Beyond the Horizon is a U.S. Army South led exercise that provides a
range of support to the region, including medical, dental, engineering, and humanitarian civic assistance. (U.S. Army
National Guard Photo by 1st Sgt. David A. Smith). U.S. Government photo.

Technological innovation over the past century has revolutionized our society’s ability to solve problems. A byproduct
of this movement is the advent of appropriate technology (AT), an approach to address challenges in the developing
world through creative and people focused product development. Appropriate technology recognizes that social,
environmental, cultural, political, and economic concerns are just as important as technical requirements in the design
of innovative products and services ​.​(14/9 B1) ​For example, Husk Power Systems converts rice husks into electric
power in rural areas of India’s poorest, most remote state . The success of Husk Power is as much in their
technological solution, as their consideration of socio-cultural realities in the design of their revenue model. Treadle
pumps, like those produced by KickStart, help farmers increase their cultivable land, extend their growing seasons,
improve their crop quality, and thus, augment their income. The driving force behind these technologies is a desire to
employ human-centered approaches to empower communities in addressing their own
economic, sociocultural, political, and environmental needs. Such technologies can improve the lives and livelihoods
of individuals living in resource-constrained environments in many ways, from improved access to food, water, and
healthcare to long-lasting shelter and employment opportunities .

There are many competing theories about what constitutes “appropriate” technology and how to define and balance
“people-centered” goals against other dimensions of sustainability. The challenge of defining “appropriate” technology
has been discussed at length in AT literature for decades. Despite some differences, this discussion has come to
some agreement on a core group of design tenets that span from the cultural (e.g., compliance with societal norms),
to the consumer (e.g., community ownership model), to the technological (e.g., environmental friendliness). How-ever,
the relevance and intended implications of the tenets have evolved with the gradual globalization of challenges,
resources, and economic systems. One of the most significant outcomes of globalization has been the rapid
proliferation of Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs), which have democratized the creation, access,
and utilization of knowledge. This knowledge, especially when melded with indigenous knowledge, enables
individuals and communities to pursue appropriate technology in more ways, co-creating solutions that can improve
their collective quality of life. This article suggests that instead of considering AT design tenets as rules for technology
development, they must be considered as a series of tradeoffs and systemic design decisions that are informed and
co-created by the specific communities and their context. Along with relevant real-world examples, this article
presents a series of thought-provoking questions that must be answered when engaging in the design of technology
solutions for resource
constrained environments.

Over the last decade, the Humanitarian Engineering and Social Entrepreneurship (HESE) Program at Penn State has
led technology-based social ventures in Kenya, Tanzania, Rwanda, India, Cameroon, and other countries. Through
approximately thirty different projects, we have found that AT solutions are too nuanced to be generalized across
contexts, cultures, and specific desired out-comes. Though all aspiring AT projects have the same overall goal of
improving the lives of resource-constrained communities, they operate in different environments to address dissimilar
problems. For instance, a company attempting to provide electricity to rural Indian villages need not adhere to the
same tenets as a group helping a community reconstruct a water reservoir in Kenya, or a venture commercializing
affordable food dryers in Nicaragua. We argue against the application of rigid tenets and design principles and
encourage innovators to adopt a systems approach when developing new technologies. We ask the entire community
engaged in appropriate technology – innovators, educators, students, entrepreneurs – to consider how we all should
really be designing such technologies. To what end, and by what means, should this movement progress?

Questions on Appropriate Technology ​Should we Design Technologies

for Aid or for Trade?

There is considerable discourse in the development community over the usefulness of foreign aid. Over the past 50
years, more than two trillion dollars in foreign relief have been transferred to Africa. Paradoxically, Africa has a lower
real per capita income today than it did before this aid began . The “Marshall Plan for Africa” has not worked, but
why? And what does this tell us about the appropriate circumstances for foreign aid? Despite best efforts, aid
distribution within the current infrastructure of developing nations is often more about the politics of the deliverers than
the economic and social needs of the recipients . Arguably, such aid-based models of development lead to
inefficiencies and waste in the entire system. For instance, foreign aid agencies donate millions of dollars to
developing countries to combat malaria by distributing free insecticide-treated mosquito nets, but these programs
have efficiencies comparable to programs that espouse cost-sharing with customers

Aid distribution is often more about the politics of the deliverers than the economic and social needs of the
recipients.
Should we be donating products when cost-sharing with recipients is just as effective and has the added advantage
of fostering a sense of ownership? What else can we do to lower wastage? One way of combating foreign aid waste
is to invest the funds in local programs that catalyze more opportunities for employment and self-empowerment. For
instance, foreign donations could enable micro-lending for small businesses or financing for public goods like
infrastructure development projects. Instead of donating mosquito nets, foreign aid might invest in social ventures like
NetMark, a company that builds facilities and trains local residents to manufacture low-cost mosquito nets for the local
market. The “aid versus trade” question is important because of the customer-consumer relationship. When foreign
entities donate to non-profits or developing-nation governments, they separate the customers (NGOs and
governments) from the consumers (people: end beneficiaries). When customers don’t understand, or don’t articulate,
the needs of the population correctly, the resulting solutions are likely to fail. This phenomenon is less likely in
market-based ventures like NetMark, where the customer and consumer are one and the same and the feedback
systems are fast and effective.

Alongside the aid vs. trade debate, we must remember that a major application of foreign aid is in short term
humanitarian relief. For instance, disaster relief funding can be necessary for countries and communities to address
immediate, short-term challenges and avoid further danger . In the wake of catastrophic natural disasters, devastated
communities cannot rely solely on market-based or locally developed improvements. However, the consequences of
tragedies (and potentially the causes, in anthropogenic cases) can be mitigated by building resilient systems through
effective long-term planning. Disaster aid is certainly necessary in some instances, but it should not last so long that it
weakens the society’s economy and perpetuates its dependence on foreign donors.

Should Technology Solutions Leverage Western or Indigenous Knowledge?

Technology carries with it certain knowledge, perspectives, and lifestyle concepts. Traditionally, AT theorists
differentiated these concepts into “indigenous” (local traditions and understandings often passed down through
generations) and “Western” (positivist and scientifically-derived information, often from the developed world). Often,
external technologies will challenge local traditions and champion a Western perspective. New ideas can help
catalyze change and generate appropriate solutions that meld Western and indigenous knowledge. However,
excessive deviations from indigenous perspectives often lead to the failure of AT projects. In principle, ATs should
leverage both Western and indigenous knowledge – but how can they be balanced?

One example of such a balance is KickStart’s manual treadle pump, which allows communities to access clean water
quickly and easily. The initial design of the treadle pump caused women to move their hips in a provocative manner,
leading many communities to reject it. Subsequently, indigenous perspectives and knowledge informed the redesign
the pump’s pedal geometry in order to satisfy the communities’ cultural norms and expectations. Sustainable Health
Enterprises (SHE) in Uganda took on the problem of young women missing school due to lack of sanitary pads during
menstruation. SHE adopted a more Western perspective, advocating against this status quo by making sanitary pads
affordable and accessible to schoolgirls. They leveraged indigenous knowledge to make pads from eco-friendly
natural materials like banana bark and employed traditional cooperative business structures to integrate this product
into the local marketplace. They successfully improved the girls’ school attendance while augmenting livelihoods and
stimulating the local economy .

Is a Technology Appropriate if it Violates Cultural Norms?

New technologies often clash with local cultures. This could be unavoidable, as with ubiquitous technologies such as
the Internet, or unintentional, like the treadle pumps that did not consider local cultural sensitivities. Even when
ventures try to mitigate both these possibilities, achieving harmony with local cultures can be difficult . For example,
cell phones inherently compromise cultural traditions and face-to-face conversations in rural areas. On one hand, we
can blame cellphones for the destruction of traditional culture. At the same time, cellphones have enhanced the lives
and livelihoods of billions of
people, who have readily accepted the technology and adapted their cultures accordingly. Culture is dynamic and
should not be museumified (​Dismantling stereotypes and celebrating differences) ​either.

Should we be donating products when cost sharing with recipients is just as effective and has the added
advantage of fostering a sense of ownership?

Instead of outsiders dictating a specific definition of cultural preservation, local residents should be empowered to
choose the life they want. On one hand, the evolution of culture may be secondary to basic survival and an improved
quality of life. Conversely, technology should not force a community to lose an identity it wishes to preserve. When
foreign breakfast cereals were introduced in Kenya, their popularity among expatriates threatened the traditional
Kenyan breakfast industry. This was true even though the foreign cereals had a higher cost per nutrient ratio than that
of the traditional diet. The loss of traditional food habits did not improve community nutrition but instead worsened it .
Culture is a dynamic entity and technology-driven social development is a valid basis for cultural evolution. Outside
innovators can introduce game-changers and culture-changers, as long as the users maintain their right to determine
which technologies and cultural artifacts they want to adopt and which ones they want to discard

Should at Products be Localized for a Specific Region or Standardized for a Larger

Population?
One of the most crucial design decisions for an AT venture is whether to standardize or localize a particular product.
Standardization means delivering the same product across cultural and geographical markets, while localization
treats each community as a “cultural being” and designs for specific needs and behaviors [14]. Standardization
engenders reliability, quality control, and cost-effectiveness, and thus enables greater customer access. Localization
ensures that the needs and preferences of specific communities (market segments) are met. However, it also implies
dozens of variations, higher upfront design costs, and higher price points that could ultimately render the product
unaffordable.

At the height of the appropriate technology movement in the 1980s, ATI developed a sunflower oil press designed
specifically for small communities. The press was efficient and fit perfectly in the community. However, at a cost of
nearly $200, it was too expensive for the target users. .Nearly a decade later, KickStart developed a cooking oil press
that costs less than $30 and has helped over a million people [15]. Their success can be attributed to standardizing
and producing one specific product instead of several locally-attuned versions. Even if a venture accepts the benefits
of standardization at the manufacturing level, implementation may not be possible without localization. For example,
while the design of a basic mudbrick press might be standardized, the entire mudbrick building system must adapt to
dissimilar climates and soils in different parts of the world. Localization in high rainfall areas might involve stabilizing
the bricks with a mud-cement mixture, despite the additional cost in terms of press maintenance and design. In this
case, the product (press) might be standardized while the educational regimen is customized to the specific context.
Clearly, there are many shades of grey within the standardization versus localization decision for technology
ventures, but an ideal medium is often possible.

Should Technologies Rely on Local Materials and Manufacturing Operations?

Local production comes with many social, economic, and environmental trade-offs for appropriate technology
ventures. How important are profit, people, and planet to each AT venture? Profitable ventures are more likely to
scale and deliver their technologies to more people. However, if such a venture employs destructive manufacturing
practices, is the benefit of reaching more people worth the collateral cost? Local manufacturing for local markets with
locally available raw materials can lead to resilient businesses that can quickly respond to the evolving needs of
communities. At the same time, other social ventures insist that using local manufacturing and resources
compromises their business
models and cost effectiveness. For example, KickStart treadle pumps and irrigation systems are manufactured in
China due to cost restrictions [16]. Similarly, biomedical ventures like ClickMedix face cost and quality control barriers
when trying to manufacture locally [17]. Despite the additional transportation and logistics fees, outsourcing is
sometimes necessary to maintain economic sustainability. In situations like these, the venture must accept that all
development goals cannot be achieved simultaneously. Foreign manufacturing usually means fewer jobs and
relatively less economic empowerment for local residents. It may also lead to negative environmental outcomes due
to industrial manufacturing and international shipping. On the other hand, developers may be able to make foreign
production “greener” than local alternatives, for instance, by utilizing more expansive material options, recycling
facilities, and energy infrastructure.

What happens when imported products malfunction? Are tools, replacement parts, and skills available to easily repair
the product? Lack of technicians to maintain and repair expensive biomedical equipment aggravates healthcare
challenges in Africa [18]. On the other hand, although cellphones are not designed or manufactured on the African
continent, ecosystems have emerged to support them and accelerate their adoption. Thousands of cellphone repair
technicians, most with little formal education, eke out a living repairing commonly-used cellphones. The key question
is whether the technology is sustainable in the long term despite being manufactured elsewhere.

Should Technologies be Designed for Individual or Community Ownership?​Often, external

technologies will challenge local traditions and champion a western perspective.

Though the local community can implement, and benefit from, water reservoirs, schools, bridges and similar
infrastructure projects, community ownership of certain technologies is not practical. For example, large greenhouses
can be used and shared by communities by allowing individuals some level of access. This allows users to pool
resources and afford expensive technologies while enhancing the value derived from them. However, the exact
nature of that shared ownership can be difficult to negotiate and control. How is space within the greenhouse
allocated? Who can receive the crops grown within it? How will maintenance and repair requirements be handled?
How are theft and destruction prevented? Who ensures that rules are followed? To achieve equitable group
ownership, the community must build on trusted relationships to clearly define and regulate the operational model that
serves the needs of the diverse stakeholders.

This need for trust is evident in the business model of Husk Power Systems (HPS), a rural electrification company in
India. The company uses renewable energy sources to produce and supply electricity on a per diem basis at a low
cost. User accountability is sourced through community monitoring: people’s homes are open and everyone can see
what appliances are being run. Neighbors are billed together, so everyone watches one another to ensure they are
each paying for what they use [2].

In short, there are many issues to consider when deciding what level of community involvement a venture should
pursue. More expensive technologies may require the pooled resources of multiple households. Highly
location-dependent ventures, such as infrastructure projects and healthcare services, might benefit from a
participatory approach that directly involves the community in venture development. Tight-knit, open-home
communities accustomed to central management or cooperatives will likely be a better fit for community ownership
than a more individualist culture with single-family homes and self-contained technologies. At the same time, some of
the most successful technologies like cellphones, solar lanterns, and radios are designed for individual or family use.

Must ATs Always Strive for the Cheapest Solution?

Though AT often tries to maximize cost efficiency, the least expensive solution cannot always be assumed to be the
most desirable in resource-constrained environments. AT theory must accept that additional expenses may be
required to meet the emotional and societal needs of the end-users. Basic
designs for greenhouses in developing countries are often based exclusively on efficient function; however, consumer
buying is not always predicated this way. We have initiated greenhouse ventures in Kenya and Cameroon that
manufacture and install affordable greenhouses for local smallholders and agro-businesses. While developing
low-cost substitutes for greenhouse glazing (plastic covering), we discovered that several farmers preferred taking
larger loans to buy glazing that looked “pretty” rather than equally-functional but not as good looking glazing made
from used rice bags. Though not based on function or direct economic returns, this superficial distinction is important
to the customers and must be respected by technology developers. Similar circumstances arise when customers
prefer expensive “brand-name” products that do not differ in quality from generic versions-a phenomenon found
among all socioeconomic classes [19]. Poor people expect good-quality products and are often willing to pay more
for aspirational products that boost their social status.

Is a Technology Appropriate if it Benefits Some People but Hurts Others?

Technology solutions may inadvertently, or deliberately, help some entities while hurting others. Is a technology
inappropriate if the livelihoods of certain groups are compromised? For example, a venture that provides people with
safe drinking water at low costs can benefit many people. However, it might reduce the profits of bottled water and
soda companies, or compromise the livelihoods of water vendors or racketeers. Similar challenges arise in food value
chains and supply chains for all kinds of products. Customers may prefer to purchase a solar oven and make their
own food instead of frequenting a street vendor. Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs), especially
cellphones, can make supply chains more equitable and efficient, but do so by eliminating middlemen.

Ultimately, technologies will affect different people in different ways, and some may view the consequences as
negative. However, developers must avoid engaging in cultural imperialism and applying their own definition of
negative (or positive) impact to the situation. A technology solution is merely a tool: the customers and communities
should be able to decide whether they want to adopt the technology or not. Societies can address the needs of those
who are negatively impacted in many ways –
by teaching them how to leverage the same technology, through re-education or re-skilling programs, or by
innovating to find new opportunities for value creation. A technology that negatively affects a certain subset of the
population could actually serve as an impetus to increase human capital and systemic efficiency by encouraging the
displaced workers to thrive in another field.

Should Labor-Intensive Tasks be Replaced with Automated Systems? ​Technology should not

force a community to lose an identity it wishes to preserve.

Technological advancements in manufacturing and automation have historically led to periods of lower employment,
as evidenced by the Western industrial revolution [20]. When implementing technology solutions, developers must
consider any effects their ventures may have on the workforce. Some technologies increase workers’ efficiency and
productivity, while others might eliminate job functions and displace workers. Are laborsaving technologies
appropriate for populations already riddled with unemployment and underemployment?

Mass automation is a clearly logical choice in some situations. For instance, when communities suffer from
inadequate food supply, mass automation of food may be essential to its very survival. Such is the case with injera,
the traditional bread of Ethiopia, whose traditional recipe is energy and labor-intensive. Fuel costs have increased
with desertification, directly leading to the high cost of injera in rural areas. At the same time, the rapidly increasing
urban populations living in small quarters do not have the necessary space to make injera. Due to these and other
reasons, the consumption of wheat (bread) and rice has increased in rural and urban populations alike. In this case,
mass-manufacturing injera in factories is much more efficient and provides the people a way to preserve the most
important part of their diet and culture. Although certain technologies can reduce employment and hurt livelihoods,
their integration into modern economies is potentially desirable and often inevitable.
Should Technologies be Deskilled to Allow More People to use Them?

A primary characteristic of modern technology is attempting to deskill operation: allow anyone to operate devices with
little outside instruction. Deskilling increases the potential customer base of the product while decreasing
complications that arise due to misuse. At the same time, it can foster dependency and not actually address all the
systemic issues faced by users. For example, in India, cellphone companies are devoting significant resources to
services like mobile money transfers that allow rural populations to easily transfer money for goods and services.
However, many less educated users lack the trust and self
confidence to use the service by themselves. Instead, they go to a local agent for the transaction. In this case, the
extra effort to simplify the application for end-users is not needed.

In healthcare, direct-to-consumer technologies have tried to deskill and promote self-medication. Biomedical devices
like glucose monitors, scales, and thermometers are marketed to individual consumers. However, the usefulness of
certain tests and the implications of their results are often difficult to convey to less-educated users. An example of
this would be over-the-counter HIV tests that can be completed in the privacy of one’s home. The device is a
technological improvement, but the educational and medical information needed after an HIV diagnosis, whether
positive or negative, is not readily accessible to individuals. Therefore, many patients still go to testing centers for
assistance. A more appropriate approach to this system might involve increasing Community Health Workers’ access
to these devices and the necessary post-diagnosis educational material. This paradigm would refocus efforts away
from deskilling, more towards the entire pre- and post-diagnosis user experience. Technology developers must look
beyond developing the specific technology to incorporate systems-level issues into the design process. They need to
consider who will be using the device, what their educational level will be, and what situations the technology could
precipitate.

Should Low Technology Products be Emphasized Over High Technology Products?

“Low technology” involves skills predating the industrial revolution, which are often the only options readily available
and sustainable within the existing infrastructure of developing communities. In contrast, “high technology” products
exhibit complexity in the product itself, its manufacturing process, and the enabling infrastructure necessary to
operate and sustain it. Sometimes, fiboth high and low technology alternatives can be employed to address the same
problem. For instance, nearly 2.1 million people die each year from vaccine preventable diseases, often because the
vaccines cannot be transported without refrigeration [21]. Social enterprises like Nanoly are developing
nanotechnology polymers to create heat
resistant vaccines [22]. At the same time, low-tech products like a refrigeration flask that provides 24 hours of
refrigeration after being heated for 30 minutes are also being developed. However, even this low technology shows
that the high-low dichotomy is not as strict as it seems, because the flask is based on the results of complex
computational fluid dynamics simulations [23].

High-tech solutions can lead to simple low-tech products that are more likely to be sustainable in
low-resource contexts.

In other words, high-tech solutions can lead to simple low-tech products that are more likely to be sustainable in
low-resource contexts. At the same time, leapfrogging technologies like cell phones and solar power systems might
present viable and highly-scalable solutions. Rather than building and maintaining roads across the African continent,
low-cost airlines might be a more practical and cost
effective solution. Further, an extremely high-tech endeavor has the potential to transform into a ubiquitous
technology. GPS navigation systems, developed for military and aeronautic operations at the cost of billions of
dollars, are easily affordable and find applications in a variety of poverty alleviation endeavors. GPS devices are as
excellent example of a high technology that has become so ubiquitous that people don’t regard it as high-tech
anymore.

Is it More Important for Technologies to be Affordable or Durable?

Engineers sometimes face a conflict between minimalist, low-maintenance, short-term solutions and more complex,
expensive, but long-lasting ones. These decisions need to be informed and tempered by consumer expectations,
socioeconomic conditions, access to capital, and cultural preferences, among other factors. Do consumers want an
inexpensive device that must be replaced every year or a more expensive device that will last longer but that requires
repairs? Are the resources needed for repairs available? Is it easy to acquire a loan for a longer-lasting product or is it
easier to continually save money for consumable items?

One way of balancing repair needs versus lifecycle is to incorporate maintenance requirements directly into the core
of the social venture. SELCO, a social enterprise in India, provides personalized solar power systems for customers
with routine maintenance integrated into product costs [24]. While the initial costs may be higher, this approach
ensures that the solar systems are maintained by trained technicians and continue to meet the needs of customers.
Other social enterprises develop their technology under a “do
it-yourself” methodology to encourage end-users to understand the product and take responsibility for maintenance.
The challenge is that required tools are not available in many areas and do-it-yourself culture is not as common in
developing communities, especially for more expensive products. Another approach is to implement consumable
solutions, such as the disposable, point-of-use water filters being used in several developing countries [25].
Pay-for-use business models, where customers only pay for product usage (e.g., paying for power rather than a solar
panel) alleviate the challenge of access to capital and essentially side-step the affordability/durability debate.

Should we Promote Economically-Beneficial Technologies that Hurt the Environment?

Although eco-friendly technologies and manufacturing processes are preferred, they can be too expensive and hence
unaffordable to people in developing countries. For example, in Kenya, entrepreneurs use car batteries to operate
small businesses that recharge cell phones, power street telephone businesses, or entertainment centers offering TV
viewing services. Car batteries are environmentally toxic but are essential for these small businesses to survive.
Without the batteries, these individuals would likely be relegated to subsistence farming or the unreliable ad hoc labor
market. Instead, they are using environmentally-toxic technology to improve their livelihoods. Ideally, car batteries
could be replaced by solar or other renewable energy sources, but these technologies are often too expensive to be
viable. Also, improved livelihoods engender a respect for the natural world and thoughtful use of resources.

Another option for environmentally-conscious ventures is reusing detrimental materials in benign ways. For instance,
some entrepreneurs embrace the inability of plastics to biodegrade by incorporating them into longer-lasting
structures. Entrepreneurs in Lesotho are using plastic bottles to make mini-green houses for individuals that cannot
afford traditional greenhouses [26]. The bottles have already been used and discarded from their original purpose, so
reusing them in the greenhouses (which need some sort of clear plastic-like material to function) is actually a
relatively benign approach for creating social good. The key point in these situations is that technology products may
benefit from resources that are not environmentally benign. While it is best if the toxic materials are recycled for these
applications, ventures must decide for themselves if they can accept environmentally toxic resources as unfortunate
byproducts to the social value created. In any instance, developers should comply with local policies and endeavor to
find cradle-to-cradle solutions for their products.

Appropriateness and Tradeoffs

As the pursuit of appropriate technology continues, the theory and tenets for its appropriateness will no doubt
continue to develop. However, innovators must realize that all of these tenets are in fact tradeoffs – questions that
each technology venture and set of stakeholders must answer for themselves. These engineering design and
implementation questions span the spectrum from cultural to financial to manufacturing and capital issues. The
answers must be tailored to the context of the problem, the desired
solution, the appropriate business strategy, and the preferences of the stakeholders. To ensure that a technology
achieves economic, social, environmental, and technological sustainability, developers must engage in open
discussions with local partners. Communities should have a voice in these decisions to ensure that the designs meet
their needs and result in a self-determined improvement of livelihoods and agency. However, engaging the
community in every single aspect of the venture can lead to expectations and ownership, which although desirable,
have the potential to negatively impact the success of the venture and limit its scalability [27].

Beyond all the systemic design and implementation tradeoffs is the fundamental question upon which all the others
rest – should outsiders create solutions for the developing world? Why is the appropriate technology movement trying
to develop these solutions? What if it hurts the cultures and countries instead of helping them? One answer is to
consider Humanitarian Engineering a new wave of cultural imperialism: the West is trying a new mechanism of
imposing its ideal worldview on poor countries. This is a valid viewpoint and perhaps true for some. An alternate
perspective, and one that we prefer, is to think of AT as an exercise in co-creation. If we espouse the principles of
empathy, equity, and ecosystems when we engage with people across the world, the distance between “us” and
“them” vanishes. As illustrated in this article, we live in an interconnected world with complicated problems, dwindling
resources, and shared solutions. It is imperative to break down the barriers between our disciplines, cultures, and
epistemologies to find practical, innovative and sustainable solutions. A few ventures will be successful while many
will fail. Cultures are robust enough to survive our spectacular failures while the world is waiting to celebrate and
adopt the successful game-changers that improve the human condition.

Authors
Samir Patel

Siri Maley

Khanjan Mehta
Full article:

http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/stamp.jsp?tp=&arnumber=6763244​ ​Tags: ​APPROPRIATE

​ EVELOPING WORLD​, H
TECHNOLOGIES​, D ​ UMANITARIAN ENGINEERING​, M
​ ARCH 2014
Here are the key trends that will shape the E&U industry.
Energy Storage Will Disrupt Consumption Patterns. ...
Renewable Energy Will Take Center Stage. ...

Self-generating Communities Will Flourish. ...

Digitization Will Fuel Sharing Economies. ...

More Power to the Customer. ...

Adoption of Outcome-based Regulatory Structures Will Increase.

 1. ENERGY AND HUMAN WELL-BEING

Human well-being is a difficult concept to quantify. Many attempts have been made
in that direction the most obvious of them being the use of gross domestic product (GDP)
per capita as an indicator. The shortcomings of such approach are well known and for this
reason the HDI (Human Development Index) has been conceived as a composite of

• longevity – measured by life expectancy

• knowledge – measured by a combination of adult literacy (two-thirds weight)
and mean years of schooling (one-third weight); and
• standard of living – measured by purchasing power, based on real GDP per
capita adjusted for the local cost of living (purchasing power parity – PPP).

A rough idea of the relevance of energy to well being can be gained by plotting HDI
as a function of per capita (commercial + non-commercial) energy consumption per year
for a large number of countries, as shown in Figure 1.

Figure 1 HDI versus annual primary energy

consumption (commercial + non-commercial
per capita.

It is apparent from this figure that, for an energy consumption above 1 ton of oil
equivalent (toe)/capita per year, the value of HDI is higher than 0.8 and essentially constant
for all countries. One toe/capita/year∗ seems, therefore, the minimum energy needed to
guarantee an acceptable level of living as measured by the HDI, despite many variations of
consumption patterns and lifestyles across countries.

The statistical analysis presented above shows clearly that energy has a determinant
influence on the HDI, particularly in the early stages of development in which are presently

∗
1 toe/year = 1.3kW
the vast majority of the world’s people, particularly women and children. It also shows that
the influence of per capita energy consumption on the HDI begins to decline somewhere
between 1 and 3 toe per inhabitant. Thereafter, even with a tripling in energy consumption,
the HDI does not increase. Thus, from approximately 1 toe per capita, the strong positive
covariance of energy consumption with HDI starts to diminish. Additional increases in HDI
are more closely correlated to the other variables chosen to define it (life expectancy,
educational level, and per capita income).

A serious problem with such analysis resides on the fact that commercial and non-
commercial energy consumption are related in a complex way to the energy services that
energy offers, which in households include illumination, cooked food, comfortable indoor
temperatures, refrigeration and transportation. Energy services are also required for
virtually every commercial and industrial activity. For instance, heating and cooling are
needed for many industrial processes, motive power is needed for agriculture and electricity
is needed for telecommunications and electronics.

The energy chain that delivers theses services begin with the collection or extraction
of primary energy, that in one or several steps, maybe converted into energy carriers, such
as electricity or diesel oil, that are suitable for end uses. Energy end-use equipment –
stoves, light bulbs, vehicles, machinery – converts final energy into useful energy, which
provides the desired benefits the energy services. An example of an energy chain –
beginning with coal extraction from a mine (primary energy) and ending with produced
steel as an energy service – is shown in figure 2.

Figure 2. An example of the energy chain, from primary energy to

services

Energy services are the result of a combination of various technologies,

infrastructure (capital), labor (know-how) materials and primary energy. Each of these
inputs carries a price tag and they are partly substitutable for one another. From the
consumer’s perspective, the important issues are the economic value or utility derived from
the services. Consumers are often unaware of the upstream activities required to produce
energy services.

Despite these caveats, the value of 1 toe/capita/year of primary energy consumption

as an indicator of well being can be obtained less empirically using the Latin American
World Model proposed by the Bariloche Foundation several decades ago.

The Bariloche study explores possible physical limits to establishing a society in

which basic human needs are satisfied and, on the basis of a simple econometric model,
investigates the possibility of doing so with current economic resources.

The target levels assumed in the Latin American World Model are:
• 3000 kcal and 100 grams of protein per person per day;
• one house (50 square meters of living area) per family; and
• 12 years of basic education (i.e., school enrolment of all children between 6 and
17 years).

The quantitative definition of a representative package of basic human needs is

difficult for various reasons. For one, basic needs vary with climate, culture region, period
in time, age and sex. For another, there is not a single level of basic needs but a hierarchy.
There are needs, such as a minimum of food, shelter and protection from fatal diseases, that
have to be met for survival. Satisfaction of higher-level needs such as basic education make
productive survival possible. Top-level needs such as travel and leisure arise when people
try to improve their quality of life beyond productive survival. Obviously, needs perceived
as basic vary according to living conditions in any given society. Despite the difficulties
involved in defining and ranking human needs, the three quantitative measures considered
in the Latin American World Model may be regarded as a basic core for productive
survival.
 The final result of the Latin American World Model is the GNP per capita needed to
satisfy basic human needs: this monetary income has been converted to commercial energy
units using appropriate elasticity coefficients for the sectors considered. Thus the amount of
commercial energy needed to satisfy basic human needs is obtained.

It is well known, however, that a large number of people in rural areas in developing
countries do not have access to commercial energy due to lack of purchasing power or
other reasons. These people depend for survival on non-commercial energy sources,
principally firewood, dung and agricultural wastes, which they gather at a negligible
monetary cost. In many developing countries, non-commercial energy accounts for a
significant proportion of total primary energy consumption and 7.5 x 103 kcal/day per
capita is considered to be a representative figure.

Adding this number to the cost of commercial energy to meet basic needs yields the
total energy cost of satisfying basic human needs which, as shown in table 3.2, ranges
between 27.8 x 103 and 36.4 x 103 kcal/day per capita, i.e., between 1.0 and 1.3 toe/capita.

Table I - Basic needs: per capita energy consumption

Region Year Commercial Non-commercial Total energy

energy (kcal/day) energy (kcal/day)
(kcal/day)
Latin America 1992 24.2 x 103 7.5 x 103 31.7 x 103
3
Africa 2008 20.3 x 10 7.5 x 103 27.8 x 103
3
Asia 2020 28.9 x 10 7.5 x 103 36.4 x 103

Source: Krugman, H and Goldemberg, J. “The Energy Cost of Satisfying Basic Human Needs”
Technological Forecasting and Social Change, 24, 45-60 (1983).

Basic human needs might be met by a primary energy amount of approximately 1

toe/capita/year, but it is obvious that the idea of “well being” goes beyond that.

One very interesting study has tried to approach the problem starting from the
assumption that the standard of living of the Western Europe, Japan, Australia and New
Zealand in the mid 1970s could be considered satisfactory and the immense population
living in developing countries would be very well off it had access to the services be
available to the people of the above mentioned countries.

The activity levels in these countries in the mid 1970s are given in Appendix I and
are basically the following:
• a renewable solid house with 25 m2 per capita;
• water supplies and sanitation;
• clean easy-to-use cooking fuel (gas, for example);
• electrical lighting.

In other words, all families in the model above, on average, live in reasonably solid
houses with about 25 m2 per capita and water supplies and sanitation. Further, all homes
would have a clean, easy-to-use cooking fuel (for example, gas), are illuminated with
electric lights, and all the basic electric appliances – a refrigerator/freezer, a water heater, a
clothes washer and a television set.

There is also one automobile for every 1.2 households on average, and the average
person travels by air to the extent of 350 km per year. All this cannot be sustained without
well-developed industries for the processing of basic materials and large services sector –
hence, it is visualized that this infrastructure has been established and is in operation.

It is clear that these activity levels are more than sufficient to meet the basic needs
of the population; in fact, they go very much farther to provide for major improvements in
the quality of life.

Let’s suppose now that most of these energy-utilizing technologies that are
envisaged the above activities are example of the “best available” technologies in terms of
their energy performance - for example, the most energy-efficient stoves, water-heaters,
refrigerators/freezers, light bulbs, commercial buildings, cement plants, paper mills,
nitrogen fertilizer plants. Because these technologies are available on the market they can
be considered to be economically viable at present energy prices. A few of the indicated
technologies are “advanced technologies” that could be commercialized over the next
decade – hence, they are not contingent on the achievement of technological breakthroughs.
Indications are that these technologies would be cost-effective at present energy prices.

One can then multiply each activity level by the corresponding specific energy
demand, that is, the energy demand for unit level of the activity, and then sum up all the
activities.

It turns out that, roughly speaking, the total final energy demand for the countries
mentioned above, assumed activity levels and the menu of energy-efficient technologies is
only about 1 toe per capita. This is both a surprising and remarkable result, because this
level of final per capita energy use is only about 20 percent more than the actual per capita
energy use rate in developing countries in 1980. The interesting implication of this result is
that with 1 toe per capita of energy, developing countries can provide any standard of life
ranging from the present low level (in which even basic human needs are not satisfied), to a
level as high as in the Western Europe region in the mid and late 1970s for the majority of
the population.

It is possible thus to achieve the large improvements in living standards without

increasing energy use, in part because enormous increases in energy efficiency arise simply
by shifting from traditional, inefficiently used, non-commercial fuels (which at present
account for nearly half of all energy use in developing countries) to modern energy carriers
(electricity, liquid and gaseous fuels, processed solid fuels, etc.).

The importance of the efficient use of primary energy use and the effect of
modernizing energy supplies can be gauged by comparing direct energy use in rural and
energy areas. An example is shown in Figure 3, which gives per capita energy consumption
as a function with income in rural and urban area.

Figure 3 comparison of rural and urban per capita

energy use in India versus per capita income
 The somewhat surprising result is that the curve for rural areas is usually above the
corresponding curve for urban areas. This means that, for any given income/expenditure,
the per capita consumption of direct energy is higher in rural areas than in cities.

The reason for this result is simple: cooking is a major end-use of domestic energy
in developing countries; the use of biomass, particularly fuelwood as a cooking fuel is far
more common in rural areas; and this non-commercial energy is used at low efficiencies in
fuelwood stoves. The tendency in cities is to shift to more efficient cooking fuels, often in
this sequence: fuelwood to charcoal to kerosene to LPG. And the fuel efficiencies, with
current technologies, are in the same sequence. Basically, the same type of effect takes
place in the case of lighting too, because the percentage of kerosene-illuminated houses is
higher in rural areas, and the tendency in cities is to shift to more efficient electric
illumination. Thus, the lower urban energy consumption for a given income level
corresponds to greater efficiencies and a better quality of life for urban households.

More generally speaking, the problem is evidenced by the way different energy
sources are used as income increases in Brazil. As shown in Figure 4, households with low
income rely almost entirely on fuelwood, which is used mainly for cooking in very
inefficient cooking stoves. As income increases, “modern” fuels such as electricity and
liquid fuels become dominant and higher income people not only have access to greater
amounts of primary energy but also use them in more efficient ways. Typically,
commercial energy is used with an efficiency of 25%, i.e., one quarter of the energy content
of commercial energy is converted into electricity or mechanical power used by people.
Non-commercial energy is commonly used for cooking with dismally low efficiencies
around 10%.

Figure 4 Average energy demand by income segment in Brazil, 1988

 Another positive impact of modernizing energy supplies and improving energy end-
use efficiency is the reduction of the burden on women and children.
One can finally ask how good a measure of well being – as measured by HDI – is
primary energy consumption

The response is given in Figure 5 where commercial plus non-commercial energy

use are taken into account. What is shown is this figure is the difference in rank, Δ ,
between HDI and energy consumption. If Δ < 0, the HDI rank is higher than the energy
rank and if Δ > 0 the opposite. As one can see, the correlation shows a considerable
“variance” which indicates that energy “per se” is a poor indicator of human well being and
that other factors such as climate, cultural patterns and living styles can be of considerable
importance. This is particularly so in developing countries. In industrialized countries the
correlation is better.

Figure 5 Energy use and HDI

2. HISTORICAL ACHIEVEMENTS AND LESSONS

The key to improving well-being without an inordinate increase in primary energy

consumption is the modernization and increased end-use efficiency in the use of fuels, and
transformation devices.

We will give here some examples of progresses achieved in the past.

A. Improvement of the Efficiency of the Use of Fuelwood

The basic problem of the use of fuelwood for cooking is its dismally low efficiency,
which converts only about 10 per cent of the energy contained in the fuelwood into useful
energy in the pot. Simple fireplaces are often dirty and dangerous: dirty because smoke and
soot settles on utensils, walls, ceiling and people; dangerous because the fire is open and
the pots can easily tip over. The smoke irritates and is a well-known danger to health.

With increasing affluence, people move from simple, primitive stoves using dung or
crop residues, to wood or charcoal used in metal or insulated stoves, and finally to propane,
liquid petroleum and electrical appliances, climbing an “energy ladder” which characterizes
cooking (Figure 6)

Figure 6 Efficiency of stoves with commercial and non-commercial fuels

Moving up the “ladder”, improvement in pollution reduction is dramatic: a gas stove

emits 50 times less pollutants and is 5 times more efficient than a primitive stove. With
higher efficiencies, capital costs also increase, posing severe problems for the very poor.
This is, however, the direction in which to move a large number of programs in Africa,
Asia and Central America that have been successful in disseminating many millions of
more efficient stoves used in rural areas and cities.

Experience has shown that very simple improvements to primitive cooking stoves
cost little and can improve their efficiency considerably. This is particularly the case for the
Kenya Ceramic Jiko (KCJ) stove, 700,000 of which are in use today in East Africa, as well
as some of its variants. Over 13,000 KCJ stoves are sold in Kenya each month.

Improvement of fuelwood cookstove programs succeeded in China, but not so well

in India. Jiko stoves, so successful in Kenya, did not fare well in Rwanda. The reason why
programs for dissemination of better stoves succeed in some countries and not in others is
difficult to understand, but seems to depend heavily on education and grassroot
involvement rather than government action alone.

The prospect for women’s education improves as the drudgery of their household
chores is reduced with the availability of efficient energy sources and devices for cooking
and of energy-utilizing technologies for the supply of water for domestic uses. The
deployment of energy for industries, which generate employment and income for women,
can also help delay the marriage age, another important determinant of fertility. If the use
of energy results in child-labour becoming unnecessary for crucial household tasks, an
important rationale for large families is eliminated. Thus, energy can contribute to a
reduction in the rate of population growth if it is directed preferentially towards the needs
of women, households and a healthy environment.

B. Mechanical power (from oxen to steam engine)

Table II gives an idea of chronological advances in power output available to men

since 3000 BC.

Table II Chronological advances in power output

Primer mover Date Output in horsepower (HP)

Man pushing a lever 3000 BC 0.05
Ox pulling a load 3000 BC 0.5
Water turbine 1000 BC 0.4
Vertical waterwheel 350 BC 3
Turret windmill 1600 AD 14
Savery’s steam pump 1697 AD 1
Newcommen’s steam engine 1712 AD 5.5
Watt’s steam engine (land) 1800 AD 40
Steam engine (marine) 1837 AD 750
Steam engine (marine) 1843 AD 1,500
Water turbine 1854 AD 800
Steam engine (marine) 1900 AD 8,000
Steam engine (land) 1900 AD 12,000
Steam turbine 1906 AD 17,500
Steam turbine 1921 AD 40,000
Steam turbine 1943 AD 288,0001,
Coal-fired steam power plant 1973 AD 1,465,000
Nuclear power plant 1974 AD 1,520,000
Source: Cook, E, Man, Energy, Society, WH Freeman and Co, San Francisco, US (1976).

The greatest advance was the steam engine developed by Watt, which opened the
way for an extraordinary increase in the efficiency of the energy contained in coal (or other
fuels) to mechanical power through a steam engine cycle. Figure 7 shows typical
improvements in efficiency since watt’s initial device.
 Figure 7 Efficiencies of steam engines

C. Improvements in electrical end-use devices

In the present century, we have wittnessed the emergence of refrigerators freezers,

air–conditioner, washing machines, and other domestics appliances which have improved
enormously the well-being of people, particularly relieving women from heavy domestics
chores.

One can obtain an idea of the typical progresses achieved in this area in Figure 8,
which gives the evolution in refrigerators’ consumption of a typical 200 liter refrigerator
with no freezer compartment. A reduction of a factor of 5 was obtained between 1973 and
1988 and further progress achieved since them. in refrigerators’ electricity consumption.

Figure 8 Efficiency of refrigerators

D. Improvements in lighting

More spectacular have been advances in obtaining lighting from electrical lamps.
Since the former days of Edison, some 100 years ago with incandescent filaments (wich
produced more heat than light), enormous progress was achieved and gains of a factor of
100 in lumens/watt obtained, as shown in figure 9.

Figure 9 Efficiency of lighting

 3. THE HUMAN DEVELOPMENT INDEX AND THE USE OF ENERGY

Even if energy is a poor indicator of human well-being and other factors can be of
considerable importance, there are some relevant correlations between the use of energy
and the HDI rank. Thus, considering the HDI rank and comparing the highest 10 HDI
countries to the lowest 10 HDI countries, some important features become apparent in the
use of energy by each group of countries:

• the share of commercial energy vs. traditional fuels;

• the path of energy intensity;
• the access to energy saving technologies.

10 highest HDI rank 10 lowest HDI rank

Canada Uganda
France Malawi
Norway Djibouti
United States Guinea-Bissau
Finland Gambia
Iceland Guinea
Japan Burundi
New Zealand Mali
Sweden Burkina Faso
Spain
Austria
Belgium

The use of commercial or traditional fuels is a distinguishable feature for its place in the
HDI ranking. Highest HDI countries use commercial energy, while lowest HDI countries
consume traditional fuels. As shown in figure 10, the share of commercial energy is in the
range of 97-100% in the 10 highest HDI countries and are in the range of 10-20% for most
of the 10 lowest HDI countries.
 Figure 10 HDI and energy use

The evolution in energy intensity in the period 1970-1995 shows the 10 highest HDI
countries following a decreasing path and the 10 lowest HDI countries in an increasing
path. Moreover, while the 10 highest HDI countries were successful decoupling energy
consumption and development, the 10 lowest HDI countries use more energy per GDP-PPP
unit using traditional fuels. Energy intensities for the 10 lowest HDI countries were
considered for the period 1973-1985 due to lack of consistency in data for the year 1995.
Figure 11 shows the energy intensity paths followed by the two group of countries.

Figure 11 Energy intensity

One major feature of the 10 lowest HDI countries is the use of traditional fuels as shown in
Table II.
Table II – Share of traditional fuels in lowest HDI countries
HDI value Country 1973 1985
0.340 Uganda 83% 92%
0.334 Malawi 87% 94%
0.295 Guinea-Bissau 72% 67%
0.291 Gâmbia 89% 78%
0.277 Guinea 69% 72%
0.241 Burundi 97% 95%
0.236 Mali 90% 88%
0.219 Burkina Faso 96% 92%
Sources: World Resources Institute (for traditional fuels); Human Development Report 1998.
The 10 highest HDI rank countries have each an efficient energy system. Such a system
was built through large investments in infrastructure and system components aiming at
reducing the energy use costs and improving the overall performance. Each of these
countries adopted energy efficiency measures through policies and programs, mainly since
the first oil shock (1973-1974). The evolution of energy use in some of the highest HDI
rank countries is shown in Figure 12, stressing the decoupling between energy consumption
and economic development.

Figure 12 Decoupling of energy

consumption and economic
development in highest HDI rank
countries

4. THE CONVERGENCE OF ENERGY CONSUMPTION PATTERNS

BETWEEN INDUSTRIALIZED AND DEVELOPMENT COUNTRIES

The evolution of the energy intensity is a useful reference to set up the path of
improvements or losses in the efficient use of energy. Moreover, for each country, it can
indicate changes in the economic structure and in the fuel mix. Energy intensity is the ratio
of total primary energy supply to GDP.

Important commonalities exist among the energy systems of rather different countries,
since energy use (E) and GDP per capita vary by more than order of magnitude when
comparing developing to industrialized countries, while energy intensity does not change
by more than a factor of 2. In addition, for developing countries are concerned, this
probably reflects the fact that “modern sector” of the economy dominates both E and GDP,
while the “traditional sector” contributes little to both.

Energy intensity (considering only commercial energy sources) declined in OECD

countries in the period 1971-1991 at a rate of roughly 1.4% per year. The main reasons for
that movement were efficiency improvements, structural change and fuel substitution.
However, in the developing countries the pattern has been more varied.
 The measure of the economic development usually employs market exchange rates to
convert each country’s GDP in U.S. dollars. In fact, the market exchange rate for a
currency often does not reflect that currency’s true purchasing power at home. A major
innovation has been the introduction of U.S. dollars using purchasing power parities (PPP)
to measure the GDP. The use of PPP-converted GDP made possible to determine a
common “market basket” of goods and services each currency can purchase locally,
including goods and services that are not traded internationally. In fact, from a PPP
perspective, the developing world’s share of economic activity is large than is reflected in
market-based exchange rates.

A recent study indicates that the energy intensity in the period 1971-1992 of developing
and industrialized countries is converging to a common pattern of energy use. For each
country, energy intensity was obtained as the ratio of commercial energy use to GDP
converted in terms of purchasing power parity (PPP). The path of energy intensity of a
country was given by the yearly sequence of energy intensity data over the period 1971-
1994. The same procedure was followed to have the energy intensity paths for a set of 18
industrialized countries and for one of 23 developing countries. The energy intensity data
for each of these subsets were given by the ratio of total commercial energy use to total
PPP-converted GDP for each group of countries at each year of the period 1971-1994
(Figure 10)

Figure 13 Energy Use/GDP

Energy use data for the 41 countries were gathered at the World Bank’s World
Development Indicators tables at the commercial energy use series over the period 1971-
1992 and given in 1000 t of oil equivalent. The PPP-converted GDP data for the 41
countries over the period 1971-1992 were obtained from the World Resource Institute
based on the Penn World Tables (PWT) and the World Bank’s World Development
Indicators. PPP-converted GDP data were initially obtained in current International
currency. Current data were, then, converted into constant (1992 US dollars) applying the
GDP implicit price deflator published by the US Department of Commerce, Bureau of
Economic Analysis (Survey of Current Business, July 1998).
UNIT-II L 4
Human Development Index and Energy Consumption

the vast majority of the world's people, particularly women and children. It also shows that ​the influence
of per capita ​energy consumption ​on the ​HDI ​begins to decline somewhere ​between 1 and 3 toe per
inhabitant. Thereafter, even with a tripling in ​energy consumption​, ​ ​the ​HDI ​does not increase.

Energising Human Development ​14 April 2016

By Dr Julia K Steinberger, Associate Professor in Ecological Economics, Sustainability Research
Institute, University of Leeds, United Kingdom.

Reducing the risk of climate change requires large and rapid reductions in greenhouse gas
emissions, most of which are caused by the burning of fossil energy sources (1). The debate around
emission reductions has been dominated by concern for economic growth, and its reliance on cheap
and plentiful energy. Instead, I believe energy’s role in achieving human development should be our
core priority.

The right to development effectively comes with a right to use some minimum level of energy, as
recognised in the ​United Nations Sustainable Energy 4 All ​initiative and ​Sustainable Development
Goal​7​. Because of the dependence of human
development on energy, it is crucially important to understand how to maximise human development
benefits at lower levels of energy use. This change in focus follows growing calls for a new research
and policy agenda focused on achieving well-being within environmental boundaries (2).

The graph below is based on my own analysis comparing the Human Development Index with per
capita energy use (3). Here we see a high correlation between lower energy and lower HDI: a small
increment of energy use corresponds to a relatively large increase in HDI (Figure 1). As energy use
increases, we witness what economists would call “diminishing returns” in human development
outcomes. And at higher energy use, there is no statistically significant dependency: the relationship
shows evidence of saturation (4). The best-fit curve shows high human development (HDI above
0.7) was attainable at 50 GJ of primary energy per person in 2012. However, some countries with
that level of energy use had already achieved very high human development (HDI above 0.8), while
energy use above 100 GJ is well into the saturation area: many countries with lower energy achieve
very high human development (5). For context, in 2012, the EU28 used 145 GJ/person, the USA
305, China 96, Brazil 63 and India 29. In fact, the energy associated with human development
decreases significantly over time: in 1975 high human development required on average 100
GJ/person, and this almost halved by 2005 to 60 GJ/person (6). To explore this data, visit ​William
Lamb’s interactive graphics ​ ​website​.

Figure 1: Human Development Index and primary energy use per capita in 2012.

It’s clear from the steepness of the fit curve in Figure 1 that it is far more “efficient” in human
development terms to use energy in least developed countries, and far less efficient in highly
developed countries (7). This effect is so extreme that if we redistributed all the energy in our 135
country sample to an average of 85 GJ/person, the average HDI would increase from 0.68 to 0.78: a
leap of 0.1, to right below the “very high development” level. We can also measure the efficiency of
countries at given energy levels, using “residuals” (8): the distance a country is located above or
below the fit curve (​see attached spreadsheet​)​. Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, Switzerland and Ireland are
countries with much higher HDI than would be expected given their level of energy use, whereas
Nigeria, Ivory Coast, Oman and Trinidad & Tobago are countries with much lower HDI than
expected given their level of energy use (9).

This analysis raises some fundamental questions.Why do countries with similar energy requirements
arrive at very levels of human development? How can we learn from countries with low energy use,
but high human development? How can we understand the human development consequences of
specific types of energy use? Recent research from the social sciences, which seeks to connect
specific energy uses and human well-being (10), may point the way to well-being for all within
planetary boundaries.

The HDialogue blog is a platform for debate and discussion. Posts reflect the views of respective
authors in their individual capacities and not the views of UNDP/HDRO.
HDRO encourages reflections on the HDialogue contributions. The office posts comments that
supports a constructive dialogue on policy options for advancing human development and are
formulated respectful of other, potentially differing views. The office reserves the right to contain
contributions that appear divisive.

Energy consumption and human development:

global perspective
Abstract
The important objective of this paper is to study the long run relationship between Energy Consumption
(EC) and traditional Human Development Index (tHDI) and impact of Energy Consumption on tradional
Human Development Index. The scope of this study is that the energy consumption has a great role to
play in enhancing economic growth and maintaining better quality of life and overall human
development. The authors have used panel cointegration test to study the long term relationship
between traditional Human Development Index and Energy Consumption. To study the impact of Energy
Consumption on traditional Human Development Index, panel regression is used. Findings have
confirmed the existence of the long run relationship between each other and the Energy Consumption
has a significantly positive impact on traditional Human Development Index. To see how EC affects and
change HDI an alternative New HDI is also introduced by incorporating energy consumption along with
existing indices included in tHDI. After incorporating the energy component in New HDI, most of the
countries HDI value slipped except few developed countries.
 UNIT-II L7 Current Energy Trends

5 trends that will shape the energy sector in 2020

∙ ​1) Renewable ​energy ​will rise to the forefront. ...
∙ ​2) Fossil fuels prove resilient. ...
∙ ​3) Flexibility to the forefront. ...
∙ ​4) The age of storage and decentralised grids. ...
∙ ​5) Hydrogen & Power-to-X.

1. Renewable energy will rise to the forefront  

Demand for renewable energy will continue to grow, driven by declining costs of technology, the 
need to reduce CO2 emissions, and growing energy demand in developingandunderdeveloped 
nations.  

International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA) estimates that to meet the goals of 
theParisAgreement, the share of renewables in annual global electricity generation needs 
toincreasefrom 25% today to 86% by 2050. To do that, the​ world needs to invest 
USD110trillionby2050​ i​ n the sector compared to USD 95 trillion currently planned.  

: “In the next decade, renewable energy will take the position as the cheapest bulkenergyalmost 
everywhere globally. Several outlooks have been published that showscenariosinwhich renewable 
energy capacity will reach 50-60% penetration during the next 10 years, andduring the next few 
decades, there is the possibility for renewable energy capacity toreach60-70% and beyond. At the 
same time, we also see inflexible capacities exiting the market.”  

This transformation will lead to a visible shift away from fossil fuels infavour ofrenewables. 
Bloomberg BNEF​ ​estimates that USD 13.3 trillion will be invested innewpowergeneration assets to 
fund 15,145 GW of new plants between 2019 and 2050 of which80%isexpected to be carbon-free. 
BNEF estimates that by 2050, wind and solar will makeup50%of the world’s electricity generation. 
Europe is expected to decarbonise the fastest andfurthest, while China and the US will play catch-up. 

2. Fossil fuels prove resilient  

Despite the optimistic outlook for renewables, parts of the world will continue burningfossil fuels 
including oil, gas, and coal for energy production. The use of these energy sourceswill 
continue in some places due to a lack of political will along with the availability of cheapcoal. 
Additionally, the shift to renewables is not happening fast enough to meet rising electricitydemand. 
The International Energy Agency (IEA)’s recently released World Energy Outlook2019 points out that 
unless major policy changes are made, society is and will continuetobeheavily dependent on fossil 
fuels.  

The report says that, given today’s policy intention and targets, “A three-way race is underwayamong 
coal, natural gas and renewables to provide power and heat to Asia’s fast-growingeconomies. Coal is 
the incumbent in most developing Asian countries: newinvestmentdecisions in coal-using 
infrastructure have slowed sharply, but the large stock of existingcoal- using power plants and 
factories (and the 170 GW of capacity under constructionworldwide), provides coal with 
considerable staying power.”  

According to BNEF, coal will continue to grow in Asia, but collapse everywhere elseandpeakglobally 
in 2026. Gas capacity instead, according to BNEF, will play a vital role to support theincreasing 
flexibility needs also in the longer term.  

3. Flexibility to the forefront    

As the world moves towards 100% renewable energy, reliability will emerge as a key areaofconcern. 
This is where flexibility and innovation in supply will play a key role.  

“Power is needed at all times, even when wind is not blowing or the sun is not shining. 
System-level flexibility with energy storage solutions, flexible thermal power generation, 
andinterconnectors are essential to enable the penetration of cheap renewables andbalancetheir 
intermittent nature,” says Pitsinki.  

Worldwide, there will be a need to look more closely at controlling demand by reducing, increasing 
or shifting it to a specific period of time, according to IRENA.  

IRENA’s​ recent​ ​report​ ​states: ‘The potential for demand-side flexibility, expressedas thesumof 
flexible load at each hour of the year, is high and, according to IEA (2018), is equal to4000TWh (457 
GW average) today and is expected to grow to 7 000 TWh (800 GWaverage) by2040 due to the 
electrification of transport and buildings (mostly electrification of heat). Whilethere are already 
parts of the world in which demand-side flexibility is being leveraged, thereis still a long way to 
reach the full potential of this flexibility source.”  

4. The age of storage and decentralised grids 

Energy storage has become more commercially feasible in the past fewyears withbatteryprices 
falling almost 80%. The good news is that prices will fall further. According toBNEF, there will be a 
sharp decline in the cost of lithium-ion batteries, and energy storageinstallations around the world 
will multiply exponentially, from 9GW/17GWh deployedasof2018 to 1,095GW/2,850GWh by 2040.  

“Energy storage, and especially lithium-ion batteries, is a commercially feasible technologyalready 

today. As prices fall further, the amount of installed short-termbattery capacitywill grow manifold,”  

Energy storage is also likely to shape decentralised grids driven by consumer energydecisions 
such as rooftop solar and behind-the-meter batteries. BNEF estimatesthatbatteries, power plants 
that run on gas, and dynamic demand could help windandsolarreach more than 80% 
penetration in some markets.  

5) Hydrogen & Power-to-X  

Apart from batteries, there are several new technologies that are being researchedanddeveloped 
for energy storage. These enabling technologies help stabilise energy systems’ demand and supply 
issues by converting extra power into hydrogen, heat or someotherform of energy carrier while at 
the same time decreasing the curtailment inrenewableenergy generation.  

“The big driver for these technologies is the availability of ‘free’ excess electricity fromwindand 
solar power. Hydrogen is relatively easy and cheap to produce, but it has lowenergydensity and 
thus is expensive to transport as such,”  

“Combustion technologies also have limited ability to use hydrogen. That is why 
thebigpushtowards Power-to-X type of technologies, where hydrogen is further 
synthesisedintomethane or methanol that are easier to handle and use in energy production,” 
 UNIT-II L 8

Conventional and Non-conventional Sources of Energy

Energy is one of the major parts of the economic infrastructure, being the basic input needed to sustain economic growth.
There exists a strong relationship between economic development and energy consumption.
The more developed is a country, the higher is the per capita of energy consumption and vice-versa. Human civilization
relies on different sources of energy.
The two major sources of energy can be classified under:

∙ ​Conventional Sources
∙ ​Non-Conventional Sources
Below you could see the difference between conventional and non-conventional sources of energy.

Renewable energy
.

Part of a series about

Sustainable energy

Overview

∙ ​Sustainable energy
∙ ​Carbon-neutral fuel
 ∙ ​Fossil fuel phase-out

Energy conservation

∙ ​Cogeneration
∙ ​Efficient energy use
∙ ​Energy storage
∙ ​Green building
∙ ​Heat pump
∙ ​Low-carbon power
∙ ​Microgeneration
∙ ​Passive solar building design

Renewable energy

∙ ​Biofuel
∙ ​Geothermal
∙ ​Hydroelectricity
∙ ​Solar
∙ ​Tidal
∙ ​Wave
∙ ​Wind

Sustainable transport

∙ ​Electric vehicle
∙ ​Green vehicle
∙ ​Plug-in hybrid

World electricity generation by source in 2017. Total generation was 26 ​PWh​.​[1]

Coal (38%)

Natural gas (23%) Hydro (16%) Nuclear (10%) Wind (4%) Oil (3%)
 Solar (2%) Biofuels (2%) Other (2%)

Wind​,​ ​solar​,​ and ​hydroelectricity ​are three renewable sources of energy.​ [2]

Renewable energy ​is energy that is collected from ​renewable resources​, which are naturally replenished
on a ​human timescale​, such as ​sunlight​, ​wind​, ​rain​, ​tides​, ​waves​, and ​geothermal ​heat​.​ Renewable energy [3]
​

often provides energy in four important areas: ​electricity ​generation​, ​air ​and ​water heating​/​cooling​,
transportation​, and ​rural (off-grid) ​energy services.​ [4]

Based on ​REN21​'​s 2017 report, renewables contributed 19.3% to humans' ​global energy ​consumption ​and
24.5% to their generation of electricity in 2015 and 2016, respectively. This energy consumption is divided
as 8.9% coming from traditional ​biomass​, 4.2% as heat energy (modern biomass, geothermal and solar
heat), 3.9% from hydroelectricity and the remaining 2.2% is electricity from wind, solar, geothermal, and
other forms of biomass. Worldwide investments in renewable technologies amounted to more than US$286
billion in 2015.​ In 2017, worldwide investments in renewable energy amounted to US$279.8 billion with
[5]
​

China accounting for US$126.6 billion or 45% of the global investments, the United States for US$40.5
billion and Europe for US$40.9 billion.​ Globally there are an estimated 7.7 million jobs associated with the
[6]
​

renewable energy industries, with ​solar photovoltaics ​being the largest renewable employer.​ Renewable [7]
​

energy systems are rapidly becoming more efficient and cheaper and their share of total energy
consumption is increasing.​ As of 2019, more than two
[8]​
​

thirds of worldwide newly installed electricity capacity was renewable.​ Growth in consumption of coal and [9]​
​

oil could end by 2020 due to increased uptake of renewables and natural gas.​ [10][11]

At the national level, at least 30 nations around the world already have renewable energy contributing more
than 20 percent of energy supply. National renewable energy markets are projected to continue to grow
strongly in the coming decade and beyond.​ Some places and at least two countries, Iceland and Norway,
[12]
​

generate all their electricity using renewable energy already, and many other countries have the set a goal
to reach ​100% renewable energy ​in the future.​ At least 47 nations around the world already have over 50
[13]
​

percent of electricity from renewable resources.​ Renewable energy resources exist over wide
[14][15][16]
​

geographical areas, in contrast to ​fossil fuels​, which are concentrated in a limited number of countries.
Rapid deployment of renewable energy and ​energy efficiency ​technologies is resulting in significant ​energy
security​, ​climate change mitigation​, and economic benefits.​ In [17]​
​
international ​public opinion surveys ​there is strong support for promoting renewable sources such as solar
power and wind power.​ [18][19]

While many renewable energy projects are large-scale, renewable technologies are also suited to ​rural ​and
remote areas and ​developing countries​, where energy is often crucial in ​human ​development​.​ As most [20]​[​needs update​]
​

of renewable energy technologies provide electricity, renewable energy deployment is often applied in
conjunction with further ​electrification​, which has several benefits: electricity can be converted to heat, can
be converted into mechanical energy with high efficiency, and is clean at the point of consumption.​ In [21][22]
​

addition, electrification with renewable energy is more efficient and therefore leads to significant reductions
in primary energy requirements.​ [2

A ​non-renewable resource ​(also called a ​finite resource​) is a natural resource that cannot be readily replaced by natural
means at a quick enough pace to keep up with consumption.​ An example is carbon-based fossil fuel. The original organic
[1]​
​

matter, with the aid of heat and pressure, becomes a fuel such as oil or gas. Earth ​minerals ​and ​metal ores​, ​fossil fuels
(​coal​, ​petroleum​, ​natural gas​)​ and ​groundwater ​in certain ​aquifers ​are all considered non-renewable resources, though
individual ​elements ​are always conserved (except in ​nuclear reactions​)​.
Conversely, resources such as ​timber ​(when ​harvested sustainably​)​ and wind (used to power energy conversion
systems) are considered ​renewable resources​, largely because their localized replenishment can occur within time
frames meaningful to humans as well.

What are Conventional Sources of Energy?

These sources of energy are also known as ​non-renewable sources of energy ​and are available in limited quantity
apart from hydro-electric power. Further, it can be classified under commercial and non-commercial energy.

Commercial Energy Sources

The coal, electricity, and petroleum are known as commercial energy since the consumer needs to pay its price to buy
them.

a) Coal
Coal is the most important source of energy. There are more than 148790 coal deposits in India. Between 2005-2006, the
annual production went up to 343 million tons. India is the fourth-largest coal-producing country and the deposits are
mostly found in Bihar, Orissa, Madhya Pradesh, and Bengal.

b) Oil and Natural Gas:

Today oil is considered to be the liquid gold and one of the crucial sources of energy in India and the world. Oil is mostly
used in planes, automobiles, trains and ships. It is mainly found in Assam, Gujarat and Mumbai.
The total production of oil in India was 0.3 million tons in 1950-51, which increased up to 32.4 million tons in 2000-01.

c) Electricity:
Electricity is a common source of energy and used for domestic and commercial purposes. The electricity is mainly
utilized in electrical appliances like Fridge, T.V, washing machine and air conditioning.
The major sources of power generation are mentioned below:

∙ ​Nuclear Power
∙ ​Thermal Power
∙ ​Hydro-electric power
 1. Thermal Power:
Thermal power is generated at various power stations by means of oil and coal. It is a vital source of electric current
and its share in the total capacity of the nation in 2004-05 was 70 percent.

2. Hydroelectric Power:
The hydroelectric power is produced by constructing dams above flowing rivers like Damodar Valley Project and Bhakra
Nangal Project. The installed capacity of hydroelectric power was 587.4 mW in 1950-51 and went up to 19600 mW in
2004-05.

3. Nuclear Power:
The fuel used in nuclear power plants is Uranium, which costs less than coal. Nuclear power plants can be found in
Kaiga (Karnataka), Kota (Rajasthan), Naroura (UP), and Kalapakam(Chennai).

Non-commercial energy sources

Generally, the energy sources that are freely available are considered non-commercial energy sources. The examples
of non-commercial energy sources are, Straw, dried dung, firewood.

What are Non-Conventional Sources of Energy?

These non-conventional sources are also known as ​renewable sources of energy​. Examples include solar energy,
bioenergy, tidal energy, and wind energy.

1. Solar Energy
This is the energy that is produced by sunlight. The photovoltaic cells are exposed to sunlight based on the form of
electricity that needs to be produced. The energy is utilized for cooking and distillation of water.

2. Wind Energy
This kind of energy is generated by harnessing the power of wind and mostly used in operating water pumps for
irrigation purposes. India stands as the second-largest country in the generation of wind power.

3. Tidal Energy
The energy that is generated by exploiting the tidal waves of the sea is known as tidal energy. This source is yet to be
tapped due to the lack of cost-effective technology.

Difference between Conventional and Non Conventional

Energy can be defined as the capacity or ability to do work. It plays an important role in our day to day life as it is
required in every field like industry, transport, communication, sports, defence, household, agriculture and more. There
are plenty of energy sources to get energy. These energy resources can be classified as Conventional and Non
conventional sources of energy. Let us see how they differ from each other!

Conventional sources of energy:

Conventional sources of energy are the natural energy resources which are present in a limited quantity and are being
used for a long time. They are called non-renewable sources as once they are depleted, they cannot be generated at the
speed which can sustain its consumption rate. They are formed from decaying matter over hundreds of millions of years.

These resources have been depleted to a great extent due to their continuous exploitation. It is believed that the deposits
of petroleum in our country will be exhausted within few decades and the coal reserves can last for a hundred more
years. Some common examples of conventional sources of energy include coal, petroleum, natural gas and electricity.

Non-conventional sources of energy:

Non-conventional sources of energy are the energy sources which are continuously replenished by natural processes.
These cannot be exhausted easily, can be generated constantly so can be used again and again, e.g. solar energy, wind
energy, tidal energy, biomass energy and geothermal energy etc. The energy obtained from non-conventional sources is
known as non-conventional energy. These sources do not pollute the environment and do not require heavy expenditure.
They are called renewable resources as they can be replaced through natural processes at a rate equal to or greater than
the rate at which they are consumed.

Based on the above information, some of the key differences between conventional and non-conventional sources of
energy are as follows:

Conventional sources of energy Non-conventional sources of energy

These sources of energy are not abundant, present

These sources of energy are abundant in nature, e.g. solar
in limited quantity, e.g. coal, petroleum, natural
energy, wind energy, tidal energy, biogas from biomass
etc.
gas.

They have been in use for a long time. They are yet in development phase over the past few years.

They are not replenished continuously. They are

They are replenished continuously by natural processes.
formed over a million years.

They are called non-renewable sources of energy. They are called renewable sources of energy.
consumption except for hydel power.
They can be exhausted completely due to over They cannot be exhausted completely.

They pollute the environment by emitting harmful

They are environment-friendly, do not pollute the
gases and also contribute to global warming.
environment.
 They are used commonly used for household
They are commonly used for industrial and commercial
purposes.
purposes.Using these sources is less expensive.
Heavy expenditure is involved in using and maintaining
these sources of energy.
They are used extensively, at a higher rate than the
They are not used as extensively as conventional sources.
non-conventional sources.

Next Topic
UNIT III   

Renewable Energy Sources  

L1 - SOLAR ENERGY  

The  name  solar power is actually a little misleading. In fact, most of the energy known to man 

is  derived  in  some  way from the sun. When we burn wood or other fuels, it releases the stored 
energy  of  the  sun.  In  fact,  there  would  be  no  life  on  earth  without  the  sun,  which  provides 
energy  needed  for  the  growth  of  plants,  and  indirectly,  the  existence  of  all  animal  life.  The 
solar  energy  scientists  are  interested  in  energy  obtained  through  the  use  of  solar  panels. 
Although  the  field  of  research  dealing  with  this  type  of  solar  power  is  relatively  new,  one 
should bear in mind that man has known about the energy of the sun for thousands of years.  

Solar  energy  is  an  important,  clean,  cheap  and  abundantly  available  renewable  energy.  It  is 
received  on  Earth  in  cyclic,  intermittent  and  dilute  form  with  very  low  power  density  0  to  1 
kW/m​2​.Solar  energy  received  on the ground level is affected by atmospheric clarity, degree of 
latitude,  etc.  For  design  purpose, the variation of available solar power, the optimum tilt angle 
of solar flat plate collectors, the location and orientation of the heliostats should be calculated.   

The  energy  of  the  sun  can  be  used  in  many  ways. When plants grow, they store the energy of 
the  sun. Then, when we burn those plants, the energy is released in the form of heat. This is an 
example  of  indirect  use  of  solar  energy.  The  form  we  are  interested  in  is  directly  converting 
the  sun’s  rays  into  a usable energy source: electricity. This is accomplished through the use of 
“solar  collectors”,  or,  as  they  are  more  commonly  known  as,  “solar  panels”.  There  are  two 
ways  in  which  solar  power  can  be  converted  to  energy.  The  first,  known  as  “solar  thermal 
applications”,  involve  using  the  energy  of  the  sun  to  directly  heat  air  or a liquid. The second, 
known  as  “photoelectric  applications”,  involve  the  use  of  photovoltaic  cells  to  convert  solar 
energy  directly  to  electricity.  There are two types of solar thermal collectors. The first, known 
as  flat  plate  collectors,  contain  absorber  plates  that  use  solar  radiation  to  heat  a  carrier  fluid, 
either  a  liquid  like  oil  or  water,  or  air.  Because  these  collectors  can  heat  carrier  fluids  to 
around  80​o​C,  they  are  suited  for  residential  applications.  The  second  type  of  solar collectors 
is  known  as  concentrating  collectors.  These  panels  are  intended  for  larger-scale  applications 
such  as  air  conditioning,  where more heating potential is required. The rays of the sun from a 
relatively  wide  area  are  focused into a small area by means of reflective mirrors, and thus the 
heat  energy  is  concentrated.  This  method  has  the  potential  to  heat  liquids  to  a  much  higher 
temperature than  
flat  plate  collectors  can  alone.  The  heat  from  the  concentrating  collectors  can  be  used  to boil 
water.  The  steam  can  then  be  used  to  power  turbines  attached  to  generators  and  produce 
electricity,  as  in  wind  and  hydroelectric  power  systems.  Photovoltaic  cells  depend  on 
semiconductors  such  as  silicon  to  directly  convert  solar  energy  to  electricity.  Because  these 
types  of  cells  are  low-maintenance,  they  are  best  suited  for  remote  applications.  Solar  power 
has  an  exciting  future  ahead  of  it.  Because  solar  power  utilizes  the  sun's  light,  a  ubiquitous 
resource  (a  resource  that  is  everywhere),  solar  panels can be attached to moving objects, such 
as  automobiles,  and  can  even  be  used  to  power  those  objects.  Solar  powered  cars  are  being 
experimented with more and more frequently now.   

Problems with Solar Power   

Solar  power  is  actually  one  of  the  cleanest  methods  of  energy  production  known.  Because 
solar  panels  simply  convert  the  energy  of  the sun into energy that mankind can use, there are 
no  harmful  by  products  or  threats  to  the  environment.  One  major  concern is the cost of solar 
power.  Solar  panels  (accumulators)  are  not  cheap;  and  because  they  are  constructed  from 
fragile  materials  (semiconductors,  glass,  etc.),  they  must  constantly  be  maintained  and  often 
replaced.  Further,  since  each  photovoltaic  panel  has  only  about  40%  efficiency,  single  solar 
panels  are  not  sufficient  power  producers.  However,  this  problem  has  been  offset  by  the 
gathering  together  of  many  large  panels  acting  in  accord  to  produce  energy.  Although  this 
setup takes up much more space, it does generate much more power.  
  
Advantages and Disadvantages:  

Advantages  

∙ ​Inexhaustible fuel source.   

∙ ​No pollution.   

∙ ​Often an excellent supplement to other renewable sources.   

∙ ​Versatile is used for powering items as diverse as solar cars and satellites. 

Disadvantages  

∙ ​Very diffuse source means low energy production – large numbers of solar panels (and thus 
large land areas) are required to produce useful amounts of heat or electricity.   

∙ ​Only areas of the world with lots of sunlight are suitable for solar power generation. 

∙ ​May not be cost effective ·   

Units of solar power and solar energy:   

In SI units, energy is expressed in Joule. Other units are angley and Calorie where 1 angley = 
1 Cal/cm​2​.day 1 Cal = 4.186 J  
For  solar  energy  calculations,  the  energy  is  measured  as  an  hourly  or  monthly  or  yearly 
average  and  is  expressed  in  terms  of  kJ/m​2​/day  or  kJ/m​2​/hour.  Solar  power  is  expressed  in 
terms of W/m​2​or kW/m​2​.   

Essential subsystems in a solar energy plant:   

1. Solar collector or concentrator: ​It receives solar rays and collects the energy. It may be of 
following  types:  a)  Flat  plate  type  without  focusing  b)  Parabolic  trough  type  with  line 
focusing  c)  Paraboloid  dish  with  central  focusing  d)  Fresnel  lens  with  centre  focusing  e) 
Heliostats with centre receiver focusing   

2.  Energy  transport  medium:  ​Substances  such  as  water/  steam,  liquid  metal or gas are used 
to  transport  the  thermal  energy  from  the  collector to the heat exchanger or thermal storage. In 
solar PV systems energy transport occurs in electrical form.   

3. Energy storage: ​Solar energy is not available continuously. So we need an energy storage 
medium for maintaining power supply during nights or cloudy periods. There are three major  
types of energy storage: a) Thermal energy storage; b) Battery storage; c) Pumped storage 
hydro-electric plant.   

4. Energy conversion plant: ​Thermal energy collected by solar collectors is used for 
producing steam, hot water, etc. Solar energy converted to thermal energy is fed to steam 
thermal or gas-thermal power plant.  

5.  Power  conditioning,  control  and  protection  system:  ​Load  requirements  of  electrical 
energy  vary  with  time.  The  energy  supply  has  certain  specifications  like  voltage,  current, 
frequency, power etc.  

6. Alternative or standby power supply: ​The backup may be obtained as power from 
electrical network or standby diesel generator.   

Energy  from  the  sun:  ​The  sun  radiates  about  3.8  x  1026  W  of  power  in  all  the  directions. 
Out  of  this  about  1.7  x  1017  W  is  received  by  earth.  The  average  solar  radiation  outside the 
earth’s  atmosphere  is  1.35  kW/m​2​varying  from  1.43  kW/m​2​(in  January)  to  1.33  kW/m​2  ​(in 
July).  

Solar thermal energy (STE)  

Solar  thermal  energy  (STE)  is  a  form  of  energy  and  a technology for harnessing solar energy 
to  generate  thermal  energy  or  electrical  energy  for  use  in  industry,  and  in  the  residential  and 
commercial  sectors.  The  first  installation  of  solar  thermal  energy  equipment  occurred  in  the 
Sahara  Desert  approximately  in  1910  when  a  steam  engine  was  run  on  steam  produced  by 
sunlight.  Because  liquid  fuel  engines  were  developed  and  found  more  convenient, the Sahara 
project  was  abandoned,  only  to  be  revisited  several  decades  late.  Solar  thermal  collectors are 
classified  by  the  United  States  Energy  Information  Administration  as  low-,  medium-, or high 
temperature  collectors.  Low-temperature  collectors  are  flat  plates  generally  used  to  heat 
swimming  pools.  Medium-temperature  collectors  are  also  usually  flat  plates  but  are  used  for 
heating  water  or  air  for  residential  and  commercial  use.  High-temperature  collectors 
concentrate  sunlight  using  mirrors  or  lenses  and  are  generally  used  for  fulfilling  heat 
requirements  up  to  300  deg  C  /  20  bar  pressure  in  industries,  and  for  electric  power 
production.  However,  there  is  a  term  that  used  for  both  the  applications.  Concentrated  Solar 
Thermal  (CST)  for  fulfilling  heat  requirements  in  industries  and  Concentrated  Solar  Power 
(CSP) when the  heat collected is used for power generation. CST and CSP are not replaceable 
in terms of application.  
A  solar  thermal  collector  system  gathers  the  heat  from  the  solar  radiation  and  gives  it  to  the 
heat transport fluid. The heat-transport fluid receives the heat from the collector and delivers it 
to  the  thermal  storage  tank,  boiler  steam  generator,  heat  exchanger  etc.  Thermal  storage 
system  stores  heat  for  a  few  hours.  The  heat  is  released  during  cloudy  hours  and  at  night. 
Thermal  
electric  conversion  system  receives  thermal  energy  and  drives  steam  turbine  generator  or gas 
turbine  generator.  The  electrical  energy  is  supplied  to  the  electrical  load  or  to  the  AC  grid. 
Applications  of  solar  thermal  energy  systems  range  from  simple  solar  cooker  of  1  kW  rating 
to complex solar central receiver thermal power plant of 200 MW rating.  

PHOTO VOLTAIC TECHNOLOGY:   

The  Kyoto  agreement on global reduction of greenhouse gas emissions has prompted renewed 

interest  in  renewable  energy  systems  worldwide.  Many  renewable  energy  technologies  today 
are  well  developed,  reliable,  and  cost  competitive  with  the  conventional  fuel  generators.  The 
cost  of  renewable  energy  technologies  is  on  a  falling  trend  and  is  expected  to  fall  further  as 
demand  and  production  increases. There are many renewable energy sources such as biomass, 
solar,  wind,  mini-hydro,  and  tidal  power.  One  of  the  advantages offered by renewable energy 
sources  is  their  potential  to  provide  sustainable  electricity  in  areas  not  served  by  the 
conventional  power  grid.  The  growing  market for renewable energy technologies has resulted 
in  a  rapid  growth  in  the  need  for  power  electronics.  Most  of  the  renewable  energy 
technologies  produce  DC  power,  and  hence  power  electronics  and  control  equipment  are 
required  to  convert  the DC into AC power. Inverters are used to convert DC to AC. There are 
two  types  of  inverters:  standalone  and  grid-connected.  The  two  types  have  several 
similarities,  but  are  different  in  terms  of  control  functions.  A  stand-alone  inverter  is  used  in 
off-grid  applications  with  battery  storage.  With  backup  diesel  generators  (such  as PV–diesel 
hybrid  power  systems),  the  inverters  may have additional control functions such as operating 
in  parallel  with  diesel  generators and bidirectional operation (battery charging and inverting). 
Grid-interactive  inverters  must  follow  the  voltage  and  frequency  characteristics  of  the 
utility-generated  power  presented  on  the  distribution  line.  For  both  types  of  inverters,  the 
conversion  efficiency  is  a  very  important  consideration.  Details  of  stand-alone  and 
grid-connected  inverters  for  PV  and  wind  applications  are  discussed  in  this  chapter.  The 
density  of  power  radiated  from  the  sun  (referred  to  as  the  ‘‘solar  energy  constant’’)  at  the 
outer  atmosphere  is  1.373kW/m​2​.  Part  of  this  energy  is absorbed and scattered by the earth’s 
atmosphere.  The  final  incident  sunlight  on  earth’s  surface  has  a  peak  density  of  1kW/m​2​at 
noon  in  the  tropics.  The  technology  of  photovoltaic  (PV)  is  essentially  concerned  with  the 
conversion of this energy into usable  
electrical  form.  The  basic  element  of  a  PV  system  is the solar cell. Solar cells can convert the 
energy  of  sunlight directly into electricity. Consumer appliances used to provide services such 
as  lighting,  water  pumping,  refrigeration,  telecommunications,  and television can be run from 
photovoltaic  electricity.  Solar  cells  rely  on  a  quantum-mechanical  process  known  as  the 
‘‘photovoltaic  effect’’  to  produce  electricity.  A  typical  solar  cell  consists  of  a  p-n  junction 
formed  in  a  semiconductor material similar to a diode. Figure 1 shows a schematic diagram of 
the  cross  section  through  a  crystalline  solar  cell.  It  consists  of  a  0.2–0.3  mm  thick 
monocrystalline  or  polycrystalline  silicon  wafer  having  two  layers  with  different  electrical 
properties  formed  by  ‘‘doping’’  it  with  other  impurities  (e.g.,  boron  and  phosphorus).  An 
electric  field  is  established  at  the  junction  between  the  negatively  doped  (using  phosphorus 
atoms)  and  the  positively  doped  (using  boron  atoms)  silicon  layers.  If  light  is  incident on the 
solar  cell,  the  energy  from the light (photons) creates free charge carriers, which are separated 
by  the  electrical  field.  An  electrical  voltage  is  generated  at  the  external  contacts,  so  that 
current  can  flow  when  a  load  is  connected.  The  photocurrent  (Iph),  which  is  internally 
generated in the solar cell, is proportional to the radiation intensity.  

 
A number of semiconductor materials are suitable for the manufacture of solar cells. The most 
common types using silicon semiconductor material (Si) are:  

• Monocrystalline Si cells   

• Polycrystalline Si cells   

• Amorphous Si cells 
UNIT III  
Renewable Energy Sources  
L2 -HYDROPOWER   
Hydropower is energy that comes from the force of moving water. Hydropower is a renewable 
energy  source  because  it  is  replenished  constantly  by  the fall and flow of snow and rainfall in 
the  water  cycle.  As  water  flows  through  devices  such  as  a  water  wheel  or turbine, the kinetic 
(motion)  energy  of  the  water  is  converted  to  mechanical  energy,  which  can  be  used  to  grind 
grain,  drive  a  sawmill,  pump  water,  or  produce  electricity.  The  primary  way  hydropower  is 
used  today  in  the  United  States  is  to  produce  electricity.  In  1991,  hydropower  provided  10 
percent  of  the  nation’s  electricity.  Although  a  hydroelectric  power  plant is initially expensive 
to  build,  in  the  long  run,  it  is  the  cheapest  way  to  produce  electricity,  primarily  because  the 
energy  source,  moving  water,  is  free.  Recently,  many  people  have  built smaller hydroelectric 
systems that produce only enough electricity to power a few homes.   
Two  lesser  known  forms  of  hydropower are ocean thermal energy conversion (OTEC), which 
uses  the  temperature  difference  between  surface  and  deep  ocean  waters  to  boil  and  then 
recondense  fluids,  and  tidal  power,  which  uses  the  enormous power of ocean tides. Presently, 
these forms of hydropower are not very feasible, but they hold promise for the future.   
Advantages of Hydropower   

∙ ​Abundant, clean, and safe   

∙ ​Easily stored in reservoirs ·   
∙ ​Relatively inexpensive way to produce electricity   
∙ ​Offers recreational benefits like boating, fishing, etc.  
Disadvantages of Hydropower  
∙ ​Can have a significant environmental impact   
∙ ​Can be used only where there is a water supply  
∙ ​Best sites for dams have already been developed   
Man  has  utilised  the  power  of  water  for  years.  Much  of  the  growth  of  early colonial industry 
can  be  attributed  to  hydropower.  Because  fuel  such  as  coal  and  wood  were  not  readily 
available  to  inland  cities,  settlers  were  forced  to  turn  to  other  alternatives.  Falling water was 
ideal  for  powering  sawmills  and  grist  mills.  As  coal  became  a  better-developed  source  of 
fuel, however, the importance of hydropower decreased.   
Hydroelectric  systems  make  use  of  the  energy  in  running  water  to  create  electricity.  In  coal 
and  natural  gas  systems,  a  fossil  fuel  is  burned  to  heat  water.  The  steam  pressure  from  the 
boiling  water  turns  propellers  called  turbines.  These  turbines  spin  coils  of  wire  between 
magnets  to  produce  electricity. Hydro powered systems also make use of turbines to generate 
electrical  power;  however,  they  do  so  by  using  the  energy  in  moving  water  to  spin  the 
turbines.  Water  has  kinetic  energy  when  it  flows  from  higher  elevations  to  lower elevations. 
The energy spins turbines like as shown in Figure.  
In larger scale hydroelectric plants, large volumes of water are contained by dams near the 
generator and turbines. The “forebay” is a storage area for water that must be deep enough 
that  
the penstock is completely submerged. The water is allowed to flow into the electricity 
generating system through a passage called the penstock. The controlled high-pressure water 
spins the turbines, allowing the generator to produce an electric current. The powerhouse 
contains and protects the equipment for generating electricity. The high-pressure water exits 
the system through a draft tube. The fish ladder attempts to minimise the environmental 
impact of hydroelectric systems by providing a path for migrating fish to take.  

Figure: Spinning Process of Turbine  

Types of Hydroelectric Power Plants   
Micro-Scale   
As  their  name  implies,  micro-hydroelectric  plants  are  the  smallest  type  of  hydroelectric 
energy  systems.  They  generate  between  one  kilowatt  and  one  megawatt  of  power. The main 
application  for these hydro systems is in small, isolated villages in developing countries. They 
are ideal for powering smaller services such as the operation of processing machines.   
Small-Scale   
Small  hydropower  systems  can  supply  up  to  20  megawatts  of  energy.  These  systems  are 
relatively  inexpensive  and reliable. They have the potential to provide electricity to rural areas 
in  developing  countries  throughout  the  world.  Small  systems  are  especially  important  to 
countries  that  may  not  be  able  to  afford  the  costs  of  importing  fossil  fuels  such  as  petroleum 
from other countries.  
Run-of-the-River  
In  some  areas  of  the  world,  the  flow  rate  and  elevation  drops  of  the  water  are  consistent 
enough  that  hydroelectric  plants  can  be  built  directly  in  the  river.  The  water  passes  through 
the  plant  without  greatly  changing  the  flow  rate  of  the  river.  In  many  instances  a  dam  is not 
required,  and  therefore  the  hydroelectric  plant  causes  minimal  environmental  impact  on  its 
surroundings.  However,  one  problem  with  run-of-the-river  plants  is  the  obstruction  of  fish 
and other aquatic animals. This and other problems are discussed in the next section.   
Problems with Hydroelectric Power  
Although  hydroelectric  power  is  admittedly  one  of  the  cleanest  and  most  environmentally 
friendly  sources  of  energy,  it  too  has  the  capability  to  alter  or  damage  its  surroundings. 
Among  the  main  problems  that have been demonstrated by hydroelectric power is significant 
change  in  water  quality. Because of the nature of hydroelectric systems, the water often takes 
on  a  higher  temperature,  loses oxygen content, experiences siltation, and gains in phosphorus 
and  nitrogen  content.  Another  major  problem  is  the  obstruction  of  the  river  for  aquatic  life. 
Salmon,  which  migrate  upstream  to  spawn  every  year,  are  especially  impacted  by 
hydroelectric  dams.  Fortunately,  this  problem  has  been  dealt  with  by  the  production  of  fish 
ladders.  These  structures  provide  a  pathway  for  fish  to  navigate  past  the  hydroelectric  dam 
construction.  
 INTRODUCTION

Hydroelectric Power -- what is it?

It=s a form of energy … a renewable resource. Hydropower provides about 96 percent of the
renewable energy in the United States. Other renewable resources include geothermal, wave
power, tidal power, wind power, and solar power. Hydroelectric powerplants do not use up
resources to create electricity nor do they pollute the air, land, or water, as other powerplants
may. Hydroelectric power has played an important part in the development of this Nation's
electric power industry. Both small and large hydroelectric power developments were
instrumental in the early expansion of the electric power industry.

Hydroelectric power comes from flowing water … winter and spring runoff from mountain
streams and clear lakes. Water, when it is falling by the force of gravity, can be used to turn
turbines and generators that produce electricity.

Hydroelectric power is important to our Nation. Growing populations and modern technologies
require vast amounts of electricity for creating, building, and expanding. In the 1920's,
hydroelectric plants supplied as much as 40 percent of the electric energy produced. Although
the amount of energy produced by this means has steadily increased, the amount produced by
other types of powerplants has increased at a faster rate and hydroelectric power presently
supplies about 10 percent of the electrical generating capacity of the United States.
Hydropower is an essential contributor in the national power grid because of its ability to
respond quickly to rapidly varying loads or system disturbances, which base load plants with
steam systems powered by combustion or nuclear processes cannot accommodate.

Reclamation=s 58 powerplants throughout the Western United States produce an average of 42

billion kWh (kilowatt-hours) per year, enough to meet the residential needs of more than 14
million people. This is the electrical energy equivalent of about 72 million barrels of oil.
Hydroelectric powerplants are the most efficient means of producing electric energy. The
efficiency of today's hydroelectric plant is about 90 percent. Hydroelectric plants do not create
air pollution, the fuel--falling water--is not consumed, projects have long lives relative to other
forms of energy generation, and hydroelectric generators respond quickly to changing system
conditions. These favorable characteristics continue to make hydroelectric projects attractive
sources of electric power.

HOW HYDROPOWER WORKS

Hydroelectric power comes from water at work, water in motion. It can be seen as a form of
solar energy, as the sun powers the hydrologic cycle which gives the earth its water. In the
hydrologic cycle, atmospheric water reaches the earth=s surface as precipitation. Some of this
water evaporates, but much of it either percolates into the soil or becomes surface runoff. Water
from rain and melting snow eventually reaches ponds, lakes, reservoirs, or oceans where
evaporation is constantly occurring.
Moisture percolating into the soil may become ground water (subsurface water), some of which
also enters water bodies through springs or underground streams. Ground water may move
upward through soil during dry periods and may return to the atmosphere by evaporation.

Water vapor passes into the atmosphere by evaporation then circulates, condenses into clouds,
and some returns to earth as precipitation. Thus, the water cycle is complete. Nature ensures
that water is a renewable resource.

Generating Power

In nature, energy cannot be created or destroyed, but its form can change. In generating
electricity, no new energy is created. Actually one form of energy is converted to another form.

To generate electricity, water must be in motion. This is kinetic (moving) energy. When
flowing water turns blades in a turbine, the form is changed to mechanical (machine) energy.
The turbine turns the generator rotor which then converts this mechanical energy into another
energy form -- electricity. Since water is the initial source of energy, we call this hydroelectric
power or hydropower for short.

At facilities called hydroelectric powerplants, hydropower is generated. Some powerplants are

located on rivers, streams, and canals, but for a reliable water supply, dams are needed. Dams
store water for later release for such purposes as irrigation, domestic and industrial use, and
power generation. The reservoir acts much like a battery, storing water to be released as needed
to generate power.
The dam creates a Ahead@ or height from which water flows. A pipe (penstock) carries the water
from the reservoir to the turbine. The fast-moving water pushes the turbine blades, something
like a pinwheel in the wind. The waters force on the turbine blades turns the rotor, the moving
part of the electric generator. When coils of wire on the rotor sweep past the generator=s
stationary coil (stator), electricity is produced.

This concept was discovered by Michael Faraday in 1831 when he found that electricity could be
generated by rotating magnets within copper coils.

When the water has completed its task, it flows on unchanged to serve other needs.

Transmitting Power

Once the electricity is produced, it must be delivered to where it is needed -- our homes, schools,
offices, factories, etc. Dams are often in remote locations and power must be transmitted over
some distance to its users.
Vast networks of transmission lines and facilities are used to bring electricity to us in a form we
can use. All the electricity made at a powerplant comes first through transformers which raise
the voltage so it can travel long distances through powerlines. (Voltage is the pressure that
forces an electric current through a wire.) At local substations, transformers reduce the voltage
so electricity can be divided up and directed throughout an area.

Transformers on poles (or buried underground, in some neighborhoods) further reduce the
electric power to the right voltage for appliances and use in the home. When electricity gets to
our homes, we buy it by the kilowatt-hour, and a meter measures how much we use.

While hydroelectric powerplants are one source of electricity, other sources include powerplants
that burn fossil fuels or split atoms to create steam which in turn is used to generate power. Gas-
turbine, solar, geothermal, and wind-powered systems are other sources. All these powerplants
may use the same system of transmission lines and stations in an area to bring power to you. By
use of this Apower grid,” electricity can be interchanged among several utility systems to meet
varying demands. So the electricity lighting your reading lamp now may be from a hydroelectric
powerplant, a wind generator, a nuclear facility, or a coal, gas, or oil-fired powerplant … or a
combination of these.
The area where you live and its energy resources are prime factors in determining what kind of
power you use. For example, in Washington State hydroelectric powerplants provided
approximately 80 percent of the electrical power during 2002. In contrast, in Ohio during the
same year, almost 87 percent of the electrical power came from coal-fired powerplants due to the
area=s ample supply of coal.

Electrical utilities range from large systems serving broad regional areas to small power
companies serving individual communities. Most electric utilities are investor-owned (private)
power companies. Others are owned by towns, cities, and rural electric associations. Surplus
power produced at facilities owned by the Federal Government is marketed to preference power
customers (A customer given preference by law in the purchase of federally generated electrical
energy which is generally an entity which is nonprofit and publicly financed.) by the Department
of Energy through its power marketing administrations.
How Power is Computed

Before a hydroelectric power site is developed, engineers compute how much power can be
produced when the facility is complete. The actual output of energy at a dam is determined by
the volume of water released (discharge) and the vertical distance the water falls (head). So, a
given amount of water falling a given distance will produce a certain amount of energy. The
head and the discharge at the power site and the desired rotational speed of the generator
determine the type of turbine to be used.

The head produces a pressure (water pressure), and the greater the head, the greater the pressure
to drive turbines. This pressure is measured in pounds of force (pounds per square inch). More
head or faster flowing water means more power.
To find the theoretical horsepower (the measure of mechanical energy) from a specific site, this
formula is used:

THP = (Q x H)/8.8

where: THP = theoretical horsepower

Q = flow rate in cubic feet per second (cfs)
H = head in feet
8.8 = a constant

A more complicated formula is used to refine the calculations of this available power. The
formula takes into account losses in the amount of head due to friction in the penstock and other
variations due to the efficiency levels of mechanical devices used to harness the power.

To find how much electrical power we can expect, we must convert the mechanical measure
(horsepower) into electrical terms (watts). One horsepower is equal to 746 watts (U.S. measure).

Turbines

While there are only two basic types of

turbines (impulse and reaction), there are
many variations. The specific type of
turbine to be used in a powerplant is not
selected until all operational studies and
cost estimates are complete. The turbine
selected depends largely on the site
conditions.

A reaction turbine is a horizontal or vertical

wheel that operates with the wheel
completely submerged, a feature which
reduces turbulence. In theory, the reaction
turbine works like a rotating lawn sprinkler
where water at a central point is under
pressure and escapes from the ends of the
blades, causing rotation. Reaction turbines
are the type most widely used.
An impulse turbine is a horizontal or vertical wheel that uses the kinetic energy of water striking
its buckets or blades to cause rotation. The wheel is covered by a housing and the buckets or
blades are shaped so they turn the flow of water about 170 degrees inside the housing. After
turning the blades or buckets, the water falls to the bottom of the wheel housing and flows out.

Modern Concepts and Future Role

Hydropower does not discharge pollutants into the environment; however, it is not free from
adverse environmental effects. Considerable efforts have been made to reduce environmental
problems associated with hydropower operations, such as providing safe fish passage and
improved water quality in the past decade at both Federal facilities and non-Federal facilities
licensed by the Federal Energy Regulatory Commission.

Efforts to ensure the safety of dams and the use of newly available computer technologies to
optimize operations have provided additional opportunities to improve the environment. Yet,
many unanswered questions remain about how best to maintain the economic viability of
hydropower in the face of increased demands to protect fish and other environmental resources.

Reclamation actively pursues research and development (R&D) programs to improve the
operating efficiency and the environmental performance of hydropower facilities.
Hydropower research and development today is primarily being conducted in the following
areas:

Fish Passage, Behavior, and Response

Turbine-Related Projects
Monitoring Tool Development
Hydrology
Water Quality
Dam Safety
Operations & Maintenance
Water Resources Management

Reclamation continues to work to improve the reliability and efficiency of generating

hydropower. Today, engineers want to make the most of new and existing facilities to increase
production and efficiency. Existing hydropower concepts and approaches include:

-- Uprating existing powerplants

-- Developing small plants (low-head hydropower)
-- Peaking with hydropower
-- Pumped storage
-- Tying hydropower to other forms of energy

Uprating

The uprating of existing hydroelectric generator and turbine units at powerplants is one of the
most immediate, cost-effective, and environmentally acceptable means of developing additional
electric power. Since 1978, Reclamation has pursued an aggressive uprating program which has
added more than 1,600,000 kW to Reclamation's capacity at an average cost of $69 per kilowatt.
This compares to an average cost for providing new peaking capacity through oil-fired
generators of more than $400 per kilowatt. Reclamation's uprating program has essentially
provided the equivalent of another major hydroelectric facility of the approximate magnitude of
Hoover Dam and Powerplant at a fraction of the cost and impact on the environment when
compared to any other means of providing new generation capacity.

Low-head Hydropower

A low-head dam is one with a water drop of less than 65 feet and a generating capacity less than
15,000 kW. Large, high-head dams can produce more power at lower costs than low-head dams,
but construction of large dams may be limited by lack of suitable sites, by environmental
considerations, or by economic conditions. In contrast, there are many existing small dams and
drops in elevation along canals where small generating plants could be installed. New low-head
dams could be built to increase output as well. The key to the usefulness of such units is their
ability to generate power near where it is needed, reducing the power inevitably lost during
transmission.
Peaking with Hydropower

Demands for power vary greatly during the day and night. These demands vary considerably
from season to season, as well. For example, the highest peaks are usually found during summer
daylight hours when air conditioners are running.

Nuclear and fossil fuel plants are not efficient for producing power for the short periods of
increased demand during peak periods. Their operational requirements and their long startup
times make them more efficient for meeting baseload needs.

Since hydroelectric generators can be started or stopped almost instantly, hydropower is more
responsive than most other energy sources for meeting peak demands. Water can be stored
overnight in a reservoir until needed during the day, and then released through turbines to
generate power to help supply the peakload demand. This mixing of power sources offers a
utility company the flexibility to operate steam plants most efficiently as base plants while
meeting peak needs with the help of hydropower. This technique can help ensure reliable
supplies and may help eliminate brownouts and blackouts caused by partial or total power
failures.

Today, many of
Reclamation=s 58
powerplants are used to meet
peak electrical energy
demands, rather than
operating around the clock to
meet the total daily demand.
Increasing use of other
energy-producing
powerplants in the future
will not make hydroelectric
powerplants obsolete or
unnecessary. On the
contrary, hydropower can be
even more important. While
nuclear or fossil-fuel
powerplants can provide
baseloads, hydroelectric
powerplants can deal more
economically with varying
peakload demands. This is a
job they are well suited for.
Pumped Storage

Like peaking, pumped storage is

a method of keeping water in
reserve for peak period power
demands. Pumped storage is
water pumped to a storage pool
above the powerplant at a time
when customer demand for
energy is low, such as during the
middle of the night. The water
is then allowed to flow back
through the turbine-generators at
times when demand is high and
a heavy load is place on the
system.

The reservoir acts much like a

battery, storing power in the
form of water when demands are
low and producing maximum
power during daily and seasonal
peak periods. An advantage of
pumped storage is that
hydroelectric generating units
are able to start up quickly and
make rapid adjustments in
output. They operate efficiently
when used for one hour or
several hours.

Because pumped storage

reservoirs are relatively small,
construction costs are generally
low compared with conventional
hydropower facilities.
Tying Hydropower to Other Energy Forms

When we hear the term Asolar energy,” we usually think of heat from the sun=s rays which can be
put to work. But there are other forms of solar energy. Just as hydropower is a form of solar
energy, so too is windpower. In effect, the sun causes the wind to blow by heating air masses
that rise, cool, and sink to earth again. Solar energy in some form is always at work -- in rays of
sunlight, in air currents, and in the water cycle.

Solar energy, in its various forms, has the potential of adding significant amounts of power for
our use. The solar energy that reaches our planet in a single week is greater than that contained
in all of the earth=s remaining coal, oil, and gas resources. However, the best sites for collecting
solar energy in various forms are often far removed from people, their homes, and work places.
Building thousands of miles of new transmission lines would make development of the power
too costly.

Because of the seasonal, daily, and even hourly changes in the weather, energy flow from the
wind and sun is neither constant nor reliable. Peak production times do not always coincide with
high power demand times. To depend on the variable wind and sun as main power sources
would not be acceptable to most American lifestyles. Imagine having to wait for the wind to
blow to cook a meal or for the sun to come out from behind a cloud to watch television!

As intermittent energy sources, solar power and wind power must be tied to major hydroelectric
power systems to be both economical and feasible. Hydropower can serve as an instant backup
and to meet peak demands.

Linking windpower and hydropower can add to the Nation=s supply of electrical energy. Large
wind machines can be tied to existing hydroelectric powerplants. Wind power can be used,
when the wind is blowing, to reduce demands on hydropower. That would allow dams to save
their water for later release to generate power in peak periods.

The benefits of solar power and wind power are many. The most valuable feature of all is the
replenishing supply of these types of energy. As long as the sun shines and the wind blows,
these resources are truly renewable.

Future Potential

What is the full potential of hydropower to help meet the Nation=s energy needs? The
hydropower resource assessment by the Department of Energy=s Hydropower Program has
identified 5,677 sites in the United States with acceptable undeveloped hydropower potential.
These sites have a modeled undeveloped capacity of about 30,000 MW. This represents about
40 percent of the existing conventional hydropower capacity.
A variety of restraints exist on this development, some natural and some imposed by our society.
The natural restraints include such things as occasional unfavorable terrain for dams. Other
restraints include disagreements about who should develop a resource or the resulting changes in
environmental conditions. Often, other developments already exist where a hydroelectric power
facility would require a dam and reservoir to be built.

Finding solutions to the problems imposed by natural restraints demands extensive engineering
efforts. Sometimes a solution is impossible, or so expensive that the entire project becomes
impractical. Solution to the societal issues is frequently much more difficult and the costs are far
greater than those imposed by nature. Developing the full potential of hydropower will require
consideration and coordination of many varied needs.

Hydropower, the Environment, and Society

It is important to remember that people, and all their actions, are part of the natural world. The
materials used for building, energy, clothing, food, and all the familiar parts of our day-to-day
world come from natural resources.

Our surroundings are composed largely of the Abuilt environment@ -- structures and facilities
built by humans for comfort, security, and well-being. As our built environment grows, we grow
more reliant on its offerings.
To meet our needs and support our built environment, we need electricity which can be
generated by using the resources of natural fuels. Most resources are not renewable; there is a
limited supply. In obtaining resources, it is often necessary to drill oil wells, tap natural gas
supplies, or mine coal and uranium. To put water to work on a large scale, storage dams are
needed.

We know that any innovation introduced by people has an impact on the natural environment.
That impact may be desirable to some, and at the same time, unacceptable to others. Using any
source of energy has some environmental cost. It is the degree of impact on the environment
that is crucial.

Some human activities have more profound and lasting impacts than others. Techniques to mine
resources from below the earth may leave long-lasting scars on the landscape. Oil wells may
detract from the beauty of open, grassy fields. Reservoirs behind dams may cover picturesque
valleys. Once available, use of energy sources can further impact the air, land, and water in
varying degrees.

People want clean air and water and a pleasing environment. We also want energy to heat and
light our homes and run our machines. What is the solution?
The situation seems straightforward: The demand for electrical power must be curbed or more
power must be produced in environmentally acceptable ways. The solution, however, is not so
simple.

Conservation can save electricity, but at the same time our population is growing steadily.
Growth is inevitable, and with it the increased demand for electric power.

Since natural resources will continue to be used, the wisest solution is a careful, planned
approach to their future use. All alternatives must be examined, and the most efficient,
acceptable methods must be pursued.

Hydroelectric facilities have many characteristics that favor developing new projects and
upgrading existing powerplants:

-- Hydroelectric powerplants do not use up limited nonrenewable resources to make electricity.

-- They do not cause pollution of air, land, or water.
-- They have low failure rates, low operating costs, and are reliable.
--They can provide startup power in the event of a system wide power failure.

As an added benefit, reservoirs have scenic and recreation value for campers, fishermen, and
water sports enthusiasts. The water is a home for fish and wildlife as well. Dams add to
domestic water supplies, control water quality, provide irrigation for agriculture, and avert
flooding. Dams can actually improve downstream conditions by allowing mud and other debris
to settle out.

Existing powerplants can be uprated or new powerplants added at current dam sites without a
significant effect on the environment. New facilities can be constructed with consideration of
the environment. For instance, dams can be built at remote locations, powerplants can be placed
underground, and selective withdrawal systems can be used to control the water temperature
released from the dam. Facilities can incorporate features that aid fish and wildlife, such as
salmon runs or resting places for migratory birds.

In reconciling our natural and our built environments there will be tradeoffs and compromises.
As we learn to live in harmony as part of the environment, we must seek the best alternatives
among all ecologic, economic, technological, and social perspectives.

The value of water must be considered by all energy planners. Some water is now dammed and
can be put to work to make hydroelectric power. Other water is presently going to waste. The
fuel burned to replace this wasted energy is gone forever and, so, is a loss to our Nation.

The longer we delay the balanced development of our potential for hydropower, the more we
unnecessarily use up other vital resources.
HYDROPOWER -- FROM PAST TO PRESENT

By using water for power generation, people have worked with nature to achieve a better
lifestyle. The mechanical power of falling water is an age-old tool. As early as the 1700's,
Americans recognized the advantages of mechanical hydropower and used it extensively for
milling and pumping. By the early 1900's, hydroelectric power accounted for more than 40
percent of the Nation=s supply of electricity. In the West and Pacific Northwest, hydropower
provided about 75 percent of all the electricity consumed in the 1940's. With the increase in
development of other forms of electric power generation, hydropower=s percentage has slowly
declined to about 10 percent. However, many activities today still depend on hydropower.

Niagra Falls was the first of the American hydroelectric power sites developed for major
generation and is still a source of electric power today. Power from such early plants was used
initially for lighting, and when the electric motor came into being the demand for new electrical
energy started its upward spiral.

The Federal Government became involved in hydropower production because of its commitment
to water resource management in the arid West. The waterfalls of the Reclamation dams make
them significant producers of electricity. Hydroelectric power generation has long been an
integral part of Reclamation=s operations while it is actually a byproduct of water development.
In the early days, newly created projects lacked many of the modern conveniences, one of these
being electrical power. This made it desirable to take advantage of the potential power source in
water.

Powerplants were installed at the dam sites to carry on construction camp activities.
Hydropower was put to work lifting, moving and processing materials to build the dams and dig
canals. Powerplants ran sawmills, concrete plants, cableways, giant shovels, and draglines.
Night operations were possible because of the lights fed by hydroelectric power. When
construction was complete, hydropower drove pumps that provided drainage or conveyed water
to lands at higher elevations than could be served by gravity-flow canals.

Surplus power was sold to existing power distribution systems in the area. Local industries,
towns, and farm consumers benefited from the low-cost electricity. Much of the construction
and operating costs of dams and related facilities were paid for by this sale of surplus power,
rather than by the water users alone. This proved to be a great savings to irrigators struggling to
survive in the West.

Reclamation=s first hydroelectric powerplant was built to aid construction of the Theodore
Roosevelt Dam on the Salt River about 75 miles northeast of Phoenix, Arizona. Small
hydroelectric generators, installed prior to construction, provided energy for construction and for
equipment to lift stone blocks into place. Surplus power was sold to the community, and citizens
were quick to support expansion of the dam=s hydroelectric capacity. A 4,500-kW powerplant
was constructed and, in 1909, five generators were in operation, providing power to pump
irrigation water and furnishing electricity to the Phoenix area.
Power development, a byproduct of water development, had a tremendous impact on the area=s
economy and living conditions. Power was sold to farms, cities, and industries. Wells pumped
by electricity meant more irrigated land for agriculture, and pumping also lowered water tables
in those areas with waterlogging and alkaline soil problems. By 1916, nine pumping plants were
in operation irrigating more than 10,000 acres. In addition, Reclamation supplied all of the
residential and commercial power needs of Phoenix. Cheap hydropower, in abundant supply,
attracted industrial development as well. A private company was able to build a large smelter
and mill nearby to process low-grade copper ore, using hydroelectric power.

The Theodore Roosevelt Powerplant was one of the first large power facilities constructed by the
Federal Government. Its capacity has since been increased from 4,500 kW to more than 36,000
kW.

Power, first developed for building Theodore Roosevelt Dam and for pumping irrigation water,
also helped pay for construction, enhanced the lives of farmers and city dwellers, and attracted
new industry to the Phoenix area.

During World War I, Reclamation projects continued to provide water and hydroelectric power
to Western farms and ranches. This helped feed and clothe the Nation, and the power revenues
were a welcome source of income to the Federal Government.

The depression of the 1930's, coupled with widespread floods and drought in the West, spurred
building of great multipurpose Reclamation projects such as Grand Coulee Dam on the
Columbia River, Hoover Dam on the lower Colorado River, and the Central Valley Project in
California. This was the Abig dam@ period, and the low-cost hydropower produced by those
dams had a profound effect on urban and industrial growth.

World War II -- and the Nation=s need for hydroelectric power soared. At the outbreak of the
war, the Axis Nations had three times more available power than the United States. The demand
for power was identified in this 1942 statement on AThe War Program of the Department of the
Interior@:

AThe war budget of $56 billion will require 154 billion kWh of electric energy annually
for the manufacture of airplanes, tanks, guns, warships, and fighting material, and to
equip and serve the men of the Army, Navy, and Marine Corps.@

Each dollar spent for wartime industry required about 2-3/4 kWh of electric power. The demand
exceeded the total production capacity of all existing electric utilities in the United States. In
1942, 8.5 billion kWh of electric power was required to produce enough aluminum to meet the
President=s goal of 60,000 new planes.
Hydropower provided one of the best ways for rapidly expanding the country=s energy output.
Addition of more powerplant units at dams throughout the West made it possible to expand
energy production, and construction pushed ahead to speed up the availability of power. In
1941, Reclamation produced more than five billion kWh, resulting in a 25 percent increase in
aluminum production. By 1944, Reclamation quadrupled its hydroelectric power output.

From 1940 through 1945, Reclamation powerplants produced 47 billion kWh of electricity,
enough to make:

69,000 airplanes
79,000 machine guns
5,000 ships
5,000 tanks
7,000,000 aircraft bombs, and
31,000,000 shells

During the war, Reclamation was the major producer of power in areas where needed resources
were located -- the West. The supply of low-cost electricity attracted large defense industries to
the area. Shipyards, steel mills, chemical companies, oil refineries, and automotive and aircraft
factories . . . all needed vast amounts of electrical power. Atomic energy installations were
located at Hanford, Washington, to make use of hydropower from Grand Coulee.

While power output of Reclamation projects energized the war industry, it was also used to
process food, light military posts, and meet needs of the civilian population in many areas.

With the end of the war, powerplants were put to use in rapidly developing peacetime industries.
Hydropower has been vital for the West=s industries which use mineral resources or farm
products as raw materials. Many industries have depended wholly on Federal hydropower. In
fact, periodic low flows on the Columbia River have disrupted manufacturing in that region.

Farming was tremendously important to America during the war and continues to be today.
Hydropower directly benefits rural areas in three ways:

-- It produces revenue which contributes toward repayment of irrigation facilities, easing

the water users= financial burden.

-- It makes irrigation of lands at higher elevations possible through pumping facilities.

-- It makes power available for use on the farm for domestic purposes.

Reclamation delivers 10 trillion gallons of water to more than 31 million people each year. This
includes providing one out of five Western farmers (140,000) with irrigation water for 10 million
farmland acres that produce 60% of the nation's vegetables and 25% of its fruits and nuts.
Some of the major hydroelectric powerplants built by Reclamation are located at:

-- Grand Coulee Dam on the Columbia River in Washington (the largest single
electrical generating complex in the United States)
-- Hoover Dam on the Colorado River in Arizona-Nevada
-- Glen Canyon Dam on the Colorado River in Arizona
-- Shasta Dam on the Sacramento River in California
-- Yellowtail Dam on the Bighorn River in Montana

Grand Coulee has a capacity of more than 6.8 million kW of power. Hydropower generated at
Grand Coulee furnishes a large share of the power requirements in the Pacific Northwest.

Reclamation is one of the largest operators of Federal power-generating stations. The agency
uses some of the power it produces to run its facilities, such as pumping plants. Excess
Reclamation hydropower is marketed by either the Bonneville Power Administration or the
Western Area Power Administration and is sold first to preferred customers, such as rural
electric power co-cooperatives, public utility districts, municipalities, and state and Federal
agencies. Any remaining power may be sold to private electric utilities. Reclamation generates
enough hydropower to meet the needs of millions of people and power revenues exceed $900
million a year. Power revenues are returned to the Federal Treasury to repay the cost of
constructing, operating, and maintaining projects.
CONCLUSION

Reclamation is helping to meet the needs of our country, and one of the most pressing needs is
the growing demand for electric power. Reclamation powerplants annually generate more than
42 billion kWh of hydroelectric energy, which is enough to meet the annual residential needs of
14 million people or the energy equivalent of more than 80 million barrels of crude oil.

The deregulation of wholesale electricity sales and the imposition of requirements for open
transmission access are resulting in dramatic changes in the business of electric power
production in the United States. This restructuring increases the importance of clean, reliable
energy sources such as hydropower.

Hydropower is important from an operational standpoint as it needs no "ramp-up" time, as many

combustion technologies do. Hydropower can increase or decrease the amount of power it is
supplying to the system almost instantly to meet shifting demand. With this important
load-following capability, peaking capacity and voltage stability attributes, hydropower plays a
significant part in ensuring reliable electricity service and in meeting customer needs in a market
driven industry. In addition, hydroelectric pumped storage facilities are the only significant way
currently available to store electricity.

Hydropower=s ability to provide peaking power, load following, and frequency control helps
protect against system failures that could lead to the damage of equipment and even brown or
blackouts. Hydropower, besides being emissions-free and renewable has the above operating
benefits that provide enhanced value to the electric system in the form of efficiency, security,
and most important, reliability. The electric benefits provided by hydroelectric resources are of
vital importance to the success of our National experiment to deregulate the electric industry.

Water is one of our most valuable resources, and hydropower makes use of this renewable
treasure. As a National leader in managing hydropower, Reclamation is helping the Nation meet
its present and future energy needs in a manner that protects the environment by improving
hydropower projects and operating them more effectively.
 GLOSSARY

Alternating Current An electric current changing regularly from one direction to the
opposite.

Ampere The common unit of measurement of electrical current.

Baseload The minimum constant amount of load connected to the power

system over a given time period, usually on a monthly, seasonal, or
yearly basis.

Baseload Plant A plant, usually housing high-efficiency steam-electric units,

which is normally operated to take all or part of the minimum load
of a system, and which consequently produces electricity at an
essentially constant rate and runs continuously. These units are
operated to maximize system mechanical and thermal efficiency
and minimize system operating costs.

Bus (buswork) A conductor, or group of conductors, that serve as a common

connection for two or more electrical circuits. In powerplants,
buswork comprises the three rigid single-phase connectors that
interconnect the generator and the step-up transformer(s).

Capability The maximum load that a generating unit, generating station, or

other electrical apparatus can carry under specified conditions for a
given period of time without exceeding approved limits of
temperature and stress.

Capacity The amount of electric power delivered or required for which a

generator, turbine, transformer, transmission circuit, station, or
system is rated by the manufacturer.

Circuit A conductor or a system of conductors through which electric

current flows.

Current (Electric) A flow of electrons in an electrical conductor. The strength or rate

of movement of the electricity is measured in amperes.

Dam A massive wall or structure built across a valley or river for storing
water.
Demand The rate at which electric energy is delivered to or by a system,
part of a system, or a piece of equipment. It is expressed in
kilowatts, kilovolt amperes, or other suitable units at a given
instant or averaged over any designated period of time. The
primary source of "demand" is the power-consuming equipment of
the customers.

Direct Current Electric current going in one direction only.

Distribution System The portion of an electric system that is dedicated to delivering

electric energy to an end user. The distribution system "steps
down" power from high-voltage transmission lines to a level that
can be used in homes and businesses.

Energy The capacity for doing work as measured by the capability of

doing work (potential energy) or the conversion of this capability
to motion (kinetic energy). Energy has several forms, some of
which are easily convertible and can be changed to another form
useful for work. Most of the world's convertible energy comes
from fossil fuels that are burned to produce heat that is then used
as a transfer medium to mechanical or other means in order to
accomplish tasks. Electrical energy is usually measured in kilowatt
hours and represents power (kilowatts) operating for some time
period (hours), while heat energy is usually measured in British
thermal units.

Generation (Electricity) The process of producing electric energy by transforming other

forms of energy; also, the amount of electric energy produced,
expressed in watthours (Wh).

Generator A machine that converts mechanical energy into electrical energy.

Head The difference in elevation between the headwater surface above

and the tailwater surface below a hydroelectric powerplant under
specified conditions.

Horsepower A unit of rate of doing work equal to 33,000 foot pounds per
minute or 745.8 watts (Brit.), 746 watts (USA), or 736 watts
(Europe).

Hydroelectric Power Electric current produced from water power.

Hydroelectric Powerplant A building in which turbines are operated, to drive generators, by

the energy of natural or artificial waterfalls.
Kilowatt (kW) Unit of electric power equal to 1,000 watts or about 1.34
horsepower. For example, it's the amount of electric energy
required to light ten 100-watt light bulbs.

Kilowatt-Hour (kWh) The unit of electrical energy commonly used in marketing electric
power; the energy produced by 1 kilowatt acting for one hour. Ten
100-watt light bulbs burning for one hour would consume one
kilowatt hour of electricity.

Kinetic Energy Energy which a moving body has because of its motion, dependent
on its mass and the rate at which it is moving.

Load (Electric) The amount of electric power delivered or required at any specific
point or points on a system. The requirement originates at the
energy-consuming equipment of the consumers.

Megawatt A unit of power equal to one million watts. For example, it's the
amount of electric energy required to light 10,000 100-watt bulbs.

Ohm The unit of measurement of electrical resistance. The resistance of

a circuit in which a potential difference of one volt produces a
current of one ampere.

Peakload The greatest amount of power given out or taken in by a machine

or power distribution system in a given time.

Power Mechanical or electrical force or energy. The rate at which work

is done by an electric current or mechanical force, generally
measured in watts or horsepower.

Pumped-Storage A plant that usually generates electric energy during peak-load

Hydroelectric Plant periods by using water previously pumped into an elevated storage
reservoir during off-peak periods when excess generating capacity
is available to do so. When additional generating capacity is
needed, the water can be released from the reservoir through a
conduit to turbine generators located in a power plant at a lower
level.

Rated Capacity That capacity which a hydro generator can deliver without
exceeding mechanical safety factors or a nominal temperature rise.
In general this is also the nameplate rating except where turbine
power under maximum head is insufficient to deliver the
nameplate rating of the generator.
Reservoir An artificial lake into which water flows and is stored for future
use.

Turbine A machine for generating rotary mechanical power from the

energy of a stream of fluid (such as water, steam, or hot gas).
Turbines convert the kinetic energy of fluids to mechanical energy
through the principles of impulse and reaction, or a mixture of the
two.

Volt (V) The unit of electromotive force or potential difference that will
cause a current of one ampere to flow through a conductor with a
resistance of one ohm.

Watt (W) The unit used to measure production/usage rate of all types of
energy; the unit for power. The rate of energy transfer equivalent
to one ampere flowing under a pressure of one volt at unity power
factor.

Watthour (Wh) The unit of energy equal to the work done by one watt in one hour.
Unit III

L3 – BIO-MASS AND BIO-ENERGY

Bio-mass is renewable organic material that comes from plants and animals. Biomass was the largest
source of total annual U.S. energy consumption until the mid-1800s. Biomass continues to be an
important fuel in many countries, especially for cooking and heating in developing countries. The use
of biomass fuels for transportation and for electricity generation is increasing in many developed
countries as a means of avoiding carbon dioxide emissions from fossil fuel use. In 2019, biomass
provided nearly 5 quadrillion British thermal units (Btu) and about 5% of total primary energy use in
the United States. Biomass contains stored chemical energy from the sun. Plants produce biomass
through photosynthesis. Biomass can be burned directly for heat or converted to renewable liquid and
gaseous fuels through various processes.

Biomass sources for energy include:

• Wood and wood processing wastes—firewood, wood pellets, and wood chips, lumber and furniture
mill sawdust and waste, and black liquor from pulp and paper mills

• Agricultural crops and waste materials—corn, soybeans, sugar cane, woody plants, and algae, and
crop and food processing residues

• Biogenic materials in municipal solid waste—paper, cotton, and wool products, and food, yard, and
wood wastes

• Animal manure and human sewage

Converting biomass to energy
Biomass is converted to energy through various processes, including

• Direct combustion (burning) to produce heat

• Thermochemical conversion to produce solid, gaseous, and liquid fuels

• Chemical conversion to produce liquid fuels

• Biological conversion to produce liquid and gaseous fuels

Direct combustion is the most common method for converting biomass to useful energy. All biomass
can be burned directly for heating buildings and water, for industrial process heat, and for generating
electricity in steam turbines.

Thermochemical conversion of biomass includes pyrolysis and gasification. Both are thermal
decomposition processes in which biomass feedstock materials are heated in closed, pressurized vessels
called gassifiers at high temperatures. They mainly differ in the process temperatures and amount of
oxygen present during the conversion process.

• Pyrolysis entails heating organic materials to 800–900oF (400– 500 oC) in the near complete absence
of free oxygen. Biomass pyrolysis produces fuels such as charcoal, bio-oil, renewable diesel, methane,
and hydrogen.

• Hydrotreating is used to process bio-oil (produced by fast pyrolysis) with hydrogen under elevated
temperatures and pressures in the presence of a catalyst to produce renewable diesel, renewable
gasoline, and renewable jet fuel.

• Gasification entails heating organic materials to 1,400–1700oF (800–900oC) with injections of

controlled amounts of free oxygen and/or steam into the vessel to produce a carbon monoxide and
hydrogen rich gas called synthesis gas or syngas. Syngas can be used as a fuel for diesel engines, for
heating, and for generating electricity in gas turbines. It can also be treated to separate the hydrogen
from the gas, and the hydrogen can be burned or used in fuel cells. The syngas can be further processed
to produce liquid fuels using the Fischer–Tropsch process.

A chemical conversion process known as transesterification is used for converting vegetable oils,
animal fats, and greases into fatty acid methyl esters (FAME), which are used to produce biodiesel.

Biological conversion includes fermentation to convert biomass into ethanol and anaerobic digestion
to produce renewable natural gas. Ethanol is used as a vehicle fuel. Renewable natural gas—also called
biogas or biomethane—is produced in anaerobic digesters at sewage treatment plants and at dairy and
livestock operations. It also forms in and may be captured from solid waste landfills. Properly treated
renewable natural gas has the same uses as fossil fuel natural gas. Researchers are working on ways to
improve these methods and to develop other ways to convert and use more biomass for energy.

How much biomass is used for energy?

In 2019, biomass provided nearly 5 quadrillion British thermal units (Btu), equal to about 5% of total
primary energy use in the United States. Of that 5%, about 46% was from wood and wood derived
biomass, 45% was from biofuels (mainly ethanol), and 9% was from the biomass in municipal wastes.
The amounts, in trillion British thermal units (TBtu), and percentage shares of total U.S. biomass energy
use by consuming sector in 2019 were

• Industrial —2,451 TBtu—49%

• Transportation —1,410 TBtu—28%

• Residential —529 TBtu—11%

• Electric power —448 TBtu—9%

• Commercial—146 TBtu—3%

The industrial and transportation sectors account for the largest amounts, in terms of energy content,
and largest percentage shares of total annual U.S. biomass consumption. The wood products and paper
industries use biomass in combined heat and power plants for process heat and to generate electricity
for their own use. Liquid biofuels (ethanol and biomass-based diesel) account for most of the
transportation sector's biomass consumption.

The residential and commercial sectors use firewood and wood pellets for heating. The commercial
sector also consumes, and in some cases, sells renewable natural gas produced at municipal sewage
treatment facilities and at waste landfills.

The electric power sector uses wood and biomass-derived wastes to generate electricity for sale to the
other sectors.
 BIO ENERGY
Bioenergy refers to electricity and gas that is generated from organic matter, known as biomass. This
can be anything from plants and timber to agricultural and food waste – and even sewage. The term
bioenergy also covers transport fuels produced from organic matter. But on this page, we’re just
focusing on how it’s used to generate electricity and carbon neutral gas. How does biomass generate
energy? When biomass is used as an energy source, it’s referred to as ‘feedstock’. Feedstocks can be
grown specifically for their energy content (an energy crop), or they can be made up of waste products
from industries such as agriculture, food processing or timber production. Dry, combustible feedstocks
such as wood pellets are burnt in boilers or furnaces. This in turn boils water and creates steam, which
drives a turbine to generate electricity.

Is bioenergy environmentally friendly and sustainable?

Burning biomass does release carbon dioxide. But, because it releases the same amount of carbon that
the organic matter used to produce it absorbed while it grew, it doesn’t break the carbon balance of the
atmosphere.

In comparison, burning fossil fuels releases carbon dioxide that has been locked away for millions of
years, from a time when the earth’s atmosphere was very different. This adds more carbon dioxide into
our current atmosphere, breaking the carbon balance.

The overall sustainability and environmental benefits of bioenergy can depend on whether waste
feedstocks or energy crops are being used.
Waste feedstocks

Waste biomass gives off gases naturally when it rots. If this happens in a place where there’s no oxygen,
such as food waste buried deep within landfill, it can generate methane which is a much stronger
greenhouse gas than carbon dioxide. Instead of allowing methane to vent into the atmosphere, breaking
it down in a sealed tank allows it to be captured and burnt. Burning methane leaves you with carbon
dioxide and water, which are better for the environment.

Energy crops

Energy crops are grown specifically for generating energy. So, unlike capturing methane from waste,
there isn’t an argument that burning them reduces greenhouse gases which would have been given off
anyway. However, energy crops can still be low carbon if they are managed sustainably. For example,
when energy crops are burnt, equivalent crops should be planted that will absorb the same amount of
carbon that was released by burning.

Does Good Energy use bioenergy?

Yes. 20% of our renewable electricity is from biogeneration and 6% of the gas we supply is biomethane
(this will be 10% from 1st April 2020). Our biogeneration procurement policy makes sure that we only
contract with bioenergy generators that have sustainable and responsible generation practices.
To keep our energy supply as clean and ethical as possible, we only source bioenergy that meets the
following requirements:

• It must come from waste or sustainable sources

• Land must be used sustainably, respecting natural habitats and biodiversity

• Energy crops must not impact food production

• Animal welfare must be respected

• Transportation of biofuels should be minimised

• Biofuel generators should be highly efficient and able to put waste heat to good use

• Impacts on air quality must be appropriately managed

• Green Gas must be certified under the Green Gas Certification Scheme

SYNTHETIC FUEL DEFINITONS

Synthetic Feed stocks: Any feedstock NOT produced from conventional crude petroleum.

Synthetic Fuels: A generic name given to hydrocarbon fuels produced from natural gas, coal or
biomass.

Resource can be any burnable material:

• Coal

• Biomass

• Natural gas

A number of synthetic fuel's definitions include fuels produced from biomass, industrial and municipal
waste. The definition of synthetic fuel may also consist of oil sands and oil shale as synthetic fuel's
sources and in addition to liquid fuels also gaseous fuels are covered.

SYNTHETIC FUEL FROM BIOMASS

Biomass can be any plant derived organic matter, available on a renewable basis including:

• Dedicated energy crops and trees

• Agricultural food and feed crops

• Agricultural crop wastes • Wood wastes and residues

• Aquatic Plants

• Animal wastes

• Municipal wastes and other waste materials.

BIOMASS USAGE
• Leading source of renewable energy in U.S. since 1999.

• Provides fuel, heat, electricity, chemicals and other products.

• Agricultural and forestry residues most common resource for generating electricity and process steam.

• Increases use of crops for biodiesel and ethanol.

SUSTAINABILITY
One concern commonly raised about the development of synthetic fuels plants is sustainability.
Fundamentally, transitioning from oil to coal or natural gas for transportation fuels production is a
transition from one inherently depleteable geologically limited resource to another. One of the positive
defining characteristics of synthetic fuels production is the ability to use multiple feedstocks (coal, gas,
or biomass) to produce the same product from the same plant. This provides a path forwards to a
renewable fuel source and possibly more sustainable, even if the plant originally produced fuels solely
from coal, making the infrastructure forwards-compatible even if the original fossil feedstock runs out.
 Geothermal Energy
--- a renewable energy source for electricity generation ---
Outlines
 Introduction
 Geothermal Reservoirs
 Extraction & Uses of Geothermal Energy
 Electricity Generation
 Cost
 Geothermal Energy in India
 Pros and Cons
 Conclusion
 Introduction
 What is Geothermal Energy ?

It’s simply the heat energy of

the earth, generated by various
natural processes, such as:

1. heat from when the planet formed

and accreted, which has not yet been
lost
2.decay of radioactive elements
3.friction

etc……
The deeper you go, the hotter it is !!!
Geothermal Reservoirs
 Reservoirs can be suspected in the areas where we find :-
Geyser
Boiling mud pot
Volcano
Hot springs
Geothermal Reservoirs (cont.)
 The rising hot water &
steam is trapped in
permeable & porous
rocks to form a
geothermal reservoir.
 Reservoirs can be
discovered by
 testing the soil
 analyzing
underground temperature
Extraction & uses
 The heat energy can be brought to earth surface by
following ways..
 directly from hot springs/ geysers
 geothermal heat pump

 Uses are broadly classified as:-

direct use
indirect use
Direct use of Geothermal Energy
 Hot springs, used as spas.
 Heating water at fish farms.
 Provide heat for buildings.
 Raising plants in greenhouses,
drying crops.
 Provides heat to
industrial processes.
Indirect use of Geothermal Energy
 Electricity Generation:
Electricity Generation (cont.)
There are 3 types of power plants:-

 Dry steam power plant

Flash steam power plant
Binary cycle power plant
Dry Steam power plant
Dry Steam power plant (cont.)

 The oldest type of Geothermal power plant used.

 Geothermal reservoir containing pure steam is required.
 Pure dry steam drives turbine.
 Very rare type of geothermal power plant.
 Operating at California, Italy, and Japan.
Flash steam power plant
Flash steam power plant (cont.)
 Commonly used geothermal power plant.
 Geothermal reservoirs containing both hot water & steam
is required.
 Pressure changing system is required.
 Operating at Hawaii, Nevada, Utah & some other places
Binary cycle power plant
Binary cycle power plant (cont.)
 Does not use steam directly to spin turbines.
 Only the heat of the underground water is used.
 Vapourized hydrocarbons are used to spin the turbine.
 Hydrocarbons having lower boiling point such
as isopentane, isobutane and propane can be used.
 No harmful gas is emitted to the atmosphere because the
underground water is never disclosed to outside.
 This’s the worldwide accepted power plant.
Turbine & generator:-
Cost
 Direct use of geothermal energy is absolutely cheaper than
other energy sources.

 Cost of electricity generation depends upon certain factors:

Temperature and depth of resource
Type of resource (steam, liquid, mix)
Available volume of resource
Size and technology of plant
Cost (cont.)
 The initial investment is high.

 But after certain time period, the cost of electricity

becomes comparable to other resources of energy.

 US $0.05 to $0.08 (Rs. 2.772 to Rs. 4.4352) per kWh

 Once the capital cost is recovered, the price can decrease

to below US $0.05 (Rs 2.2772) per kWh
Geothermal Energy in India
 Geothermal Energy in India (cont)
 Geothermal provinces are estimated to produce 10,600 MW
of power (experts are confident only to the extent of 100
MW)
 Geothermal provinces in India: the Himalayas, Sohana, West
coast, Cambay, Son-Narmada-Tapi , Godavari, and Mahanadi
 Reykjavík Geothermal will assist Thermax to set up a pilot
project in Puga Valley, Ladakh (Jammu & Kashmir)
 First operational commercial geothermal power plant is likely
to come up in AP with a capacity of 25 MW by Geosyndicate
Pvt Ltd.
Advantages
 Available all the year around.
 Does not involve any combustion of fuel.
 Independent of weather
 Clean Resource – Very little emissions or
overall environmental impact.
 Economically Sound Alternative – The fuel is
free, rate / KWh likely to be competitive
 Overall, geothermal energy is a sustainable
resource.
Disadvantages
 Not widespread source of energy
 High installation costs
 Can run out of steam
 May release harmful gases
 Transportation
 Earthquakes
Conclusion
 Geothermal heating system can replace fossil fuel heating
system in a particular area.
 Annual costs for common heating purposes can be reduced
by more than 60%.
 Continued energy shortages have created added interest in
geothermal energy for power generation.
 Potential exists to provide all energy requirements in the
U.S
 Geothermal energy appears to be a partial solution to our
energy needs.
Wind was one of the earliest energy source used by sailing
ships.

Wind mills were developed by China, Persia and Afghanistan

to draw water for irrigation and grind grain about 2000 yrs ago.

The early work on generating electricity from windmills was

mostly done in Denmark.

At present Denmark and California have large wind turbine

cooperatives that sell electricity to government grid.

India is the third largest producer of wind energy in the world.

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Wind pumps and generators have been used in remote areas
of Australia and in other countries around the world for many
years.

More recently, wind turbo-generators on wind farms have

been providing electricity for cities and towns in more than a
dozen countries.

The United States of America and Denmark produce most of

the world's wind-generated electricity. Australia has some small
wind farms.

The largest of these is at Esperance in Western Australia.

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Tower mill
The tower mill appeared later than the post mill; it consists of a
usually circular, stationary body and a roof that rotates with the help
of a fantail.

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Post Mill
The mill body pivots on a vertical axis when a tail pole is activated by
the miller.

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Vertical-axis Wind Turbine Horizontal-axis Wind Turbine
The most common type of wind turbine;
Wind turbine whose axis is
its axis positions itself in the direction of
perpendicular to the wind. the wind.

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Production Of Electricity From Wind Energy
Wind farms contain a group of wind turbines, which are driven by the wind;
they produce electricity and carry it along the transmission and distribution
networks to which they are connected.

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Jul
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Advantages
It is a renewable source of energy and causes no pollution
It can generate power in remote areas where other sources are not
available.
It is easily manageable and cheap
While wind-generated electricity does not cause air pollution, it does
cost more to produce than electricity generated from coal.
It can water pumps, flour mills and electric turbines
Although large area of land is required for setting up wind farms but
less than 1% of the total area is covered by the turbine bases, the
foundations and the access roads. The rest of the area can be used
for farming or grazing.
Setting wind mills offshore reduces their demand for land and visual
impact
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Limitations and Environmental impact
Wind does not always blow with required intensity or in desired
direction all the year round
Wind energy is not available in all the regions
While wind generators don't produce any greenhouse gas emissions
they may cause vibrations, noise and visual pollution.
They also cause bird kills, effect on TV Reception, and aesthetic
impact
Wind is an intermittent source of energy and requires some other
backup or standby electric source.
High wind speed is needed to power wind generators effectively.

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L-6 Unit 3
Polymer membrane electrolyte (PEM) fuel cells
Polymer electrolyte membrane (PEM) fuel cells, which convert the chemical energy stored in
hydrogen fuel directly and efficiently to electrical energy with water as the only by product,
have the potential to reduce our energy use, pollutant emissions, and dependence on fossil fuels.
Proton-exchange membrane fuel cells (PEMFC), also known as polymer electrolyte membrane
(PEM) fuel cells, are a type of fuel cell being developed mainly for transport applications, as
well as for stationary fuel-cell applications and portable fuel-cell applications. Their
distinguishing features include lower temperature/pressure ranges (50 to 100 °C) and a special
proton-conducting polymer electrolyte membrane. PEMFCs generate electricity and operate
on the opposite principle to PEM electrolysis, which consumes electricity. They are a leading
candidate to replace the aging alkaline fuel-cell technology, which was used in the Space
Shuttle.
Applications:
The major application of PEM fuel cells focuses on transportation primarily because of their
potential impact on the environment, e.g. the control of emission of the green-house gases
(GHG). Other applications include distributed/stationary and portable power generation. Most
major motor companies work solely on PEM fuel cells due to their high power density and
excellent dynamic characteristics as compared with other types of fuel cells. Due to their light
weight, PEMFCs are most suited for transportation applications. PEMFCs for buses, which use
compressed hydrogen for fuel, can operate at up to 40% efficiency. Generally PEMFCs are
implemented on buses over smaller cars because of the available volume to house the system
and store the fuel. Technical issues for transportation involve incorporation of PEMs into
current vehicle technology and updating energy systems. Full fuel cell vehicles are not
advantageous if hydrogen is sourced from fossil fuels; however, they become beneficial when
implemented as hybrids. There is potential for PEMFCs to be used for stationary power
generation, where they provide 5 kW at 30% efficiency; however, they run into competition
with other types of fuel cells, mainly SOFCs and MCFCs. Whereas PEMFCs generally require
high purity hydrogen for operation, other fuel cell types can run on methane and are thus more
flexible systems. Therefore, PEMFCs are best for small scale systems until economically
scalable pure hydrogen is available. Furthermore, PEMFCs have the possibility of replacing
batteries for portable electronics, though integration of the hydrogen supply is a technical
challenge particularly without a convenient location to store it within the device.
L-7 Unit 3

Solid oxide fuel cell

A solid oxide fuel cell (or SOFC) is an electrochemical conversion device that produces electricity
directly from oxidizing a fuel. Fuel cells are characterized by their electrolyte material; the SOFC has
a solid oxide or ceramic electrolyte. Advantages of this class of fuel cells include high combined heat
and power efficiency, long-term stability, fuel flexibility, low emissions, and relatively low cost. The
largest disadvantage is the high operating temperature which results in longer start-up times and
mechanical and chemical compatibility issues.
There are many types of fuel cells, but they all share a single common design and process: a negative
electrode (an anode) and a positive electrode (a cathode) sandwiched around an electrolyte undergo an
electrochemical reaction to produce an electric current. The electrolyte is an ion conductor that moves
ions either from the fuel to the air or the air to the fuel to create electron flow.
Electrolytes vary among fuel cell types, and depending on the electrolyte deployed, the fuel cells
undergo slightly different electrochemical reactions, use different catalysts, run on different fuels, and
achieve varying efficiencies.
For decades, experts have considered solid oxide fuel cells (SOFCs) to hold the greatest potential of
any fuel cell technology due to their extremely high electrical efficiencies and low operating costs. In
fact, SOFCs are likely to emerge as the fastest growing fuel cell segment over the next six years.
Bloom Energy is a leader in the SOFC industry, leveraging the technology to convert fuel into electricity
at one of the highest efficiencies of any power solution today. The SOFCs generate primary power
through Bloom Energy Servers, commonly known as ‘Bloom Boxes.’
So how do Bloom Energy’s SOFCs react with fuel and oxygen to generate electricity so efficiently?

Electrochemical Reaction: From Chemical Energy to Electrical Energy

The electrolyte in SOFCs is unique; it’s a solid, ceramic material. The anode and cathode electrodes in
Bloom’s fuel cells are special proprietary inks that coat the electrolyte. Unlike other types of fuel cells,
no precious metals, corrosive acids, or molten materials are required to create Bloom’s SOFCs.

Operating at high temperatures inside the Energy Server (‘Bloom Box’), ambient air enters the cathode
side of the fuel cell.
Meanwhile, steam mixes with fuel (natural gas or biogas) entering from the anode side to produce
reformed fuel. As the reformed fuel crosses the anode, it attracts oxygen ions from the cathode. The
oxygen ions combine with the reformed fuel to produce electricity, steam, and carbon dioxide.
The steam that is produced in the reaction is recycled to reform the fuel. Because of this recycling
process, Bloom’s fuel cells do not require water during normal operation. Conversely, thermal power
plants require significant amounts of water for cooling. In fact, the number one use of water in the U.S.
is for cooling power plants. To produce one megawatt per hour for a year, thermoelectric power
generation for the U.S. grid withdraws approximately 156 million gallons of water more than our
platform.
The electrochemical process also generates the heat required to keep the fuel cell warm and drive the
reforming reaction process. As long as fuel and air are available, the fuel cells continue converting
chemical energy into electrical energy, providing an electric current directly at the fuel cell site.
SOFCs are the first (and smallest) component manufactured for the Bloom Energy Server. The
SOFCs are then combined to form a fuel cell stack and multiple stacks create a Server module (or
‘Bloom
Box’). Four to six modules combine to form one 200-300kW Energy Server that produces power in a
footprint roughly equivalent to that of half a standard 30-foot shipping container.
Because the Servers come together like building blocks, the modular design allows any number of
systems to be clustered together in various configurations to form solutions from hundreds of
kilowatts to many tens of megawatts.

Fuel Cells: A Blooming Power Solution

The Fuel Cell Industry Review estimates fuel cell shipments have grown at a 44% CAGR, or
compounded annualized growth rate, since 2014 - paralleling the rise of solar and wind energy in earlier
decades. Klippenstein notes steadily-improving electrical efficiency and compatibility with natural gas
infrastructure have underpinned solid oxide fuel cells’ own 24% CAGR, and that commercial readiness
has been shown not only through Bloom Energy’s numerous Energy Servers, but through the estimated
70,000 household SOFCs currently deployed through Japan’s Ene-Farm program. What’s driving this
rapid growth? For starters, there’s a growing demand for energy diversification and the employment of
alternative energy sources. In a post-climate change world where the threats of rising carbon emissions,
extreme weather events, and a vulnerable grid are more pressing than ever, businesses and communities
are demanding three things: more affordable electricity, more resilient power, and cleaner energy. Fuel
cells are uniquely positioned to satisfy this niche.
The generation of electricity through an electrochemical reaction rather than fuel combustion means
fuel cells are much cleaner and more sustainable than conventional combustion-based technology.
Fuel cells are clean in two ways: first, they avoid emitting harmful criteria air pollutants, including
nitrogen oxide and sulfur dioxide, which have been linked to severe respiratory diseases and poor air
quality worldwide, and second, they reduce greenhouse gas emissions as compared to the grid.
For example, the SOFCs that the ‘Bloom Box’ uses can run on natural gas, renewable biogas, or
hydrogen. When the ‘Bloom Box’ runs on natural gas, the CO2 that is generated during the
electrochemical process is 50% less than the carbon emissions generated by the U.S. grid. When the
‘Bloom Box’ runs on renewable biogas or hydrogen, emissions are carbon-neutral and zero-carbon,
respectively.
While fuel cells offer a way to address the causes of climate change by reducing emissions, they also
mitigate the consequences of climate change, including the more severe, frequent, and longer power
outages caused by unprecedented weather events, like the Midwest polar vortex. Because fuel cells
generally produce power on-site, right where it’s consumed, they offer increased electrical reliability
and improved energy security. Distributed power generation avoids the vulnerabilities of conventional
transmission and distribution lines, providing a necessary buffer against power outages due to natural
disasters, cyber threats, and other man-made disasters. Additionally, utilizing the below-ground pipeline
infrastructure avoids the kind of cascading failures that often occur on the electrical grid.
Fuel cells are also ideal building blocks for microgrids; businesses that need to continue operating when
the grid goes down like hospitals and healthcare facilities, high tech manufacturing centers, data centers,
and retail stories are increasingly embracing microgrids with fuel cell tech for more reliable power.
Fuel cells are continually proving to be the best combination of efficiency, resiliency, and sustainability
in the alternative energy generation landscape, and therefore are the leading power generation
technology for businesses and communities.

SOFC Applications
SOFCs are being considered for a wide range of applications, such as working as power systems for
trains, ships and vehicles; supplying electrical power for residential or industrial utility
SOFC Advantages and Disadvantages
SOFCs have a number of advantages due to their solid materials and high operating temperature.
1. Since all the components are solid, as a result, there is no need for electrolyte loss maintenance and
also electrode corrosion is eliminated.
2. Since SOFCs are operated at high temperature, expensive catalysts such as platinum or ruthenium
are totally avoided.
3. Also because of high-temperature operation, the SOFC has a better ability to tolerate the presence
of impurities as a result of life increasing
4. Costs are reduced for internal reforming of natural gas. 5. Due to high-quality waste heat for
cogeneration applications and low activation losses, the efficiency for electricity production is
greater than 50 and even possible to reach 65
5. Releasing negligible pollution is also a commendable reason why SOFCs are popular today
However, there are also some disadvantages in existence for deteriorating the performance of SOFCs.
1. SOFCs operate high temperature, so the materials used as components are thermally challenged
2. The relatively high cost and complex fabrication are also significant problems that need to be solved