HOLISM FIRST CAUSE OR HIGHEST PRINCIPLE EPISTEMOLOGY

The theory that parts of a whole are in intimate interconnection, such that they A principle that from which something proceeds in any manner whatsoever. It deals with the study of the nature and scope of knowledge and justified beliefs.
cannot exist independently of the whole, or cannot be understood without reference It came from the two Greek words “episteme” (knowledge) and “logos” to study.
to the whole, which is thus regarded as greater than the sum of its parts. Holism is A. PRINCIPLE OF IDENTITY
often applied to mental states, language, and ecology. Whatever is is; and whatever is not is not; everything is what it is. Everything is its EPISTEMOLOGY
own being, and not being is not being. It explains:
DOING PHILOSOPHY B. PRINCIPLE OF NON-CONTRADICTION 1. How we know what we know?
One of the key elements in many educational reform is diversity, difference, and It is impossible for a thing to be and not to be at the same time, and at the same 2. How can we find out what we wish to know?
choice or other proposals that establish separate curricular routes for different group respect. 3. How can we differentiate truth from falsehood?
or individuals. C. PRINCIPLE OF EXCLUDED MIDDLE
A thing is either is or is not; everything must be either be or not be; between being EPISTEMOLOGY
DIVERSITY and not being, there is no middle ground possible. Two significant domains:
Diversity is the difference that makes each person unique. Sometimes, we have D. PRINCIPLE OF SUFFICIENT REASON 1. RATIONALISM – views reason as the chief source of knowledge.
difficulty in accepting others because they are different from us. yet , such behavior Nothing exists without a sufficient reason for its being and existence. “Cogito, ergo sum”
can limit a person’s opportunity or can make the person feel excluded or aggrieved. – Rene Descartes
Early philosophers studied aspects of the natural and human world that later became
MEANING OF PHILOSOPHY separate sciences -- astronomy, physics, psychology, and sociology. 2. EMPIRICISM – asserts that all of a person’s knowledge comes from his/her five
Etymologycally, the word “Philosophy” comes from two Greek Words, philo, meaning On the other hand, certain basic problems --- the nature of universe, the standard of senses.
“to love”, and sophia meaning “wisdom. Philosophy originally meant “love of jusctice, the validity of knowledge, the correct application of reason, and the criteria Locke provided 2 forms of experience:
wisdom” and in a broad sense of wisdom, is still the goal of philosophy. of beauty have been the domain of philosophy from its beginnings to the present. a. Sensation
b. Reflection
FOUR THINGS ARE TO BE CONSIDERED. FIVE BRANCHES OF PHILOSOPHY
1. Science 1. Metaphysics LOGIC
2. Natural Light of Reason 2. Ethics  It is important to underpin that Logic does not provide us knowledge of the
3. Study of all Things 3. Epistemology world directly, for logic is considered as a tool and therefore does not
4. First cause or highest Principle 4. Logic contribute directly to our thoughts.
Principle of Identity 5. Aesthetics  Logic is not interested in what we know regarding subjects. Its concern rather,
Principle of non-contradiction is the truth or validity of our arguments regarding such objects.
Principle of excluded Middle METAPHYSICS
Principleof sufficient reason Derived from the Greek word “metaphysika” (beyond physics). This branch of AESTHETIC
Philosophy deals with the true nature of reality. Deals with the nature and appreciation of art, beauty, and good taste. It encompasses
SCIENCE “IS THE WORLD REAL OR MERELY AN ILLUSION? all the responses people may solicit from all forms of art, be it negative or positive.
It is called science because the investigation is systematic. It is an organized body of  Plato's Cave
knowledge just like any other sciences. AESTHETIC
METAPHYSICS As a branch of philosophy, one should consider the importance of Aesthetics because
NATURAL LIGHT OF REASON It aims to draw the demarcation line between appearance and reality. of:
Philosophy investigates things, not by using any other laboratory instrument, or  How did the world come to be? 1. It vitalizes our knowledge.
investigative tools, neither on the basis of supernatural revelation, otherwise it  What does it mean to be a person? 2. It helps us to live more deeply and richly.
becomes theology. Instead, the philosopher uses his natural capacity to think or  Is there an afterlife? 3. It brings us in touch with our culture.
simply, human reason alone or the so-called unaided reason
ETHICS SPECIAL BRANCHES OF PHILOSOPHY
STUDY OF ALL THINGS Also called “moral philosophy.” It came from the Greek word ethos which means 1) Philosophy of Science
This sets distinction between philosophy from other sciences. All other sciences custom or habit. 2) Philosophy of State
concern themselves with a particular object of investigation. The reason is that, It is a discipline which aims to synthesize the concepts of right or wrong behavior. 3) Philosophy of Education
philosophy is not one dimensional or partial. In short, a philosopher does not limit 4) Philosophy of Law
himself to a particular object or inquiry. He questions almost anything, if not ETHICS 5) Philosophy of Language
everything. Modern philosophers have divided it to three domains;
1. METAETHICS – deals with the origin and meaning of ethical concepts. Finally, “ in attaining wisdom, there is a need for emptying.” Emptying can be
2. NORMATIVE ETHICS – concerned with the setting of certain standards. intellectual. Without the virtue of emptying, you will only learn partial
3. APPLIED ETHICS – attempts to apply theories to situations in real life. It involves philosophy that is knowledge-based, without becoming holistic.
examining controversial issues.
 APPEAL TO PEOPLE (ARGUMENTUM AD POPULUM) – urging the hearer to
VARIOUS VIEWPOINTS OF PHILOSOPHY  To be human, to be conscious, is to be free to imagine, free to choose, and accept a position because majority of the people hold to it.
responsible for one’s life - (Solomon & Higgins 2010) Example: “Everybody wants him/her to be president, we should support
A. Expanding Our Philosophical Frames: Western and Non-Western Traditions him/her too.”
- Each society or culture has it’s own ideas of itself, a definition of what’s 3. POSTMODERNISM: ON CULTURES
important in life, and it’s own notions of what the world is like in general terms:  Postmodernism has come into vogue as the name for a rather diffuse APPEAL TO TRADITION – trying to get someone to accept something because it
thus, each society or culture can be said to have its own “philosophy” (Quito, family of ideas and trends that in significant respect rejects, challenges, or has been done or believed for a long time.
1991). aims to supersede “modernity”. Example: “We have been doing this since time immemorial, therefore this is the
 Reality cannot be known nor described objectively by Postmodernists. right thing to do.”
Postmodernists believe that humanity should come at truth beyond the
PHILOSOPHIZING rational to the non-rational elements of human nature, including spiritual. BEGGING THE QUESTION (PETITION PRINCIPII) – assuming the thing you are
Philosophizing is to think or express oneself in a philosophical manner. It trying to prove is true
considers or discusses a matter from a philosophical standpoint. 4. ANALYTIC TRADITION Example: “I am pretty because my mom said I am pretty, and I believe her.”
 “Can Language objectively describe truth?”
1. PHENOMENOLOGY: ON CONSCIOUSNESS  Analytic philosophy is the conviction that to some significant degree, FALLACY OF COMPOSITION – assuming that what is true of the part is true to the
 This focuses on careful inspection and description of phenomena or philosophical problems, puzzles, and errors are rooted in language. whole
appearances, defined as any object of conscious experience, that is that  It also argued that in order to solve or avoided that problems, we should Example: “Hydrogen (H) is air.
which we are conscious of. (Johnston, 2016) have a sound understanding of language and careful attention to its Oxygen (O) is air.
workings. Therefore, H20 is air.”
 It was founded by Edmund Husserl. It is the scientific study of essential
structures of consciousness. 5. LOGIC AND CRITICAL THINKING: TOOLS IN REASONING FALLACY OF DIVISION – assuming that what is true of the whole is true for the
 “Every act of consciousness is directed at some object or another, possibly a Logic is centered in the analysis and construction of arguments. Logic and critical parts.
material object or an ideal object.” thinking serve as paths to freedom from half-truths and deceptions. Critical Example: “Her entire family is a family of beauty queens. I’m sure she will be a
thinking is distinguishing facts and opinions or personal feelings. beauty queen too.”
 This method uncovers the essential structures of experience and its object.
e.g time consciousness TWO BASIC TYPES OF REASONING: FALLACY OF EQUIVOCATION – using the same term in an argument in different
1. mathematics 1. DEDUCTIVE – draws conclusion from usually one broad judgment. places but the word has different meanings.
2. moral and religious consciousness 2. INDUCTIVE – based from observations in order to make generalizations. Example: “Her grandmother loves to eat apples but she is the apple of the eye of
3. own perception her grandmother. I’m sure her grandmother will have a hard time eating her.”
4. experiences with our own body 6. FALLACIES
 The phenomenological standpoint can be achieved through a series of  A fallacy is a defect in an argument other than its having false premises. To HASTY GENERALIZATION – one applies a belief to a larger population than he
phenomenological “REDUCTIONS”. detect fallacies, it is required to examine the argument’s content. should based on the information that he has.
a. Epoche or suspension  These arguments somehow could sound convincing and be very persuasive Example: “My father smoked four packs of cigarettes a day since age fourteen
b. Focuses on essential meaning of consciousness in order to shape other’s opinion and deliver flawed judgment and reason. and lived until age sixty-nine. Therefore, smoking really can’t be that bad for
you.”
2. EXISTENTIALISM: ON FREEDOM AGAINST THE PERSON (ARGUMENTUM AD HOMINEM) – attacking the
 One’s search for truth might be based on one’s attitude or outlook. Take individual person instead of the argument. FALSE CAUSE (POST HOC) – You presumed that a real or perceived relationship
for instance, existentialism. It is more of an outlook or attitude supported Example: “You are irritatingly ugly, that is why you cannot be promoted.” between things means that one is the cause of the other.
by diverse doctrines centered on certain common themes. Example: “Every day, I eat cereal for breakfast. One time, I had a muffin instead,
APPEAL TO FORCE (ARGUMENTUM AD BACULUM) – telling the hearer that and there was a major earthquake in my city. I've eaten cereal ever since.
 THESE THEMES INCLUDE: something bad will happen to him/her if he/she does not accept the argument.
1. Human condition or the relation of the individual to the world Example: “You have to pass this text message to 10 people or else you will FACT is a piece of information having objective reality which is acknowledged by
2. The difference between the being of person and the being of other kinds of receive bad luck.” the greater whole.
things TRUTH is a proposition believed to be the absolute reality.
3. Human freedom APPEAL TO PITY (ARGUMENTUM AD MISERICORDIAM – urging the hearer to OPINION is a judgment based on personal convictions, which may or may not be
4. The significance of choice and decision in the absence of certainty accept the argument based upon an appeal to emotions, sympathy, etc. factual, truth or false.
5. The concreteness and subjectivity of life as lived, against abstractions and Example: “I cannot take the exam. You have to consider, my dog just died.”
false objectifications.