Chapter Three – Concrete Two ____

CHAPTER THREE
CONCRETE II
After mixing the constituent materials, operations such as transporting, placing, compacting and finishing
of fresh concrete can all considerably affect the properties of hardened concrete. It is important that the
constituent materials remain uniformly distributed within the concrete mass during the various stages of its
handling and that full compaction is achieved or else, the durability and strength of the hardened concrete
may be adversely affected.

3.0 PROPERTIES OF FRESH CONCRETE

There are basically two properties of fresh concrete
1. Workability
2. Stability

3.1.1 Workability
Workability generally implies the ease with which a concrete mix can be handled from the mixer to its
finally compacted shape. The three main characteristics of the property are;
1. Consistency: this is a measure of the wetness or fluidity or the relative mobility or ability of fresh
concrete or mortar to flow. It is measured by slump.
2. Mobility; the ease with which a given mix can flow into and completely fill the formwork or mould.
3. Compactability; the ease with which a given mix can be fully compacted to remove all trapped air.

Workability is that property of freshly mixed concrete or mortar which determines the ease and
homogeneity with which it can be mixed, placed, consolidated and finished.

Workability of a mix depends on

1. the characteristics and relative proportions of the constituent materials
2. the methods employed for conveyance and compaction
3. the size, shape, and surface roughness of the formwork or moulds
4. the quantity and spacing of reinforcement

3.1.1.1 Measurement of Workability

The following tests may be used:

CIV 2203: Civil Engineering Materials – Lecture Notes 2019/2020 ABFM

 Chapter Three – Concrete Two ____
1. Slump test
2. Compacting Factor test
3. Remoulding test
4. Vebe test
5. Flow Table test
6. Ball Penetration test
7. Nasser’s K-tester
8. Two Point test

Slump Test (BS 1881 Part 102: 1983)

This is the most common test and is the measure of the consistency of the concrete.
Procedure: The mould for the slump test is a frustum of a cone 300mm high. It is filled with concrete in
three layers each layer being tamped 25 times with a standard 16mm diameter steel rod which is rounded at
the end. The top surface is struck off by means of a sawing and rolling motion of the tamping rods.
Immediately after filling the cone is slowly lifted and the unsupported concrete ‘slumps’. The decrease in
the height of the slumped concrete is called slump. Three types of slump are usually observed.

True Slump Shear Slump Collapse Slump

True slump is a general reduction in Characteristic of leaner mixes Associated with very wet mixes and
height of the mass without any indicating lack of cohesion due to indicates poor quality concrete
breaking up. harsh mixtures resulting from segregation of the
constituents.
Characteristic of cohesive, rich mixes

Figures 3.1 a, b, c: True, Shear and Collapse Slumps

Limitations
1. The slump bears no unique relation to the workability
2. Slump occurs under the self weight of the concrete only and does not reflect behaviour under
dynamic conditions such as vibration.

CIV 2203: Civil Engineering Materials – Lecture Notes 2019/2020 ABFM

Chapter Three – Concrete Two ____
3. The results are unreliable for lean mixtures
4. Only suitable for concrete in which the maximum aggregate size does not exceed 40mm.

Compacting Factor Test (BS 1881 Part 103)

It measures the degree of compaction imparted to a concrete for a standard amount of work. It is
appropriate for concrete with a maximum aggregate size of 40mm. It offers a reasonably direct indication
of the degree of workability.

The apparatus consists of two hoppers each in the shape of a frustum of a cone and one cylinder arranged
one above the other. The compacting factor is the ratio of the partially compacted weight to the fully
compacted weight and is always less than one. This test is particularly useful for drier mixes for which the
slump test is unsatisfactory.

Limitations
1. It is appropriate for concrete with a maximum size of aggregate of 40mm
2. The procedure for placing concrete in the measuring cylinder is totally different from that employed
on site.

The Vebe Test (Consistometer test)

The time taken to transform a standard cone of concrete to a compacted flat cylindrical mass by means of
vibration and is measured in seconds to the nearest 0.5 seconds.

The treatment of concrete in this test is comparable to the method of compacting concrete in practice and is
sensitive to changes in consistency, mobility and compactability. Thus the results are reliable and it is
suitable for a wide range of mixes. It is more commonly used in the Pre-cast concrete industry.

Limitations
1. Its accuracy tends to decrease with increasing maximum size of aggregates, above 20mm the test
results become somewhat unreliable.
2. The apparatus is expensive and requires electric power supply.
3. It also requires greater experience in handling thus is more suitable for the Pre-cast concrete
industry than for general site use.

CIV 2203: Civil Engineering Materials – Lecture Notes 2019/2020 ABFM

Chapter Three – Concrete Two ____

3.1.1.2 Factors Affecting Workability

1. Cement and Water
The workability of the concrete decreases as the fineness of the cement increases due to the increased
specific surface. With the exception of gypsum, neither the composition of cement nor any variations in
water quality used for concrete mixing have significant effect on workability.

2. Admixtures
Water reducing and air-entraining agents improve on the workability of concrete. The extent of the increase
is dependent on the type and amount of the admixture used.

3. Aggregate
If the water content and the other mix proportions are fixed, workability is governed by the total surface
area of the aggregate i.e. maximum size, its grading, shape and texture. Workability decreases as the
specific surface increases. Other conditions being equal, workability is increased when the maximum size
of aggregate increases, the aggregate particles become rounded or the overall grading becomes coarser.

Influence of Aggregate Mix Proportions: Increasing the proportion of aggregates relative to the cement will
decrease the workability of the concrete. Also, any additional fines will require more cement in the mix. An
‘oversanded’ mix will be permeable and less economical. A concrete deficient of fines will be difficult to
finish and prone to segregation.

4. Ambient Conditions
Environmental factors that may cause reduction in workability are;
 Temperature: increasing temperature will cause an increase in the rate of hydration and evaporation.
Both of these effects lead to a loss of workability.
 Humidity
 Wind velocity

5. Time
For a given concrete and set of ambient conditions, the rate of loss of workability with time depends on the
conditions of its handling from mixing to its compaction.

CIV 2203: Civil Engineering Materials – Lecture Notes 2019/2020 ABFM

Chapter Three – Concrete Two ____

3.1.2 Stability
This refers to the cohesion of the mix i.e. its resistance to segregation. Fresh concrete should have a
composition such that its constituent materials remain uniformly distribution in the concrete during both
the period of mixing and compaction. The two most common features of an unstable concrete are
segregation and bleeding.

3.1.2.1 Segregation
It is defined as the separation of the constituent materials of a heterogeneous mixture so that their
distribution is no longer uniform. There is a tendency for large and fine particles in a mix to become
separated. The primary causes of segregation are;
1. Differences in the size of the particles: Large maximum particle size (25mm) and their proportions.
2. Specific gravity of the mix.
3. Water/Cement ratio
4. Particle shape and texture

Segregation adversely affects the strength and durability of hardened concrete.

3.1.2.2 Bleeding
During compaction and until cement paste has hardened, there is a natural tendency for the solid particles
to move downwards and displace some water (depending on size and specific gravity) which rises to the
surface and may leak through the joints in the formwork. This is known as bleeding.

Bleeding causes the concrete at and near the top surface to be much weaker and less durable than the rest of
the concrete. Salt may crystallize on the surface which will affect bonding with additional lifts of concrete.
This formation should always be removed by brushing and washing the surface. Also, water pockets may
form under large aggregates and reinforcing bars reducing the bond. Bleeding can be controlled by
ensuring that concrete is not over vibrated or by use of rich mixes and air-entraining agents.

3.2 PROPERTIES OF HARDENED CONCRETE

3.2.1 Strength
Defined as the maximum load or stress the hardened concrete can carry or withstand. There are two types
of strength:

CIV 2203: Civil Engineering Materials – Lecture Notes 2019/2020 ABFM

Chapter Three – Concrete Two ____
1. Compressive strength (BS 1881: Part 116)
This is a maximum compressive load that the concrete can carry per unit area. A 150mm cube is used
to determine the compressive strength. It is cured in water at 20 ± 2oC and crushed by loading it at a
constant rate of stress increase on immediate removal from the curing tank

2. Tensile strength (BS 1881: Part 117)

It is measured indirectly by the split cylinder test. A cylinder is diametrically loaded in compression
along its entire length which induces tensile stresses over the loaded diametrical plain.
When the cylinder splits along the loaded diameter, the magnitude of the induced tensile stress fcr is
given by;
fcr = 2F/Пld where F is the maximum applied load, l is the cylinder length and d, the cylinder diameter.

Another indirect measurement is given by the modulus of rupture fcr (BS 1881: Part 118), where fcr =
FL/bd2 where F is the maximum applied load, l is the distance between the supports; b is the beam breadth
and d the beam depth at the section where failure occurs.
The tensile strength of concrete is usually taken to be about a tenth of its compressive strength. Modulus of
rupture fcr may be taken as 0.7√fcu where fcu is the cube strength in Nmm-2 and direct tensile strength as
0.45√fcu.

Factors influencing strength

1. Constituent materials: Cement, water aggregate, admixtures
2. Methods of preparation
3. Curing: moisture, temperature, time
4. Test condition: specimen shape and size, specimen moisture content and temperature, method of
loading.

3.2.2 Deformation
The deformation may be load dependent or load independent. The deformation under an applied load is
called elastic deformation. Concrete also continues to deform with time, under constant load, a situation
referred to as Creep. Modulus of Elasticity E = Stress/Strain = / where stress is load per unit area and
strain is the elastic deformation per unit length.

CIV 2203: Civil Engineering Materials – Lecture Notes 2019/2020 ABFM

Chapter Three – Concrete Two ____
Load independent effects include, various types of shrinkage and thermal expansion strain. Shrinkage may
be plastic, autogenous or drying. Where movement of concrete is restrained, shrinkage will produce tensile
forces within the concrete that may cause cracking.

3.2.3 Durability
It is defined as its resistance to deterioration processes that may occur as a result of interaction with its
environment (external) or between the constituent materials, or their reaction with contaminants present
(internal).

3.2.4 Permeability
This is the flow property of concrete which quantitatively characterises the ease with which a fluid passes
through it, under the action of a pressure differential. This property depends on the pressure gradient and
on the size of the capillary pores in the concrete.

3.2.5 Shrinkage
Note: Look up Non-destructive testing of concrete by the Schmidt Hammer test, Resonance method, Ultra-
Sonic Pulse method.

3.3 DESIGN, MIX AND CONTROL

Types of Concrete
1. Ordinary Mass Concrete (Produced on site)
2. Ordinary Reinforced Concrete (Produced on site)
3. Pre-cast concrete (produced only in factories)
a. Normally reinforced concrete
b. Pre-stressed concrete
i. Pre-tensioned
ii. Post-tensioned

3.3.1 Ordinary Mass Concrete

Purpose of design: To choose and proportion the constituent to produce economical concrete which will
have the desired physical properties both when fresh and when hardened.

CIV 2203: Civil Engineering Materials – Lecture Notes 2019/2020 ABFM

Chapter Three – Concrete Two ____

Variables to be controlled;
1. Water/Cement ratio: Compressive strength decreases as the water/cement ratio increases
2. Maximum aggregate size
2. Aggregate grading
4. Aggregate/Cement ratio
5. Use of admixtures

Desirable mix requirements:

1. Practical Mix
2. Economical combination of materials
3. Necessary plasticity
4. Workability
5. Strength and durability
6. Absorption volume changes
7. Thermal and acoustic properties

3.3.2 Mix Design

3.3.2.1 Mixing or Batch or Proportioning Materials
Concrete can be mixed or batched using two methods
a. By volume
b. By mass

A. By Volume
* An open box of known dimensions to facilitate handling, called a gauge box is used.
* For example a 1:2:4 mix means that a gauge box is filled with cement once, twice with fine aggregate
and four times with coarse aggregate. Water is added as required. The strength of concrete is inversely
proportional to the amount of water added per kilogram of cement (water/cement theory).
* One bag of cement has a volume of 0.03 m3 and a mass of 50kg.
* Volume mixing is used mainly for mass concrete works, un-reinforced foundations, lintels, limited
beams etc.

CIV 2203: Civil Engineering Materials – Lecture Notes 2019/2020 ABFM

Chapter Three – Concrete Two ____
* Expressions of the ratios can vary e.g.
i) 1:2:4 means one part cement to two parts fine aggregate to four parts coarse
ii) 1: 5 means one part cement to five parts all-in-aggregate

B. By Mass
* Involves the use of a balance which is linked to a dial gauge which gives the exact mass of the
materials as they are placed on the scales.
* This is the better method since it has
(i) Greater accuracy
(ii) The balance can be attached to the mixing machine.

3.3.2.2 Types of Mixing

There are basically two types;
a) Hand mixing
* It is carried out on a clean, hard surface
* Materials are thoroughly mixed in the dry state before water is added.
* Water should be added slowly (preferably using a rose head until a uniform colour is achieved)

b) Machine mixing
* The material ingredients are turned over in the mixer for at least 2 minutes after adding water.

3.3.2.3 Some Common prescriptive Mixes

1. 1:10, not a strong mix but suitable for filling weak pockets in excavations and for blinding.
2. 1:8, suitable for paths and paving
3. 1:6, strong mix suitable for mass concrete foundation, paths and paving
4. 1:3:6, weakest mix (Concrete Grade 15 – 15 MPa)
5. 1:2:4, strong mix, practically impervious to water and used especially in reinforced concrete work.
(Concrete Grade 20 – 20 MPa).
6. 1:1½:3 – Grade 25
3.3.2.4 Non-prescriptive mix design (Weight and Absolute Volume Methods of proportioning
Concrete Mixes) – 10 basic steps discussed in class in the following lecture

CIV 2203: Civil Engineering Materials – Lecture Notes 2019/2020 ABFM

Chapter Three – Concrete Two ____

3.4 TESTS ON HARDENED CONCRETE

3.4.1 Compressive Strength Test
* It is generally the most common test and is performed on a cylindrical specimen, whose height is twice
the diameter dimension. The chosen dimensions depend on the maximum size of the aggregate used.
* The test can be done any time after hardening but is generally done at 7 days and 28 days after curing.
* The moulds are placed in a compression testing machine and worked to rupture.

3.4.2 Flexural (Bending) Strength Test

* The test specimens are moulded in the shape of a beam with a length of at least 50 mm greater than
three times the depth.
* The mould is filed in two equal layers and the edges levelled with a wood float or metal float.
* After the specified curing period, the specimens are tested by loading to rupture.

4.5 PRECAST CONCRETE

Definition
These are concrete structural members cast and cured in a factory rather than on site. They are also called
Prefabricated, reinforced concrete.

Advantages:
Pre-cast concrete has gained popularity for a number of reasons:
1. Production process: is rigidly controlled (i.e. design, mix, casting, curing etc) resulting in a concrete
of consistently high quality.
2. Cost reduction: shuttering and temporary works are eliminated thus reduced construction costs.
3. Mass production: possible for various types of components, wall panels, floors, columns, stairs, etc.
4. Weathering effects are eliminated since the pre-casting is done in factories.
5. Dead loads are minimised during production.

General Types
a) Normally Reinforced Pre-cast Concrete

10

CIV 2203: Civil Engineering Materials – Lecture Notes 2019/2020 ABFM

Chapter Three – Concrete Two ____

 Are designed according to accepted reinforced concrete practices.

 The reinforcement is made as a unit and placed in position in the completed form.
b) Pre-stressed Pre-cast Concrete
These are units where engineered stresses have been placed before being subjected to a load. There are two
types, Pre-tensioned and Post tensioned.

i) Pretensioning
The reinforcement in form of high tensile steel strands is first stretched through the form or casting bed
between two end anchorages or abutments; concrete is then poured and encases the stretched strands.
Hence built-in tensile strength is created (slight arch or camber).

Plain Concrete Beam Pre-tensioned Concrete Beam

Unloaded

Loaded

Cracks

ii) Post Tensioning

 Involves placing and curing a pre-cast member containing normal reinforcement but with
the addition of a number of channels through which post stressing cables or rods may be
passed.
 Post tensioning is usually done when the member being produced is very large or when one
or very few special or particular units are needed for a job e.g. when the unit needed is over
15 meters long or over 7 tonnes in weight.

Beam Hydraulic
Cable Jack
Anchor 11
Plates
CIV 2203: Civil Engineering Materials – Lecture Notes 2019/2020 ABFM