ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY BOOK BY GORDON FULLER

Lecturer : Prof. Dr.Hasratuddin, M.Pd.

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BILINGUAL MATHEMATIC EDUCATION 2019

1. Dhea Anisah Putri 4193111017

2. Elfina Siahaan 4191111046
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FACULTY OF MATHEMATICS AND NATURAL SCIENCES
MEDAN STATE UNIVERSITY
2020
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ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY

by

GORDON FULLER

Professor of Mathematics

Texas Technologycal College

1954

ADDISON-WESLEY PUBLISHING COMPANY, Inc.

CAMBRIDGE 42, MASS.

 3

Copyright 1954

ADDISON-WESLEY PUBLISHING COMPANY, Inc.

Printed in the United States of America

ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. THIS BOOK, OR PARTS THERE-

OF, MAY NOT BE REPRODUCED IN ANY FORM WITHOUT

WRITTEN PEMISSION OF THE PUBLISHERS.

Library of Congress Catalog No. 54-5724

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ADDISON-WESLEY MATHEMATICS SERIES

ERIC REISSNER, Consulting Editor

Bardell and Spitzbart—COLLEGE ALGEBRA

Dadourian—PLANE TRIGONOMETRY

Davis—MODERN COLLEGE GEOMETRY

Davis—THE TEACHING OF MATHEMATICS

Fuller—ANALYTIC GEOMETRY

Gnedenko and Kolmogorov—LIMIT DISTRIBUTIONS FOR SUMS OF

INDEPENDENT RANDOM VARIABLES

Kaplan—ADVANCED CALCULUS

Kaplan—A FIRST COURSE IN FUNCTIONS OF A COMPLEX VARIABLE

Meserve— FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS OF ALGEBRA

Menroe— INTRODUCTION TO MEASURE AND INTEGRATION

Perlis—THEORY OF MATRICES

Stabler—AN INTRODUCTION TO MATHEMATICAL THOUGHT

Struik—DIFFERENTIAL GEOMETRY

Struik—ELEMENTARY ANALYTIC AND PROJECTIVE GEOMETRY

Thomas—CALCULUS

Thomas—CALCULUS AND ANALYTIC GEOMETRY

Wade—THE ALGEBRA OF VECTORS AND MATRICES

Wilkes, Wheeler, and Gill—THE PREPARATION OF PROGRAMS FOR AN

DIGITAL COMPUTER
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PREFACE

In recent years there has been a marked tendency in college mathematic

programs toward an earlier and more intensive use of the methods of calculus.
This change is made in response to the fact that college students are faced with
more and more applications of mathematics in engineering, physics, chemistry,
and other fields. There is a pressing need for a working knowledge of calculus as
early as possible. Consequently many teachers are making a close serutiny of the
traditional topics of freshman mathematics. This is done in an effort to determine
the material and emphasis which will lay the best foundation for the study of
calculus.
In the light of present needs, this analytic geometry is planned primarily as a
preparation for calculus. With this end in mind, a few of the usual topics are not
included and certain others are treated with brevity. The omitted material,
consisting of an appreciable amount of the geometry of circles and a number of
minor items, is not essential to the study of calculus. The time saved by cutting
traditional material provides opportunity for emphasizing the necessary basic
prinsiples and for introducing new concepts which point more directly toward the
calculus.
Students come to analytic geometry with a rather limited experience in
graphing. Principally they have dealt with the graphs of linier and certain
quadratic equations. Hence it seems well to let this be the starting point.
According, the first chapter deals with functions and graphs. In order that this part
shall go beyond a review of old material, the ideas of intercepts, symmetry,
excluded values, and asymptotes are considered.
Most students in algebra are told that the graph of a linear equation in two
variables is a straight line. Taking coqnizance of this situation, it appears logical
to proof directly from the equation that the graph of Ax + By + C = 0 is a straight
line. Having established this fact, the equation can be altered in a straight forward
procedure to yield various special forms. The normal form, however, receives
only incidental mention.
The transformation of coordinates concept is introduced preceding a
systematic study of conics. Taken early or late in the course, this is a difficult idea
 6

for the students. By its early use, however, the students may see that a general
second degree equation can be reduced to a simple form. Thus there is established
a logical basis for investigating conics by means of the simple equations.
Although empoying simple forms, the second degree equation is introduced
at variance with the traditional procedure. As with the linear equation, it seems
logical to build on the previous instruction given to the students. In algebra they
have drawn graphs of conics. The words circle, parabola, ellipse, and hyperbola
are familiar to many of them. In fact, some students can classify the type of conic
if the equation has no xy term. Tying in with this state of preparation, the conic
may naturally and logically be defined analytically rather than as the locus of
moving point. The equations then lend themselves to the establishment of various
geometric properties.
In harmony with the idea of laying a foundation for calculus, a chapter is
given to the use of the derivatives of polynominals and of negative integral
powers of a variable. Applications are made in constructing graphs, and some
maxima and minima problems of a practical nature are considered.
The chapter on curve fitting pplies the method of least aquares in fitting a
straight line to empirical data.
Many students come to calculus with little understanding of polar
coordinates, therefore polar coordinates are discussed quite fully, and there is an
abundance of problems.
The elements of solid analytic geometry are treated in two concluding
chapters. The first of these takes up quadric surfaces and the second deals with
planes and lines. This order is chosen because a class which takes only one of the
two chapters should preferably study the space illustrations of second degree
equation. Vectors are introduced and applied in the study of planes and lines. This
study is facilitated, of course, by the use of vectors, and a further advantage is
gained by giving the student a brief encounter with this valuable concept.
The six numerical tables provided in the Appendix, through brief, are fully
adequate to meet the needs which arise in the problems.
Answers to add-numbered problems are bound in the book. All of the
answers are avaible in pamphlet form to teachers.
 7

The book is written for a course of for a course of three semester hours.
While an exceptionally well prepared group of students will be able to cover the
entire book in a course of this length, there will be excess material for many
classes. It is suggested that omissions may be made from Chapters 7 and 8,
Sections 6-7, 9-8, 12-7, and 12-8.
The author is indebted to Professor B. H. Gere, Hamilton College, Professor
Morris Kline, New York University, and Professor Eric Reissner, Massachusetts
Institue of Technology. Each of these men read the manuscript at various stages of
its development and made numerous helpful suggestions for improvement.

January, 1954
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CONTENTS

CHAPTER 1. FUNCTIONS AND GRAPHS 11

1.1 Introduction 11
1.2 Rectangular coordinates 11
1.3 Variables and functions 13
1.4 Useful notation for functions 15
1.5 Graph of an equation 16
1.6 Aids in graphing 17
1.7 The graph of an equation in factored form 22
1.8 Intersections of graphs 24
1.9 Asymptotes 26
CHAPTER 2. FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS AND FORMULAS 32

2.1 Directed lines and segments 32

2.2 The distance between two points 33
2.3 Inclination and slope of a line 38
2.4 Angle between two lines 40
2.5 The mid-point of a line segment 44
2.6 Analytic proofs of geometric theorems 46
CHAPTER 3. THE STRAIGHT LINE 50

3.1 Introduction 50
3.2 The locus of a first degree equation. The equation 50
3.3 Special forms of the first degree equation 52
3.4 The distance from a line to a point 58
3.5 Families of lines 63
3.6 Family of lines through the intersection of two lines 65
CHAPTER 4. TRANSFORMATION OF COORDINATES 69

4.1 Introduction 69
4.2 Translation of axes 69
4.3 Rotation of axes75
4.4 Simplification of second degree equations 79
CHAPTER 5. THE SECOND DEGREE EQUATION 85

5.1 Introduction 85
5.2 The simplified equations of conics 86
5.3 The parabola 87
 9

5.4 The focus-directrix property of a parabola 89

5.5 The ellipse 94
5.6 The foci of an ellipse 96
5.7 The eccentricity of an ellipse 98
5.8 The hyperbola 101
5.9 The asymptotes of a hyperbola 103
5.10 Applications of conics105
5.11 Standard forms of second equation 107
5.12 The addition of ordinates 110
5.13 Identification of a conic 112
CHAPTER 6. THE SLOPE OF A CURVE 118

6.1 An Example 118

6.2 Limits 118
6.3 The derivative 120
6.4 Derivative formulas 121
6.5 The use of the derivative in graphing 122
6.6 Maximum and minimum points 125
6.7 Applications 133
CHAPTER 7. TRANSCENDENTAL FUNCTIONS137

7.1 Introduction 137

7.2 The trigonometric 137
7.3 The inverse trigonometric functions 140
7.4 The exponential curves 142
7.5 Logarithmic curves 143
7.6 The graph of the sum of two functions 145
CHAPTER 8. EQUATION OF CURVES AND CURVE FITTING 148

8.1 Equation of a given curve 148

8.2 Equation corresponding to empirical data 151
8.3 The method of least squares 152
8.4 Nonlinear fits 156
8.5 The power formula 157
8.6 The exponential and logarithmic formulas 158
CHAPTER 9. POLAR COORDINATES 163

9.1 Introduction 163

9.2 The polar coordinate system 163
9.3 Relations between rectangular and polar coordinates 164
9.4 Graphs of polar coordinate equations 167
9.5 Equations of lines and conics in polar coordinate forms 169
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9.6 Aids in graphing polar coordinate equations 173

9.7 Special types origin of equations 177
9.8 Intersections of polar coordinate curves 181
CHAPTER 10. PARAMETRIC EQUATIONS 185

10.1Introduction 185
10.2Parametric equations of the circle and ellipse 186
10.3The graph of parametric equations 188
10.4The path of a projectile 192
10.5The cycloid 194
CHAPTER 11. SPACE COORDINATE AND SURFACES 199

11.1Space coordinates 199

11.2The locus of an equation 200
11.3Cylinder surfaces 201
11.4The general linear equation 204
11.5Second degree equations 205
11.6quadric Surfaces 207
CHAPTER 12. Vector and Planes and Lines 216

12.1Vectors 216
12.2Operations on vectors 217
12.3vectors in rectangular coordinate plane 219
12.4Vectors in space 222
12.5The scalar product of two vectors 226
12.6The equation of a plane 231
12.7The equations of a line 237
12.8Direction angles and direction cosines 241
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CHAPTER 1

FUNCTIONS AND GRAPHS

1-1 Introduction. Previous to the seventeenth century, algebra and

geometry were largely distinct mathematical sciences, each having been
developed independently of the other. In 1637, however, a French mathematician
and philosopher, René Descartes, published his La Géométrie, which introduced a
device for unifying these two branches of mathematics. The basic feature of this
new process, now called analytic geometry, is the use of a coordinate system. By
means of coordinate systems algebraic methods can be applied powerfully in the
study of geometry, and perhaps of still greater importance is the advantage gained
by algebra through the pictorial representation of algebraic equations. Since the
time of Descartes analytic geometry has had a tremendous impact on the
development of mathematical knowledge. And today analytic methods enter
vitally into the diverse theoretical and practical applications of mathematics.
1-2 Rectangular coordinates. We shall describe the rectangular coordinate
system which the student has previously met in elementary algebra and
trigonometry. This is the most common coordinate system and is sometimes
called the rectangular Cartesian system in honor of Descartes.
Draw two perpendicular lines meeting at O (Fig. 1-1). The point O is called the
origin and the lines are called the axes, OX the x-axis and OY is the y-axis. The x-
axis is usually drawn horizontally and is frequently referred to as the horrrizontal
axis, and the y-axis is called the vertical axis. The axes divide their plane into four
parts called quadrants. The quadrants are numbered I, 1I, 1I, and IV, as in Fig. 1-
1. Next select any convenient unit of length and lay off distances from the origin
along the axes. The distances to the right along the x-axis are defined as positive
and those to the left are taken as negative. Similarly, distances upward along the
y-axis are defined as positive and those downward are called negative.
 12

The position of any point P in the plane may be definitely indicated by giving its
distances from the axes. The distance from the y-axis to P is called the abscissa of
the point, and the distance from the x-axis is called the ordinate of the point. The
abscissa is positive if the point is to the right of the y-axis, and negative if the
point is to the left of the y-axis. The ordinate is positive if the point is above the x-
axis, and negative if the point is below the x-axis. The abscissa of a point on the y-
axis is zero and the ordinate of a point on the x-axis is zero. The two distances,
abscissa and ordinate, are called the coordinates of the point. The coordinates are
indicated by writing the abscissa first and enclosing both numbers by parentheses.
For example, P(−2,3), or just (−2,3), stands for the point whose abscissa is −2
and whose ordinate is 3.
To plot a point of given coordinates means to measure the proper distances
from the axes and to mark the point thus determined. Points can be more readily
and accurately plotted by the use of coordinate paper, that is, paper ruled off into
small squares. It is easy to plot a point whose coordinates are distances from the
axes to an intersection of two rulings. For other coordinate values the point is not
at a corner of one of the small squares and its position within or on the side of the
square must be estimated. If coordinate is an irrational number, a decimal
approximation is used in plotting the point.
 13

We assume that to any pair of real numbers (coordinates) there corresponds

one definite point of the coordinate plane. Conversely, we assume that to each
point of the plane there corresponds one definite pair of coordinates. This relation
of points in a plane and pairs of real numbers is called a one-to-one
correspondence.
EXERCISE 1-1
1. Plot the points whose coordinates are
( 4,3 ) , ( 4 ,−3 ) , (−4,3 ) , (−4 ,−3 ) ,(6,0),(0 ,−2) , and (0,0).
2. Plot the points whose coordinates are

( 12 , 34 ) ,( 35 , 52 ),( 113 ,−4) ,( 214 , 75 ) ,( √2 , 1) ,( √3 , √ 3 ) ,( √5 ,− √10 ). (See

Table I in the Appendix to obtain square roots.)

3. Draw the triangles whose vertices are (a) (2 ,−1),(0,4) ,(5,1); (b)
( 2 ,−3 ) ,( 4,4),(−2,3).
4. In which quadrant does a point lie if (a) both coordinates are positive,
(b) both are negative?
5. Where may a point lie if (a) its ordinate is zero, (b) its abscissa is zero?
6. What points have their abscissas equal to 2? For what points are the
ordinates equal to -2?
7. Where may a point be if (a) its abscissa is equal to its ordinate, (b) its
abscissa is equal to the negative of its ordinate?
8. Draw the right triangle and find the lengths of the sides and hypotenuse
if the coordinates of the vertices are (a) (-1,1 ¿ ,(3,1) ,(3 ,−2); (b)
(−5,3),(7,3),(7 ,−2).
9. Two vertices of an equilateral triangle are (3,0) and (−3,0). Find the
coordinates of the third vertex and the area of the triangle.
10. The points A (0,0), B5,1), and C(1,3) are vertices of a parallelogram.
Find the coordinates of the fourth vertex (a) if BC is a diagonal, (b) if
AB is a diagonal, (c) if AC is a diagonal.

1-3 Variables and functions. Numbers, and letters standing for numbers,
are used in mathematics. The numbers, of course, are fixed in value. A letter may
 14

stand for a fixed number which is unknown or unspecified. The numbers and
letters standing for fixed quantities are called constants. Letters are also used as
symbols which may assume different numerical values. When employed for this
purpose, the letter is said to be a variable.
For example, we may use the formula c=2 πr to find the circumference of
any circle of known radius. The letters c and r are variables; they play a different
role from the fixed numbers 2 and π. A quadratic expression in the variable x may
be represented by
a x 2+ bx+ c ,
where we regard a, b, and c as unspecified constants which assume fixed values
in a particular problem or situation.
Variable quantities are often related in such a way that one variable depends
on another for its values. The relationship of variables is a basic concept in
mathematics, and we shall be concerned with this idea throughout the book.

DEFINITION. If a definite value or set of values of a variable y is

determined when a variable x takes any one of its values, then y is said to be
a function of x.

Frequently the relation between two variables is expressed by an equation.

The equation c=2 πr expresses the relation between the circumference and radius
of a circle. When any positive value is assigned to r, the value of c is determined.
Hence c is a funetion of r. The radius is also a function of the circumference, since
r is determined when c is given a value.
Usually we assign values to one variable and find the corresponding values
of the other. The variable to which we assign values is called the independent
variable, and the other, the dependent variable.
The equation x 2− y +2=0 expresses a relation between the variables x and y.
Either may be regarded as the independent variable. Solving for y, the equation
becomes y=x 2 +2. In this form we consider x the independent variable. When
expressed in the form x=± √ y−2, we consider y the independent variable. We
notice from the equation y=x 2 +2 that y takes only one value for each value given
 15

to x. The variable y therefore is said to be a single-valued function of x. On the

other hand, taking y as the independent variable, we see that for each value given
to y there are two corresponding values of x. Hence x is a double-valued function
of y.
Restrictions are usually placed on the values which a variable may take. We
shall consider variables which have only real values. This requirement means that
the independent variable can be assigned only those real values for which the
corresponding values of the dependent variable are also real. The totality of values
which a variable may take is called the range of the variable. In the equation
c=2 πr, giving the circumference of a circle as a function of the radius, r and c
take only positive values. Hence the range for each variable consists of all positive
numbers. The equation
9−x2
y= √
x −2
expresses y as a function of x. The permissible values of x are those from −3 to 3
with the exception of 2. The value 2 would make the denominator zero, and must
be excluded because division by zero is not defined. This range of x may be
written symbolically as
−3 ≤ x <2 , 2< x ≤ 3

1-4 Useful notation for functions. Suppose that y=x 2−3 x +5. To indicate
that y is a function of x, we write the symbol y ( x ) . Using this notation, the
equation is written as
y ( x ) =x 2−3 x+5

The symbol y(x) is read y function of x, or, more simply, y of x. In a problem

where there are different functions of x we could designate them by different
letters such as f ( x ) , g ( x ) , and h( x ). Letters other than x, of course, could stand for
the independent variable.

If y (x ) stands for you a fountion of x, then y (2) means the value of the
function, or y, when x is given the of value of 2. Thus if

y ( x ) =x 2−3 x+5

Then
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y ( 2 )=22−3 ( 2 ) +5=3 ,

y (−1 )=−12−3 (−1 ) +5=9 ,

y ( s )=s2−3 ( s ) +5 ,

EXERCISE 1-2

1. Give the range of x, if x and y are to have only real velues :

1
(a) y= ;
( x−2)( x +3)
(b) y= √ x (1−x ) ;

(c) y=
√ x−3 .
x −4

Solve the equations in problems 2 and 3 for each variable in terms of the
order. Give the range of each variable and tell if each is a single-valued or double-
valued function of the other.

2. (a) x 2+ y 2=9; (b) x 2+ 2 y 2=2; (c) y 2=x 2.

3. (a) y 2=4 x ; (b) xy=5; (c) x 2− y 2=9.
4. If f ( x )=x 2−3 , find f ( 2 ) , f (−3 ) ,∧f (a) .
5. If g ( x )=x 3−x 2+1 , find g ( 0 ) , g (−1 ) ,∧g (8).
6. If f ( x )=x 3−1 , and g ( x )=x−1, find f ( x ) ÷ g ( x ).
7. If h ( s )=2 s+3, find h ( 2 l ), h(l+1), and h(l 2 ).
8. If y ( x ) =2 x 2−3 x +1, find y ( x−1 ).
x−1 1
9. If F ( x )= , find F ( 2 X ) , F ( x−3), and F ( ).
x +1 X
10. If f ( x )=3 x 4 +2 x 2−10 , show that f (−x )=f ( x ) .

1-5 Graph of an equation. Consider the equation

y=x 2−3 x−3 .
If values are assigned to x, the corresponding values of y may be computed. Thus,
setting x=−2, we find y=7. Several values of xand the corresponding values of
 17

y are shown in the table. These pairs of values furnish a picture of the relation of
x and y. A better representation is had, however, by pollting each value of x and
the corresponding value of yas the abscissa and ordinate of a point, ad then
drawing a smooth curve through the points thus obtained. This process is called
graphing theequation, and the curve is called the graph or locus of the equation.

x −2 −1 0 1 1,5 2 3 4 5
y 7 1 −3 −5 −5,25 −5 −3 1 7

The plotted points (Fig. 1-2) are in the range -2 to 5 of x-values. The range
could be extended, and also any number of intermediate points could be located.
But the points plotted show about where the intermediate points wolud lie. Hance,
we can use the known points to draw a curve which is reasonably accurate. The
exact graph satisfies the following definition.
DEFENITION. The graph of an equation consists of all the points whose
coordinates satisfy the given equation.

1-6 Aids in graphing. The point-by-point method of constructing the graph

of an equation is tedious expect for simple equations. The task can often be
lightened, however, by first discovering certain characteristics of the graph as
 18

revealed by the equation. We shall now discuss three ways by which the graphing
may be facilitated.
Intercepts, the abscissa of a point where a curve touches or crosses the x-
axis is called an x-intercept. The ordinate of a point where a curve touches or
crosses the y-axis is called a y-intercept. To find the x−intercepts of the graph of
an equation, we set y = 0 and solve for x, similarly, the y-intercepts may be found
by setting x = 0 and solving for y. Thus setting y = 0 in the equation 2 x−3 y=6,
we find x=3. The point (3,0) is on the garph and the x-intercept is 3. Substituting
x = 0, the y-intercept is found to be -2.
The graphs of some equations have no points in common with an axis;

For other equations there may be few or many intercepts. The intercepts are often
easily determined, and are of special significance in may problems.

SYMMETRY. Two points A and Bare said to be symmetric with respect to

a line if the line is the perpendicular bisector of the segment AB. A curve is
symmetric with respect to a line if each of its points is one of a pair of
points symmetric with respect to the line.

At present our interest is mainly in curves which are symmetric with respect
to the coordinate axes. The points (x , y) and (x ,− y) are symmetric with respect
to the x-axis. A curve is symmetric wiith respect to the x-axis if for each point (
x , y) of the curve there is also the point (x ,− y) on the curve. Similarly, a curve is
 19

symmetric with repect to the y-axis if for each point (x , y) of the curve there is
also the point (−x , y) on the curve. (See Fig. 1-3)
Two points A and B are symmetric with respect to a point O if O is the
mind-point of the line segment AB. A curve is symmetric with respect to a
point O if each point of the curve is one of a pair of points symmetric with
respect to O.

In accordance with this definition, the points (x , y) and (−x ,− y) are

symmetric with respect to origin. Further, a curve is symmetric with respect to the
origin if for each point (x , y) of the curve there is also the corresponding point (
−x ,− y) on the curve.
An equation can be easily tasted to determine if its graph is symmetric with
respect to either axis or the origin. Consider, for example, the equation y 2=4 x+ 8.
If y is replaced b y− y, the equation is not altered. This means that if y is given a
value and then the negative of that value, the corresponding values of x are the
same. Hence for each point (x , y) of the graph there is also the point ( x ,− y) on
the graph. The graph therefore is symmetric with respect to the x-axis. On the
other hand, the assingning of numerically equal values of opposite signs to x leads
to difderent corresponding values for y. Hence the graph is not symmetric with
respect to the y−axis. Similarly, it may be observed that the graph is not
symmetric with respect to the origin.
From the definitions of symmetry we have the following tests.

1. If an equation is unchanged when y is replaced b y− y, then the graph

of the equation is symmetric with respect to the x−axis .
2. If an equation is unchanged when x is replaced b y−x, then the graph
of the equation is symmetric with respect to the y−axis.
3. If an equation is unchanged when x is replaced b y−x and y b y− y,
then the graph of the equation is symmetric with respect to the origin.

These types of symmetry are illustrated by the equations

y 4 −2 y 2−x=0 , x 2−4 y +3=0, y=x 3
 20

The graphs of these equations are respectively symmetric with respect to the x-
axis, the y-axis, and the origin. Replacing x b y−x and y b y− y in the third
equation gives − y=−x2 , which may be reduced to y=x 3. Which may be reduced
to y=x 8.
Extent of a graph. Only real values of x and yare used in graphing an
equation. Hence no value of other imaginary. Some equations may have any real
value assigned to either variable. On the other hand, an equation by its nature may
place restrictions on the values of the variables. Where there are certain excluded
values, the graph of the equation is correspondingly restricted in its extent.
Frequently the admissible, and therefore the excluded, values are readily
determined by solving the equation for each variable in terms of the order.

EXAMPLE 1. Using the ideas of intercepts, symmetry, and extent, discuss

the equation 4 x2 +9 y 2=36and draw its graph.
Solution. Setting y=0, we find x=± 3. Hence the x-intercepts are −3 and 3.
By setting x=0, the y-intercepts are seen to be −2 and 2.
The equation is not changed when x is replaced by −x; neither is it changed
when y is replaced by − y. The graph therefore is symmetric with respect to both
axes and the origin.
Solving the equation for each variable in terms of the other, we obtain
2 3
y=± √ 9−x2 ∧x=± √ 4− y 2
3 2
 21

If 9−x 2 is negative, y is imaginary. Hence x cannot have a value

numerically greater than 3. In other words, x takes values from −3 to 3, which is
expressed symbolically by −3 ≤ x ≤ 3. Similarly, values of y numerically greater
than 2 must be excluded. Hence the admissible values for y are −2 ≤ y ≤ 2.
A brief table of values, coupled with the preceding information, is sufficient
for constructing the graph. The part of the graph in the first quadrant (Fig. 1-4)
comes from the table; the other is drawn in accordance with the known symmetry.

x 0 1 2 3
2 2
y 2 √ 8=1,9 √ 5=1.5 0
3 3

EXAMPLE 2. Graph the equation x 2+ 4 y −12=0.

Solution. Setting y=0and then x=0, we find the x−intercepts=± 2 √3 and

the y−intercept =3.

If x is replaced by −x, the equation is unchanged. A new equation results

when y is replaced by − y. Hence the graph is symmetric with respect to the y-
axis, but not with respect to the x-axis or the origin.

Solving the equation in turn for x and y, we obtain

12− x2
x=± 2 √3− y∧ y =
4
We see that y must not be greater than 3, but x has no excluded values.
 22

From the preceding facts and the table of values the graph is drawn in Fig.
1-5. Only a part of the graph is indicated because the curve extends downward
indefinitely.

x 0 1 2 3,46 4 5 6
y 3 2,75 2 0 −1 −3,25 −6

EXERCISE 1-3
Discuss each equation with regard to intercepts and symmetry. Determine
excluded values, if any, of each variable, and draw the graph. (See Table 1 in the
Appendix to obtain square roots.)
1. x 2+ y 2=16 7. y=x 3
2. y 2=9 x 8. y=x 3−4 x
3. x 2= y−4 9. y 2=x 3
4. x 2− y 2=16 10. y 2=x 3−4 x
5. 9 x 2+ 4 y 2=36 11. 9 y 2−16 x 2=144
6. 4 x2 −9 y 2=36 12. 25 x 2+ 9 y 2=225

13. Prove that a curve which is symmetric with respect to both axes is
symmetric with respect to the origin. Is the converse true?
14. Prove that a curve which is symmetric with respect to the x-axis and the
origin is symmetric with respect to the y-axis.

1-7 The graph of an equation in factored form. Equations sometimes

appear with one member equal to zero and the other member expressed as the
product of factors in terms of x and y. When an equation is in this form its graph
can be more simply obtained by first setting each of the factors equal to zero. If
the coordinates of a point make one of the factors equal to zero, they make the
product equal to zero and therefore satisfy the given equation. On the other hand,
the coordinates of a point which make no factor equal to zero do not satisfy the
equation. Hence the graph of the given equation consists of the graphs of the
equations formed by setting each of the factors of the nonzero member equal to
zero.
 23

EXAMPLE. Draw the graph of ( 3 x− y−1 ) ( y 2−9 x ) =0

Solution. Setting each factor equal to zero, we have the equation

3 x− y−1=0 and y 2−9 x=0

INTERSECTIONS OF GRAPHS

The equation 3 x – y−1=0 is of the first degree in x and y. We shall see

later that the graph of any first degree equation in two variables is a straight line.
For this reason such equations are called linear. Hence the graph of a linear
equation can be constructed by drawing a line through two points whose
coordinates satisfy the equation. The second equation is not linear, and several
points need to be plotted in order to draw the graph. The graph of the original
equation comprises the two parts shown in Fig. 1-6.

EXERCISE 1-4

Draw the graphs of the following equations:

1. x 2− y 2=0 2. ( x +1 )( 2 x+ y+ 4 )=0
 24

3. ( x−2 y +3 ) (2 x+ y+ 4)=0 7. x 2 y −9 y 2=0

4. xy ( x+ y −2 )=0 8. x ( x ¿ ¿ 2+ y 2−4)=0 ¿
5. x 2−xy−6 y 2 =0 x2 y 2
9. − =0
6. y 2−xy −4 y =0 9 16

y2 x2
− =¿
4 25

1-8 Intersections of graphs. If the graphs of two equations in two variables

have a point in common, then, from the definition of a graph, the coordinates of
the point satisfy each equation separately. Hence the point of intersection gives a
pair of real numbers which is a simultaneous solution of the equations.
Conversely, if the two equations have a simultaneous real solution, then their
graphs have the corresponding point in common. Hence simultaneous real
solutions of two equations in two unknowns can be obtained graphically by
reading the coordinates of their points of intersection. Because of the
imperfections in the process, the results thus found are usually only approximate.
If the graphs have no point of intersection, there is no real solution. In simple
cases the solutions, both real and imaginary, can be found exactly by algebraic
processes.

EXAMPLE 1. Draw the graphs of the equations

y 2−9 x=0

3 x− y−1=0

and estimate the coordinates of the points of intersection. Solve the system
algebraically and compare results.

Solution. These are the equations whose graphs are shown in Fig. 1-6.
Referring to this figure, we estimate the coordinates of the intersection points to
be (1 ,−8) and (1.6 , 3.8).

To obtain the solutions algebraically, we solve the linear equation for x and
substitute in the other equation. Thus
 25

y +1
x=
3
and y 2−9 ( y+3 1 )=0
Whence

3 ± √ 21
y 2−3 y−3=0 and y=
2

By substituting these values in the linear equation, the corresponding values for x

( 5± √ 21 )
are found to be . Hence the exact coordinates of the intersection points
6
are

( 5+6√ 21 , 3+2√21 ) and ( 5−6√21 , 3−2√21 )

These coordinates to two decimal places are (1.60,3 .79) and (0.7 ,−79).

EXAMPLE 2. Find the points of intersection of the graphs of

y=x 3 and y=2−x

Solution. The graphs (Fig. 1-7) intersect in one point whose coordinates are
(1,1).
 26

Eliminating y between the equations yields

x 2+ x−2=0, or ( x−l)( x 2+ x +2)=0,

whence

−1+ √−7 −1−√ −7

x=1, ,
2 2

The corresponding values of y are obtained from the linear equation. The
solutions, real and imaginary, are

(1,1); ( −1+2√−7 , 5− √2−7 ); ( −1−2√−7 , 5+ √2−7 )

The graphical method gives only the real solution.

EXERCISE 1-5

Graph each pair of equations and estimate the coordinates of any points of
intersection. Check by obtaining the solutions algebraically.

1. x +2=7, 3 x−2 y=5. 7. y=x 3, y=4 x.

2. 2 x− y=3, 5 x+ 3 y =8. 8. y=x 2, x + y−1=0.
3. x 2+ y 2=13, 3 x – 2 y =0. 9. x 2− y 2=9, x 2+ y 2=6.
4. x 2−4 y=0 , y 2=6 x . 10. y 2=x 3−4 x , y=x + 4.
5. x 2+ 2 y 2=9, 2 x− y=0. 11. y 2=8 x , 2 x− y=4.
6. x 2+ y 2=16, y 2=6 x . 12. x 2+ 4 y 2=25, 4 x2 – 7 y 2=8.

1-9 Asymptotes. If the distance of a point from a straight line

approaches zero as the point moves indefinitely far from the origin along a
curve, then the line is called an asymptote of the curve. (See Figs. 1-8, 1-
9.) In drawing the graph of an equation it is well to determine the
asymptotes, if any. The asymptotes, usually easily found, furnish an
additional aid in graphing. At this stage we shall deal with curves whose
asymptotes are either horizontal or vertical. The following examples
illustrate the procedure.
 27

EXAMPLE 1. Determine the asymptotes and draw the graph of the

equation

xy=1

Solution. The graph is symmetric with respect to the origin. We next notice
that if either variable is set equal to zero, there is no corresponding value of the
other variable which satisfies the equation. This means that there is no intercept
on either axis, and also that zero is an excluded value for both variables. There are
no other excluded values, however.
Solving for y, the equation takes the form
1
y=
x
1 1 1 1
Suppose we give to x successively the values 1, , , , and so on. The
2 4 8 16
corresponding values of y are 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, and so on. We see that as x is assigned
values nearer and nearer zero, y becomes larger and larger. In fact, by taking x
small enough, the corresponding value of y can be made to exceed any chosen
number. This relation is described by saying that as x approaches zero, y increases
without limit. Hence the curve extends upward indefinitely as the distances from
points on the curve to the y-axis approach zero. The y-axis is therefore an
asymptote of the curve.
Similarly, if we assign values to x which get large without limit, then y,
being the reciprocal of x, approaches zero. Hence the curve extends indefinitely to
the right, getting nearer and nearer to the z-axis, yet never touching it. The x-axis
is an asymptote of the curve. Since there is symmetry with respect to the origin,
the graph consists of the two parts drawn in Fig. 1-8.
 28

EXAMPLE 2. Draw the graph of x 2 y – 4 y=8.

Solution. The y-intercept is −2. But if we set y=0, there is obviously no

value of x which will satisfy the equation. Hence there is no x-intercept. The graph
has symmetry with respect to the y-axis but not with respect to the x-axis. The part
of the graph to the right of the y-axis may first be determined and then the other
drawn by the use of symmetry.

Solving the equation for y gives

8
y= 2
x −4
Notice the right member of the equation. We see that it is negative for
−2< x <2, and the graph in this range is below the x-axis. Further, if x has a value
slightly less than 2, the denominator is near zero. Then the fraction, which is equal
to y, has a numerically large value. As x increases still closer to 2, the
corresponding values of y can be made to increase numerically without limit. If,
however, x approaches 2 through values greater than 2, the values of y are positive
and increase without limit. Hence the line x=2 is an asymptote of the curve both
below and above the x-axis.
 29

x 0 1 1.5 1.9 1.99 1.999

y −2 −2.7 −4.6 −20.5 −200 −2005

To examine for a horizontal asymptote, we notice equation (1) and let x

become large without limit. The corresponding values of y approach zero, and
y=0 is therefore an asymptote. This asymptote also becomes evident when the
given equation is solved for x. Taking the positive roots, we get
y +2
x=2
√ y
In this form we see that as y approaches zero through positive values, x
increases without limit. This shows that y=0 is an asymptote. This form also
reveals the excluded values of y. Since the radicand is not to be negative, the
values −2< y <0 are excluded.
The graph is constructed in Fig. 1-9.

In each of the preceding problems the asymptotes are evident when the
equation is solved for each variable in terms of the other. For equations which are
thus readily solvable, we state the following rules.
 30

13. Solve the given equation for y in terms of x. If the result is a fraction
whose denominator contains x, set each real linear factor of the
denominator equal to zero. This gives the vertical asymptotes.
14. Solve the given equation for x in terms of y. If the result is a fraction
whose denominator contains y, set each real linear factor of the
denominator equal to zero. This gives the horizontal asymptotes.

EXERCISE 1-6
Discuss and sketch the graphs of each of the following equations. Draw the
horizontal and vertical asymptotes.

1. xy +1=0
2. xy−z=3
3. ( x + y )( y−1)=1
4. xy +3 x−2 y−8=0
5. x y 2 =4
6. x 2 y −9=0
7. x 2 y =8
8. x 2 y 2=64
9. x y 2 +3 y 2−4=0
10. x 2 y +3 x 2−4=0
11. x 2 y − y=4
12. x y 2 −x−4=0
13. y 2 ( x +3)=10
14. x 2 y −x2 + 4 y +4=0
15. y (x−2)2=16
16. xy 2+ y 2+ 4 x+ 4=0
17. x 2 y +9 y =4
18. x 2 y 2 +9 y 2=4
19. x 2 y 2−x 2−4 y 2=0
20. x 2 y 2−x 2 + 4 y 2=0
 31

21. x 2 y −x2 −9 y+ 16=0

22. x 2 y −x2 −16 y+ 9=0
23. x 2 y 2−x 2−9 y 2+16=0
24. x 2 y 2−x 2−16 y 2 +9=0
 32

CHAPTER 2

FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS AND FORMULAS

2-1 Directed lines and segments. A line on which one direction is defined
as positive and the opposite direction as negative is called a direcled line. lines.
Either direction along a given line may be chosen as positive. The x-axis and lines
parallel to it are positive to the right. Vertical lines have their positive direction
chosen upward. A line not parallel to a coordinate axis, when regarded as directed,
may have either direction taken as positive.

The part of a line between two of its points is called a segment. In plane
geometry the lengths of line segments are considered, but directions are not
assigned to the segments. In analytic geometry, however, line segments are often
considered as having directions as well as lengths. Thus in Fig. 2-1, AB means the
segment from A to B, and BA stands for the segment from B to A. The segment
AB is positive, since the direc- tion from A to B agrees with the assigned positive
direction of the line as indicated by the arrowhead. The segment BA, on the other
hand, is negative. If there are 3 units of length between A and B, for example,
then AB = +3 and BA = -3. Hence, in referring to directed segments,

AB=−BA

If A, B, and C are three points of a directed line, then the directed segments
determined by these points satisfy the equations

AB+ BC= AC , AC+CB −AB , BA + AC =BC .

If B is between A and C, the segments AB, BC, and AC have the same
direction, and AC is obviously equal to the sum of the other two. The second and
third equations can be found readily from the first. To ob- tain the second, we
transpose BC and use the fact that BC = -CB. Thus

AB = AC - BC = AC + CB.
 33

2-2 The distance between two points. In many problems the distance
between two points of the coordinate plane is required. The distance between any
two points, or the length of the line segment connecting them, can be determined
from the coordinates of the points, We shall classify a line segment as horizontal,
vertical, or slant, and derive appropriate formulas for the lengths of these kinds of
segments. In making the deriva- tions we shall use the idea of directed segments.
Let Pi(*1,y) and Pr(2,u) be two points on a horizontal line, and let A be the point
where the line cuts the y-axis (Fig. 2-3). We have

AP 1  P1 P2  AP 2,

P1 P2  AP 2 AP 1  x 2 x 1
 34

Similarly, for the vertical segment Q1 Q 2

Q1 Q 2 Q1 B+ B Q2

 BQ 2−B Q1

= y 2 y 1

Hence the directed distance from a first point to a second point on a hori-
zontal line is equal to the abscissa of the second point minus the abscissa of the
first point. The distance is positive or negative according as the second point is to
the right or left of the first point. A similar statement can be made relative to a
vertical segment. Inasmuch as the lengths of segments, without regard to
direction, are often desired, we state a rule which gives results as positive
quantities.

RULE. The length of a horizontal segment joining two points is the abscissa
of the point on the right minus the abscissa of the point on the left.

The length of a vertical segment joining two points is the ordinate of the
upper point minus the ordinate of the lower point.

We apply this rule to find the lengths of the segments in Fig. 2-4.
 35

AB = 5 -1 = 4, CD = 6 - (-2) = 6 + 2 = 8,

EF=1−(−4 ) =1+ 4=5 , GH =−2−(−5)=−2+5=3.

We next consider two points which determine a slant line. Let the points be
P1( x 1 , y 1) and P2( x 2 , y 2). Draw a line through P1parallel to the x-axis and a line
through P2 parallel to the y-axis (Fig. 2-5). These two lines intersect at the point
R, whose abscissa is x 2 and whose ordinate is y 1.

Hence

P1R = x 2 x 1

By the Pythagorean theorem,

¿ = ¿  ¿.

Denoting the length of P1 P2 by d, we have

d = √¿ ¿

The positive square root is chosen because we shall usually be interested

only in the magnitude of the segment. We state this distance formula in words.
 36

THEOREM. To find the distance between two points, add the square of the
difference of the abscissas to the square of the difference of the ordinates
and take the positive square root of the sum.

In employing the distance formula either point may be designated by (21,yı)

and the other by (2,4). This results from the fact that the two differences involved
are squared. The square of the difference of two numbers is unchanged when the
order of the subtraction is reversed.

EXAMPLE. Find the lengths of the sides of the triangle with the vertices
A(−2,−3), B(5,1), and C (−2,5).

Solution. The abscissas of A and C are the same, and therefore side AC is
vertical. The other sides are slant segments. The length of the vertical side is the
difference of the ordinates. The distance formula yields the lengths of the other
sides. Thus we get

AC = 5 - (-3) = 5+3 8,

AB = √ ¿ ¿ = √ 65 ,

BC = √ ¿ ¿ = √ 65.

The lengths show that the triangle is isosceles.

 37

EXERCISE 2-1

1. Plot the points A(1,0), B(3,0), and C(7,0). Then find the following directed
segments: AB, AC, BC, BA, CA, and CB.
2. Given the points A(2,-3), B(2,1), and C(2,5), find the directed distances AB,
BA, AC, CA, BC, and CB.
3. Plot the points A(-1,0), B(2,0), and C(5,0), and verify the following equations
by numerical substitutions: AB + BC = AC; AC + CB = AB; BA + AC = BC.

Find the distance between the pairs of points in problems 4 through 9:

4. (1,3), (4,7). 5. (-3,4), (2,-8).

6. (-2, -3), (1,0). 7. (5,-12), (0,0).

8. (0,-4), (3,0). 9. (2,7), (-1,4).

In each problem 10-13 draw the triangle with the given vertices and find the
lengths of the sides:

10. A(1,-1), B(4,-1), C(4,3). 11. A(-1,1), B(2,3), C(0,4).

12. A(0,0), B(2,-3), C(-2,5). 13. A(0,-3), B(3,0), C(0,-4).

Draw the triangles in problems 14-17 and show that each is isosceles:

14. A(-2,1), B(2,-4), C(6,1). 15. A(-1,3), B(3,0), C(6,4).

16. A(8,3), B(1,-1), C(1,7). 17. A(-4,4), B(-3,-3), C(3,3).

Show that the triangles 18-21 are right triangles:

18. A(1,3), B(10,5), C(2,1). 19. A(-3,1), B(4,-2), C(2,3).

20. A(0,3), B(-3,-4), C(2,-2). 21. A(4,-3), B(3,4), C(0,0).

22. Show that A(-V3,1), B(2V3, -2), and C(2v3,4) are vertices of an equi- lateral
triangle.

23. Given the points A(1,1), B(5,4), C(2,8), and D(-2,5), show that the quad-
rilateral ABCD has all its sides equal.
 38

Determine if the points in ench problem 24-27 lie on a straight line:

24. (3,0), (0,-2), (9,4). 25. (2,1), (-1,2), (5,0).

26. (-4,0), (0.2), (9,7). 27. (-1,-1), (6,-4), (-11,8).

28. If the point (r,3) is equidistant from (3,-2) and (7,4), find x.

29. Find the point on the y-axis which is equidistant from (-5,-2) and (3,2).

2-3 Inclination and slope of a line. If a line intersects the z-axis, the inclination
of the line is defined as the angle whose initial side extends to the right along the
r-axis and whose terminal side is upward along the line.* In Fig. 2-7 the angle 8 is
the inclination of the line, MX is the initial side, and ML is the terminal side. The
inclination of a line parallel to the I-axis is 0°. The inclination of a slant line is a
positive angle less than 180°.

The slope of a line is defined as the tangent of its angle of inclination. A

line which leans to the right has a positive słope because the inclination is an acute
angle. The slopes of lines which lean to the left are negative.

 When an angle is mensured from the first side to the second side, the first
side is called the initial side and the second side is called the terminal side.
Fur- ther, the angle is positive or negntive according as it is measured in a
counter- clockwise or a clockwise direction.
 39

The slope of a horizontal line is zero. Vertical lines do not have a slope,
however, since 90° has no tangent.

If the inclination of a nonvertical line is known, the slope can be de

termined by the use of a table of trigonometric functions. Conversely, if the slope
of a line is known, its inclination can be found. In most prob- lems, however, it is
more convenient to deal with the slope of a line rather than with its inclination.

The following theorem is a direct consequence of the definition of slope.

THEOREM. Two nonvertical lines are parallel if and only if their slopes
are equal.

If the coordinates of two points on a line are known, we may find the slope
of the line from the given coordinates. We now derive a formula for this purpose.

Let P1 ¿¿ ) and P2 ¿¿ ) be the two given points, and indicate the slope by m.
Then, referring to Fig. 2-8, we have

RP2 y 2− y 1
m = tan  = = .
P 1 R x 2−x 1
 40

If the line slants to the left, as in Fig. 2-9,

− y 1− y 2 y 2− y 1
m=tan θ= =
x 1−x 2 x 2−x 1
Hence the slope is determined in the same way for lines slanting either to
the left or to the right.

THEOREM. The slope m of a line passing through two given

points P1 ( x 1, y 1,) and P2 ( x 2, y 2,) is equal to the difference of the ordinates
divided by the difference of the abscissas taken in the same order; that is
y 2− y 1
m¿
x 2−x 1

This formula yields the slope if the two points determine a slant line. If the
line is vertical, the denominator is zero. Hence a slope is not defined for a vertical
line. Conversely, if the denominator is equal to zero, the points are on a vertical
line. We observe, further, that either of the points may be regarded as P1 ( x 1, y 1,)
and the other as P2 ( x 2, y 2,) since
y 2− y 1 y 1− y 2
=
x 2−x 1 x1−x 2

EXAMPLE. Given the points A(-2,-l), B(4,0), C(3,3), and D(-3,2), show
that ABCD is a parallelogram!
Solution. We determine from the slopes of the sides if the figure is a
parallelogram

0−(−1) 1 3−0
Slope of AB = = Slope of BC = =−3
4−(−2) 6 3−4
2−3 1 2−(−1)
Slope of CD = = Slope of DA = =−3
−3−3 6 −3−(−2)

The opposite sides have equal slopes, and therefore ABCD is a parallelogram.
 41

2-4 Angle between two lines. Two intersecting lines form four angles.
There are two pairs of equal angles, and an angle of one pair is the supple-ment of
an angle of the other pair. We shall show how to find a measure of each angle in
terms of the slopes of the lines. Noticing Fig. 2-10 and recalling that an exterior
angle of a triangle is equal to the sum of the two remote interior angles, we see
that
∅ +θ1=θ 2∨∅=θ 2−θ1
If we let m 2=tanθ 2 and m 1=tan θ 1, than we have:
m2−m1
tan ∅=
1+m1 m2
where m 2 is the slope of the terminal side, m 1is the slope of the initial side,and ∅ is
measured in a counterclockwise direction.
The angle x is the supplement of ∅, and therefore
m2−m1
tan x=−¿ tan ∅= ¿
1+m 1 m 2
This formula for tan x is the same as that for tan ∅ except that the terms in the
numerator are reversed. We observe from the diagram,however, that the terminal
side of x is the initial side of ∅and that the initial side of x is the terminal side of ∅
, as indicated by the counterclockwise arrows. Hence, in terms of the slopes of
initial and terminal sides, the tangent of either angle may be found by the same
rule. We state this conclusion as a theorem.

Theorem. If ϕ is an angle, measured counterclockwise, between two lines,

then
 42

m2−m1
tan ϕ =
1+ m1 m2

Where m 2is the slope of the terminal side and m 1 is the slope of the initial
side

This formula will not apply if either of the lines. For this case, the problem
would be that of finding the angle , or function of the angle, which a line of
known slope makes with the vertical. Hence no new formula is necessary.

For any two slant lines which are not perpendicular formula (1) will yield a
definite number as the value of tan ϕ. Conversely, if the formula yields a definite
number, the lines are not perpendicular. Hence we conclude that the lines are
perpendicular when, and only when, the demominator of the formula is equal to
zero. The relation 1 +m1 m2 = 0 may be written in the form

−1
m2 =
m1

Which expresses one slope as the negative reciprocal of the other slope

Theorem. Two slant lines are perpendicular if, and only if, the slope of
one is the negative reciprocal of the slope of the other.

Example. Find the tangents of the angles of the triangle whose vertices are
A(-2,3), B(8,-5) and C(5,4). Find each angel to the nearest degree. (see the table II
of the Appendix.)

Solution. The slopes of the sides are indicated in fig.2-11. Substituting in

formula (1), we get
 43

1 −4
−( )
7 5 33
tan A = = = 1.06, A =
−4 1 31
1+( )( )
5 7
47

−4
tan B =
( 5 )
−(−3)
=
11
= .647, B = 33
−4 17
1+(−3)( )
5

1
(−3 )−
7 −22
tan C = = = -5.5, C =100
1 4
1+( )(−3)
7

EXERCISE 2-2

1. Give the slope for inclinations (a) 45; (b) 0; (c) 60; (d) 120; (e) 135 Find
the slope of the line passing throught the two points in each problem 2-7:

2. 2.(2,3), (3,7). 5.(5,4) (-3,-2)

3. (6,-13), (0,5) 6.(0,-9), (20,3)
4. (-4,8), (7,-3) 7.(4,12), (-8,-1)

8. Show that each of the following sets of four points are vertices of a
parallelogram ABCD:

(a) A(2,1), B(6,1), C(4,4), D(0,4)

(b) A(-3,2), B(5,0), C(4,-3), D(-4,-1)
(c) A(0,-3), B(4,-7), C(12,-2), D(8,2)
(d) A(-2,0), B(4,2), C(7,7), D(1,5)
 44

9. Verify that each triangle with the given points as vertices is a right triangle by
showing that the slope of one of the sides is the negative reciprocal of the slope
of another side

(a) (3,-4), (5,4), (1,0) (b) (-1,1), (3,-7), (3,3)

(c) (8,1), (1,-2), (6,-4) (d) (-1,-5), (6,-7), (3,9)

(e) (0,0), (3,-2), (2,3) (f) (0,0), (17,0), (1,4)

10. In each of the following sets, show that the four points are vertices of a
rectangle:

(a) (-6,3), (-2,-2), (3,2), (-1,7) (b) (1,2), (6,-3), (9,0), (4,5)
(c) (0,0), (2,6), (-1,7), (-3,1) (d) (5,-2), (7,5), (0,7), (-2,0)

(e) (3,2), (2,9), (-5,8), (-4,1) (f) (5,6), (1,0), (4,-2), (8,4)

11. Using slopes, determine which of the following sets of three points lie on a
straight line:

(a) (3,0), (0,-2), (9,4) (b) (2,1), (-1,2), (5,0)

(c) (-4,0), (0,2), (9,7) (d) (-1,-1), (6,-4), (-11,8)

Find the tangents of the angles of the triangle ABC in each problem 12-15.
Find the angles to the angles to the nesrest degree.

12. A(-3,-1), B(3,3), C(-1,1)

13. A(-1,1), B(2,3), C(7,-7)

14. A(-3,1), B(4,2), C(2,3)

15. A(0,3), B(-3,-4), C(2,-2)

16. the line throught the points (4,3) and (-6,0) intersects the line throught (0,0)
and (-1,5). Find the intersects angles.

17. Two lines passing through (2,3) make an angle of 45. If the slope of one of
the lines is 2, find the slope of the other. Two solutions.
 45

2
18. What angle does a line of slope - make with a vertical line?
3

2-5 The mid-point of a line segment. Problems in geometry make much use of
the mid-points of line segments. We shall derive formulas which give the
coordinates of thepoint midway between two points of given coordinates.

Let P1( x 1 , y 1) and P2( x 2 , y 2) be the extremities of a line segment, and let P(
x , y) be the mid-point of P1 , P2. From similar triangles (Fig. 2-12), we have

P1 P P 1 M MP 1
  
P 1 P2 P 1 N N P2 2

Hence

P1 M X −X 1 1 MP y − y1 1
  and  
P1 N X 2 −X 1 2 N P 2 y 2− y 1 2

Solving for x and y gives

x1 x 2 y1 y2
x ,y .
2 2

THEOREM. The abscissa of the mid-point of a line segment is half the

sum of the abscissas of the end points; the ordinate is half the sum of the
ordinates.

This theorem may be generalized by letting P(x,y) be any division point of the
segment P1 P2 . Thus if

P1 P
r
P 1 P2

Then

x x1 y y1
r and  r.
x2 x 1 y2 y1
 46

These equations give

x  x 1  r( x 2  x 1) and y = y 1 r( y 2  y 1).

If P is between P1 and P2, as in Fig. 2-12, the segments P1 P and P1 P2 have the
same direction, and the value of their ratio r ispositive and less than 1. If P is on
P1 P2 extended through P2, then r is greater than 1. If P is on the segment extended

through P1, thevalue of r is negative. The converse of each of these statements

istrue.

EXAMPLE. Find the mid-point and the trisection pointnearer P2 of the segment
determined by P1(-36) and P1 (5,1 ) .

Solution.

x1 x 2 −3 5
x  1
2 2

y1 y2 6 1 7
y  
2 2 2

2
For the trisection point we use r 
3

2 7
x  x 1  r( x 2  x 1)  -3 + (5+3) 
3 3

2 8
y = y 1 r( y 2  y 1)  6 + (1-6) 
3 3
 47

2-6 Analytic proofs of geometric theorems. By the use of a coordinate

system many of the theorems of elementary geometry can be proved with
surprising simplicity and directness. We illustrate the procedure in the following
example.

EXAMPLE. Prove that the diagonals of a parallelogram biseet each other.

Solution. We first draw a parallelogram and then introduce a coordinate

sys- tem. A judicious location of the axes relative to the figure makes the writing
of the coordinates of the vertices easier and also simplifies the algebraic
operations involved in making the proof. Therefore we choose a vertex as the
origin and a coordinste axis along a side of the parallelogram (Fig. 2-13). Then we
write the

coordinates of the vertices as 0(0,0), Pi(a,0), P2(6,c), and P3(a + 6,c). It is

essential that the coordinates of P2 and P3 express the fact that P2P3 is equal and
parallel to OPi. This is achieved by making the ordinates of P2 and Pa the same
and making the abscissa of P3 exceed the abscissa of P2 by a. To show that OP3
and P1P2 bisect each other, we find the coordinates of the mid-point of each
diagonal.

a+b c
Mid-point of OP3 : x= , y=
2 2

a+b c
Mid-point of P1P3 : x= , y=
2 2

Since the mid-point of each diagonal is ¿ ) the theorem is proved.

 48

Note. In making a proof by this method it is essential that a general figure be used.
For example, neither a rectangle nor a rhombus (a parallelogram with all sides
equal) should be used for a parallelogram. A proof of a theorem based on a special
case would not constitute a general proof.

EXERCISE 2-3

1. Find the mid-point of AB in each of the following:

(a) A (−2,5 ) , B (4 ,−7) (c) A (−7,12 ) , B(11,0 )

(b) A ( 7 ,−3 ) , B(−3,9) (d) A ( 0 ,−7 ) , B(3,10)

2. The vertices of a triangle are A(7,1) , B(−l , 6), and C (3,0). Find the
coordinates of the mid-points of the sides.

3. The points A(-l,-4), 5(7,2), C(5,6), and D(-5,8) are vertices of the quadrilateral
ABCD. Find the coordinates of the mid-point of each line segment connecting
the mid-points of opposite sides.

Find the trisection points of the segment AB:

4. A (−9 ,−6 ) , B( 9,6) 6. A (−4,3 ) , B ( 8 ,−3 )

5. A (−5 ,−6 ) , B(7,0) 7. A (−1,0 ) , B( 4,6)

8. The points 4(2,2), 5(6,0), and (7(10,8) are vertices of a triangle. Determine if
the medians are concurrent by finding the point on each median which js J of
the way from the vertex to the other extremity. (A median of a triangle is a
line segment joining a vertex and the mid-point of the opposite side.)

9. The points 4(2,1), 5(6, -3), and C(4,5) are vertices of a triangle. Find the
trisection point on each median which is nearer the opposite side.

10. The line segment joining A (-3,2) and 5(5, -3) is extended through each end
by a length equal to its original length. Find the coordinates of the new ends.

11. The line segment joining A( 4, 1) and 5(3,6) is doubled in length by having
half its length added at each end. Find the coordinates of the new ends.
 49

The points P1, P2 , and P are on a straight line in each problem 12-15. Find r,
the ratio of P1P to P1P2.

12. P1 (-1,-3), P2 (5,1), P (2,-1). 13. P1 (3,1), P2 (6,3), P (9,5).

14. P1 (2,1), P2 (5,-1), P (-1,3). 14. P1 (-4,2), P2 (1,-2), P (11,-10).

Give analytic proofs of the following theorems :

16. The diagonals of the rectangle are equal. [Suggestion: Choose the axes so that
the vertices of the rectangle are (0,0), (a,0), (0,b), and (a,b).]
17. The mid-point of the hypothenuse of a right triangle is equidistant from the
three vertices.
18. The line segment joining the mid-points of two sides of a triangle is parallel
to the third side and equal to half of it.
19. The diagonals of an isosceles trapezoid are equal. [Hint: Notice that the axes
may be placed so that the coordinates of the vertices are (0,0), (a,0), (b,c), and
(a,-b,c).]
20. The segment joining the mid-points of the nonparallel sides of a trapezoid is
parallel to and equal to half the sum of the parallel sides.
21. The segments which joing the mid-points of the sides of any quadrilateral, if
taken in order, form a parallelogram.
22. The line segments which join the mid-points of the opposite sides of a
quadrilateral bisect each other
23. The diagonals of a rhombus are perpendicular and bisect each other.
24. The sum of the square of the sides of a parallelogram is equal to the sum of
the squares of the diagonals.
25. The Lines darwn from a vertex of a parallelogram to the mid-points of the
opposite sides trisect a diagonal.
26. The medians of a triangle meet in a point which lies two-third of the way
from each vertex to the mid-point of the opposite side.
50
 51

BAB 3

GARIS LURUS

3-1 Perkenalan. The straight line is the simplest geometric curve. Despite
its simplicity, the line is a vital concept of mathematics and enters into our daily
experiences in numerous interesting and useful ways. In Section 1 -7 we stated
that the graph of a first degree equation in x and y is a straight line; we shall now
establish that statement. Furthermore, we shall write linear equations in different
forms such that each reveals useful information concerning the location of the line
which it represents.

Garis lurus adalah kurva geometris paling sederhana. Terlepas dari

kesederhanaannya, garis adalah konsep penting matematika dan masuk ke dalam
pengalaman sehari-hari kita dengan berbagai cara yang menarik dan berguna.
Pada Bagian 1-7 kita menyatakan bahwa grafik persamaan derajat pertama pada x
dan y adalah garis lurus; sekarang kita akan menetapkan pernyataan itu.
Selanjutnya, kita akan menulis persamaan linier dalam bentuk yang berbeda
sehingga masing-masing mengungkapkan informasi yang berguna mengenai
lokasi garis yang diwakilinya.

3-2 The locus of a first degree equation. The equation

Ax+ By+C=0 , (1)

where A , B, and C are constants with A and B not both zero, is a general equation
of the first degree. We shall prove that the locus, or graph, of this equation is a
straight line by showing that all points of the locus lie on a line and that the
coordinates of all points of the line satisfy the equation.

Let P1( x 1 , y 1) and P2( x 2 , y 2) be any two points of the graph; that is,

A x 1+ B y 1 +C=0 , (a)

A x 2+ B y 2 +C=0 , (b)

By subtraction, these equations yield

 52

A(x 1− y 1 )+B ( x 2− y 2)=0 ,

B( x 1− y 1)=− A(x 2− y 2 ) ,

and if B ≠ 0,

y 1− y 2
x 1−x 2
= −A
B

The last equation shows that the slope of a line passing through two points of the
graph is −( A /B) . Therefore if P2( x 2 , y 2) is any other point of the locus, the slope
of the segment P2 P3 is also −( A /B ) . From the equality of these slopes we
conclude that P1 , P2 and P3, and hence all points of the locus, lie on a line. To
determine if the graph consists of all points of this line, we need to show that the
coordinates of any other point of the line satisfy the given equation (1). Denoting
a point of the line by P4 ( x 4 , y 4), we have

y 1− y 2 −A
=
x 1−x 2 B

By clearing of fractions and transposing terms, this equation takes the for

A x 4 + B y 4− A x 1−B y 1=0.

From equation (a), − A x 1−B y 1 =C and hence

A x 4 + B y 4 +C=0.

The point ( x 4 , y 4) satisfies the given equation. This completes the proof except for
the case in which B=0. For this value of B equation (1) reduces to

−C
x=
A

The coordinates of all points, and only those points, having the abscissa −( C/ A)
satisfy this equation. Hence the locus is a line parallel to the y-axis and located
−(C/ A) units from the axis.
 53

THEOREM. The locus of the equation Ax+ By+C=0, where A, B, and C

are constants with A and B not both zero, is a straight line. If B = 0, the line
is vertical; otherwise the slope is −( A /B) .

3-3 Special forms of the first degree equation. We shall now convert
equation (1) to other forms and interpret the coefficients geometrically. Solving
for y gives, where B ≠ 0,

−A C
y= x−
B B

The coefficient of x, as we have seen, is the slope of the line. By setting x=0 , we
notice that the constant term is the y-intercept. Substituting m for the slope and b
for the y-intercept, we obtain the simpler form

y=mx+b . (2)

This is called the slope-intercept form of the equation of a line. An equation in

this form makes evident the slope and the y-intercept of the line which it
represents. Conversely, the equation of a line of given slope and y-intercept may
be written at once by substituting the proper values for m and b.

Illustration. The equation of the line of slope -2 and passing through (0,5) is
y=−2 x +5.

We next express equation (1) in a form which gives prominence to the x-

intercept and the x-intercept. We have

Ax+ By=−C

x y
Ax By + =1
+ =1 or −C −C
−C −C
A B

The denominator ofx in the last equation is the z-intercept and the denominator of
y is the y-intercept. If we let aand b stand for the intercepts, we have the equation

x y
+ =1 (3)
a b
 54

This is called the intercept form of the equation of a straight line. It may be used
when the intercepts are different from zero.

Equation (2) represents a line passing through (0 , b) . The equation may be

altered slightly to focus attention on any other point of the line. If the line passes
through ( x 1 , y 1), we have

y=m x 1+ b1∧b= y 1−m x1 ,

Substituting for b gives

y=mx+ y 1−mx 1

and hence

y− y1 =m( x−x 1) (4)

Equation (4) is called the point-slope form of the equation of a line.

If the line of equation (4) passes through the point ( x 2 , y 2), then

y 1− y 2
m=
x 1−x 2

and we have

y 1− y 2
y− y1 = ( x−x 1) (5)
x1−x 2

It can readily be seen that the graph of this equation passes through the points (
x 1 , y 1) and ( x 2 , y 2). This form is called the two-point form of the equation of a
straight line.

The equations (2)-(5) do not apply when the line is vertical. In this case m is
not defined, and neither could we substitute properly for the intercepts in the
forms (2) and (3). The equation of a vertical line can be written immediately,
however, if any point of the line is known. Thus a vertical line through ( x 1 , y 1) has
the abscissa x 1 for all points of the line. Hence the equation is
 55

x=x 1

A horizontal line through through ( x 1 , y 1) has m=0 , and equation (4)

applies. Of course, the ordinates are all the same on a horizontal line, and we
could write the equation directly as

y= y1

Illustrations. If a line cuts the coordinate axes so that the x-intercept is 3

and the y-intercept is -5, its equation by formula (3) is

x y
+ =1, or 5 x−3 y=15
3 −5

The equation of the line through (1,4) with slope 3 is, by the point slope
form,

y−4=3 ( x+1 ) ,∨3 x− y+ 7=0.

Whence, simplifying,

7 y−35=−4 x−12 ,∨4 x+7 y =23.

The illustrations show that formulas (2) -(5) can be employed to write,
quickly and simply, equations of lines which pass through two given points or
through one known point with a given slope. The inverse problem, that of drawing
the graph of a linear equation in x and y, is likewise simple. Since the locus is a
straight line, two points are sufficient for constructing the graph. For this purpose
the intercepts on the axes are usually the most convenient. For example, we find
the intercepts of the equation 3 x – 4 y =12 to be a=4 and b=−3. Hence the graph
is the line drawn through ( 4,0) and (0 ,−3), The intercepts are not sufficient for
drawing a line which passes through the origin. For this case the intercepts a and b
are both zero. Hence a point other than the origin is necessary.

We have seen that the slope of the line corresponding to the equation
Ax+ By+C=0 is −( A /B). That is, the slope is obtained from the equation by
dividing the coefficient of x by the coefficient of y and reversing the sign of the
 56

result. Hence we can readily determine if the lines represented by two equations
are parallel, perpendicular, or if they intersect obliquely. Lines are parallel if their
slopes are equal, and we recall that two lines are perpendicular if the slope of one
is the negative of the reciprocal of the slope of the other.

EXAMPLE 1. Find the equation of the line which passes through (−1,3)
and is parallel to 4 x+3 y =2.

Solution. We shall show two ways for finding the required equation. First,

4
from the given equation, the slope is seen to be ( ). Substituting this slope value
3
and the coordinates of the given point in the point-slope formula, we have

−4
y−3= ( x+1)
3

Or

4 x+3 y =5.

Alternatively, we notice that 4 x+3 y =D is parallel to the given line for any real
value of D. To determine D so that the line shall pass through (1,3), we substitute
these coordinates for xand y and obtain

4 (−l )+ 3 (3 )=D ,∨D=5.

By using 5 for D, we have again the equation 4 x+3 y =5.

EXAMPLE 2. A point moves so that it is equally distant from the two

points A(3,2) and B(5,6). Find the equation of its locus.

Solution. From plane geometry we know that the locus is the line
perpendicular to the segment AB and passing through its mid-point. The slope of

−1
AB is 2, and the coordinates of the mid-point are ( 4,4). The required slope is .
2
Hence we write x +2 y =D. This equation has the proper slope, and we need to
determine D so that the line shall pass through (4,4). Substituting, we get
 57

x +2 y =4 +2(4 )=12.

The required equation, therefore, is x + 2y = 12. We could also obtain this

equation by using the point-slope form (4).

EXERCISE 3-1

By solving for y, write each equation 1-12 in the slope-intercept form. In

each case give the value of the slope m and the value of the y-intercept b. Draw
the lines.

1. 3x + y = 6. 5. x + 2y + 4 = 0. 9. 5x + 3y = 7.
2. 3x - y - 3 = 0. 6. x - by = 10. 10. x – 8y = 4.
3. 4x - 2y = 3. 7. 4x – 3y = 0. 11. 7x - lly = 9.
4. 6z + 3y = 5. 8. 2x + 7y = 0. 12. x + y = 6.
By inspection, give the slope and intercepts of each line represented by
equations 13-24.

13. 4x - y = 12. 17. 3x - 4y = 12. 21. 7x + 3z + 6 = 0.

14. x - y = 7. 18. 6x - 3y - 10 = 0. 22. 3x - 8y = 5.
15. x + y + 4 = 0. 19. x + 7y = 11. 23. 8x + 3y = 4.
16. 4x + 9y - 36. 20. 2x + 3y = 14. 24. 3x + 3y = 1.
In each problem 25-36, write the equation of the line determined by the
slope m and the y-intercept b.

25. m=3 ; b=−4. 31. m=0 ; b=−6.

26. m=2 ; b=3. 32. m−5 ; b=0.
27. m=−4 ; b=5. −7
33. m= ; b=−8.
2
28. m=−1 ; b=1.
2 34. m=0 ; b=−2.
29. m= ; b−−2.
3 35. m=0 ; b=0.
3 −3
30. m= ; b=−6. 36. m= ; b=0.
2 8
Write the equation of the line which has the x-intercept a and the y-
intercept b in each problem 37-48.

37. a=3 , b=2. 2 1

43. a= , b=
3 2
 58

38. a=5 , b=1. 11

44. a= ; b=1.
3
39. a=4 , b=−3.
2 7
40. a=7 , b=−5. 45. a= ; b=
3 2
41. a=−2 , b=−2.
3
42. a=−1 , b=−1. 46. a= , b=−2.
2
−2 −11
47. a= , b=
3 2
3 4
48. a= , b=
4 3
In each equation 49-60, write the equation of the line which passes through
the point A with the slope m. Draw the lines.

49. A(3,1); m=2 , 55. A(0,3) ; m=0.

50. A(−3 ,−5); m=1. 56. A(3,0) ; m=0.
−1 −8
51. A(−2,0); m= 57. A(0,0) ; m=
2 3
52. A(0 ,−3); m=−4. −3
58. A(0,0) ; m=
7
−1
53. A(−3 ,−6) ; m=
2 59. A(−5 ,−7) ; m=−6.
−5 −1
54. A(5 ,−2); m= 60. A(9,1) ; m=
2 7
Find the equation of the line determined by the points A and B in each
problem 61-72. Check the answers by substitutions.

61. A(3 ,−l); B(−4,5). 71. A(−l,−l); B (−2 ,−3).

62. A(1,5) ; B (4 ,l). 1 3
72. A( , 1); B(−l , ).
2 2
63. A(0,2) ; B (4 ,−6).
73. Show that Ax+ By=D1 and
64. A(−2,−4 ); B(3,3).
Bx−Ay=D 2 are equations of
65. A(3 ,−2); B(3,7).
perpendicular lines.
66. A(0,0) ; B(3 ,−4) .
74. Show that the graphs of the
2 1
67. A(5 ,− ); B( , 2) equations
3 2
1 Ax+ By=D1
68. A( , 5); B(−2,5).
2 Ax+ By=D 2
69. A(0,1) ; B (0,0). are (a) the same if D1 ≠ D2; (b)
70. 70. A (3,0); B(4,0).
 59

parallel lines if D1 ≠ D2
In each problem 75-84 find the equations of two lines through A , one
parallel and the other perpendicular to the line corresponding to the given
equation. Draw the lines.

75. A(4,1) ; 2 x – 3 y +5=0. 85. The vertices of a triangle are

76. A(−l, 2); 2 x− y=0. A(l , 0) , B(9,2), and C (3,6). Find
77. A(3,4 ); 7 x +5 y+ 4−0. the following:
78. A(0,0) ; x− y=3. (a) The equations of the sides;
79. A(2 ,−3); 8 x− y =0. (b) The equations of the medians
80. A(0,6); 2 x−2 y=1. and the coordinates of their
81. A(−1,1); y=1. common point;
82. A(3,5) ; x=0. (c) The equations of the altitudes

83. A(7,0) ; 9 z+ y−3=0. and the coordinates of their

84. A(−4,0); 4 z +3 y=3 common point;

(d) The equations of the
perpendicular bisectors of the
sides and the coordinates of
their common point.
86. The vertices of a triangle are
A(−2,3), B (6 ,−6), and C (8,0).
Find the equations of the lines and
the coordinates of the points
pertaining to this triangle which
are called for in problem 85.

3-4 The distance from a line to a point. The distance from a line to a point
can be found from the equation of the line and the coordinates of the point. We
shall derive a formula for this purpose. We observe first that the distance from a
vertical line to a point is immediately obtainable by taking the difference of the
abscissa of the point and the x-intercept of the line. Hence no additional formula
is needed for this case. Let the equation of a slant line be written in the form
 60

Ax+ By+C=0 (1)

and let P1 ( x1 , y 1 ) be any point not on the line. Since the line is a slant line, B ≠ 0.
Consider now the line through P1 parallel to the given line, and the line through
the origin perpendicular to the given line, whose equations respectively are

Ax+ By+C ' =0. (2)

Bx−Ay=0. (3)

The required distance d (Fig. 3-1) is equal to the segment PQ, where P and Q are
the intersection points of the perpendicular line and the parallel lines. The
simultaneous solutions of equations (1) and (3), and equations (2) and (3) give the
intersection points

−BC −B C'
P¿ , ), Q ¿ , 2 2)
A 2 +B 2 A +B

We employ the formula for the distance between two points to find the length of
PQ. Thus

(C−C ' )2 A 2 (C−C ' )2 B2

d = ( PQ) ¿ 2

( A2 + B2 )2
+ ( A 2+ B2 )2

(C−C ' )2 ( A2 + B2) (C−C ' )2

= ( A2 + B2 )2
= ( A2 + B2 )2

And

C−C'
d=
± √ A 2+ B 2
 61

Figure 3-1

Since the line of equation (2) passes through PI(ZI,I/I), we have

'
Ax+ By+C ' =0 and C =−A x1 −B y 1

Hence, substituting for C",

Ax+ By+ C
d=
± √ A2 + B2

To remove the ambiguity as to sign, we agree to give the radical in the

denominator the sign of B. In other words, the sign of the denominator is selected
so that the coefficient of y 1 is positive. A consequence of this choice of signs may
be found by referring to the figure again, where P0 P 1is parallel to the y-axis and
P0 (x 1 y 1 ) is a point of the given line. Since P is a point on the line, we have

A x 1 + B y 0+C
=0
± √ A2 + B2

Now if we replace y 0by y 1 in the left side of this equation, we get an expression
which is not equal to zero. The expression is positive if y 1 > y 0 and negative if
y 1 < y 0. That is, the expression for d is positive if P1is above the line and negative
 62

if P1 is below the line. We may therefore regard the distance from a line to a point
as a directed distance.

The preceding discussion establishes the following theorem :

THEOREM. The directed distance from the slant line Ax + By + C = to

the point P0 (x 1 y 1 ) is given by the formula

A x 1+ B y 1 +C
d= , (4)
± √ A 2+ B 2

where the denominator is given the sign of B. The distance is positive if the point
P1 is above the line, and negative if P1is below the line.

FIGURE 3-2

If equation (1) is divided by ± √ A 2+ B2, the form

Ax +By +C
=0
± √ A 2+ B 2

is obtained. This is called the normal form of the equation of a line. When an
equation is in the normal form, the distance from the line to a point is given by
substituting the coordinates of the point in the left member of the equation. By
 63

substituting the coordinates of the origin, the constant term is seen to be the
perpendicular, or normal, distance to the origin.

EXAMPLE 1. Find the distance from the line 12 y=15 x – 26 points

P1 (3 ,−5), P 2 (−4 ,l) ,∧P3 (9,0) .

Solution. We write the equation in the form −5 x+ 12 y +26=0. The

required distances are then found by making substitutions in formula (4). Hence

−5 ( 3 ) +12 (−5 ) +26 −49

d= =
± √ 5 +12 2 2
13

−5 (−4 ) +12 ( 1 )+ 26 58
d= =
13 13

−5 ( 9 )+12 ( 0 ) +26 −19

d= =
13 13

The positive sign is used in the denominators because the coefficient of y is

positive. The signs of the results show that P1and P2 are below the line and that P2
is above the line (Fig. 3-2).

EXAMPLE 2. Find the distance between the parallel lines

15 x−8 y−51=0 and 15 x−8 y +68=0.

Solution. The distance can be found by computing the distance from each
line to a particular point. To minimize the computations, we find the distance
from each line to the origin. Thus

15 ( 0 ) −8 ( 0 )−51 −51
d= 2 2
= = 3,
± √ 15 +8 −17

15 ( 0 )−8 ( 0 ) +68 68
d 2= = = -4.
−17 −17

The origin is 3 units above the first line and 4 units below the second line. Hence
the lines are 7 units apart.
 64

An alternate method for this problem would be to find the distance from
one of the lines to a particular point on the other. The point (0, 8.5) is on the
second line, and using this point and the first equation, we find

15 ( 0 ) −8 ( 8.5 )−51 −119

d= = = 7.
−17 −17

3-5 Families of lines. We have expressed equations of lines in various

forms. Among these are the equations

x y
y=mx+b and + =1
a b

Each of these equations has two constants which have geometrical significance.
The constants of the first equation are m and b. When definite values are assigned
to these letters, a line is completely determined. Other values for these, of course,
determine other lines. Thus the quantities m and b are fixed for any particular line
but change from line to line. These letters are called parameters. In the second
equation a and b are the parameters.

A linear equation with only one parameter is obtained if the other parameter is
replaced by a fixed value. The resulting equation represents all lines with a
particular property if the remaining parameter is allowed to vary. Each value
assumed by the parameter yields an equation which represents a definite line. The
 65

collection of lines defined by a linear equation with one parameter is called a

family, or system, of lines. For example, if m = 3, the point-slope equation
becomes

y=3 x +b.

This equation represents the family of lines of slope 3, one line for each value of
b. There are, of course, infinitely many lines in the family. In fact, a line of the
family passes through each point of the coordinate plane. Figure 3-3 shows a few
lines of the family corresponding to the indicated values of the parameter b.

EXAMPLE 1. Write the equation of the system of lines defined by each of

the following conditions:

(a) parallel to 3x - 2y = 5,

(b) passing through (5, 2),

(c) having the product of the intercepts equal to 4.

Solutions. The following equations are easily verified to be those required.

(a) 3 x−2 y=D . (b) y +2=m(x −5).

x y
+ =1
(c) a 4 , or 4 x+ a2=4 a .
a

EXAMPLE 2. Write the equation of the system of lines which are parallel to
5 x+ 12 y +7=0. Find the members of the family which are 3 units distant from the
point (2,1).

Solution. Each member of the family 5 x+ 12 y +C=0is parallel to the given

line. We wish to find values of C which will yield lines 3 units from the point
(2,1), one passing above and the other below the point. Using the formula for the
distance from a line to a point, we obtain the equations

5 ( 2 ) +12 ( 1 ) +C 5 ( 2 ) +12 ( 1 ) +C
=3, =−3.
13 13
 66

The roots are C = 17 and C = -61. Hence the required equations are

5 x+ 12 y +17=0 and 5 x+ 12 y−61=0.

3-6 Family of lines through the intersection of two lines. The equation
of the family of lines passing through the intersection of two given lines can be
written readily. To illustrate, we consider the two intersecting lines

2 x−3 y+ 5=0 , 4 x+ y−11=0.

From the left members of these equations we form the equation

( 2 x−3 y+ 5 ) +k ( 4 x + y −11 )=0 , (1)

where k is a parameter. This equation is of the first degree in x and y for any value
of k. Hence it represents a system of lines. Furthermore, each line of the family
goes through the intersection of the given lines. We verify this statement by actual
substitution. The given lines intersect at (2,3). Then, using these values for x and
y, we get

( 4−9+5 ) +k ( 8+3−11 ) =0,

0+ k ( 0 )=0,

0=0.

This result demonstrates that equation (1) is satisfied by the coordinates (2,3)
regardless of the value of k. Hence the equation defines a family of lines passing
through the intersection of the given lines.

More generally, let the equations

A1 x+ B1 y +C1=0

A2 x+ B2 y +C2 =0

define two intersecting lines. Then the equation

( A ¿ ¿ 1 x+ B1 y +C1 )+k ( A 2 x +B 2 y +C 2)=0 ¿

 67

represents a system of lines through the intersection of the given lines. To verify
this statement, we first observe that the equation is linear for any value of k. Next
we notice that the coordinates of the intersection point reduce each of the parts in
parentheses to zero, and hence satisfy the equation for any value of k.

EXAMPLE. Write the equation of the system of lines through the

intersection of x−7 y +3=0 and 4 x+2 y−5=0. Find the member of the family
which has the slope 3.

Solution. The equation of the system of lines passing through the

intersection of the given lines is

( x−7 y +3 ) + k (4 x +2 y−5)=0 ,

or, collecting terms,

( 1+4 k ) x+ (−7 +2 k ) y+ 3−5 k =0.

−1+ 4 k
The slope of each member of this system, except for the vertical line, is .
2 k−7
Equating this fraction to the required slope gives

−1+ 4 k
=3 ,∧k=2
2 k−7

The member of the system for k = 2 is 9 x−3 y−7=0 .

EXERCISE 3-2

Find the distance from the line to the point in each problem 1-6.

1. 5 x+ 12 y +60=0 ; ( 3,2 ) . 4. 3 x+ y=10 ; (−3 ,−1 ) .

2.4 x−3 y=15 ;(4,1). 5. −2 x+5 y +7=0 ; ( 6,0 ) .
3. x + y−3=0 ; ( 4,5 ) . 6. y=7 ; ( 3 ,−8 ) .
Determine the distance between the pair of parallel lines in each problem 7-10.

7. 4 x−3 y−9=0 , 4 x−3 y −24=0.

8. 15 x−8 y=13 , 12 x +5 y=104.

 68

9. 15 x−8 y−34=0 ,15 x−8 y +51=0.

10.x + y +7=0 , x + y−11=0.

Write the equation of the system of lines possessing the given property in each
problem 11-18. In each case assign three values to the parameter and draw the
corresponding lines.

11. Parallel to 7 x−4 y=3 .

12. Passing through (-3,4).

13. Having the x-intercept twice the y-intercept.

14. Perpendicular to 2 x−5 y+ 3=0 .

15. Having the y-intercept equal to -4.

16. Having the sum of the intercepts equal to 10.

17. Through the intersection of x−2 y +7=0and 5 x−7 y−3=0 .

18. Forming with the coordinate axes a triangle of area 16.

Tell what geometric property is possessed by all the lines of each system in
problems 19-26.

19. y=mx+4. 20. y=2 x +b .

21. 9 x +2 y =k . 22. y + 4=m(x −3).

x y x y
23. + =1. 24. + =1.
a 3 a 4+ a

25. ( 4 x−7 y−7)+ky =0. 26. ( 4 x+ y+1)+k (3 x + y )=0.

27. In the preceding problems 19-26 determine the line of the system
which passes through (3,0).

28. Write the equation of the family of lines of slope -3, and find the two
members passing 5 units from the origin.
 69

In each problem 29-34 find the equation of the line which passes through the
intersection of the pair of lines and satisfies the other given condition.

29. 3 x+ y−2=0 , x +5 y−4=0 ; through (5,2 ) .

30. 5 x+ 3 y +2=0 , x− y−2=0 ; m=−3.

31. x−11 y=0 ,3 x + y−5=0 ; a verticalline .

32. 6 x−2 y=3 , x−5 y=4 ; m=0 .

33. 3 x−4 y−2=0 ,3 x +4 y+ 1=0 ; intercepts are equal .

34. 2 x− y−5=0 , x+ y −4=0 ; passing through(0,0) .

35. The sides of a triangle are on the lines defined by

2 x−3 y+ 4=0 , x+ y+ 3=0, and 5 x−4 y−20=0. Without solving for the
vertices, find the equations of the altitudes.

36. Find the equations of the bisectors of the angles formed by the lines
, 4 x +3 y−12=0, and 5 x−12 y−60=0. [Suggestion: Let P(x,y) be a point
on a bisector and use the fact that each point of a bisector is equally distant
from the sides.]

37. Find the equations of the bisectors of the angles formed by the lines
x +2 y +3=0, and 2 x+ y −2=0.

38. Write the equation Ax+ By+C=0in normal form. Show that in this
form the coefficient of x is equal to cos ω and the coefficient of y is equal
to sin ω, where w is the inclination of the perpendicular segment drawn
from the origin to the line.
 70

CHAPTER 4

TRANSFORMATION OF COORDINATES

4-1 Introduction. Suppose that we have a curve in the coordinate plane and
the equation which represents the curve. We wish to take another pair of axes in
the plane and find the equation of the same curve with respect to the new axes.
The new equation will depend on the original equation and the location of the new
axes. The process of changing from one pair of axes to another is called a
transformation of coordinates.

The device of transforming coordinates is a powerful and much used

procedure. Numerous problems, many of a practical nature, can be conveniently
begun with the coordinate axes in a certain position and carried forward more
easily by using axes in another position. We shall find in Chapter 5 that
considerable advantage is gained by the transformation process. There the study
of second degree equations and their loci is greatly simplified by the proper
location of the coordinate axes.

4-2 Translation of axes. When the new axes are parallel to the original
axes, and similarly directed, the transformation is called a translation of axes. The
coordinates of each point of the plane are changed under a translation of axes.
Consequently, the equation of a curve referred to the original axes and the
equation of the same curve referred to the new axes are, in general, not the same.

To see how the coordinates of a point are changed by a translation of axes,

notice Fig. 4-1. The new axes O'X' and O'Y' are parallel respectively to the old
axes OX and OY. The coordinates of the new origin O' referred to the original axes
are denoted by (h,k). Thus the new axes can be obtained by shifting the old axes h
units horizontally and k units vertically while keeping their directions unchanged.
Let x and y standfor the coordinates of any point P when referred to the old axes
and let x' and y' be the coordinates of the point P when referred to the new axes. It
is evident from the figure that
 71

x=ON −OM + O' Q=h+ x ' ,

y=NP=MO ' +QP=k + y ' .

Hence

x=x '+h1 y= y '+ k . (1)

FIGURE 4-1

These formulas give the relations of the old and new coordinates. They hold
for all points of the plane, where the new origin 0' is any chosen point of the
plane. Holding for all points of the plane, the formulas apply in particular to the
points of a curve. Consequently, the substitutions xf + h for x, and y f + k for y in
the equation of a curve referred to the original axes yield the equation of the same
curve referred to the translated axes.

EXAMPLE 1. Find the transformed equation of

xy−3 x +2 y−12=0

if the origin is translated to the point (-2,3).

Solution. Here h = -2 and k = 3. Hence the translation equations (1) are

x=x ' −2 and y= y '+ 3.

Making these substitutions in the given equation, we get

 72

( x ' – 2)( y ' +3)– 3( x ' – 2)+2( y '+3) – 12=0 ,

x ' y ' + 3 x ' – 2 y ' – 6 – 3 x ' +6+2 y '+6−12=0 ,

x ' y ' – 6=0.

The transformed equation has no first degree terms. The graph is more easily
constructed by use of this equation and the new axes. The origin of the new axes
is 2 units to the left of the old origin and 3 units upward. Both sets of axes and the
graph are drawn in Fig. 4-2.

EXAMPLE 2. Translate the axes so that the equation

2 x2 +3 y 2 – 10 x+18 y +26=0

is transformed to a simpler form.

Solution. We do not know in advance what the translation should be. Hence
we use the translation formulas with h and k unknown. Thus we have

FIGURE 4-2
 73

2(x ' +h)2 +3( y '+k )2−10 ( x ' + h)+18 ( y ' +k )+26=0 ,

2 x ' 2 +3 y ' 2 + ( 4 h – 10 ) x' + ( 6 k + 18 ) y ' +2 h2 +3 k 2−10 h+ 18 k +26=0.(2)

We set the coefficients of x' and y' equal to zero. This gives 4h - 10 = 0 and
6k + 18 = 0, and hence h = 5/2, k = -3. These values for h and k reduce equation
(2) to

2 x ' 2 +3 y ' 2 –(27/2)=0 , or 4 x ' 2+6 y ' 2 =27.

This simplification can also be made by completing the squares in the x and
y terms. Using this plan, we have from the original equation

2 ( x 2 – 5 x ) +3 ( y 2 +6 y )=−26 ,

2[ x 2 – 5 x +( 25/4)]+3 ( y 2+ 6 y+ 9)=−26+(25/2)+ 27 ,

2
2 [ x−(5 /2) ] + 3( y +3)2=27/2.

In this form we observe that the transformation equations x = x' + 5/2 and
y = y' - 3 will yield an equation free of first degree terms. Thus we obtain, as
before, 4 x'2+ 6y'2 = 27.

EXAMPLE 3. By a translation of axes, find a simplification of the equation

x 2 – 6 x – 6 y – 15=0
 74

Solution. Applying the translation formulas, we have

( x ' +h)2 – 6( x '+h)– 6( y ' + k ) – 15=0 ,

x ' 2+ 2hx ' +h 2 – 6 x ' – 6 h – 6 y ' – 6 k – 15=0

x ' 2+(2 h – 6) x ' – 6 y '+(h 2 – 6 h – 6 k – 15)=0

The x ' 2 and y' terms have coefficients independent of h and k, and may not be
eliminated. We can achieve a simplification, however, by eliminating the x' term
and the constant terms. Thus solving the equations

2 h – 6=0 and h2 – 6 h – 6 k – 15=0

simultaneously gives h = 3, k = -4. These values for h and k lead to the

equation

x ' 2 – 6 y ' =0.

This result can also be obtained by completing the square in the x terms, and
selecting the translation which will eliminate the x' term and the constant terms.
Thus the given equation yields

x 2 – 6 x+ 9=6 y +15+ 9 ,

( x−3)2=6 ( y +4 ).
 75

By translating the origin to (3, -4), this equation becomes x ' 2=6 y ' . Both sets
of axes and the graph are drawn in Fig. 4-3.

EXERCISE 4-1

Determine the new equation in each problem 1-8 if the origin is translated to
the given point.

1. 3 x+ 2 y =6 ;(4 ,−3) .
2. 5 x−4 y+ 3=0 ; (1,2).
3. ( y – 2)2=6(x – 3) ;(2,3).
4. ( x +3)2+( y +5)2=25 ;(−3 ,−5).
5. x 2+ y 2+12 x−8 y + 48=0 ; (−6,4).
6. x 2 – 4 x−7 y + 46=0 ;(2,6) .
7. xy−x− y−10=0 ;(1,1).
8. x 2+ 3 x 2 +3 x= y +3 ;(1 ,−2) .

In each problem 9-14 give the point to which the origin must be translated
in order that the transformed equation shall have no first degree term. Find also
the new equation.

9. x 2+ y 2 – 2 x – 4 y – 4=0. 10. 2 x2 +2 y 2 – 8 x+5=0.

11. xy – 2 x – 3 y – 8=0. 12. x 2 – y 2 – 8 x +6 y +3=0.

13.2 x2 + 4 y 2 +12 x +8 y +4=0. 14. 9 x 2+ 4 y 2 – 8 y =0.

In each problem 15-18 eliminate the constant term and one of the first
degree terms.

15. y 2−6 x + 4 x+5=0 16. x 2−2 x−8 y−15=0

17. y 2 +10 x+ 4 y +24=0 18. y 2−4 y−x +1=0

4-3 Rotation of axes. When the hew axes have the same origin but
directions different from the original axes, the transformation is called a rotation
 76

of axes. That is, the new axes may be obtained by rotating the original axes
through an angle about the origin.

We shall derive transformation formulas, for a rotation through an angle θ,

which express the old coordinates in terms of the new coordinates. In Fig. 4-4 the
coordinates of the point P are (x,y) referred to the original axes OX and OY, and
are ( x ' , y ' ) when referred to the new axes OX' and OY'. We notice that x = OM
and y = MP, x' = OS and y' = SP. The segment RS is drawn parallel to the x-axis
and NS is parallel to the y-axis.

Hence we have

x=OM =ON −MN =ON −RS=x' cos θ− y ' sin θ

y=MP=MR + RP=NS+ RP=x ' sin θ+ y ' cos θ

FIGURE 4-4

The rotation formulas, therefore, are

x=x ' cos θ− y ' sinθ

y=x ' sinθ+ y ' cos θ (1)

We have derived these formulas for the special case in which 6 is an acute angle
and the point P is in the first quadrant of both sets of axes. The formulas hold,
 77

however, for any and for all positions of P. A proof that the formulas hold
generally could be made by observing the proper conventions as to the sign of and
the signs of all distances involved.

EXAMPLE 1. Transform the equation x 2− y 2−9=0 by rotating the axes

through 45.

Solution. Using θ=45 ° , the rotation formulas (1) are

x' y' x ' y'

x= − , y= +
√2 √2 √2 √2

We make the substitutions in the given equation and have

' ' 2 ' ' 2

x y x y
( −
√2 √2
− + ) (
√2 √2
−9=0 )
x '2 ' ' y'2 x'2 ' ' y '2
−x y + − −x y − −9=0
2 2 2 2

2 x' y ' + 9=0

The graph and both sets of axes are constructed in Fig. 4-5.
 78

FIGURE 4-5

EXAMPLE 2. Find the acute angle of rotation such that the transformed
equation of 2 x2 + √ 3 xy + y 2=8 will have no x ' y ' term.

Solution. We employ the rotation formulas in order to find the required

angle θ. Substituting for x and y, we get

2(x ' cos− y ' sin θ)2 + √ 3( x ' cos− y ' sin θ)( x ' sinθ+ y ' cos θ)+(x ' sin θ+ y ' cos θ)2=8.

We perform the indicated multiplications, collect like terms, and obtain

( 2 cos 2 θ+ √ 3 sinθ cosθ+ sin2 θ ) x ' 2 +(−2 sinθ cosθ + √ 3 cos2− √ 3 sin2 θ) x ' y ' +(2 sin2 θ−√ 3 sinθ cosθ +co
(2)

Since the x ' y ' term is to vanish, we set its coefficient equal to zero. Thus we have

−2 sin θcos θ+ √ 3(cos 2 θ−sin2 θ)=0.

Using the identities sin 2 θ=2 sinθ cosθ∧cos 2θ=cos2 θ−sin 2 θ , the equation takes
the form

−sin 2 θ+ √ 3 cos 2θ=0 ,

whence

tan20=√ 3 ,2 θ=60 ° , θ=30° .

A rotation of 30° eliminates the x ' y ' term. This value of θreduces equation (2) to

5 x '2 + y ' 2=16

EXERCISE 4-2

Find the new equation in problems 1-8 when the axes are rotated through the
given angle.

1. √ 3 x− y=4 ; θ=60° . 3. xy=4 ; θ=45 ° .

 79

5. x 2+ xy+ y 2=1; θ=45 ° . 4. x 2+ y 2=a2 ; θ=40 ° .

2. x + y=6 ; θ=45 ° . 6. x 2−√ 3 xy+ 2 y 2=2 ; θ=30 ° .

2 2 1
7. x −4 xy+ 4 y −8 √ 5 x−4 √ 5 y=0 ; θ=arc tan .
2

8. x 2+ √3 xy +2 y 2=3 ; θ=arc tan √ 3 .

Find the angle of rotation in each problem 9-12 such that the transformed equation
will have no x ' y ' term.

9. 3 xy + y−2=0. 10. x 2−xy +5=0.

11. x 2−3 xy +4 y 2+7=0. 12. x 2+3 xy−x + y

4-4 Simplification of second degree equations. In the two preceding

sections we used transformations which led to simpler forms of various first and
second degree equations. In the next chapter we shall study second degree
equations systematically. To facilitate this study, it will be desirable to have
equations in their simplest forms. We now consider the simplest forms of second
degree equations.

The general second degree, or quadratic, equation in x and yis represented

by

Ax2 + Bxy+Cy 2 + Dx+ Ey+ F=0 (1)

At least one of the constants A, B, and C must be different from zero in order for
the equation to be of the second degree. We assume, too, that not all the
coefficients of terms involving one of the variables is zero. That is, both x and y
appear in the equation.

If B = 0, and A and C are both different from zero, we may complete the
squares in the x and y terms, as in Example 2, Section 4-2. Then it is easy to find
the translation which will reduce the equation to the form
 80

A ' x ' 2+ C ' y ' 2 + F' =0.

If B and one of the coefficients A and C is also zero, we may find the
translation, as in Example 3, Section 4-2, which will reduce the equation (1) to
one of the forms.

B' y ' 2+ D' x ' =0 or A' x ' 2 + E' y ' =0

If B≠ 0, an essential part of the simplification consists in obtaining a

transformed equation lacking the product term x ' y '. We shall show how to
determine immediately an angle of rotation which will serve for this purpose. In
equation (1) we substitute the right members of the rotation formulas for x and y.
This gives, after collecting like terms, the equation

A ' x ' 2+ B' x' y ' +C ' y ' 2+ D' x ' + E ' y ' + F ' =0 ,

where the new coefficients are

A' = A cos 2 θ+ B sin θ cos θ+C sin 2 θ ,

B' =B cos 2θ−( A−C ) sin 2θ ,

C ' =A sin2 θ−B sinθ cos θ+C cos 2 θ ,

D ' =D cos θ+ E sin θ ,

E' =E cos θ−D sin θ ,

F ' =F .

The x ' y' term will vanish only if its coefficient is zero. Hence θ must satisfy the
equation

B' =B cos 2θ−( A−C ) sin 2θ=0.

If A≠ C, the solution is

B
tan2 θ=
A−C
 81

This formula yields the angle of rotation except when A = C .If A = C, the
coefficient of x ' y ' is B cos 2θ .Then the term vanishes by giving θthe value 45 °
.Thus we see that an equation of the form (1) with an xy term can be transformed
into an equation free of the product term x ' y '.

We summarize the preceding results in the following theorem.

THEOREM. A second degree equation

Ax2 + Bxy+Cy 2 + Dx+ Ey+ F=0

in which B = 0 can be transformed by a translation into one of the forms

A' x ' 2 +C ' y ' 2+ F=0 ,

A ' x ' 2+ E' y ' =0 , (2)

C ' y ' 2 + D ' x ' =0.

If B ≠0, one of these forms can be obtained by a rotation and a translation (if
necessary). The angle of rotation θ (chosen acute) is obtained from the equation.

B
tan2 θ= if A ≠ C,
A−C

θ=45 ° if A=C

By this theorem we see how to find the value of tan2 θ. The rotation
formulas, however, contain sin θ and cos θ. These functions can be obtained from
the trigonometric identities

1−cos 2θ 1+cos 2θ
sin θ=
√ 2
, cos θ=
√ 2

The positive sign is selected before each radical because we shall restrict θ
to an acute angle.

EXAMPLE. Reduce the equation

 82

72 x2−72 xy +52 y 2+100 x−200 y +100=0

to one of the forms (2)

Solution. We first transform the equation so that the product term x ' y ' will
be lacking. To find the angle of rotation, we have

B −72 −24
tan2 θ= = =
A−C 73−52 7

hence

−7
cos 2 θ=
25

Hence

1−cos 2θ 4 1+cos 2 θ 3
sin θ=
√ 2
=
5
and cos θ=¿
√ 2
= ¿
5

The rotation formulas are then

3 x' −4 y ' 4 x' +3 y '

x= and y=
5 5
 83

FIGURE 4-6

By substituting for x and y in the given equation and simplifying, we get

x ' 2+ 4 y ' 2 −4 x ' 2−8 y ' + 4=0.

Completing the squares in the x' and y f terms, this equation becomes

( x ' −2)2+ 4( y ' −1)2−4=0.

Finally, a translation to the point (2,1) yields the desired form

x 1/ 2+ 4 y 1 /2− y =0.

It is much easier to draw the graph from this equation than by using the original
equation. The graph and the three sets of axes are constructed in Fig. 4-6.

EXERCISE 4-3

Translate the axes so that the constant term is eliminated. Draw both sets of
axes and the graph:

1. 3 x−4 y=6.
2. x=6.

Rotate the axes through an acute angle such that the x ' or the y ' term is
eliminated:

3. 3 x−4 y=6.
4. x + y=0.

Reduce each of the equations 5-8 to one of the simplified forms (2).

5. x 2−2 xy+ y 2−8 √ 2 y −8=0.

6. 3 x 2+2 √ 3 xy+ y 2−2 x −2 √ 3 y−16=0.
7. 73 x 2−72 xy +52 y 2+ 380 x −160 y + 400=0.
8. 7 x 2+ 48 xy−7 y 2−150 x−50 y +100=0.
 84

9. Show that the graph of the quadratic equation in one variable

Ax2 + Dx+ F=0 is one line, two parallel lines, or that no real value of x
satisfies the equation, according as the discriminant D2−4 AF is zero,
positive, or negative.

Write the left members of the following equations as the product of two linear
factors. Draw the graphs corresponding to the real factors.

10. x 2−x−6=0.
11. x 2+ 6 x+ 9=0.
12. x 2+ x−1=0.
13. x 2+ x+1=0.
14. Work out all the steps of the rotation transformation which is applied to
equation (1), Section 4-4
 85

CHAPTER 5

THE SECOND DEGREE EQUATION

5-1 Introduction. In this chapter we shall study second degree, or

quadratic, equations in two variables. The general quadratic equation in x and y
may be expressed in the form.

Ax2 + Bxy+Cy2 + Dx+ Ey + F=0. (1)

The study of this kind of equation in some respects is less simple than the
case of the linier equation. Any linier equation in two variables has a locus, and
the locus is a straight line. In contrast, not all second degree equations have loci,
and those having loci represent, however, will be in equations which have loci.
The locus of a quadratic equation in two variables is called a conic section
or, more simply, a conic. This designation comes from the fact that the locus or
curve can be obtained as the intersection of a right circular cone and a plane.*
Conic sections were investigated, particularly by Greek mathematicians, long
before analytic methods were introduced. Various properties of conics were
discovered and this phase of geometry received much emphasis. Today the
interest in conic sections in enhanced by numerous important theoritical and
partical applications which have been found.
Obviously, different kinds of conic sections are possible. A plane, not
passing through the vertex of a cone, may cut all the elements of one nappe and
make a closed curve (Fig. 5-1). If the plane is parallel to an element, the
intersection extends indefinitely far along a nappe. In addition to these sections
the plane may pass through the vertex of the cone and determine a point, a line, or
two intersecting lines. An intersection if this kind is sometimes called a
degenerate conic. The section consisting of two intersecting line approaches twi
parallel lines if the cone is made to approach a cylinder by letting the vertex
recede indefinitely far. For this reason, two parallel lines are classed with the
degenerate conics.
 86

*A right circular cone is the surface generated by a line which passes

through a fixed point on a fixed line and moves so that it makes a cinstant angle
with the fixed line. The fixed point is the vertex and the generating line in any
position is called an element. The vertex separates the cone into two parts called
nappes.

FIGURE 5-1
5-2 The simplified equations of conics. Despite the interesenting
geometric way in which conics first became known, we shall approach their study
as loci of second degree equations rather than as the intersections of planes and
cones. In our study we shall take advantage of the simplified equations

Ax ²+Cy ²+ F=0 ,(2)

Cy ²+ Dx=0 ,(3)
Ax ²+ Ey=0 ,(4)
which were obtained in Section 4-4.
Normally, equations (2) - (4) represent conics. There are exceptional cases,
however, depending on the values of the coefficients. The exceptional cases are
not our main interest, but we do notice them. Equation (2) has no locus if A, C,
and F are all of the same sign, for the there are no real values of x and y for which
the terms of the left member add to zero. If F = 0, and A and C have the same
 87

sign, only the coordinates of the origin satisfy the equation. Sections of values for
the coefficients may be variously made so that equation (2) represents to
intersecting lines, two parralel lines, or one line. An equation of the forms (3) or
(4) always has a locus, but the locus is a line if the coefficient of the first degree
terma is zero. The point and line loci of second degree equations are called
degenerate conics, as was previously noted.
Aside from the exceptional cases, we shall discover that equations of the
form (2) represent different types of curves, depending on the relative values of A
and C. We shall consider the cases in which (a) A = C, (b) A and C have the same
sign but are unequal, and (c) A and C have opposite signs. The equations (3) and
(4) are not essentially different so far as their loci are concerned. This statement
may be justified by noting that a rotation og 90° will transform either equation
into one having the form of the other.
5-3 The parabola. We shall consider first equations (3) and (4). Each of
these equations has only one second degree term, and in this respect is simpler
than equation (2). By division and transposition we reduce the equations to the
forms
y ²=4 ax ,(5)
x ²=4 ay ,(6)
which will be found more convenient. The locus of an equation of either of
these forms, or which can be reduced to one of these forms, is called a parabola.
Restricting our attention for the moment to equation (5), we observe at once
certain characteristics of its locus. The graph passes through the origin and is
symmetric with respect to the x-axis. If a > 0, x may have any positive value or
zero, but many have no negative value. As x increases, the valies of y increase
numerically. Hence the graph
 88

FIGURE 5-2

FIGURE 5-3
extends indefinitely far into the first and fourth quadrants (Fig. 5–2). If a <
0, then x may assume only zero and negative values, and the graph extends into
the second and third quadrants.
Similarly, the graph of equation (6) passes through the origin and is
symmtric with respect to the y-axis. The parabola open upward or downward
depending on wether a is positive or negative.
The line of symmetry of a parabola is called the axis of the parabola. The
intersection of the axis and the parabola is called the vertex.
 89

5-4 The focus-directrix property of a parabola. Having observed certain

onvious properties of a parabola, we look more closely for further information.
We see that the left member of y² = 4ax represents the square of a distance.
Keeping distances in mind, we inquire if the equation may be altered so that both
sides represent like powers of distances. The right member maybe regarded as
middle term of the square of a binomial, and it becomes a perfect square by the
addition of x² + 4a². This changes the left side to x² + 4a² + y², which is not a
perfect square. The left side now appears to need a first degree term in x. With this
suggestion, we return to the original equation and introduce a first degree term in
the left member by transposing form the right member. Thus we have
y² - 2ax = 2ax
x² - 2ax + a² + y² = x² + 2ax + a²,
(x - a)² + y² = (x + a)².
Taking positive square roots, we obtain

√(x−a)2+ y 2 ¿ ±(x +a) ,

where the sign in the right member is to be chosen so that (x + a) is positive.
This equation is subject to a ready interpretation in terms of distances. The left
member is the distance between any point (x,y) of the parabola and the point
F(a,0). The right member is the distance from the line x = -a to the point (x,y).
Hence we conclude that all points of a parabola are equally distant from a fixed
point and a fixed line. The fixed point is named the focus and the fixed line the
directrix. We state this result as a theorem.

THEOREM. Each point of a parabola is equally distant from a fixed point

(focus) and a fixed line (directrix).
The focus of y² = 4ax is F(a,0) and the directrix is the line x = -a.
The focus of x² = 4ay is F(0,a) and the directrix is the line y = -a.

The cord drawn through the focus and perpendicular to the axis of a
parabola is given the Latin name latus rectum. The length of the latus rectum can
be determined from the coordinates if its end points. By substituting a for x in the
equation y² = 4ax, we find
 90

Y² = 4a and y = ±2a.
Hence the end points of the latus rectum are (a, -2a) and (a, 2a). This makes
the length equal to the numerical value of 4a.
The vertex and the extremities of the latus rectum are sufficient for making a
rough sketch of the parabola. A few additional points, however,

FIGURE 5-4 FIGURE 5-5

would greatly improve the accuracy. Figures 5-4 to 5-7 show carefully
constructed parabolas corresponding to the equation y² = 4ax and x² = 4ay.
Summarizing, we make the following remarks regarding the equations
y² = 4ax, (5)
x² = 4ay. (6)
Equation (5) represents a parabola with vertex at the origin and focus at
(a,0). The parabola opens to the right if a is positive and to the left if a is negative.
Equation (6) represents a parabola with vertex at the origin and focus at (0,a). The
parabola opens upward if a is positive and downward is a is negative. The
numerical value of a is the distance
 91

FIGU
RE 5-6

FIGURE 5-7
between the vertex and the focus, and its sign tells in which direction to
measure this distance. The length of the latus rectum is equal to the absolute value
of 4a. The graph of an equation in one of these forms can be quickly drawn, the
vertex and ends of the latus rectum being sufficient for a rough sketch.
The forms (5) and (6) can be applied to find the equations of parabolas
which satisfy certain specified conditions. We illustrate their use in some
examples.
EXAMPLE 1. Write the quation of the parabola with vertex at the origin
and the focus at (0,4).
 92

Solution. Equation (6) applies here. The distance from the vertex to the
focus is 4, and hence a = 4. Substituting this value for a, we get
x ²=16 y .
EXAMPLE 2. A parabolahas its vertex ar the origin, its axis along the x-
axis, and passes through the point (-3,6). Find its equation.
Solution. The equation of the parabola is of the form y² = 4ax. To determine
the value of a, we subtitute the coordinates of the given point in this equation.
Thus we obtain
36 = 4a (–3), and 4a = –12.
The required equation is y² = –12x. The focus is at (–3,0), and the given
point is the upper end of the latus rectum. The graph is constructed in Fig. 5–8.

FIGURE 5-8
 93

THE FOCUS-DIRECTRIX PROPERTY OF A PARABOLA

FIGURE 5-9

EXAMPLE 3. The equation of a parabola is x 2=−6 y Find the Coordinates

of the focus, the equation of the directrix, and the length of the latus rectum.

Solution. The equation is of the form (6), where a is negative. Hence the
focus is on the negative y-axis and the parabola opens downward. From the
equation 4 a=6, we find a=−3/2. Therefore the coordinates of the focus are
(0 , 3 ' 2) and the directrix is y=3 ' 2. The length of the latus rectum is numerically
equal to 4 a, and in this case is 6. The latus rectum extends 3 units to the left and 3
units to the right of the focus. The graph may be sketched by drawing through the
vertex and the ends of the latus rectum. For more accurate graphing a few
additional points could be plotted. (See Fig. 5-9.)

EXERCISE 5-1

Find the coordinates of the focus, the coordinates of the ends of the latus
rectum, and the equation of the directrix of each parabola in problems 1-6. Sketch
each curve.

1. y 2=4 x . 2. y 2=−16 x 3. x 2=−10 y

 94

4. x 2=12 y 5. y 2 +3 x=0. 6. x2 −8 y=0.

Write the equation of the parabola with vertex at the origin and which
satisfies the given conditions in each problem 7-16.

7. Focus at (3,0). 8. Focus at (-4,0).

9. Directrix is x + 6 = 0. 10. Directrix is y - 4 = 0.

11. Latus rectum 12, and opens downward.

12. Focus on the y-axis, and passes through (2,8).

13. Axis along the y-axis, and passes through (4, 3).

14. Ends of latus rectum are (3, 6) and (3,6).

15. Opens to the left, and passes through (−1 ,−1).

16. Opens to the right, and the length of the latus rectum is 16.

17. A cable suspended from supports which are at the same height and 400
feet apart has a sag of 100 feet. If the cable hangs in the form of a parabola, find
its equation, taking the origin at the lowest point.

18. Find the width of the cable of problem 17 at a height 50 feet above the
lowest point.

5-5 The ellipse. We next consider the equation

A x 2+C y 2+ F=0 ,(2)

where A and C have the same sign and F has the opposite sign. If A = C, we may
write the equation as x 2+ y 2 = F/A. The left member is the square of the distance
of any point (x,y) from the origin. Hence the locus is a circle and the right
member is the square of the radius. Indicating the radius by r, we have the more
suggestive form

x 2+ y 2 = r 2 (7).
 95

If A ≠ C, the locus of equation (2), or an equation reducible to this form, is

defined as an ellipse. By setting x and y in turn equal to zero we find the squares
of the intercepts on the axes to be −F / A and −F /C. Using a 2=−F / A and
b 2=−F /C , equation (2) becomes

x2 y 2
+ =1(11)
a2 b 2

The intercepts are thus brought into prominence, and for still other reasons
this form will be convenient. We shall regard a and b as positive, and for
definiteness take a > b.

We notice first that the graph of equation (8) is symmetric with respect to
both coordinate axes. Solving for x and y in turn, we have

a 2 b 2 2
x=±
b
√ b − y 2 and y=±
a
√a − y

These equations show that y2 must not exceed b 2, and x 2must not exceed a 2.
In other words, the permissible values of the variables are given by−a ≤ x ≤ a and
−b ≤ y ≤ b .The graph (Fig. 5-10) cuts the z-axis at the points V ' (−a , 0)and
V (a ,0) , and cuts the y-axis at B' (0 ,−6) and B(0,6). The segment V ' V (= 2a) is
called the major axis of the ellipse, and B' B( ¿ 2b) is the minor axis. The ends of
the major axis are called vertices. The intersection of the major and minor axes is
 96

the center of the ellipse. (The designation of the vertices by V ' and V comes from
the first letter in the word vertex.)

FIGURE 5-11

The graph of

y 2 x2
+ =1 (9)
a2 b2

is drawn in Fig. 5-11. The ellipses represented by equations (8) and (9) are
alike except for their positions relative to the coordinate axes.

5-6 The foci of an ellipse. An important property of the ellipse is the fact
that the sum of the distances from each point of the ellipse to two fixed points is
constant. The fixed points, called foci, are on the major axis and equidistant from
the center. We shall prove this property.

Figure 5-12 shows the graph of equation (8). The points F ' (−c , 0) and
F (c ,0) denote the foci, where for the moment c is undetermined. For the vertex V
we have F ' V + FV =F ' V +V ' F ' =2 a. Thus the con stant 2a is the sum of the
distances from the vertex to the foci. Hence we need to show that the sum of the
distances from any point on the ellipse to the foci is equal to 2a. By considering
next the special point B, the value of c may be determined. In order that F ' B+ FB
should be equal to 2a, each of these segments must have a length equal to a. This
 97

gives, from the right triangle OFB, the relation c 2=a2−b 2.. Using this relation and
the equation of the ellipse, we next show that F ' P+ FP is equal to 2a, where
P(x , y ) is any point of the ellipse. Denoting this sum by S, we have

S= √( x+ c)2 + y 2 + √ (x−c)2+ y 2

Whence squaring and collecting like terms,

S=2 x 2 +2 y 2 +2 c 2 +2 √ x 4 −2 c2 x 2 c 4 +2 x 2 y 2 +2 c 2 y 2 + y 4

If we replace c 2 by a 2−b2, the radicand becomes

a 2+b 4 + x 4 + y 4−2 a2 b2 +2 a2 x2 +2 a2 y 2+ 2b 2 x 2−2 b2 y 2+ 2 x 2 y 2

An examination of this expression reveals that it is equal to

If the signs of each term −2 a2 b2 +2 a2 x 2 +2 a2 y 2+ 2b 2 x 2 are reversed. The equatin

of the ellipse, (8) yields 2 b2 x2 −2a 2 y 2 +2 a2 b2= 0, which shows that the signs of
the three terms may be reversed without changing the value of the radiance.
Hence we have

S2=2 x 2+ 2 y 2 +2 a2 −2 b2 +2 ( a2 +b2−x 2 + y 2 )=¿ 4 a2

and

S=2a
 98

We chose the positive square root of the radical of equation (b). This is necessary
because the radical is the product of the two positive radicals of equation (a). That
we chose the positive square root may be observed from the figure. We notice that
a 2+b 2> x2 + y and hence a 2+b 2−x 2− y 2 >0. It is necessary also to select the
positive square root of 4 a2, since S is the sum of two positive quantities. We state
the result as a theorem.

THEOREM. The sum of the distances from each point of an ellipse to two fixed
points (foci) of the major aris is constant and equal to the length of the major
aris.

x2 y 2
The foci of 2
− 2 =1 are the points (-c,0) and (c,0) where c 2=a2−b 2
a b

x2 y 2
The foci of 2 − 2 =1 are the points (0,-c) and (0,c), where still c 2=a2−b 2
a b

The chord through a focus and perpendicular to the major axis is called a
latus rectum. Substituting r = c in the equation of the ellipse (8) and using the
relation c 2=a2−b 2, the points (c ,−b2 ,a) and (c , b2 , a) are found to be the ends of
one latus rectum. Hence the length of the latus rectum is 2 b2 /a. The ellipse and
each latus rectum are drawn in Fig. 5-13.

5-7 The eccentricity of an ellipse. The ratio c/a is called the eccen tricity e
of the ellipse. The shape of the ellipse depends on the value of its eccentricity. For
 99

example, suppose that we visualize an ellipse in which the major axis remains
constant, while e starts at zero and ap proaches unity. If e = 0, the equations e =
c/a and b 2=a2−c 2 show that c = 0 and a = b. The two foci are then coincident at
the origin and the ellipse is a circle. As c increases, the foci separate, each
receding from the origin, and b decreases. As c approaches 1, c approaches a, and
b approaches 0. Thus the ellipse, starting as a circle, becomes narrow, with all its
points near the major axis.

EXAMPLE 1. Find the equation of the ellipse with foci at (0,#4) and a
vertex (at 0,6.)

Solution. The location of the foci shows that the center of the ellipse is at
the origin, that the equation is of the form (9), and that e = 4. The given vertex, 6
units from the center, makes a = 6. Using the relation b 2=a2−c 2 we find b = 20.
Hence the required equation is

y2 x2
− =1
36 20

Since the denominator of x 4 is greater than the denominator of y 2 the major

axis

is along the x-axis. We see also that a 2 = 25, b2 = 9, and c = √ a2−b2 = 4. Hence
the vertices are at (±5,0), the ends of the minor axis at (0,±3), and the foci at
 100

(±4,0). The length of a latus rectum is 2b2/a = 18/5. The locations of the ends of
the axes and the ends of each latus rectum are sufficient for making a sketch of the
ellipse. Figure 5-14 shows the curve with several important points indicated.

EXERCISE 5-2

Find the coordinates of the foci, the ends of the axes, and the ends of each latus
rectum in problems 1-10. From this information sketch the curves.

y2 x2 x2 y
1. + =1 2. + =1
25 9 169 25

x2 y2 y2 x2
3. + =1 4. + =1
169 144 25 16

x2 y2 x2 y
5. + =1 6. + =1
49 25 9 4

7. 25 x 2+ 4 y 2=4 8. x 2+ 4 y 2=9

9. 4 x2 + y 2=4 10. 2 x2 +3 y 2=12

Write the equations of the ellipses whose axes coincide with the coordinate axes,
and which satisfy the conditions given in problems 11-18.

11. Vertex (4,0); end of minor axis (0,3).

12. Focus (2,0); vertex (5,0).

13. Focus (0, -4); minor axis 4.

14. Minor axis 12; vertex (9,0).

15. Focus (3,0); length of latus rectum 9.

60
16. End of minor axis (5,0); length of latus rectum .
13

17. Passing through (3,5) and (7,5/3).

18. Passing through (3,√ 2) and (√ 6,2).

 101

19. The perimeter of a triangle is 30, and the points (0, -5) and (0,5) are two of the
vertices. Find the locus of the third vertex.

20. A point moves so that the sum of its distances from (-3,0) and (3,0) is 8. Find
the equation of its path.

21. Find the equation of the locus of the mid-points of the ordinates of the circle
x2+y2 = 36.

22. The ordinates of a curve are k times the ordinates of the circle x2+y2 = a2. Show
that the curve is an ellipse if k; is a positive number different from 1 .

23. A line segment of length 12 moves with its ends always touching the
coordinate axes. Find the equation of the locus of the point on the segment which
is 4 units from the end, in contact with the x-axis.

24. A rod of length a+ b moves with its ends in contact with the coordinate axes.
Show that the point at a distance a from the end in contact with the z-axis
describes an ellipse if a≠b.

25. the earth’s orbit is an ellipse with the sun at one focus. The length of the
major axis in 186.000.000 miles and the eccentricity is 0, 0167. Find the
distances from the ends of the major axis to the sun. these are the greatest and
least distances from the earth to the sun.

5-8 The hyperbola. We return to the equation

A x 2+C y 2+ F=0

And now specify that A and C are to be of unlike signs. The graphs of this case is
called a hyperbola. If F has the same as sign as C, the equation may be written in
a more convenient form for study:

x2 y 2
− =1 (10)
a2 b2

We regard a and b as positive but make no restriction as to their

comparative values.
 102

The graph of equation (10) is symmetrix with respect to the coordinate axes.
The permissible values for x and y become evident when each is expressed in
terms of the other. Thus we get

a 2 2 b
x=± √ b + y and y=± √ x 2+ a2
b a

Wee see from the first of these equation that y may have any real value, and from
the second that x may have any real value except these for which . Hence the
hyperbola extends indefinitely far from the lines and . This means that the
hyperbola consists of two separate parts, or branches (Fig. 5-15). The x-intercept
points are transverse axis. There is no y-intercept, but the segment from B’(0,-b)
to B(0,b) is called the conjugate axis. While the conjugate axis has no point in
common with the hyperbola, it has an important relation to the curve, as we shall
see. The intersection of the axes is called the center.

The hyperbola has associated with it two fixed point called the foci. The
foci of the hyperbola defined by equation (10) are F’(-c,0) and F(c,0) where
c 2=a2+ b2. The difference of the distances from each point of hyperbola may be
made almost exactly as in the case of the ellipse and is left for the reader.

The chord through a focus and perpendicular to the transverse axis is called
a latus rectum. By substituting x=c in equation (10) and using the relation
c 2=a2+ b2, the points (c ,−b2 /a) and ¿) are found to be the extremities of a latus
rectum. Hence its length is 2 b2 /a.

It is important to note that the relation among the three quantities a, b, and
c used in connection with the hyperbola is not the same as for the ellipse. For the
ellipse we choose and defined c by the equation ; for the hyperbola c is defined
by and no restriction is played on the relative value of a and b

THE ASYMPTOTES OF A HYPERBOLA

 103

FIGURE 5-15

The hyperbola

y2 x2
− =1 (11)
a2 b 2

Has its vertices at V’(0,-a) and V(0,a) and the foci are at F’(0,-c) and
F(0,c)

EXAMPLE. Find the equation of the hyperbola with the foci at (0, ±5) and
a vertex at (0,3).

Solution : the location of the foci shows that the equation is of the form
(11). Using c=5 and a =3 in the relation c 2=a2+ b2, we find b 2=16, hence the
desired equation is

y2 x2
− =1
25 16

5-9 the asymptotes of a hyperbola. Unlike the other conic sections, the
hyperbola has associated with it two lines which are its asymptotes. In this
connection the quantity b, which seems to have no immediate geometrical
interpretation, become significant. To draw the asymptotes , we first construct the
rectangle (Fig, 5-16) with a pair of sides through the verticles perpendicular to the
transverse axis and the other sides through (0,-b) and (0,b). the extended diagonals
of this rectangle are the asymptotes of the hyperbola of equation (10). To show
 104

that these lines are asymptotes, we first consider the diagonal and the part of the
hyperbola extending into the first quadrant. The equation of the diagonal and this
part of the hyperbola are respectively,

b b
y= x and y= √ x 2 +a 2
a a

We see that for any x the ordinate of the hyperbola is less than the ordinate
of the line. If, however, x is many times as large as , the corresponding ordinates
are almost equal. This may be seen more convincingly by examining the
difference of the two ordinates. Thus by substracting and changing the form, we
get

b¿¿

The numerator of the last fraction is constant. The denominator increases as

x increase, and can be made as large as we please by taking x sufficiently large.
Therefore the difference of the ordinates approaches zero. Since the perpendicular
distance from a point of the hyperbola to the line is less than the difference in y-
values, the line is an asymptotes of the curve. From considerations of asymptotes
of the curve. From considerations of symmetry we conclude that the extended
diagonals are asymptotes to the hyperbola in each of the four quadrants. The
equations of the other diagonal is of course y=-(b/a)x.

Similarly, the equations of the asymptotes of the hyperbola (11) are

FIGURE 5-16
 105

a −a
y= x and y= x
b b

We observe that for each of the hyperbolas (10) and (11) the asymptotes
may be obtained by factoring the left member and equating each factor to zero.

The asymptotes are helpful in sketching a hyperbola. A rough drawing can

be made from the associated rectangle and its extended diagonals, end points of
each latus rectum.

If a=b, the associated rectangle is a square abd the asymptotes are

perpendicular to each other. For this case the hyperbola is called equilateral
because its axes are equal, or is named rectangular because its asymptotes
intersect at right angles.

The ratio c/a is called the eccentricity c of the hyperbola. The angle of
intersection of the asymptotes, and therefore the shape of the hyperbola, depends
on the value of c. since c is greater than a, the value of c is greater than 1. If c is
just slightlt greater than a, so that c is near 1, the relation shows that b is small
cpmpared with a. then the asymptotes make a pair of small angles. The branches
of the hyperbola, enclosed by small angles, diverge slowly. If c increases, the
branches are enclosed by larger angles. And the angles can be made near 90 by
taking large values for c.

FIGURE 5-17

EXAMPLE. Sketch the curve 36 x 2−64 y 2=2304

 106

Solution. Dividing by 2304 reduces the given equation to the form

x2 y2
− =1
64 36

Here a=8, b=6 and from , we find c=10. The vertices therefore and the foci
are . Each latus rectum has a length of 9 units.the equations of the asymptotes are
3x-4y=0 and 3 x+ 4 y =0. From this information the hyperbola can be drawn.
(Fig.5-17)

EXERCISE 5-3

For each hyperbola 1-8 find the coordinate of the vertices and foci, the
length of each latus rectum, and the equations of the asymptotes. Sketch each
curve, using the asymptotes.

x2 y2
1. − =1
16 9
x2 y2
2. − =1
36 64
y2 x2
3. − =1
9 4
y2 x2
4. − =1
9 25
x2 y 2
5. − =1
4 21
x2 y2
6. − =1
20 16
7. y 2−x 2=36
8. x 2− y 2=49

Write the equation of the hyperbolas whose axes are on the coordinate axes,
and which also satisfy the conditions given in problems 9-16
9. Vertex (4,0); end of conjugate axis (0,3)
10. Focus (6,0); vertex (4,0)
 107

11. Focus (0,5); conjugate axis 4

12. Conjugate axis 6; vertex (7,0)
13. Latus rectum 5; focus (3,0)
14. End of conjugate axis (3,0); length of latus rectum 10
15. Passes through (6,5) and (8,22 √15 )
16. Passes through (3,√ 2) and (2√ 3 ,2)

5-10 Applications of conics. Many example of conies have been discovered

in natural phenomena, and important applications of them abound in engineering
and industry.
A projectile, as a ball or bullet, travels in a path which is approximately a
parabola. The patths of some comets are nearly parabolic. Cables of some
suspension bridges hangin the form of a parabola. The surface generated by
revolving a parabola about its axis is called a paraboloid of revolution. A
reflecting surface in this form has the property that light emanating at the focus is
reflected in the direction of the axis. This kind of surface is used in headlights, in
some telecopes, and in devices to reflect sound waves. A comparatively recent
application of parabolic metal surface is found in radar equipment. The surfaces
reflect radio waves in the same way that light is reflected, and are used in
directing outgoing beams and also in receiving waves from other stations.
The planets have elliptic paths with the sun at a focus. Much use is made of
semi-elliptic springs and elliptic-shaped gcars. A surface of form made by
revolving an ellipse about its major axis is so shaped that sound waves emanating
at one focus are reflected to arrive at the other focus. Tis principle is illustrated in
whispering galleries and other buildings.
A very interesting and important application of the hyperbola is that of
locating the place from which a sound, as of a gun, emanates. From the difference
in the times at which the sound reaches two listening posts, the difference between
the distances of the posts from the gun can be determined. Then, knowing the
distance between the posts, the gun is located on a branch of a hyperbola of which
the posts are foci. The position of the gun on this curve can be found by the use of
a third listening post. Either of the two posts and the third are foci a branch of
 108

another hyperbola on which the gun is located. Hence the gun is at the intersection
of the two branches.
The principles used in finding the location of a gun is also employed by a
radar-equipped airplane to determine its location. In this case the plane receives
radio signals from station of known locations.

5-11 Standard forms of second equation. In our study of conics thus far
we have dealt with simple forms of the second degree equation. Any conic, as we
learned in Section 4-4, can be represented by one of these special equations if the
coordinate axes are located properly with respect to the curve. We now know the
location of the axes with respect to the conics which are represented by the simple
equation(5)-(11). For the central conics (ellipse and hyperbola) the axes of the
conics are on the coordinate axes and the center and origin therefore coincide. In
the case of the parabola the axis is on one of the coordinate axes and the vertex
and origin coincide. In view of this information concerning conics and the
coordinate axes, we can interpret geometrically the transformations by which
second degree equation are reduced to the simple forms. The rotation which
removes the product term in the equation of a conic orientsthe coordinate axes in
the directions of the axes of a central conic (ellipse and hyperbola) or, in the case
of a parabola, makes one axis paralled to the axis of the parabola. Having
eliminated the product term, the translation to remive the first degree terms, or
one first degree term and constant term, brings the origin of the coordinate to the
center of the central conic and, in the case of the parabola, to the vertex.
The simplified forms of the equations of conics which we have used in this
chapter are of great advantage in drawing the graphs and studyingtheir properties.
However, it is necessary in many situation to deal with equation in more
complicated forms. The known quantities in a given problem may lead toa second
degree equation with at first is not obstainable in simplified forms. For exa,ple,
the original information concerning a body moving along a parabolamay not give
the locationof the vertex or the direction of the axis. To start the investigation the
coordinate axes would need to be choosen to fit the known quantities. Also, a
single problem may involve two conics whose axes are not in the same directions
and whose centers do not coincide.
 109

Since it is sometimes necessary to deal with equations of conics which are

not in the simplest forms, we next consider equations whose forms are more
general. We begin eith equations which have no xy term. In this case a translation
of axes would reduce an equation to one of the simple forms. Hence we consider
equations wich would be reduced to the simple forms by a translation of the origin
to a point (h,k). we obtain these equation from the simple forms by replacing x by
x-h and y by y-k
( y−k )2=4 a ( x −h ) , (12)
( x−h)2=4 a ( y −k ) , (13)
(x−h)2 ( y−k )2
+ =1 (14)
a2 b2
( y−k )2 (x−h)2
+ =1 (15)
a2 b2
( x−h)2 +( y−k )2=a2 (16)
(x−h)2 ( y−k )2
−¿ =1 (17)
a2 b2
( y−k )2 (x−h)2
−¿ =1 (18)
a2 b2

These equations are said to be in standard forms. By translating the origin

to the point (h,k), each reduces to one of the simple forms. The quantities a and b
are unchanged in meaning. Constructing the graphs of an equation in one of these
standard forms presents no greater difficulty than drawing the graph of the
corresponding simple form.
Equation (14), for example, represents an ellipse with its center at the
point (h,k). the major axis has a length of 2a and is parallel to the x-axis. The
distance from the center to a focus in c, where . If a=b, equation (14) reduces to
the form (16), which represents a circle of radius with its center at (h,k)

Equation (13) represents a parabola with a vertical axis and has only one y-
value for each value of x. This fact is also evident when the equation is solved for
y. Thus we obtain an equation of the form
 110

y = Ax2+ Dx + F

Here y is expressed as a quadratic function of x. We may now conclude that

a quadratic function of x has either a greatest or a least value, since the graph is a
parabola with a vertical axis. Hence an equation of the form (13) displays the
coordinates of the maximum or the minimum point of the graph of a quadratic
function of x. In Chapter 6 we shall develop a general method for finding the
maximum and minimum points of the graphs of quadratic and certain other
functions of a variable.

EXAMPLE 1 . Sketch the graph of the equation

y2+ 8x-6y+25= 0

Solution. We recognize the equation as representing a parabola. The graph

may be more readily drawn if we first reduce the equation to standard form. Thus

y2-6y+9= -8x-25+9

(y-3)2=-8(x+2)

The vertex is at (2,3). Since 4a = 8 and a = 2, the focus is 2 units to the left
of the vertex. The length of the latus rectum, numerically equal to 4a, is 8. This
means that the latus rectum extends 4 units above the focus and 4 units below.
The graph is constructed in Fig. 5-18.

FIGURE 5-18
 111

EXAMPLE 2. Find the equation of the ellipse with foci at (4, 2) and (10, 2)
f and a vertex at (12, 2).

Solution. The center, midway between the foci, is at (7, 2). The distance
between the foci is 6 and the given vertex is 5 units from the center; this makes c
= 3 and a = 5. Then b2 = a2-c2 = 16. Hence the desired equation is

(x−7) ( y +2)2
+ =1
25 16

5-12 The addition of ordinates. The presence of an zy-term in the equation

of a conic usually makes the construction of the graph much more difficult.
Preparing a table of corresponding values of the variables is tedious since, in
general, a quadratic equation with irrational roots needs to be solved for each pair
of values. Another plan would be to rotate the axes and use the new equation and
the new axes to draw the graph. But rotation transformations are not short and
usually the process is complicated by cumbersome radicals in the rotation
formulas. For some equations the addition of ordinates method can be used
advantageously. The principle involved in this process is that the graph of the sum
of two functions can be obtained by adding the ordinates of the separate graphs of
the functions. The utility of the method depends on the ease with which the
separate graphs are obtained.
 112

EXAMPLE. Draw the graph of the equation

2 x2 −2 xy + y 2 +8 x−12 y +36=0

Solution. To express y as the sum of two functions of x, we treat the equation as a

quadratic in y. Thus we have

y 2 +(−2 x−12) y +(2 x2 +8 x +36)=0

and solving for y gives

y=2 x +12± √ ¿ ¿ ¿

We now draw the graphs of the equations

y = x + 6 and y = ±√ 4 x −x2
 113

The locus of the first equation is a line. By squaring and then completing the
square in the z-terms, the second equation becomes (x 2) 2 + j/ 2 = 4. The graph is
a circle of radius 2 and center at (2,0). The line and circle are drawn in Fig. 5-19.
The point D on the graph of the given equation is obtained by adding the ordinates
AB and AC. That is, AC is extended by a length equal to AB. The addition of
ordinates for this purpose must be algebraic. Thus MN is negative and the point Q
is found by measuring downward from P so that PQ = MN. By plotting a
sufficient number of points in this manner the desired graph can be drawn.

The graph, obtained from a second degree equation, is by definition a conic. From
the shape we conclude that the given equation represents an ellipse. In the
following section we show that this conclusion can be drawn immediately from
the equation it self.

5-13 Identification of a conic. The kind of conic represented by an

equation of the form

Ax2 + Bxy + Cy2 + Dx + Ey + F=0

can be determined immediately from the coefficients of the second degree terms.
We already know how to identify the type of conic if B = 0. If B ≠ 0, we rotate the
axes through an angle ѳ (Section 4-4) and obtain

A'x'2 + B' x ' y ' +C'y'2 + D ' x ' + E ' y ' + F '=0

Where

A' = A cos2 ѳ + B sin ѳ cos ѳ + C sin2 ѳ,

B' =Bcos 2 ѳ - (A - C) sin 2 ѳ,

C' = A sin2 ѳ - B sin ѳ cos ѳ + C cos2 ѳ.

If B'2 - 4A' C' is computed, the result, when simplified, is

B'2-4A'C'=B2-4AC
 114

This relation among the coefficients of the original equation and the transformed
equation holds for any rotation. For this reason the expression

B2 - 4AC is called an invariant. By selecting the particular rotation for which B' =
0, we have

−4 A ' C '=B 2−4 AC .

With B'=0 the kind of conic represented by the transformed equation, and
therefore the original equation, can be determined from the signs of A' and C'. The
conic is an ellipse if A' and C' have like signs, and a hyperbola if the signs are
different. If either A' or C' is zero, the conic is a parabola. These relations of A'
and C', in the order named, would make -4A'C' negative, positive, or zero. Hence
we have the following important theorem.

THEOREM. The graph of Ax2 + Bxy + Cy 2 + Dx + Ey + F = 0, when it

exists, is an ellipse, hyperbola, or a parabola according as B 2- 4AC is
negative, positive, or zero.

It must be remembered that in this theorem the degenerate conies are included.
These exceptional cases are indicated in the following resume:

B2 - 4AC < 0, ellipse or an isolated point,

B2 - 4AC > 0, hyperbola or two intersecting lines,

B2 - 44C = 0, parabola, two parallel lines, or one line.

EXERCISE 5-4

In each problem 1-4 write the equation of the circle which satisfies the given
conditions.

1. Center (2,-6); radius 5.

2. Center (0,0); radius 3.

3. Center (0,4); radius 4.

 115

4. Center (-2,0); radius 7.

5. The segment joining A(0,0) and B(8, 6) is a diameter.

6. The segment joining A( 5,1) and B(7,5) is a diameter.

Reduce the equations 7-10 to standard forms. Sketch the graph in each case
by the use of the vertex and the ends of the latus rectum.

7. y2 - 12x - 8y + 4 = 0.

8. z2 +12x - 4y + 36 = 0.

9. 4x2 + 12x – 16y + 41 = 0.

10. y2 - 7x + 21 = 0.

Find the equations of the parabolas determined by the conditions given in

problems 11-14, Sketch each parabola.

11. Vertex (2,3); focus (5,3).

12. Vertex (-2,1); focus (-2,-!).

13. Vertex (0,2); axis vertical; length of latus rectum 16.

14. Vertex (-2,1); axis horizontal; passes through (0,-4).

Reduce equations 15-18 to standard forms. In each find the coordinates of

the center, the vertices, the foci, and the ends of the minor axis. Sketch each
curve.

15. 16x2 + 25y2 – 160x – 200y + 400 = 0.

16. 9z2 + 25y2 – 36x - 189 = 0.

17. 3x2+ 2y2 - 24x + 12y + 60 = 0.

18. 4x2 + 8y2 + 4x + 24y - 13 = 0.

Write the equation of the ellipse which satisfies the conditions in each
problem 19-22. Sketch each ellipse.
 116

19. Center (5,1); vertex (5,4); end of minor axis (3,1).

20. Vertex (6,3); foci (-4,3) and (4,3).

21. Ends of minor axis (-1,2) and (-l,-4); focus (-1,1).

22. Vertices (1,3) and (5,3); length of minor axis 4.

Reduce equations 23-26 to standard forms. In each find the coordinates of

the center, the vertices, and the foci. Describe the locus of each equation.

23. 9x2 – 16y2 - 54x - 63 = 0.

24. 21x2 – 4y2 + 84x – 32y- 64 = 0.

25. 5y2 – 4x2 - 30y – 33x = 99.

26. 2y2 - 3x2 - 8y + 6x - 1 = 0.

Write the equations of the hyperbolas which satisfy the conditions given in
problems 27-30.

27. Center (1,3); vertex (4,3); end of conjugate axis (1,1).

28. Vertex (-4,0); foci (-5,0) and (1,0).

29. Ends of conjugate axis (3, 1) and (3,5); focus (1,2).

30. Vertices (1,3) and (5,3); length of conjugate axis 6.

Sketch the graph of each equation 31-36 by the addition of ordinates

method.

31. y=x ± √ x

32. y=6−x ± √ 4−x 2

33. y=2 x ± √ 5+6 x−x 2

34. y 2−2 xy +2 x 2−1=0

35. x 2−2 xy+ y 2−4 x −12=0

 117

36. 2 x2 +2 xy + y 2+ 8 x+ 4 y + 4=0

Assuming that each equation 37-42 represents a nondegenerate conic,

classify each by computing B2- 4AC.

37. 2x2 - 4xy + 8y2 + 7 = 0.

38. 3x2 + xy + x - 4 = 0.

39. 2xy - x + y-3 = 0.

40. x2 + 5xy + 15y2= 1.

41. x2 – y2 + 4 = 0.

42. x2 - 2xy + y2 + 3x = 0.

43. 3x2 + 6xy + 3y2 - x + y = 0.

44. 4x2 - 3xy + y2+ 13 = 0.

45. Determine whether the equation x2 - xy - 2y2 + x- 2y = 0 represents a

hyperbola or two intersecting lines by treating the equation as a quadratic in x and
solving for x in terms of y.

46. Solve the equation x2 + 2xy + y2 - 2x- 2y +1 = 0 for one variable in terms of
the other. Is the locus a parabola or a degenerate conic?

47. Work out all the steps in showing that B' 2 - 4A'C'= B2 - 4AC. Show also that
A' + C' = A + C. Find the greatest or least value of each function 48 and 49. Draw
the graph and estimate the zeros of the function.

48. x2 - 7x + 4.

49. 5 - 2x - 2x2

50. Listening posts are at A, B, and C. Point A is 2000 feet north of point B, and
point C is 2000 feet east of B. The sound of a gun reaches A and B simultaneously
one second after it reaches C. Show that the coordinates of the gun's position are
 118

approximately (860,1000), where the z-axis passes through B and C and the origin
is midway between B and C. Assume that sound travels 1100 feet per second
 119

CHAPTER 6

THE SLOPE OF A CURVE

6-1 An Example. The graph of y=x 2 is shown in Fig, 6-1. Suppose that
we draw a line through the point, P(1,1) of the graph and a neighboring point Q of
the graph with abscissa 1+h. The ordinate of Q, obtained by replacing x by 1+h in
the equation, is (1+h¿2. Hence the slope of the line is given by

y 2−¿ y h
m= 1
=¿¿ ¿=(2 + h ) .
x 2−x 1 h

The slope is thus expressed in terms of h. The quantity h may be assigned

any value except zero. This value is avoided because division by zero is not
permissible and also because P and Q would then be the same point and would not
determine a line. Agreeing that h ≠0, we substitute 1 for h/h in the expression for
the slope, and have m = 2 + h. While h must not be zero, it may be as near zero as
we please. A value of h near zero makes the slope of the line through P and Q near
2. In fact, the slope can be brought arbitrarily near 2 by taking h small enough.
We see also that when h is small Q is near P, and it can be made to take a position
as close to P as we please. Consider now the line through P with the slope 2 and
denote the line by L. A line through P and Q can be obtained which is arbitrarily
near coincidence with L. This situation is described by saying that as h approaches
zero (or as Q approaches P) the line L is the limiting position of the line
determined by P and Q. A line such as L is of special significance and is given a
name in the following paragraph.
 120

Let P and Q be two points of a curve. The line through P and Q is called a
secant line. Keeping P fixed, let Q move along the curve and approach P. The
secant line will, in the curves which we shall study, revolve about P and approach
a limiting position as Q is brought arbitrarily close to P. The limiting position of
the secant line is called the tangent to the curve at the point P.

In accordance with this definition, the line through P (Fig. 6-1) with slope 2
is tangent to the curve. The curve is also said to have slope 2 at P. More generally,
the slope of a curve at any point is defined to be equal to the slope of the tangent
at the point.

Still using the equation y = x 2 , we next let P(x,y) stand for any point of the
curve. If we take x + h as the abscissa of another point Q of the curve, the
corresponding ordinate is (x+h¿2 . The slope of the line through P and Q (Fig. 6-2)
is

h
m=¿ ¿=(2x + h ) .
h

Hence, if h≠ 0, m = 2x + h. This slope can be made as near 2x as we please

by taking h small enough. Therefore we say that the line through P with slope 2x
is the tangent to the curve at P. Thus we see that the slope of the tangent, and also
the slope of the curve, at any point is twice the abscissa of the point. This means
that the curve has negative slopes to the left of the origin, zero slope at the origin,
and positive slopes to the right of the origin. We see also that the curve gets
steeper as x increases numerically. The steepness of the curve is a measure of the
rate of change of the ordinate relative to a change in the value of the abscissa.
 121

By means of the slope expression we gain considerable information about the

graph.

In this chapter we shall make use of the slope in studying the characteristics
of the graph of a function. This is a fundamental and powerful concept of
mathematics.

6-2 Limits. In the preceding example we observed that (2x + h)h/h can be
made arbitrarily close to 2x by taking h small. The expression 2x is said to be the
limit of the original expression as h approaches zero. We state this fact
symbolically as

h
lim (2 x+ h) ¿ 2 x
h→ 0 h

Although h approaches zero, we specify that it is not to be given the value zero.
This means that (2x + h)h/h is not equal to 2x, but can be made as close as we
please to 2x by choosing h small enough.

As a further illustration, we find the limit of

¿¿

as h approaches zero. Here the result is not immediately evident. The limit can
easily be found, however, if we first cube the binomial. Thus we have

lim ⁡ ¿ ¿¿
h→ 0
 122

h
¿ lim ⁡ (3 x 2+3 xh+ h2)
h→ 0 h

¿ lim ⁡ (3 x 2+3 xh+ h2)

h→ 0

¿ 3 x2

6-3 The derivative. Consider now the more general equation

y=f ( x ) ,

where the right member is some function of x. Let P and Q be two points of the
graph of the equation which have abscissas x and x + h. The corresponding
ordinates are f(x) and f(x + h). Hence the slope of the line through P and Q (Fig.
6-3) is

f ( x+ h )−f (x ) f ( x +h ) −f ( x)
=
( x +h )−x h

The line through P with slope equal to

f ( x +h )−f (x)
lim
h→ 0 h

is called the tangent to the curve at P. The slope of the curve at P is defined
to be the slope of the tangent. The name derivative is given to the limit just
mentioned, and Dxf(x) is one notation for the limit or derivative. That is,
f ( x +h )−f (x)
D xf(x)=lim
h→ 0 h
Other notations for the derivative of f(x) in y = f (x) are
 123

df ( x) dy
F’(x), , D xy, y’ , and
dx dx

The derivative is a fundamental concept in calculus and has numerous

important applications. We shall make use of the derivative in the study of a very
restricted class of functions. A preliminary task in this connection is the derivation
of formulas by which the derivative of a function may be written at

6-4 Derivative formulas. We first work out the derivative of ax n , where a

is a constant and n is a positive integer. From the definition of derivative,

D x ax n=lim a ¿ ¿ ¿
h →0

To evaluate the limit, we expand ( x +h ¿nby the binomial theorem, collect like
terms, and divide the numerator and denominator by h. Thus

a n ( n−1 ) n−2 2
a ¿ ¿= [x n +nx n−1 h+ x h +…+h n x n ]
h 2

n ( n−1 ) n−2 ❑
¿ a [n x n−1 + x h + …+hn−1 ]
2

The last expression has A as a factor in all terms except the first. Hence the
limit, as h approaches zero, of each term after the first is zero. The limit of the
sum of these terms is also zero. Hence we have

D x ax n=naxn−1

Notice that this formula permits us to write at once the derivative of a constant
times a positive integral power of x. We multiply by the exponent and decrease
the power of x by one unit. In terms of slope, this means that the graph of y=ax n
has at any point (x,y) the slope nax n−1
If n = 1, formula (1) becomes
D x ax=ax0 =a
 124

The derivative for this case is constant, as would be expected, since y = ax is a

straight line with the slope a.

Illustrations. D x 5 x3 =15 x2 ; Dx (−2 x ¿¿ 4)=−8 x2 ; Dx x 5=5 x 4 ; D x 3 x=3 ¿

We next find the derivative of a constant. That is, we let

f(x)=C

where C is a constant. This means that f(x) has the same value for all values of x,
and therefore f(x + h) = C. Hence

f ( x+ h )−f ( x ) C−C 0
= =
h h h

Since h approaches zero but is not to assume the value zero, the quantity 0/h is
zero for all permissible values of h. We therefore conclude that

D x C =0

This result is in agreement with what we would expect, because the

derivative is the slope of the graph of the function. The graph of f(x) = C is a line
parallel to the #-axis and the slope is zero at all its points. An expression of the
form

a 0 x n +a1 x n−1 + a2 x n−2 +…+a n−1 x❑ + an

where the a's are constants with a ≠0, is a polynomial in x of the nth degree. We
now know how to write the derivative of each term of a polynomial. The question
then arises if the sum of the derivatives of the separate terms is equal to the
derivative of the sum of the terms. This may be proved to be true. We shall make
the assumption, omitting the proof.

We have established formula (1) for any positive integer n. In calculus the
formula is proved to hold for any real number n. We shall use the formula for
positive and negative integral exponents. The proof for a negative integral
exponent could be made by starting with the definition of derivative and
 125

proceeding somewhat as in the case of a positive integral exponent. We omit the

proof, however.

EXAMPLE 1. Find the derivative of the polynomial

4 x5 −3 x 4 + x3 −7 x+5

Solution. To find the derivative, we apply formula (1) to each term containing x
and formula (2) to the constant term 5. Hence

D x (4 x 5−3 x 4 + x 3−7 x +5)=20 x 4−12 x 3 +3 x 2−7

−4 5 1
EXAMPLE 2. Write the derivative of 3 x − + −x−3.
x3 x

Solution. We change the fractional terms to −5 x−3and x−1 and apply formulas (1)
and (2).
This gives
D x ( 3 x−4 −5 x −3+ x −1 −x−3 )=−12 x−5 +15 x−4 −x−2−1

EXAMPLE 3. Find the slope of the curve

y = x 3−3 x 2+ 4
at the point P(3,4). Write the equation of the tangent at this point.
Solution. We obtain the derivative (or slope expression) by using formulas (1)
and (2). Thus
D x y=3 x 2−6 x

The slope at the point P is obtained by substituting 3 for x in the derivative. Hence
the desired slope is 27-18 = 9. The equation of the line through (3,4) with slope 9
is
9x - y - 23 = 0.

EXERCISE 6-1

Find the limits indicated in problems 1-6.

 126

1. lim (¿ x 2−4 )¿ 2 ( x+ h )−2 x

x →2 4. lim
h→ 0 h
x +2
2. lim 5. lim ¿ ¿¿
x →0 x +1 h→ 0

lim (¿ 2 x−1)¿
3. x→−2 1 1 1
6. lim − )
h→ 0 x +h x h

Find f’(x) in each problem 7-20.

7. f ( x )=2 x−4 14. f ( x )=5 x−1−x

8. f ( x )=5−6 x 1
15. f ( x )=
x
9. f ( x )=x 3
16. f ( x )=4 x 5 + x 4−2 x 3+ 6 x2
10. f ( x )=5 x 3
2 17. f ( x )=3 x−4 −5 x−2+ 2
11. f ( x )=3 x −4 x
−3
12. f ( x )=x 3−4 x 2 +3 x 18. f ( x )=
x3
13. f ( x )=x −3 1
19. f ( x )=
x4
2 3 4
20. f ( x )=1+ + +
x❑ x2 x 3
In each equation 21-30 find D xy and the equation of the tangent at the given
point.
21. y=x 3; (1,1) 26. y=x 3−6 x 2 +8 x ; (0,0)
22. y=x 2 +3 ;( 0,3) 27. y=x 4 −4 x2 ;(2,0).
1 28. y=2 x−2 +3 x ; (x=2).
23. y= ;(-1,-1).
x
29. y=x −4 + x 4 ;(x=−1).
3
24. y= ;(1,3). 2 3
x2 30. y=1+ + ; ( x=−2 ) .
x❑ x2
25. y=x 2−4 x ;(2 ,−4).

6-5 The use of the derivative in graphing. We now consider the

derivative as an aid in studying the behavior of functions and in constructing
their graphs. Before examining particular functions, however, we look for the
meaning of the sign of the derivative at a point of the curve. The graph of y=
f(x) is shown in Fig. 6-4, and tangents are drawn at the indicated points A , B, C
and D. If we think of a point as moving along the curve from left to right, we
 127

notice that the moving point would be rising at some positions and falling at
others. At points on the curve where the moving point is rising, we say that y is
an increasing Junction of x. That is, y increases as x increases. At points where
the moving point is falling, y is a decreasing function. At A the function ∫(x) is
an increasing function. Here the slope of the curve, Dxy, is a positive number.
The function is decreasing at C, and the derivative is negative. The slope, and
also the derivative, is zero at B and D. The points B and D separate rising and
falling portions of the curve. We conclude that a positive derivative at a point
indicates that the point is on a portion of the curve which rises toward the right.
That is, the function increases as x in creases. A negative derivative indicates a
decreasing function; the curve falls toward the right.

EXAMPLE 1. Find the values of s for which the graph of 5+ 4 x−x 2

has positive slopes, zero slope, or negative slopes.

Solution. We let p stand for the function and write

y=5+ 4 x−x 2

For or the derivative, we have

D x y=4−2 x =2(2−x )

We note that the derivative is equal to zero when x = 2, is positive for x <
2, and is negative for x ˃ 2, That is,

D x y >0 when x <2,

D x y=0 when x=2 ,

 128

D x y <0 when x >2.

Since the derivative expression given the slope of the graph of the
function, we see that the graph has paitive slopes to the left of x = 2, zero
slope at x = 2, and negative slope to the right of x = 2. This tells us that
the curve is rising at points to the left of x = 2 and falling at points to the
right of x = 2. Hence the graph has its greatest height at x = 2. substituting 2
for x in the given function, we find the functional value, y, to be 9. Hence
the pcint (2,9) is the peak point of the graph, and 9 is the greatest value of the
given function.

Noticing the derivative 2(2 – x) further, we observe that at a point far

to the left of x = 2 the derivative is a large number, indicating that the curve is
steep. Similarly, the curve gets steeper and steeper as x increases beyond 2.
The steep-ness of the curve gives a measure of the rate of change in y relative
to an increase in x.

FIGURE 6-5

This examination of the derivative furnishes information which is helpful in

drawing the graph (Fig. 6-5).

EXAMPLE 2. Examine the function x 3−6 x 2+ 9 x−1 and construct its

graph.
 129

Solution. Letting y stand for the function, we have

y=x 3−6 x 2 +9 x−1

and then
D x y=3 x 2−12 x+ 9=3 ( x−1 ) ( x−3 ) .

We see at once that the derivative is zero when x = 1 and when x = 3.

To find the intervals of positive and negative slopes, we first notice the signs of
the factors x – 1 and x – 3 of the derivative. The factor x – 1 is negative if x
˂ 1 and positive for values of x > 1. The factor x - 3 i8 negative for x < 3
and positive if x > 3. Both factors are negative to the left of x = 1, and
hence their product is positive. For x between 1 and 3, x – 1 is positive and x –
3 is negative, giving a negative product. both factors are positive to the right
of x = 3. We write this information in the following symbolic form.

D x y=0 when x=1

D x y=3 ¿ when 1< x <3

D x y=0 when x=3

D x y=3 ¿ when x >3

We now interpret this information relative to the graph. Since the

derivative is positive for x < 1, the curve to the left of x = 1 is rising toward the
right. The negative derivative at points between 1and 3 signify a falling curve.
The derivative is zero at x = 1, and this point separates rising and falling
portions of the curve. Hence the graph is higher at x – 1 than at points to the
left or at points just to the right. The corresponding ordinate is 3, and
therefore the point A(1,3) is a peak point. Similarly, the derivative is negative
at point between x – 1.

FIGURE 6-6
 130

And x = 3, is zero at x = 3, and is positive at points to the right of x =

3.When x = 3, y = -1, hence the point B (3, -1) of the graph is lower than those
immediately to the left and lower than those to the right. The curve gets steeper
and super as points are taken farther and farther to the left of A, and the
steepness also increases an x increases beyond 3.

With the preceding information and just a few plotted points a good graph
can be constructed (Fig. 8-6).

6–6 MAXIMUM AND MINIMUM POINTS. In the two preceding

problems we found points of the curves where the slope is zero. Each of
these points marks the transition from positive to negative or negative to
positive slopes. In other words, each is a high or low point compared with
those nearby. The location of these points helped tremendously in drawing the
graphs. Later we shall see that the points which separate rising and falling
portions of the curve are of special significance in applied problems. We wish
now to give names to points of this kind and to outline a procedure for
finding them.

A function y=f (x ) is said to have a relative maximum at x = a if the

value of f(x) is greater when x = a than when x has values slightly less or
slightly more than a. More specifically, f(x) has a maximum at x = a if

f ( a ) >f ( a+h)

for all values of h close enough to zero. If the inequality holds for all
positive and negative values of h, the minimum is an absolute minimum.
A minimum point is shown at B. Here the slope of the curve is zero. The point B
is a transition point from negative to positive slopes.

At C the slope is zero, but this is neither a maximum nor a minimum

point. We notice that the slope immediately to the left is positive and is
also positive to the right. Hence the tangent at C cuts through the curve and
the slope does not change in sign as x increases through this point.
 131

FIGURE 6-7

From Fig. 6-7 we may, intuitively at any rate, outline a procedure for
finding the maximum and minimum points of the graph of a function.

1. Set thc derivative equal to zero to find be abscissas of points where

the slope is zero.
2. Suppose the slope is zero at x = a. Determine the sign of the
derivative For values of x slightly less than a and the sign for values
slightly more than a.
3. If the sign changes from positive to negative in passing from the left
to the right, the function has a maximum at x = a. If the sign changes
from negative to positive, the function has minimum x = a. The
maximum or minimum is the value of the function when x = a.If the
sign does not changes, the function has neither a maximum nor a
minimum at x = a.
 132

15›

10

0 123

(—2,-13)

FIGURE 6-8 FIGURE 6-9

EXAMPLE 1. Show that the slope of x 3+ x is everywhere positive.

Solution. We find

D x y=3 x 2 +1

The derivative is positive for all real values of x. Figure 6 – 8 shows the graph.

EXAMPLE 2. Find and test for maximum and minimum values the
points of zero slope of

y=x 4 −6 x 2+ 8 x+11

Solution. Taking the derivative, we find

D x y=4 x 3−12 x+ 8=4 ( x 3−3 x+ 2 )=4 ( x+ 2 ) (x−1)2

The slope is zero at x = -2 and x = 1. We notice that the derivative is

negative for values of x less than -2 and positive for values of x slightly
greater than -2. Hence the function has a minimum value when x = -2. The
minimum value, found by substituting -2 for x, is -l3.The factor ( x−1)2 is
positive for all values of x except 1. The slope of the curve, therefore, does not
 133

change sign in passing through x = 1. The tangent line (Fig. 6-9) cuts
through the graph at (1,14).

EXERCISE 6-2

Find the coordinates of points of zero slope in problems 1-14. Tell in

each caSe if the point is a maximum or minimum point. Give the intervals of
positive and negative slopes. Draw the curves.

1. y=2−x 2 2. y=x 2

3. y=x 2−4 x 4. y=2 x 2+ 2 x

1 2
5. y=1+6 x− x2 6. y=1+2 x− x
4

7. y=−x3 8. y=x 3 +3 x

1 3 2
9. y= x −x + x I0. y=x 3−6 x 2 +9 x−3
3

11. y=2 x 3 +3 x2 12. y=3 x 2−x 3

13. . y=x 3−3 x 2 +4 14. . y=2+3 x−x 2

Find the coordinates of the points of zero slope, rind make a rough sketch
of the graph in problems 15-22.

15. y=3 x 4 + 4 x 3 I6. y=x 4 + 2 x 2

x4 2 x3 x2 x4 2 x3 x2
17. y= − + +1 18. y= − + +1
4 3 2 4 3 2

x4 3 2
19. y= −x + x +1 20. y=x 4 −2 x2 +1
4

x 4 x 3 x2 x4 x3 2
21. y= + − −x 22. y= − −2 x + 4
4 3 2 4 3
 134

6-7 APPLICATIONS. There are many practical problems whose solutions

involve maximum and minimum values of functions. The following examples
illustrate the procedure for handling some problems of this kind.

FIGURE 6-10

EXAMPLE 1. A farmer has 600 rods of fencing. He wishes to enclose a

rec- tangular pasture and divide the are into two equal parts by a fence parallel
to two apposite sides. Find the dimensions of the pasture if the area is to be a
maximum.

Solution. We let x and y stand for the dimensions (Fig. 6-10). We note
that by choosing the y-dimension near 300 the x-dimension would be near zero,
giving a very narrow rectangle of little area. By letting x increase from near zero
to a length near 200, the shape of the rectangle would vary and again become
quite narrow, with the y-dimension near zero. Hence we suspect that the area is
greatest for x somewhere between 0 and 200.

If a indicates the area, we have

A=xy

It is desirable to obtain A in terms of one variable, either x or y. Hence we

next find a relation between x and y. From the figure, 3x + 2y is the total length
of the fence. Therefore
 135

3
3 x+ 2 y =600 , and y=300− x .
2

Substituting for y, we have

3x 3
(
A=x 300−
2 )
=300 x− x 2 .
2

To find the value of s which makes A a maximum, use set D,A = 0 and solve for
x.

Thus

D , A=300−3 x

300−3 x =0 , and x = 100.

When x=100, y=150, and A = 15,000 square rods. From the nature of the
problem, we surmise that the area is a maximum for these dimensions. This
may be verified by noting that the derivative is positive for x less than 100 and
negative for x greater than 100.

3 2
The function 300 x− x is a complete parabola if x is not restricted in value.
2

15,000

FIGURE 6-11.
200

In our problem, however, x may take only the values between 0 and 200.
The graph for this range of x is drawn in Fig. 6-11.

EXAMPLE 2. A cylindrical can without a top is to have a capacity of

1000x cubic inches. Find the radius and height if the amount of material in to be
a minimum.
 136

Solution. If we let x stand for the radius, y for the height, and S for the
cylin- drical area plus the area of the circular bottom, we have

S=π x 2+ 2 πxy

To express S in terms of one variable, we substitute the value of y in

terms of x. We have

1000
π x 2 y=100 π , and y= ,
x3

and hence

2000 π
S=π x 2+ =π x 2 +2000 π x−1 ,
x

x 3−1000
−2
D x S=2 πx=2000 π x =2 π .
x2

We see that D x S=0, when x = 10. The corresponding value of y is 10. The
least amount of material is required when the radiua is 10 inches and the
height also 10 inches.

EXERCISE 6-3

1. What is the largest rectangular area which can be enclosed with 400
yards of fence?
2. Divide the number 8 into two parts such that the sum ot their squares is a
minimum.
3. A rectangular pasture is to be fenced along four sides and divided into
three equal parts by two fences parallel to one of the sides. Find the
greatest area if 800 yards of fence are to be used.
4. A rectangular plot is to contain 5 acres (800 sq. rds.) and to be fenced off
along a straight river bank.What dimensions will require the least amount
of fencing? No fence ia used along the river.
5. A rectangular box is to be made from a sheet of tin 8 inches by 12 inches
by cutting square pieces from each corner and then turning up the sides.
 137

For what depth will the volume of the box be a maximum ?

6. A box with a square base and open top is to be made from 27 square feet
of material. Find the dimensions if the volume is to be a maximum.
7. An uncovered rectangular water tank is to be lined with sheet copper. If
the tank is to hold 108 cubic feet of water and the base is a square, find
the dimensions for a minimum amount of sheet coppcr.
8. A closed cylindrical can is to be made from 24π square inches of sheet
tin. Find the radius and height in order fot the volume to be a maximum
9. A closed cylindrical can is to be made to contain 16 π cubic inches. What
should be the radius and height for the amount of tin to be a minimum?
10. A window is formed by a rectangle surraounted by a semicircle and has a
perimeter of 12 feet . Find the dimensions to admit the most light.
11. The combined length and girth of a parcel post package must not exceed
100 inches. What is the volume of the largest box with a square base that
can be sent pareel post?
 138

CHAPTER 7

TRANSCENDENTAL FUNCTIONS

7-1 Introduction. An equation in which all terms are of the form x m y n ,

where α is a constant and each exponent is a positive integer or zero, is an
algebraic equation in x and y. Either variable may be regarded as an algebraic
function of the other. The functions which we have studied are algebraic. In this
chapter we shall take up functions which are not algebraic. Functions which are
not algebraic are classed as transcendental. The most common transcendental
functions, and those which we shall study, are the trigonometric, the inverse
trigonometric, the exponential, and the logarithmic functions. These functions are
of tremendous importance; they are used extensively in physics, engineering,
probability, and statistics.

7-2 The trigonometric curves. Before constructing the graphs of the

trigonometric functions we shall point out a certain property which these
functions possess. A function f(x) is said to be periodic if there is a constant p
such that for all values of x
f (x)=f ( x + p)

The smallest positive value of p for which this is true is called the period. The
trigonometric functions are periodic. The sine function, for example, satisfies the
equations

sin x=sin( x+2 п)=sin ( x+2 nп)

where x is any angle in radians and n is an integer. Thus the values of the sine of
an angle recur in intervals of 2п radians. This recurrence does not take place in
smaller intervals, and hence 2п is the period of the sine function. This is also the
period of the cosine, secant, and cosecant of an angle. The period of the tangent
and cotangent of an angle is п. For these functions we have the identities

tan x=tan ( x+ п ) and cot x=cot (x+ п)

 139

In drawing the graph of a trigonometric function, advantage should be taken

of its periodic nature. If the graph is obtained for an interval equal to its period,
then this part of the graph can be reproduced in other intervals to the right and
left. To plot points for drawing the curve over an interval of one period, the values
of the function corresponding to values of the angle can be had from a table of
trigonometric functions (see Appendix).
 140

Figures 7-1 and 7-2 show the graphs of y=sin x and y=cos x. Each of these
curves crosses the x-axis after every π radians of x-values. The ordinates of each
vary from -1 to 1. These are called the extreme values, and the constant 1 is called
the amplitude.
The tangent curve (Fig. 7-3) crosses the x-axis at integral multiples of π

1
radians and has asymptotes at odd integral multiples or π radians. Amplitude is
2
not defined for the tangent.
The secant curve (Fig. 7-4) has no x-intercepts. The asymptotes occur after
every π radians of x-values.
We next consider the values the function α sin bx are −1 and 1, the estreme
values of α sin bx are – a and a. The amplitude is equal to the absolute value of α.
To find the period, we determine how much x changes in producing a change of
2 π in the angle bx. As x varies from 0 to 2 π /b, the angle bx incereases from 0 to
2 π. Hence the period of sin bx is 2 π /b. As an illustration, 3 sin 2 x has an
amplitude of 3 and a period of π. The graph of y=3 sin 2 x is drawn in Fig. 7-5.
 141

7-3 The inverse trigonometric functions. The graphs of the inverse

trigonometric functions may be obtained readily from the graphs of the direct
functions. To draw the graph of y=arc sin x, for example, we recall that the
equations

y=arc sin x and x=sin y

express the same relation between x and y. Hence the graphs of these two
equations must coincide.
142
 143

The equations
x=sin y and y=sin x
have x and y interchanged. The graph of y=sin x (Fig. 7-1) winds along the x-
axis. We conclude, therefore, that the graph of x=sin y is a curve of the same
form winding along the y-axis. The graph of x=sin y, or y=arc sin x, is shown in
Fig. 7-6.
The graphs of each of the direct function by reversing the roles of x and y.
Figures 7-7 and 7-8 ahow the graphs of y=arc cos x and y=arc tan x .

EXERCISE 7-1

Find the period of each function 1-12. Give the amplitudes of the sine and cosine
functions.
1. cos 3 x. 1 1
3. sin x. 6. cot x.
1 3 4
2. sin x.
2 4. 2 cos 4 x. 7. sec 6 x.
5. tan5 x. 8. cos 7 x.
 144

3
9. tan x.
4

10. 3 cos πx.

1
12. sec ( 12 x+ 12 π ).
11. 2 sin πx .
2

Sketch the graph of each equation

13-24
13. y=3 cos x 2
20. y=4 tan x
3
14. y=2sin x
3
15. y=sin3 x 21. y=4 sin x
2
16. y=cos 2 x
1
22. y=tan x
17. y=tan 2 x 2
18. y=cot x 23. y=csc x
1 24. y=5 sin 4 x
19. y=3 sin x
2

Draw the graphs of the inverse

trigonometric equations 25-30
25. y=2arc cos x 1 1
28. y= arc cos x
2 2
26. y=3 arc sin x
1
27. y=2arc tan x 29. y=3 arc sin x
2

1
y= arc tan 2 x 7-4 The exponential curves. An equation in which a
2
variable or a function of a variable is an exponent is called an exponential
equation. The corresponding graph is known as an exponential curve. The
equations

y=2x , y=e x, and y=10 x

are simple exponential equations. Each could be made more general by replacing
the exponent by a less simple function of x. The letter c in the second equation
stands for an irrational number approximately equal to 2.71828. This number is of
 145

great importance in advanced mathematics, and exponential functions involving e

as a base have wide applications in both theory and practice.

The graph of y=e x can be drawn by using the table (see Appendix)
to find values of y for assigned values of x. Corresponding values of y in
the equations y=2x and y=10 x are simply obtained when x is an integer.
To determine other pairs of values a table of logarithms can be used.
Figure 7-9 has the graph of the three equations drawn in the same
coordinate system for purposes of comparison.
 146

7-5 Logarithmic curves. If a is a positive number different from 1

and y is any real number in the equation a y =x , then y is called the
logarithm of x to the base a. This relation may be written symbolically as
y=log a x . Thus the two equations

a y =x and y=log a x

express the same relation among the numbers a, x, and y. The first is in
exponential form and the second in logarithmic form. Since the base a is positive,
a y also has a positive value. Hence we shall consider the logarithms of positive
numbers only.
Since a logarithmic equation can be changed to an exponential
equation, it appears that logarithmic and exponential curves must be
closely related. To see the relation, we note that the logarithmic equation
y=log a x is equivalent to, and therefore has the same graph as x=a y.
Now the equations
x=a y and y=a x

are alike except that x and y play reverse roles. Hence their graphs must have the
same form but different positions relative to the coordinate axes.
The most frequently used bases for logarithms are the numbers 10
and e. A table of logarithms can be used for drawing the curve
corresponding to a logarithmic equation employing either of these bases.
Corresponding values of x and y for the equations y=log 10 x and y=log e x
are here tabulated with the logarithmic values rounded off to one decimal
place. These should be verified by referring to the tables in the Appendix.
The graphsare drawn in Fig. 7-10.

x 0.01 0.1 0.2 0.5 0.8 1 2 4 8 10

log 10 x −2.0 −1.0 −0.7 −0.3 −0.1 0 0.3 0.6 0.9 1.0
log e x −4.6 −2.3 −1.6 −0.7 −0.2 0 0.7 1.4 2.1 2.3

EXERCISE 7-2
 147

Sketch the graphs of the following equations:

1. y=4 x 10. y=3 log 10 x
2. y=4−x 11. y=2 log e x
3. y=2e x 12. y=log 10 (−x )
4. y=e2 x 13. y=log e (−x )
2
5. y=e x 14. y=log 10 4 x
2
6. y=e−x 15. y=log e x 2
7. y=e2 x−1 16. y=log 2 x
2
8. y=e x −x 17. y=log 10 ( x−3 )
9. y=xe x

18. Show that the graph of y=log a bx is the graph of y=log a x shifted vertically a
distance of log a b .
19. Show that the graph of y=log a x 2 can be obtained by doubling each ordinate
of y=log a x .
20. If $100 is invested at 2 % per year compounded continuously, the
accumulated amount y at the end of x years is given by the equation
y=100 e 0.02 x

Sketch the graph of this equation and from the graph estimate the accumulated
amount at the end of (a) 3 years, (b) 6 years, (c) 9 years. Estimate also the time
required for the original investment to double.

7-6 The graph of the sum of two functions. The addition of ordinates
method can sometimes be efficiently applied to draw the graph of the sum of two
functions in which one or both are transcendental. The process is exactly that used
in Section 5-12 and is illustrated by the following example involving a
transcendental function.
EXAMPLE 1. Sketch the graph of the equation
y= √ x +sin x
Solution. We first draw the graphs of
y= √ x and y=sin x
 148

The locus of the first of these equations is the upper half of the parabola y 2=x ,
and the second yields the sine curve; both are familiar and easily sketched. The
two curves are shown in Fig. 7-11. The point D on the graph of the given equation
is obtained by adding the ordinates AB and AC. That is, AC is extended by a
length equal to AB. The addition of ordinates for this purpose must be algebraic.
Thus MN is negative and the point Q is found by measuring downward from P so
that PQ=MN. By plotting a suficient number of points in this way the desired
graph can be drawn.

EXERCISE 7-2
Sketch the graph of each of the following equations by the addition of ordinates
method.
1. y=x +sin x 7. y=x + log 10 x
2. y=x −cos x 8. y=x +e x
3. y= √ x +cos x 1
9. y= ( e x + e−x )
4. y=sin x +cos x 2
5. y=sin x +cos 2 x
6. y=2sin x +sin 2 x

y=e x + log 10 x
 149

CHAPTER 8

EQUATION OF CURVES AND CURVE FITTING

8-1 Equation of a given curve. Having obtained curves as the graphs of

equations, it is natural to surmise that a curve in a plane has a corresponding
equation. We shall first consider the problem of writing the equation of a curve all
of whose point are definitely fixed by certain given geometric conditions. The
graph of the resulting equation should be in exact agreement with the given curve.
In other words , the equation of acurve is a relation between x and ywhich is
satisfied by the coordinates of all points, and only those points, which belong to
the given curve.
In the latter part of this chapter we shall consider the problem of finding
the equation when the original information locates certain points (usually a few)
but does not establish any particular curve.

EXAMPLE 1. A point moves so that its distance from the fixed point

1
F(2,0) divided by its distance from the y-axis is alwaysequal to . Find the
2
equation of the locus of the moving point.

Solution. We select a typical point P of the path (Fig. S-1). Then 2FP = DP
expresses the required relation between the distances. In term of the coordinates
xand y of the variabel point P, this relation is

2√ (x−2)2 + y 2 = x 1

Or, by simplication,

3 x 2 + 4 y 2 – 16x + 16 = 0
 150

This is the equation of an ellipse, since x 2 and y 2 have unequal coeficients of the
same sign.

FIGURE 8-1

EXAMPLE 2. Find the equation of the circle which passes through the
point (-2,2), (5,-3), and (2,1).
Solution. The equation of the circle can be written in the form
x 2+ ¿ y 2 + Dx+ Ey + F=0
Our Problem is to find values for D, E, and F so that this equation is satisfied by
the coordinates of the given points. Hence we substitute for x and y the
coordinates of these points. This gives the system
4 + 4 – 2 D – 2 E + F=0
25+9+ 5 D – 3 E+ F=0
4 +1+2 D+ E+ F=0

The solution of these equation is D = –3, E = 5, and F = –4. Therefore the required
equation is
x 2+ ¿ y 2 – 3 x +5 y – 4=0

EXERCISE 8-1
In each problem 1-14 find the equation of the locus of P(x,y), which
satisfies the given condition.
1. P is 5 units from the fixed point (2, –3).
2. P is equidistant from (2, –4) and (–1,5)
 151

3. The abscissa of P is equal to its distance from the point (3,2)

4. P is on the circle with center at (3, –2) and which passes through (6,2)
5. P is the vertex of a right triangle whose hypotenuse is the segment
joining (–5,0) and (5,0).
6. The sum of the squares of the distance between P and the points (4,2)
and (–3,1) is 50.
7. P is twice as far from (0,3) as from (3,0)
8. P is three times as far from (1,1) as from (–3,4)
9. P is equidistant from (–8,1) and the y-axis
10. P is twice as far from the x-axis as from (0,3)
11. P is twice as far from (5,0) as from the y-axis
12. The sum of the distance from P to (0,–3) and to (0,3) is 10
13. The difference of the distance from P to (–5,0) and to (5,0) is
numerically equal to 8.
14. The angle APB = 45 ∘, where A and B are the points (–1,0) and (1,0).
15. A point moves so that its distance from a fixed point divided by its
distance from a fixed line is always equal to a constant e. Find the
equation of the path of the moving point. Suggestion: Take the y-axis
along the fixed line and the x-axis through the fixed point, say (k,0).
From the resulting equation observe that the path is a parabola if e = 1,
an ellipse if e is between zero and 1, and a hyperbola if e is greater than
1. Show that for e≠1 the x-intercepts (vertices) are k /(1+e) and k/(1-e).
Where is the center of the conic? Divide the distance between the center
and (k,0) by the distance between the center and one of the z-intercept
points. Do you conclude that (k,0) is a focus and e is the eccentricity?
16. Find the equation of the circle which passes through the points (3,0),
(4,2), and (0,1).
17. Find the equation of the circle which passes through (0,0), (5,0), and
(3,3).
18. Find the equation of the parabola y = ax 2 + bx + c which passes through
(0,6), (-1,2), and (-2,6).
 152

19. Find the equation of the parabola y - ax 2 + bx + c which passes

through (0,0), (l, -l), and (-l,5).

8-2 Equation corresponding to empirical data. We now take up a much

different and more difficult aspect of the problem of finding equations
representing known information. Here the problem is not primarily of geometric
interest but one in which analytic geometry is fruitful in aiding the scientist.
Experimental scientists make observations and measurements of various kinds of
natural phenomena. Measurements in an investigation often represent two variable
quantities which are functionally related. In many situations the study can be
advanced through an equation which expresses the relation, or an approximate
relation, between the two variables in question. The equation can then be used to
compute corresponding values of the variables other than those obtained by
measurement. The equation is called an empirical equation, and the process
employed is called curve fitting.
Suppose, for example, that various loads are placed at the mid-point of a
beam supported at its ends. If for each load the deflection of the beam at its mid-
point is measured, then a series of corresponding values are obtained. One value
of each pair is the load and the other the deflection produced by the load. The
table gives readings where x stands for the load in pounds and y the deflection in
inches. Taking the loads as abscissas and the deflections as ordinates, the pairs of
values are plotted as points

X 100 120 140 160 180 200

Y 0,45 0.55 .0.60 0.70 0.80 0.90

In Fig.8-2. 8-2. The points lie almost in a straight line, and suggest that the
deflection is a linear function of the load. That is, an equation of the form
y=mx+b

gives the relation, or an approximate relation, between the load and the deflection.
Since the points are not exactly in a straight line, no linear equation can be
satisfied by all pairs of the readings. We are then faced with the problem of
 153

selecting a particular linear equation. A line could be drawn by sight so that it

passes quite close to each point. It is desirable, however, to follow some
procedure which will locate a definite line. In the next section we shall discuss a
method of determining a line which is called the best fitting line for a set of data.

If the points representing a set of data are not approximately in a straight

line, a linear equation will not express well the relation between the variables. It
would then be necessary to use some non-linear relation in looking for a
satisfactory equation. The most common nonlinear functions are the polynomial,
trigonometric, inverse trigonometric, exponential, and logarithmic functions. A set
of data might be represented by one of these functions or a combination of them.
This the first step in a curve fitting problem is the selection of some type of
function. The second step is the determination of some particular function of the
type selected which will furnish a satisfactory representation of the data. We shall
deal with the second part of the problem by employing a process called the
method of least squares. The first step, namely, the choice of a type, will be
considered later.

8-3 The method of least squares. Suppose that we have given npoints in
a plane whose coordinates are ( x 1, y 1 ¿ ,(x 2 , y 2) ,......,( x n, y n ¿Wedefine the residual
of each of the points relative to a curve as the ordinateof the point minus the
ordinate of the curve for the same z-value. Thetotality of residuals may be
 154

examined to determine if the curve is a goodfit to the points. A curve is

considered a good fit if each of the residualsis small. Since some of the residuals
could be positive and others negative,their sum might be near zero for a curve
which is a poor fit to the points .Hence the sum of the residuals would not furnish
a reliable measure of the accuracy of fit. For this reason we shall deal with the
squares of the residuals, thus avoiding negative quantities. If the sum of the
squares of the residuals is small, we would know that the curve passes close to
each of the n points. The better fitting of two curves of the same type is the one
for which the sum of the squares of the residuals is smaller. The best fitting curve
of a given type is the one for which the sum of the squares of the residuals is a
minimum.
Starting with the simplest situation, we shall show how to determine the
best fitting line to the n given points. We write the linear equation

y=mx+b

Where values are to be found for m and b so that the sum of the squares of the
residuals of the n points is a minimum. The residual of the point ( x 1 , y 1 ) is y 1 – (
mx 1+b ¿. The quantity y 1 is the ordinate of the point,and (mx 1+b ¿is the ordinate of

the line when x = x 1Hence the residualsof the points are

y 1 – (mx 1+b ¿ , y 2 – (mx 2+ b ¿ , ... , y n – (mx n+ b ¿

And their squares are

y 21 – 2mx 1 y 1−¿ 2 y 1 b + m 2 x 21 + 2mx 1 b+ b2

y 22 – 2mx 2 y 2−¿ 2 y 2 b + m 2 x 22 + 2mx 2 b+ b2

.............................................................................

y 2n – 2mx n y n−¿ 2 y n b + m2 x 2n + 2mx n b+ b2

To express the sum of these expressions in a convenient form, we usethe
following notation.
 x = x1 + x2 + . . . + xn
 155

2 2 n
x2 = x1 + x2 + . . . + xn
 x = x 1 y 1+ x 2 y 2 + . . . + x n y n
Denoting the sum of the squares of the residuals by R, we have
R  y 2−2 m xy −2 b y + m2 x 2 + 2mb  x + nb 2
We notice that all quantities in R are fixed except m and b. For example,
Σy2 is not a variable. it stands for the sum of the squares of the ordinates of the n
fixed points.

Our problem now is to determine values for m and b which make R a

minimum. The expression for R contains the first and second powers of both m
and b. If b is assigned any value whatever, then R is a quadratic function of m.
Hence the graph of the function is a parabola. Choosing the m-axis as horizontal
and treating b as an unspecified constant, the parabola has a vertical axis and
extends upward. The parabola opens upward because R, being the sum of squared
expressions, is not negative.

Consequently the least value of R is the ordinate of the vertex. If we set m equal to
its value at the vertex, a relation is obtained which must be satisfied in order that
R shall be a minimum. This equation, as we shall see, involves both m and b. In a
similar way, considering R a quadratic function of b, a second relation between m
and b may be obtained. The simultaneous solution of these equations yields
formulas for m and b.
In Section 5-11 we learned how to find the coordinates of the vertex of a
parabola. We also learned, in Chapter 6, that differentiation may be applied to find
maximum and minimum points of a graph. The differentiation process is
employed below. As an exercise, the reader might work through the alternative
method.
First, treating b as constant, we find D mR. Next, we differentiate to obtain
DbR, where m is considered constant. These derivatives, by the procedure of
Section 6-6, are to be equated to zero. Thus we have

DmR = −2 xy + 2m x 2 + 2b x = 0

DbR = −2 y + 2m x + 2 nb = 0
 156

Solving these equations simultaneously for m and b, we have

n xy−x y n x2 y−x xy
m= , b = (1)
n x 2−¿ ¿ n x 2−¿¿
These formulas enable us to compute m and b for the line of best fit to a
set of given points. We illustrate their use in an example.

EXAMPLE. Find the line of best fit to the data plotted in Fig. 8-2.
Solutions.For these data n 6, and computing the required sums appearing
in formulas (1), we obtain
 x = 100 + 120 + 140 + 160 + 180 + 200 = 900
 y = 0.45 + 0.55 + 0.60 + 0.70 +0.80 +0.85 = 3.95
 x 2= 1002 + 1202 + 1402 + 1602 + 1802 + 2002 = 142,000,
 xy = 100. (45) + 120 (55) + 140 (60) + 160 (70) + 180(80) + 200(85) = 621
These results, substituted in formulas (1) for m and b, yield
6(621)−900 (3.95) 171
m= 2 = = 0.0041
6(142,000)−900 42,000
142,000(3.95) – 900(621)
b= = 0.0048
42,000
Using these values for m and b, the equation of the line of best fit to the data is
y = 0.0041x + 0.0048
This equation gives approximately the relation between the load and
deflection and holds for loads which do not bend the beam beyond its elastic
limits. The deflection produced by a load of 400 pounds, for example, is y =
0.0041(400) + 0.048 = 1.69 inches. The data and the line are shown graphically in
Fig 8-2
EXERCISE 8-2

Find the equation of the line of best fit to the sets of points in problem 1
and in problem 2. Plot the points and draw the line.

1. (1,8), (4,8), (5,5), (8,3), (9,2), (11,1).

2. (-2,-10), (0,-5),(1,0), (2,5), (4,8).

 157

3. The lengths y (inches) of a coiled spring under various loads x (Ib) are
recorded in the table. Find the line of best fit, y = mx + 6, for these measurements.
Use the resulting equation to find the length of the spring when the load is 17
pounds.

x 10 20 30 40 50

y 11.0 12.1 13.0 13.9 15.1

4. A business showed net profits at the end of each year for 4 years as
follows:

Determine the best linear fit and predict the profit for the 5th year.

Year 1 2 3 4

Profit $10,000 $12,000 $13,000

$15,000

5. The population N of a city at the end of each decade t for 5 decades is

shown in the table. Find the line of best fit, X = mt + 6, for these data. Predict
thepopulation at the end of the 6th decade.

t 1 2 3 4 5

N 8,000 9,000 10,100 11,400 13,700

6. The relation between the total amount of heat // in a pound of saturated

steam at T degrees centigrade is // = mT + b. Determine m and b for the best
linear fit to these data.

T 50 70 90 110

H 623 627 632 636

8-4 Nonlinear fits. A best linear fit may be obtained for any set of points
Or,!/). However, if the points depart considerably from a straight line, the fit
 158

would be crude and perhaps far from satisfactory. For a situation of this kind the
scientist needs to decide on some nonlinear relation. There are, of course, many
nonlinear functional forms. We shall deal only with the forms

y=a x2 ,

y=a 10bx,

y=a log x +b .

Numerous physical relations approximately obey one of these types of equations.

These equations are advantageous because of their simplicity and because the
constants a and b are easily determined.

8-5 The power formula. We consider first the relation

y=a x2 .

The logarithms of the members of the equation yield

log y=b log x + log a .

Here log y is expressed as a linear function of log x. This suggests the plotting of
the points (log x, log y). If the points so obtained lie approximately on a line, the
power function is applicable to the set of data. The procedure then is to determine
a and b for the best linear fit to the points (log x, log T/). The substitution of the
values thus found in the equation y = axb gives a best power fit to the data.

A test of the applicability of a power function can be made quickly by the

use of logarithmic coordinate paper. Logarithmic coordinate paper has its
horizontal and vertical rulings placed at distances log 2, log 3, log 4, and so on,
from the origin. The original data plotted on this kind of paper are equivalent to
plotting the logarithms on the usual coordinate paper. The following example
illustrates the method for the power function and the use of the special coordinate
paper.

EXAMPLE. The relation between the pressure p and the volume V of a

confined gas is given by
 159

p=a V b

when the gas neither receives nor loses heat. Determine a and b for the data
contained in the table.

V ( cu ft ) 9.80 6.72 4.53 4.16 3.36 2.83

p ¿) 3 6 9 12 15 18

Solution. The given data are plotted on logarithmic paper in Fig. 8-3. The
points are approximately in a straight line, and therefore indicate that an equation
of the power type is suitable for representing the data.

We now replace each value in the table by its common logarithm.

log V .9912 .8274 .6561 .6191 .5263 .4518

log p .4771 .7782 .9542 1.0792 1.1761 1.2553

The equation corresponding to this transformed data is

log p=b logV + log a .

To obtain the best linear fit to the new data, we employ formulas (1), using log V
for x and log p for y. The first of the formulas yields the coefficient of log V and

8-6 The exponential and logarithmic formulas. We saw in the preceding section
that the power form can be reduced to a linear form. Similarly, the exponential
and logarithmic forms are reducible to linear forms.

By taking the common logarithms of both members the equation

y = a 10bz

becomes logy=bx+ loga .

Here log y is a linear function of J. Hence the exponential formula is applicable to

a set of data if the points (x,log y) are in close proximity to a straight line. Where
this is the case, the procedure is to determine a and b so that bx + log a is the best
linear fit to the set of points (x,log y).
 160

To determine if the exponential function is adequate to represent the given

data, somilogarithmic paper may be used. This paper has the usual scale along the
x-axis, and the scale along the positive y-axis is logarithmic.

The equation y=alogx+b

expresses y as a linear function of log x. Here we would consider the points (log
x,y). If these are about in a straight line, then a and b should be found for a linear
fit to the points. The values thus obtained should be substituted in the logarithmic
equation.

EXAMPLE. The number of bacteria AT per unit volume in a culture after

t hours is given by the table for several values of t. Show that N = a 10 bt may
represent the data and find values for a and b.

t 1 2 3 4 5

N 70 88 111 127 160

Solution. The given data, plotted on semilogarithmic paper, yield points

almost collinear (Fig. 8-5). This indicates that the data can be approximated by an
exponential formula. Hence we transform the given data by taking the logarithm
of each N .

t 1 2 3 4 5

log N 1.845 1.945 2.045 2.104 2.204

We compute the following sums:

Σ t=15 , Σ t 2=55 ,

ΣlogN =10.143 , Σ t(logN )=31.306 .

 161

Using these values in formulas (1), we get

5 ( 31.306 )−15(10.143) 4.385

b= = =0.0877 ,
5 ( 55 )−(15)2 50

55 ( 10.143 ) −15(31.306)
log a= =1.766 ,
50
 162

a=58.3

We obtain the equation N = 58.3 .100.0877t. The graph and the given data are shown
in Fig. 8-6.

EXERCISE 8-4

In problems 1 3 find best fits of the type indicated.

1. x -3 -1 1 3 5 y=a .10 bx

y 0.8 1.5 2.7 4.9 9.0

2. x 0 1 2 3 5 y=a .10 bx

y 3.0 2.5 2.1 1.6 1.1

1
3. x 1 3 5 8 y=a log x +b
2

y o 3.1 7.8 9.9 12

4. The bacteria count N per unit volume in a certain culture at the end of t
hours was estimated as in the table. Find the best relation of the form N = a 10bt.

t 0 2 4 6 8

N 10 16 25 40 63

5. The temperature T (degrees C) of a cooling body at time t (min) was

measured as recorded. Find an exponential formula of best fit for T in terms of t.

t 0 1 2 3 4 5

T 100 79 63 50 40 63

6. The atmospheric pressure p in pounds per square inch at a height h in

thousands of feet is shown in the table. Express p exponentially in terms of h.

h 0 5 10 15 20

p 14.6 12.1 10.1 8.4 7.0

 163

7. The horsepower P required for the speeds V in knots for a certain ship
are recorded in the table. Find the best fit to the data of the form V = a log P + b.

P 2000 4000 7000 12000

V 12 13 14 15
 164

CHAPTER 9

POLAR COORDINATES

9-1 Introduction. There are various types of coordinate systems. The

rectangular system with which we have been dealing is probably the most
important. In it a point is located by its distances from two perpendicular lines.
We shall introduce in this chapter a coordinate system in which the coordinates of
a point in a plane are its distance from a fixed point and its direction from a fixed
line. The coordinates given in this way are called polar coordinates. The proper
choice of a coordinate system depends on the nature of the problem at hand. For
some problems either the rectangular or the polar system may be satisfactory;
usually, however, one of the two is preferable. And in some situations it is
advantageous to use both systems, shifting from one to the other.

9-2 The polar coordinate system. The reference frame in the polar
coordinate system is a half-line drawn from some point in the plane. In Fig. 9-1 a
half-line is represented by OA. The point is called the origin or pole and OA is
the polar axis. The position of any point P in the plane is definitely determined by
the distance OP and the angle AOP. The segment OP, denoted by p, is referred to
as the radius vector; the angle AOP, denoted by , is called the vectorial angle.
The coordinates of P are then written as ( p ,θ).

It is customary to regard polar coordinates as signed quantities. The

vectorial angle, as in trigonometry, is defined as positive or negative according as
it is measured counterclockwise or clockwise from the polar axis. The ρ-
coordinate is defined as positive if measured from the pole along the terminal side
'of θ and negative if measured along the terminal side extended through the pole.

A given pair of polar coordinates definitely locates a point. For example, the
coordinates (2,30o) determine one particular point. To plot the point, we first draw
the terminal side of a 30o angle measured counterclockwise from OA (Fig. 9-2)
and then lay off two units along the terminal side. While this pair of coordinates
defines a particular point, there are other coordinate values which define this same
point. This is evident, since the vectorial angle may have 360 o added or subtracted
repeatedly without changing the point represented. Additional coordinates of the.
point may be had also by using a negative value for the distance coordinate.
Restricting the vectorial angles to values numerically less than
 165

3
o
60 , the following coordinates define the same point :

(2,30o), (2,-330o), (-2,210o), (-2,-150o).

The coordinates of the origin are (0 , θ), where θ may be any angle. The plotting of
points in polar coordinates can be done more accurately by the use of polar
coordinate paper. This paper has concentric circles and equally spaced radial lines
through the center. For many purposes, however, sufficient accuracy is obtained
by estimating the angles and distances by sight.

EXERCISE 9-1

1. Plot the points: (3,60o), (6, -30o), (2,180o), (-3, -225o), (0,10o). Give three other
sets of coordinates for each of the points, restricting the vectoriai angles to
values not exceeding 360o numerically.

2. Plot the points: (5,210o), (4,0o), (-6,135o), (-2, -180o). Give three other sets of
coordinates for each of the points, where the numerical values of the vectoriai
angles do not exceed 360o.

3. Where are the points for which (a) ρ = 4, (b) ρ = 4, (c) θ = 45o, (d) θ = -90o ?

4. Where are the points for which (a) ρ = 0, (b) θ = 0o, (c) θ = π?

9-3 Relations between rectangular and polar coordinates. As we have

mentioned, it is often advantageous in the course of a problem to shift from one
coordinate system to another. For this purpose we shall derive transformation
formulas which express polar coordinates in terms of rectangular coordinates, and
vice versa. In Fig. 9-3 the two systems are placed so that the origins coincide and
the polar axis lies along the positive x-axis. Then a point P has the coordinates
(x,y) and (ρ,θ).

Noticing the triangle OMP, we have

 166

x y
cos θ= and sin θ=
ρ ρ

and hence

x=ρ cosθ , (1)

y= ρ sinθ . (2)

To obtain ρ and θ in terms of x and y, we write

y
ρ2=x 2 + y 2 and tanθ=
x

Whence, solving for ρ and θ,

ρ=√ x 2 + y 2 (3)

y
θ=arc tan (4)
x

These four formulas enable us to transform the coordinates of a point, and

therefore the equation of a locus, from one system to the other. The θ -coordinate
as given by formula (4) is not single-valued. Hence it is necessary to select a
proper value for θ when applying the formula to find this coordinate of a point.
This is illustrated in Example 2.

EXAMPLE 1.Find the rectangular coordinates of the point defined by the

polar coordinates (6,120o). (See Fig. 9-4.)

Solution. Using the formulas (1) and (2), we have

x=ρ cosθ=6 cos 120 ° =−3 ,

 167

y= ρ sinθ=6 sin 120 °=3 √ 3 .

The required coordinates are (−3 , 3 √3 ).

EXAMPLE 2. Express the rectangular coordinates (-2,-2) in terms of polar

coordinates.

Solution. Here the formulae (3) and (4) give

y
ρ=√ x 2 + y 2=2 √ 2 and θ=arc tan =arc tan 1.
x

Since the point is in the third quadrant, we select θ = 225o. Hence the pair of
coordinates (22 √2 ,225o) is a polar representation of the given point.

EXAMPLE 3. Find the polar coordinate equation corresponding to 2x-3y = 5.

Solution. Substituting for x and y gives

2 ( ρ cos θ )−3 ( ρ sinθ)=5 or ρ(2 cos θ−3 sin θ)=5

EXAMPLE 4. Transform the equation ρ = 4 sin θ to rectangular

coordinates.

y y
Solution. Since ρ=√ x 2 + y 2 and sin θ= ρ = , we substitute in the
√ x + y2
2

given equation and get

4y
√ x 2+ y 2 =
√ x 2+ y 2
or

x 2 + y 2=4 y .

The required equation is seen to represent a circle.

EXERCISE 9-2

Find the rectangular coordinates of the following points.

1. (4, 90o). 2. (3√ 2, 45o). 3. (7, 0o).

4. (0, 180o). 5. (-8, 270o). 6. (-1,-60o).

7. (6, 150o). 8. (4√ 2,-135o). 9. (9, 180o).

 168

Find non-negative polar coordinates of the following points.

10. (0,3) 11. (3,0) 12. (0,0) 13. (-1,0)

14. (0,-5) 15. (√ 2,√ 2) 16. (6√ 3 ,−6 ) 17. (-2√ 3 , 2)

18. (3,-4) 19. (-4,3) 20. (5,12) 21. (-5,-12)

Transform the following equations into the corresponding polar coordinate

equations.

22. x=3 23. y=−4 24. 2 x – y=3

25. 3 x+ y=0 26. y=x 27. Ax +By=D

28. x 2+ y 2=16 29. xy=a 2 30. x 2+ y 2 – 2 x +2 y=0

31. x 2− y 2=a2 32. y 2=4 x 33. ¿

Transform the following equations to the corresponding rectangular coordinate

equations.

34. ρ = 4 35. θ = 0o 36. θ = 45o

37. ρ=2sin θ+2 cos θ 38. ρ=6 sin θ−4 cos θ

39.ρ=8 cos θ 40.ρ=8 sin θ

41.ρ cos θ=6 42.ρ sin θ=6

43.ρ 2 cos 2θ=a 2 44. ρ2sin 2θ = a2

3 3
45. ρ= 46. ρ=
1+cos θ 2+cos θ

2 2
47. ρ= 48. ρ=
1−2cos θ 3 sin θ+ 4 cos θ
2
49. ρ=
2 sin θ−cos θ

9-4 Graphs of polar coordinate equations. The definition of a graph in

polar coordinates and the technique of its construction are essentially the same as
that of an equation in rectangular coordinates.

DEFINITION. The graph of an equation in polar coordinates consists of all

the points which have coordinates satisfying the equation.
 169

We shall first consider comparatively simple equations and obtain their

graphs by preparing tables of corresponding values of the variables. Later we shall
discuss certain aids by which the curve tracing can be facilitated.

EXAMPLE 1. Draw the graph ofρ=3+sin θ

Solution. We assign certain values to θ in the interval θ to 360 and

prepare the following table.
θ 0° 30° 45° 60° 90° 120° 150° 180°

p 3 35 3.7 3.9 4 3.9 3.5 3

θ 210° 224° 240° 270° 300° 315° 330° 360°

p 2.5 2.3 2.1 2 2.1 2.3 2.5 3

By plotting these points and drawing a curve through them the graph of Fig, 9-5
is obtained.
170
 171

EXAMPLE 2. Draw the graph ofρ=4+ cos θ.

Solution. We first prepare a table of corresponding values of ρ and θ.

θ 0° 30° 45° 60° 75° 90° 120° 135° 150° 180°

p 4 3.5 2.8 2.0 1.0 0 -2.0 -2.8 -3.5 -4

This table yields the graph in Fig. 9-6. We did not extend the table to include
values ofθ in the interval 180 to 360 , since values of θ in this range would
merely repeat the graph already obtained. For example, the point (−3.5 , 210°) is
on the graph, but this point is also defined by the coordinates (3.5 , 30°).
The graph appears to be a circle. This surmise is verified by transforming
the equation to rectangular coordinates. The transformed equation is
( x−2)2+ y 2=4 .
EXERCISE 9-3
Draw the graphs of the following equations. In the equations involving
trigonometric functions, points plotted at 30 intervals will suffice, with a few
exceptions.
1. ρ 8
14. ρ= .
2−cos θ
2. ρ −5
1
15. ρ= .
3. θ 120 . 1+cos θ
4. θ=¿ 180. 1
16. ρ= .
1−sinθ
5. ρ 1 cos θ .
1
6. ρ 1 sin θ . 17. ρ= .
1−2sin θ
7. ρ 2 cos θ . 1
18. ρ= .
1+2 sin θ
8. ρ 2 sin θ .
2
9. ρ=10 sin θ. 19. ρ 10 sin θ.
10. ρ 2 a cos θ . 2
20. ρ 10 cos θ.
11. ρ tan θ .
2
12. ρ sec θ . 21. ρ 10 sec θ.
10
13. ρ=
2+sin θ
. 22. ρ sin θ−4 cos θ.

23. ρ sin θ+6 cos θ.

 172

9-5 Equations of lines and conics in polar coordinate forms. The

equations of lines and conics can be obtained in polar coordinates by transforming
the rectangular coordinate equations of these loci. The equations can also be
derived directly. We shall derive the polar coordinate equation of a line in general
position and the equations of the conic sections in special positions.

In Fig. 9-7 the segment OR is drawn perpendicular to the line L. We denote

the length of this segment by p and the angle which it makes with the polar axis
by ω. The coordinates of a variable point on the line are ( p,θ). From the right
triangle ORP, we have
p
=cos(θ−ω)
ρ
or
ρ cos (θ−ω)= p
(5)
This equation holds for all points of the line. If P is chosen below OA, then the
angle ROP is equal to (ω + 2π−θ). Although this angle is not equal to (θ−ω),
we do have cos (ω + 2π−θ) = cos (ω−θ) = cos (θ−ω). In a similar way, the
equation could be derived for the line L in any other position and not passing
through the origin.

Formula (5) is called the polar normal form of the equation of a straight
line. For lines perpendicular to the polar axis ω = 0 or 180° , and for lines
parallel to the polar axis ω = 90 or 270 . Substituting these values for ω,
we have the special forms
ρ cos θ=± p (6)
and
ρ sin θ=± p (7)

The θ-coordinate is constant for points on a line passing through the origin.
Hence the equation of a line through the origin with inclination α is
θ=α . (8)
 173

Although the equation of a line through the origin can be written

immediately in this form, it is worth noting that equation (8) is a special case of
equation (5). By setting p = 0 in equation (8), we have ρ cos (θ−ω) = 0, cos (
1 1
θ−ω) = 0, θ−ω = π , and θ = π +ω=α .
2 2

We next write the equation of a circle of radius r with center at ( ρ1 ,θ 1).

Noticing Fig. 9-8 and applying the law of cosines to the triangle ORP, we get the
equation of the circle in the form
ρ2 + ρ 12−2 ρ ρ1 cos ( θ−θ 1 )=r 2 (9)

If the center is at (r,0°), then ρ1 = r and θ1 = 0°and the equation reduces to

ρ=2r cos θ (10)

If the center is at (r,90 °), the equation becomes

ρ=2r sinθ (11)

We use the focus-directrix property of conics (Exercise 8-1, problem 15) to

derive their equations in polar coordinates. The equations can be obtained in
simple forms if the focus and origin coincide and the directrix is parallel or
perpendicular to the polar axis. In Fig. 9-9 the directrix DE is perpendicular to the
polar axis and to the left of O. If we indicate the eccentricity by ρ, and the length
of DO by p, we have for any point P (ρ,θ) of the conic

OP
=e .
EP
But the numerator OP = ρ, and the denominator EP = DR = DO + OR = p + ρ
cos θ. Hence ρ/( p + ρ cos θ=0) , and solving for ρ, we get
ep
ρ= (12)
1−e cos θ
When the focus is at the pole and the directrix is p units to the right of the
pole, the equation is
 174

ep
ρ= (13)
1+e cos θ
If the focus is at the pole and the directrix is parallel to the polar axis, the
equation is
ep
ρ= (14)
1+e sin θ
ep
or ρ= (15)
1−e sin θ
depending on whether the directrix is p units above or below the pole.
An equation in any of the forms (12) - (15) represents a parabola if e=1, an
ellipse if e is between 0 and 1, and a hyperbola if e is greater than 1. The graph in
any case can be sketched immediately. Having observed the type of conic from
the value of e, the next step is to find the points where the curve cuts the polar
axis, the extension of the axis through 0, and the line through the pole
perpendicular to the polar axis. These
are called the intercept points, and may be obtained by using the values
0 ° , 90° , 180 ° ,∧270 ° for θ. Only three of these values can be used for a parabola,
since one of them would make a denominator zero. The intercept points are
sufficient for a rough graph. For increased accuracy a few additional points should
be plotted.

EXAMPLE. Sketch the graph of ρ = 15/ (3−¿2 cos θ).

Solution. The equation takes the form (12) when the numerator and
denominator of the right member are divided by 3. This gives
5
ρ=
1−(2/3) cos θ
In this form we observe that e=¿ 2/3, and hence the graph is an ellipse.
Substituting 0 ° , 90° , 180 ° ,∧270 °in succession for θ in the original equation, the
intercept points are found to be
(15,0 °),(5,90 ° ),( 3,180° ),∧( 5,270° ).
 175

These points are plotted in Fig. 9-10. The points (15,0° ¿and (3, 180°) are vertices
and the other intercept points are the ends of a latus rectum. The center, midway
between the vertices, is at (6,0°). The length of the major axis 2a = 18, and a = 9.
The distance between the center and the focus at O is c = 6. Hence
b 2=a2−c 2=81−36=45 , and b¿ 3 √5 .

EXERCISE 9-4

1. By use of a figure find the equation of the line perpendicular to the polar
axis and (a) 3 units to the right of the pole, (b) 3 units to the left of the pole.
Compare your results with formula (6).

2. By use of a figure find the equation of the line parallel to the polar axis
and (a) 3units below the axis, (b) 3 unite above the axis. Check your results with
formula (7).
3. Show that formula (5) can be reduced to the form
C
ρ=
A cos θ+ B sin θ
Plot two points and draw the line represented by each equation 4-6.
1 4
4. ρ= 5. ρ=
cos θ +2sin θ 2 cos θ−sin θ
−3
6. ρ=
2 cos θ+5 sin θ
Give the coordinates of the center and the radius of each circle defined by
equations 7-10.
7.ρ=¿ 8 cos θ. 8.ρ=¿6 sin θ.
9.ρ=−10 sinθ. 10.ρ=−4 cos θ.
11 . Use formula (9) and write the equation of the circle of radius 2 and (a)
with center at (4,0 ), (b) with center at (4,90 ), (c) with center at (2,0 ).
Sketch the conies defined by equations 12-23.
4 6
12. ρ= 13. ρ=
1−cos θ 1+sin θ
9 10
14. ρ= 15. ρ=
2+2 cos θ 3−3 sin θ
12 12
16. ρ= 17. ρ=
2−cos θ 2+sin θ
16 15
18. ρ= 19. ρ=
4+3 cos θ 5−4 sinθ
8 10
20. ρ= 21. ρ=
1−2cos θ 2+3 cos θ
15 18
22. ρ= 23. ρ=
3+5 sin θ 3−4 sinθ
 176

9-6 Aids in graphing polar coordinate equations. We have seen that an

examination of an equation in rectangular coordinates may reveal short-cuts to the
construction of its graph. In the same way, certain features of a graph in polar
coordinates are often discovered by an analysis of its equation. It is better, for
economy of time, to wrest useful information from an equation and thus keep at a
minimum the tedious point-by point plotting in sketching a graph. We shall
discuss and illustrate certain simple devices in polar curve tracing.
Variation of ρ with θ. Many equations are sufficiently simple so that the
way in which ρ varies as θ increases is evident. Usually a range of θ -values from
0°to 360°yields the complete graph. However, we shallfind exceptions to this
rule. By observing the equation and letting increase through its range, the graph
ran be visualized. A rough sketch may then be made with a few pencil strokes. To
illustrate this situation, we use the equation
ρ=¿ 3(1 + sin θ).
By starting at θ = 0° and increasing the angle in 90 steps to 360 , it is a
simple matter to see how ρ varies in each 90 interval. This variation is
represented in the diagram. The graph (Fig. 9-11) is a heart-shaped curve called
the cardioid.

Tangent lines at the origin. If ρ shrinks to zero as θ approaches and tes a

fixed value θ0 , then the line θ=θ0 is tangent to the curve at the origin. Intuitively,
this statement seems correct ; it can be proved. In
 177

the preceding equation, ρ=¿ 3(1 + sin θ), the value of ρ diminishes to zero asθ
increases to 270 . Hence the curve is tangent to the vertical line at the origin
(Fig. 9-11).

To find the tangents to a curve at the origin, set ρ = 0 in the equation and
solve for the corresponding values of θ.
Symmetry. We shall give tests for symmetry with respect to the pole, the
polar axis, and the vertical line θ = 90 . Noticing Fig. 9-12, the following tests
are evident.
1. If the equation is unchanged when ρ is replaced by −ρ or when θ is
replaced by 180 +θ , the graph is symmetric with respect to the pole.

2. If the equation is unchanged when is replaced by −θ, the graph is

symmetric with respect to the polar axis.

3. If the equation is unchanged when θ is replaced by 180 −θ , the

graph is symmetric with respect to the vertical line θ = 90 .
These tests will be found helpful. When any one is satisfied in an equation
the symmetry is certain. On the other hand, the failure of a test does not disprove
the symmetry in question. This is unlike the analogous situation in rectangular
coordinates and is a consequence of the fact that a point has more than one polar
coordinate representation. For example, replacing ρ by −ρ, the equation
ρ=sin 2θ becomes −ρ=sin 2θ
 178

This does not establish symmetry with respect to the pole. But substituting 180
+θ for θ yields
ρ=sin 2 ( 180 ° +θ )=sin ( 360 ° +2 θ )=sin 2 θ ,
which proves the symmetry with respect to the pole.

Continuing with the equation

ρ=sin 2θ

We see that it does not satisfy tests 2 and 3. But it is sufficient to obtain the graph
for θ from 0 to 180 , and then to complete the drawing by the known
symmetry with respect to the pole. Since we have a trigonometric function of 2θ,
it is convenient to consider the variation of ρ as θ increases in steps of 45 .
The diagram indicates tihs variation. From it we see the values of θ corresponding
to
 179

the zero value of ρ, and therefore conclude that the graph is tangent to the polar
axis and the vertical line at the origin. Having completed the graph (Figure 9-13).
It is seen that it has all three types of symmetry. Because of its shape, the graph is
called a four-leaved rose. The barbs and numbers indicate how a point would
move in tracing the curve as θ increases from 0 to 360° .
Excluded values. Frequently equations are met in which certain values of
the variables are exclude. For example, ρ ² = α ² sin θ places restrictions on both ρ
and θ . The value between 180 and 360 . Since ρ is imaginary for these
values. The curve extends into the third and fourth quadrants, however, since the
graph is symmetrics with respect to the origin.

9-7 Special types origin of equations. There are several types of polar
cordinate equations whose graphs have been given special names. We consider a
few of these equations.
The graphs of equations of the forms
ρ=α sin nθand ρ=cos nθ
Where n is a positive integer, are called rose curves. The graph of rose curve
consists of equally spaced closed loops extending from the origin. The number of
loops, or leaves, depends on the integer n. If n is odd, there are n leaves; if n is
even, there are 2n leaves. Figure 9-13 pictures a four-leaved rose.
The graph of an equation of the form
ρ=b+α sinθ
or
ρ=b+α cos θ
Is called a limacon. The shape of the graph depends on the relative values of α
and b. If α =b, the limacon is called a cardioid from its heart-like shape, as
illustrated in Figure 9-11. If the numerical value of b is greater than that of α, the
graph is a curve surrounding the origin (Figure 9-5). An interesting feature is
introduced in the graph when α is numerically greater than b. The curve then has
an inner loop. To show this, we draw the graph of
ρ=2+ 4 cos θ
Replacing θ by –θ leaves the equation unchanged, since cos (−θ) = cos θ. Hence
there is symmetry with respect to the polar axis. Setting ρ=0 gives
2+ 4 cos θ=0
−1
cos θ=
2
θ=120° , 240 ° .

The lines θ = 120 and θ = 240 are tangent to the curve at the origin. The
diagram indicates the variation of ρ as θ increases from 0 to 180 . The
graph is shown in Figure 9-14; the lower half the large loop and the upper half the
small loop were drawn by the use of symmetry.
 180

FIGURE 9-14

The graphs of the equations

ρ2=a2 sin2 θ and ρ2=a2 cos 2θ

are Iemniscates. In each of these equations ρ ranges from −a to a andvalues of θ
which make the right member negative are excluded.In thefirst equationθ may not
take a value between 90° and 180° or between270° and 300°. In the second the
excluded intervals are 45°<θ< 135°and 225°<θ< 315°.

Figure 9 – 15
 181

Figure 9 – 1

Discussing further the equation

ρ2=a2 cos 2θ ,
we observe that its graph is symmetric with respect to the pole, the polaraxis, and
the vertical line through the pole. Asθincreases from 0° to 45°,the positive values
of ρvary from a to 0 and the negative values from – ato 0.Hence this interval for
gives rise to the upper half of the rightloop and the lower half of the left loop of
the graph (Fig. 9-15). Eitherof these half loops combined with the known
symmetries is sufficient forcompleting the graph.
Finally, the equations
ρ=e aθ, ρθ=a and ρ=aθ
are examples of spirals.Their graphs for a> 0 and θ ≥ 0 ° are shown inFigs. 9-17 to
9-19.
 182

Figure 9 – 19
 183

EXERCISE 9- 5
1. Observe that (ρ , θ) and ( −ρ , 180° −θ) are symmetric with respect to the
polar axis, and that (ρ , θ) and (−ρ ,−θ) are symmetric with respect to the lineθ=
90°. On the basis of this information, state two tests for the symmetry ofthe graph
of an equation. Apply the tests to the equation ρ = sin 2θ.
Sketch the graph of each of the following equations. First examine the
equationto find properties which are helpful in tracing the graph. Where the
literalconstant a occurs, assign to it a convenient positive value. In the spirals 25-
29use radian measure for θ.
2. ρ=4 (1−cosθ ) 19. ρ=a sin 4 θ
3. ρ=6(1−sinθ ) 20. ρ2=9 cos 2θ
4. ρ=a ( 1+ cosθ ) 21. ρ2=16 cos 2θ
5. ρ=5−2 sinθ 22. ρ2=−a cos 2 θ
6. ρ=10−5 cosθ 23. ρ2=−a sin 2θ
7. ρ=8+4 cosθ 24. ρ2=a2 cos θ
8. ρ=8 cos 2θ 25. ρ=2θ
9. ρ=a sin 2θ 26. ρθ=4
10. ρ=6 sin 3θ 27. ρ=eθ
11. ρ=4 cos 3θ 28. ρ2 θ=a ( Lituus )
12. ρ=2sin 5 θ
29. ρ2=a2 θ
13. ρ=2cos 5θ
1
14. ρ=4−8 cosθ 30. ρ=sin θ
2
15. ρ=6−3 sinθ 1
31. ρ=cos θ
16. ρ=4+ 8 cosθ 2

17. ρ=6+3 sinθ 32. ρ=3 sec θ+4

18. ρ=a cos 4 θ 33. ρ=6 sec θ−6

9-8 Intersections of polar coordinate curves. A simultaneous real

solutionof two equations in rectangular coordinates represents a point
ofintersection of their graphs. Conversely, the coordinates of a point ofintersection
yield a simultaneous solution. In polar coordinates, however,this converse
statement does not always hold.This difference in the twosystems is a
consequence of the fact that a point has more than one pairof polar coordinates.
As an illustration, consider the equationsρ=−2, ρ=1+ sinθand the two pairs of
coordinates (2,90°), (-2,270°).Theequationρ=−2 is satisfied by the second pair of
coordinates but notby the first. The equation ρ=1+ sinθ is satisfied by the first
 184

pair ofcoordinates but not by the second. The two pairs of coordinates,
however,determine the same point. Although the two curves pass throughthis
point, no pair of coordinates of the point satisfies both equations.The usual
process of solving two equations simultaneously does not yieldan intersection
point of this kind. The graphs of the equations, of course,show all intersections.
Example 1. Solve simultaneously and sketch the graphs of
ρ=6 sinθ and ρ=6 cosθ
Solution, Equating the right members of the equations, we have
ρ sinθ=ρ cosθ
tanθ=1
θ=45 ° ,225 °
ρ=3 √2 ,−3 √ 2

Figure 9 – 20
The coordinates (3 √ 2 , 45° )and (−3 √ 2 ,225 ° )define the same point. The graphs
(Fig. 9-20) show this point, and show also that both curves pass through theorigin.
The coordinates (0,0°) satisfy the first equation and (0,90°) satisfy thesecond
equation. But the origin has no pair of coordinates which satisfies bothequations.
 185

Figure 9-21

Example 2. Solve simultaneously and draw the graphs of

ρ=4 sinθ and ρ=4 cos 2θ
Solution. Eliminating ρ and using the trigonometric identity
cos 2 θ=1−2 sin 2 θ
4 sin θ=4 ( 1−2 sin 2 θ )
2 sin2 θ+ sinθ −1=0
( 2 sinθ−1 )( sinθ+1 )=0
1
sinθ= ,−1
2
θ=30° , 150 ° , 270 °
ρ=2 ,2 ,−4
The solutions are (2,30°), (2,150°), and (-4,270°). Figure 9-21 shows that
thecurves also cross at the origin, but the origin has no pair of coordinates
whichsatisfies both equations.

EXERCISE 9-6
In each of the following problems solve the equations simultaneously and
sketch their graphs. Extraneous solutions are sometimes introduced in the solving
process. For this reason all results should be checked.
1. ρ=2 cosθ , ρ cos θ=3.
ρ=1. 4. ρ=a(1+ sinθ)
2. ρ=4 sinθ ρ=2 a sinθ .
ρ=2. 5. ρ=a ( 1+ cosθ ) ,
3. ρ=6 cosθ , ρ=a(1−cosθ).
 186

6. ρ cosθ=1 , θ=60 °
ρ=2. 14. ρ=sin2 θ ,
7. ρ2=4 cosθ , ρ=cos2 θ
ρ=2. 1
15. ρ=2sin θ
8. ρ=1+ sinθ 2

ρ=1+ cosθ ρ = 1.
2 16. ρ=1−sinθ
9. ρ= ,
1+c 0 sθ ρ=cos 2 θ
3 ρ cosθ=2. 17. ρ=4+ cosθ ,
3 ρ cosθ=−3.
10. ρ= ,
4−3 c 0 sθ 18. ρ=4−sinθ,
ρ=3 cosθ ρ sinθ =3
11. ρ=2 sinθ +1 , 19. ρ=2 cosθ+1 ,
ρ=cosθ ρ cosθ=1.
12. ρ2=a2 sin2 θ 2
20. ρ= ,
ρ=a √ 2cosθ sinθ+ cosθ
1
13. ρ=2sin θ
2
2
ρ=
1−cosθ
 185

CHAPTER 10

PARAMETRIC EQUATIONS

10-1 Introduction

Relations between x and y up to this point have been expressed by equations

involving these variables.Another way of defining a relation between x and y is
through the use of two equations in which each variable is expressed separately in
terms of a third variable.The third variable is called a parameter and the equations
are called parametric equations. Equations of this kind are of considerable
importance; the mathematical treatment of many problems is facilitated by their
use. The equations

x=2 t∧ y=t−4 ,

for example, are parametric equations and t is the parameter. The equations define
a locus.If a value is assigned to t, corresponding values are determined for xand y
, which are the coordinates of a point of the locus. The complete locus consists of
the points determined in this way as t varies through all its values.The relation
between x and y is expressed directly by eliminating t between the two equations.
Thus solving either of these equations for t and substituting in the other, we get

x−2 y=8.

Often the parameter can be eliminated, as we have here done, to obtain a

direct relation. Sometimes, however, this process is not easy or possible because
the parameter is involved in a complicated way. The equations

x=t 5 +log t∧ y=t 3+ tan t

illustrate this statement.

It is sometimes helpful in the course of a problem to change an equation in x and

yto parametric form. Consider, for example, theparabola defined by

x 2+ 2 x + y=4.
 186

If we substitute 2 t for x and solve the resulting equation for y, we get

y=4−4 t−4 t 2. Hence the parametric equations

x=2 t∧ y= y −4 y −4 t 2

represent the parabola. It is evident that other representations could be obtained,

since x may be equated to any function of t. This procedure isinconvenient or
perhaps impossible in equations which contain both variables in an involved way.

The parameter as here used plays a different role from the parameter which
we discussed in Section 3-5. Here the parameter is a variable, and a curve is
determined by letting the parameter vary through its range. In contrast, the
parameter in a linear equation in xand ygives rise to a family of curves (lines). A
line is determined by each value assigned to the parameter.

10-2 Parametric equations of the circle and ellipse. To find a parametric

representation of the circle of radius a and center at the origin, we select for the
parameter the angle θ indicated in Fig. 10-1. We have at once

x=α cos θ∧ y=α sin θ

If we let θincrease from 0 °to 360°, the point (x , y), defined by these equations,
starts at (a , 0) and moves counterclockwise around the circle. By letting θchange
directly with the timetso that θ=kt, the equations become

x=α cos kt∧ y =α sin kt

These equations give the location of the moving point at any time. The speed of
the point is constant.

The equations x=a cos θ and y=b sinθ represent an ellipse. This statement can be
verified by eliminating the parameter θ. Writing the equations as

x θ∧ y
=cos =sin θ
a b
 187

FIGURE 10-1

squaring both members of each equation, and adding, we get

x2 y 2
= =1.
a2 b2

From this result we see that the parametric equations represent an ellipse, and we
are able to interpret the quantities aand b.The geometric significance of θ can be
seen in Fig. 10-2. The concentric circles are of radii a and b. The terminal side of
θcuts the circles at A and B. The intersection of the vertical line through A and
the horizontal line through B gives a point of the ellipse. For this point P, we have

x=OM =OA cos θ=a cos θ,

y=MP=NB=OB sin θ=b sinθ .

Hence as θ varies, P moves along an ellipse. The ellipse is traced by letting θvary
through 360 °. If θstarts at 0 °and increases to 360 °, the point P starts at (a , 0) and
traces the ellipse in a counterclockwise direction.
 188

FIGURE 10-2

10-3 The graph of parametric equations. To obtain the graph of two

parametric equations, we first assign to the parameter a set of values and compute
the corresponding values of x and y. We then use the plotted points (x , y) for
drawing the graph. An alternate procedure is to eliminatethe parameter and
construct the graph of the resulting equation. In some cases, however, the graph of
the parametric equations is only a part of the graph of the rectangular equation.
Example 2 illustrates this case.

EXAMPLE 1. Sketch the graph of

x=5 t−t 2 and y=4 t−t 2

Solution. The table is the result of assigning to i the indicated values and finding
the corresponding values of x and y. The graph (Fig. 10-3) is the curve drawn
through the points (x,y) as determined by the table.
 189

t −3 −1 −1 0 1 1 3 2 5 3 7 4 9 5 11
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
x −39 −6 −11 0 9 4 21 6 26 6 21 4 2 0 −11
4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4
y −33 −5 −9 0 7 3 15 4 15 3 7 0 −9 −5 −33
4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4

To eliminate the parameter between the preceding equations we subtract the

second equation from the first, which gives

x− y =t

Then substituting z - y for t in either of the given equations and simplifying, we

obtain

x 2−2 xy+ y 2−4 x +5 y=0

By the test of Section 5-13 the graph is a parabola. The graph is probably more
easily obtained from the parametric equations than from the rectangular equation.

Figure 10-3
 190

Figure 10-4

EXAMPLE 2. Construct the graph of

x=sin 2 θ and y=2cos 2 θ

Solution. The graph is more easily obtained from the direct relation. By
adding the parametric equations, we obtain

x + y=2 ¿ ¿) or

x + y=2

The graph is the line in Fig. 10-4. We note, however, that the graph of the para-
metric equations is the segment AB. This results from the fact that the values of z
and y are restricted to the range 0 to 2.

EXERCISE 10-I

Sketch the curve represented by each pair of equations 1-10. Check the
graph by use of the rectangular equation obtained by eliminating the parameter.

1. x=2−t , y=3 t 8. x=cos 2θ , y=2 sin θ

2 2t
2. x=t 2 , y=4 t 9. x= 2 , y =
1+t 1+ t 2
 191

3. x=6 t −1 , y =t 10. x=2+5 sin θ , y=2−3cos θ

4. x=t , y =t 2
5. x=3 t , y=1−t 2
6. x=5 sin θ , y=5 cos θ
7. x=4 cos θ , y=3 sin θ

Eliminate the parameter from each pair of equations in problems 11-

20. Sketch the ourve, using either the parametric equations or the
rectangular equation.

11. x=2 sinθ , y=cos 2 θ 16. x=sinθ−cosθ , y =sinθ + cosθ

12. x=tan 2 θ , y=sec 2 θ 17. x=cosθ , y=cosθ +sinθ

4t
13. x=secθ , y=tan θ 18. x=t−1 , y=
t−3

14. x=t 2+ 4 t , y=t 2+3 t 19.x=tanθ−cotθ , y=tanθ +cotθ

15. x=t −1 , y =t−t −1 20. x=sinθ−cosθ , y =sinθ

x=5 sin θ , y=5 cos θUse radian measure for the parameter in each
problem 21-26 and sketch the curve for t in the interval 0 to 2x.

21. .x=t +sin t , y=cos t 22. x=t +sin t , y=t +cos t

1 t
23. x= e , y=¿ sin t 24. x=10 e−1, y=¿ sin t
10

25. x=t cos t , y=sin t 26. x=t sint , y=t cos t

27. Show that

3t 3t2
x= y=
1+t 3 1+t 3

yield x2 + y2 - 3zy = 0. Sketch the graph. Notice that the

parametrieequa- tions are preferable for this purpose.
 192

10-4 The path of a projectile. The equations of certain curves can be

determined more readily by the use of a parameter than otherwise. In fact, this is
one of the principal uses of parametrie equations. In the remainder of this chapter
parametric equations of curves are required. These curves have interesting
properties and also have important prac- tical and theoretical applications. We
consider first the path of a projectile in air. Suppose that a body is given an initial
upward velocity of to feet per second in a direction which makes an angle a with
the horizontal. Assuming that the resistance of the air is small and can be
neglected without great error, the object moves subject to the vertical force of
gravity. This means that there is no horizontal force to change the speed in the
horizontal direction. Noticing Fig. 10-5 with the origin of eoordinates at the point
where the projectile is fired, we see that the velocity in the r-direction is vo cos a.
Then the distance traveled horizontally at the end of t seronds is (vo cos a)t feet.
Now the projectile is started with a vertiecal component of velocity of vo sin a
feet per second. This velocity would cause the projectile to rise upward to a height
of (to sin a)t feet in t seconds. But the effect of the pull of gravity lessens this
distance. According to a formula of physics

Figure 10-5

1
the amount to be subtracted is gt2, where g is a constant and approximately equal
2
to 32 Hence the parametric equations of the path are

1
x=( v 0 cosα ) t , y =( v 0 sinα ) t− ¿ 2
2
 193

If we solve the first equation for t and substitute the result in the second, we get
the equation of the path in the rectangular form

gx 2
y= (tanα ) x−
2 v 02 cos 2 α

This equation, which is of the second degre in r and the first degree in y,
represents a parabola.

EXAMPLE. A stone is thrown upward with a velocity of 160 feet per

second at an angle of 45° with the horizontal. Write the equations of the path in
para- metrie and reetangular forms. Solution. We substitute ro = 160, a = 45°, and
g 32 in equations (1) and (2). This gives the purametrie equations

x=8 √ 2 t , y=80 √ 2t−16 t 2

and the rectangular equation

x2
y=x −
800

This last equation, reduced to standard form, becomes

( x−100)2=−800 ( y−200)

The vertex, at (400.200), is the highest point reached by the stone. Setting = 0, we
find = 800. Hence the stone strikes the ground at the point (800,0).

10-5 The cycloid. The path traced hy a given point on the rircum- ference
of a circle which rolls along a line is ealled a cycloid. In order to derive the
equation of the eyeloid, we selecet the line as the r-axis and take the origin at a
position where the tracing point is in contact with the r-axis. In Fig. 10-6 the
radius of the rolling circle is a, and P is the tracing point. In the position drawn,
the circle has rolled so that ('P makes an angle 6 (radians) with the vertical.
 194

Having rolled without slipping, the segment OB and the are PB are of equal
length. Hence

OB=arc PB=aθ

Noticing the right triangle PDC, we may write

x=OA =OB−PD=aθ−a sinθ

y= AP=BC −PD=a−a cosθ

The equations of the eycloid in parametric form are

x=a ( θ−sinθ ) , y=a(1−cosθ )

The result of eliminating 6 from these equations is the complicated equation

a− y
x=a arc cos ± √ 2 ay− y 2
a

EXERCISE 10-2

1. A ball is thrown upward with an initial velocity of 80 feet per second at an

angle of 45° with the horizontal. Write the parametric equations of its path, using
g 32. Find also the rectangular equation of the path. How high does the bail
ascend and how far away, assuming the ground level, does it strike the ground?
 195

2. A projectile is fired upward with a velocity of 160 feet per second at an angle
of 30° with the horizontal. Find the coordinates of its position at the end of (a) I
second, (b) 3 seconds, (c) 5 seconds. At what times ia the projectile 64 feet above
the starting point?

3. Write the equations, both in parametric and rectangular forms, of the path of a
projectile which is fired horizontally with a velocity of a feet per second. If the
projectile is fired horizontally from a building 64 feet high, find how far
downward and how far horizontally it travels in 2 seconds.

4. A circle of radius a rolls along a line. A point on a radius, b units from the
center, describes a path. Paralleling the derivation in Section 10-5, show that the
path is represented by the equations

x=a θ−b sin θ , y=a−b cos θ

The curve is called a curtate cycloid if b <a and a prolate cycloid if b > a.

5. Sketch the curve of the equations in problem 4, taking a = 4 and b 3. Sketch the
curve if a = 4 and b = 6.

6. A circle of radius 4 rolls along a line and makes a revolution in 2 seconds. A

point, starting downward on a vertical radius, moves from the center to the cir-
cumference along the radius at a rate of 2 feet per second. Find the equations of
the path of the point.
 196

7. The end of a thread, kept in the plane of a cirele, as it is unwound tautly from
the eircle describes a path called the inrolute of the circle. Use Fig. 10-7 to show
that the parametric equations of the involute are

x=a ( cosθ+ sinθ ) , y=a ( sinθ+cosθ )

8. In Fig. 10-8 a eircle of radius a is tangent to the two parallel lines 0X and AC.
The line OC cuts the cirele at B, and P(r,4) is the interseetion of a horizontal line
through B and a vertical line through C. Show that the equations of the locus of P,
as C moves along the upper tangent, are

x=2 a tanθ , y=2a cos 2 θ

This curve is called the witch of Agnesi. Show that its rectangular equation is

8 a2
y=
x 2 + 4 a2
 197

9. In Fig. 10-9, OP = AB. Show that the equations of the path traced by P, as A
moves around the circle, are

x=2 a sin2 θ , y =¿ 2 a sin2 θtanθ ¿

The curve is called the cissoid of Diocles. The rectangular equation is

2 x3
y=
2 a−x

10. The path traced by a given point on the circumference of a circle of radius ta
as it rolls inside and along a circle of radius a is called a hypocycloid of four
cusps. Use Fig. 10-10 to obtain the parametric equations

x=a cos 2 θ , y=a sin 2 θ

 198

CHAPTER 11

SPACE COORDINATE AND SURFACES

11-1 Space coordinates. In our study thus far we have dealt with equations
in two variables, and have pictured equations in a plane coordinate system. When
we introduce a third variable a plane wil not siffice for the illustration of an
equation. For this purpose our coordinate system is extended to three dimensions.
Let OX, OY, and OZ be three mutually perpendicular lines. These lines
constitute the x-axis, the y-axis, and the z-axis. The positive directions of the axes
are indicated by arrows in Fig. 11-1. In this drawing, and others which we shall
make, the x-axis and z-axis are in the plane of the page, and the y-axis is to be
visualized as perpendicular to the page. The z-axis may be regarded as vertical
and the others as horizontal. The axes, in pairs, determine the three mutually
perpendicular planes, XOY, XOZ, and YOZ. These are called coordinate planes,
and are designated respectively the xy-plane, xz-plane, and the yz-plane. The
coordinate planes divide space into eight regions, called octants. The octant with
all coordinates positive is called the first octant; we shall not refer to any of the
other octants by number.
 199

FIGURE 11-1

FIGURE 11-2

Having selected a unit of measurement, the position of a point is determined

by its distances from the coordinate planes. The distance of a point P from yz-
plane is called the x-coordinate, of the point. Similarly, the distance from the xz-
plane is called y-coordinate, and the distance from the xy-plane the z-coordinate.
The coordinates of a point are written in the form (x,y,z).
In plotting points and drawing figures, we shall make unit distances on the
x- and z-axes equal. A unit distance on the y-axis will be represented by an actual
length of about 0.7 of a unit. The y-axis will be drawn at an angle of 135 ̊ with the
x-axis. This position of the y-axis and the foreshortening in the y-direction aid in
visualizing space figures. Notice, for example, the cube and the plotted points in
Fig. 11-2.

11-2 The locus of an equation. The locus of an equation in the three-

dimensional system is defined exactly as in the case of a two-dimensional system.
The locus of an equation consists of all the points, and only those points,
whose coordinates satisfy the given equation.
 200

In the two-dimensional system we found lines and curves as the loci of

equations. In three dimensions the locus of an equation is a surface. There are
equations whose loci, in three dimensions, are space curves (curves not lying in a
plane). We are excluding space curves from consideration. We have noticed, of
course, that some two-dimensional equation have no loci, and that others consists
of one or more isolated points. Similarly, there are exceptional cases in athree-
dimensional system. However, we shall be interested in equations whose loci exist
and are surfaces.

11-3 Cylinder surfaces. We shall begin our study of loci by considering

equations in one and two variables. As a further restriction, we shall use equations
of only the first and second degrees. The loci of equations of this class are
comparatively easy to determine.
To findthe locus of the equation
x=4 ,
for example, we notice that the equation is satisfied by giving x the value 4. Since
the equation does not contain the value 4. Since the equation does not y or z, no
restrictions are placed on these variables. Hence the locus consists of all points
which have the x-coordinate equal to 4. The locus is obviously the plane parallel
to the yz-plane and 4 units to the right.
Passing now to alinier equation in two variables, we choose for illustration
the equation
2 y+ 3 z =6
In the yz-plane his equation represents a line. Consider now a plane through this
line and parallel to the x-axis (Fig. 11-3). Any point on this plane has a
corresponding point on the line with the same y- and z-coordinates. Hence he
coordinates of the point satisfy the given equation. We conclude, therefore, that
the planes is the locus of the equation.
 201

FIGURE 11-3
The two examples indicate the correctness of the following statement:
The locus of a first degree equation in one or two variables is a plane. The
planes is parallel to the axis of each missing variable.
Take now the equation
( x− y )2+ y 2=4.
In the xy-plane the locus of this equation is a circle of radius 2 and with the center
on the x-axis 2 units to the right of the origin (Fig. 11-4). Let (x,y,0) be the
coordinates of any point of the circle. Then the point (x,y,z), where z is any real
number, satisfies the equation. Thus we see that the locus of the given equation is
a surface generated by a line which moves so that it stays parallel to the z-axis and
intersects the circle.
A surface generated by a line which moves so that it stays parallel to a fixed
line and intersects a fixed curve in a plane is called a cylindrical surface or
cylinder. The curve is called the directrix, and generating line in any position is
called an element of the cylinder.
In accordance with this defenition, a plane is a special case of a cylinder; the
directrix may be a straight line. Hence the locus of each of the three equations
which we have considered is a cylinder.
It is easy to generalize the preceding discussion to apply to equations in two
variables, even without restriction to the degree, and establish the following
theorem.
THEOREM. The locus of an equation in two variables is a cylinder whose
elements are parallel at the axis of the missing variable.
 202

FIGURE 11-4

EXERCISE 11-1

1. Draw the coordinate axes and plot the points: A(0,0,2), B(0,2,0), C(2,0,0),
D(2,3,0), E(3,2,4), F(-2,0,4), G(-1,-1,-1), H(2,1,-2).
2. Draw a cube which has the origin and the point (4,4,4) as opposite corners.
Write the coordinates of the other corners.
3. Draw the edges of a box which has four of its vertices located at the
points(0,0,0), (3,0,0), (0,2,0), and (0,0,2). Write the coordinates of the other
vertices.
4. Draw the rectangular parallelepiped which has three of its faces in the
coordinate planes and the points (0,0,0) and (4,5,3) as the ends of a diagonal.
Write the coordinates of the vertices.
Describe the surface corresponding to each equation 5-24 and make a sketch
of the surface.
5. x=0 6. y=0 7. z=0
8. z=5 9.z=−5 10. x + y=4
11. 3 t+ z =12 12. 2 y+ z=6 13. x + z=0
14. 2 x− y=0 15. 3 y−z=6 16. z−4 x=8
17. x 2+ y 2=4 18. ¿ 19. x 2=9 z
20. y 2=4 z 21. ¿ 22. 4 x2 +9 y 2=36
23. x 2+ z2 −4 x−6 y+ 9=0 24. x 2+ 4 y 2−4 x−32 y=64
 203

11-4 The general linear equation. In rectangular coordinates of

twodimensions we found that a linear equation, in either one or two variables,
represents a line. In our three-dimensional system we might, by analogy, surmise
that linear equations, in one, two, or three variables, represent surfaces of the same
type. The surmise is correct. At this point, however, we merely state the fact as a
theorem, and reserve the proof for the next chapter.
THEOREM. The locus, in three dimensions of equation.
. Ax+ By+Cz + D=0.
Where A, B, and C are not all zero, is a plane.
The location of a plane represented by a linear equation can be
determinedby finding the lines in which the plane intersects the coordinate planes.
These intersections, as well as the intersections which any surfacemakes with the
coordinate planes, are called traces.
Consider the equation
4 x+3 y +6 z=12.
The trace of the locus on the arc-plane has the y-coordinate equal to zero. Hence
we set y = 0 in the given equation and have
4 x+ 6 z =12

As the equation of trace on the xz-plane. The equation of the traces on the xy- and
yz-planes are
 204

4 x+ 6 z =12 and 4 x+ 6 z =12

Figure 11-5 shows segments of the traces. These segments form a trianglewhich
may be used to picture the plane.

11-5 Second degree equations. The locus of a second degree equationis

called a quadric surface. In general it is not easy to determine the characteristics
and location of a quadric surface corresponding to an equation. We shall use
equations of simple type, however, whose loci are more easily studied.
The main device in examining the locus of an equation consists in observing
the intersections of the surface by the coordinate planes and planes parallel to
them. The idea of symmetry, as in a two-dimensional system, can be used to
advantage. If x can be replaced by -x without changingthe equation, there is
symmetry with respect to the yz-plane. Similar statements apply for the other
variables and coordinate planes.
To illustrate the method, we examine the equation
x 2+ y 2=4 z
The surface is symmetric with respect to the yz- and xz-planes. Negativevalues
must not be assigned to z. This tells us that no part of the surface is below the xy-
plane. When z = 0, x = 0 and y = 0. Sections made by planes parallel to the xy-
plane are circles. This is evident if we substitute
 205

a positive value for z. the plane z = 1, for example, cuts the surface in the circle

x 2+ y 2=4

Circles of greater radii are obtained as the intersecting palne is taken farther and
farther the xy-palne

We next substitute y = 0 and get the equation

x 2=4 x

Hence the trace in the xz-plane is a parabola. Similarly, the trace in the yz-plane
is y 2=4 z

We now have sufficient information to form a mental picture of the suface.

As a matter of interest, though, we observe that sections parallel to the xz- and yz-
planes are parabolas. Taking x=4, for example, the equation reduces to

y 2=4 ( z−4 )

The coordinates of the vertex of this parabola are (4,0,4). Figure 11-16 shows a
sketch of the surface in the first octant.

11-6 quadric Surfaces. We shall now discuss a number of second degree,

or quadratic, equations which are said to be in standard forms. The interest,
furnish information and experiences which will prove helpful in other
mathematical situation, particularly in the calcuus.

A. The ellipsoid. The locus of the equation.

x y2 z2
2
+ + =1
a2 b 2 c2
 206

is called ellipsoid. We see at once that the surface is symmetric with respect to
each coordinate plane. By setting one of the variables at a time equal to zero, we
find the trace equation to be

x2 y 2 x2 z 2 y 2 z2
+ =1 , + =1 , + =1
a2 b 2 a 2 c2 b c2

The traces are all ellipses. Next we can assign to x a definite value, x=x 0, and
write the given equation as

y2 z2 x 20
+ =1− 2
b2 c 2 a

This equation shows that the sections made by planes parallel to the yz-plane are
ellipse. Further, the elliptic sections decrease in size as the intersecting plane
moves farther from yz-plane. When the moving plane reaches a distance a from
the yz-plane, the equation of the section becomes
2 2
y z
+ =0
b2 c 2

And the intersection, therefore is a point. No part of the ellipsoid is to the right of
the plane x = a or to the left of the plane x = -a.

A similar discussion could be made with respect to sections parallel to

each of the other coordinate planes. Elliptic sections are obtained for values of z
between –c and c, and for values of y between –b nd b.

By the method of sections we obtain a clear mental picture of the ellipsoid

and a guide for making a sketch. (Fig. 11-7)
 207

If two of the three quantities a,b and c are equal, the sections paralles to one
of the coordinate planes are circle. Taking a=b and choosing a

z0 2

x 2+ y 2=a2 +(1− 2
)
c

Thus we see that planes parallel to the xy-plane cut the surface in circles. The
ellipsoid for this case could be generated by revolving the xz- or the yz- trace
about the z-axis. A surface generated by revolving a curve about a straight line is
a surface of revolution. Finally, if a=b=c, the ellipsoid is a sphere.

B. the hyperboloid of one sheet. The surface represented by the solution.

x2 y 2 z 0 2

+ − =1
a2 b 2 c 2

is called a hypernoloid of one sheet. Setting z=o, we get

x2 y 2
− =1
a2 b2
 208

Hence the xz-trace is an ellipse. If we replace z in the given equation by a fixed

value z0, we obtain the equation.the equation

x2 y 2 z 2

2
− 2 =1+ 02
a b c

This equation shows that sections parallel to the xy-plane are ellipses and that the
sections increase in size as the intersecting plane z=z 0 recedes from the origin. If
a=b, the sections are circles, and the surface is a surface of revolutions.

The traces in the xz- and yz-planes are respectively the hyperbolas.

x2 z 2 y2 z2
2
− 2
=1 and 2
− 2 =1
a c b c

The sections parallel to the xz- and yz- planes are likewise hyperbolas. Each of the
equations

x2 y 2 z 2 x2 y 2 z 0 2

+ − =1 and- 2 + 2 − 2 =1
a2 b 2 c 2 a b c

represents a hyperboloid of one sheet. The first encloses the y-axis and the second
the x-axis.
 209

C. the hyperboloid of twosheets. The surface represented by

x2 y 2 z 2
− − =1
a2 b2 c 2

is called a hyperboloid of two sheets. By setting each variable in turn equal to

zero, we get the equation.
 210

x2 y 2 z 2 x2 z 2 − y2 z2
− − =1 , − =1 , − =1
a2 b2 c 2 a2 c 2 b2 c 2

This equation represents a point or an ellipse according as the numericalvalue of

xn is equal to or greater than a. Sections parallel to the xz- and xy-planes are
hyperbolas. From this information the surface (Fig. 11-9) is readily visualized.
If b = c, the hyperbolaid of two sheets is a surface of revolution.
Hyporboloids of two sheets are also represented by the equations
−x 2 y 2 z 2 −x 2 y 2 z 2
− 2 + 2 =1 and + − =1
a2 b c a2 b 2 c 2

D. The elliptic paraboloid. The locus of the equation

x2 y 2 2
+ =c z
a2 b 2
 211

is called an elliptic paraboloid. The xy-trace, obtained by setting z = 0, is the

origin. No part of the surface lies below the xy-plane because there are no real
values for x and y corresponding to a negative z. Planes parallel to and above the
xy-plane make elliptic sections which increase in size as the plane recedes from
the origin.
The traces in the xz- and yz-planes are respectively the parabolas
x2 2 y2
=c z and = c2 z
a2 b2
The surface is sketched in Fig. 11-10.
If a = b the sections parallel to the xy-plane are circles. For this case the
surface is obtainable by rotating either the xz- or yz-trace about the z-axis.
Elliptic paraboloids are also represented by the equations
x2 z 2 2 y2 z2 2
+ =b yand + =a y
a2 c 2 b2 c 2
E. The hyperbolic paraboloid. The locus of the equation
x2 y 2 2
− =c z
a2 b2
is called a hyperbolic paraboloid. The xy-trace is given by the equation
 212

x2 y 2 x y x y
2 -
a b (
2 = 0 or
+ )(
a b a b
− ) =0

This equation represents a pair of lines intersecting at the origin. The sections
made by the plane z = z0 is the hyperbola
x2 y 2 2
2 - 2 = c z0
a b
The hyperbola has its transverse axis parallel to the x-axis when z0 is positive and
parallel to the y-axis when z0 is negative. Sections by planes parallel to the xz-
plane and the yz-plane are parabolas.

Further aid in visualizing the surface may be had from Fig. 11-11. A hyperbolic
paraboloid is also represented by each of the equations
x2 z 2 2 y2 z2 2
− =b y and - =a x
a2 c 2 b2 c 2
F. The elliptic cone. The locus of the equation
x2 y 2 z 2
- =
a 2 b2 c 2
 213

is an elliptic cone. Setting x, y, and z in turn equal to zero, we have the trace
equations
x2 y 2 x2 z 2 y2 z2
+ = 0, = , =
a2 b2 a2 c 2 b2 c 2
These equations reveal that the xy-trace is the origin, and that each of the other
traces is a pair of lines intersecting at the origin.
Sections parallel to the xy-plane are ellipses, and those parallel to the other
coordinate planes are hyperbolas.
For the case in which a = b, the cone is a right circular cone.
Elliptic cones are also represented by the equations
x2 z 2 y2 y2 z2 x2
+ = and + =
a2 c 2 b2 b2 c 2 a2

EXERCISE 11-2
Draw the traces on the coordinate planes:
1. 2 x+3 y + 4 z=12 2. 2 x+ y +2 z=4
3. x−4 y + z=4 4. 2 x+3 y −z=6
5. x + y ± z=0 6. x− y −z=0
Identify and sketch each quadric surface. If preferred, make the sketch in the
first octant only and state the symmetry with respect to the coordinate planes:
x2 y 2 22 x2 y 2 22
7. + + =1 8. + + =1
9 4 16 9 9 4
2 2 2
9. x + y +2 =¿ 16 10. x 2+ y 2+ 4 z 2=4
x2 y 2 z 2 x2 y 2 z 2
11. + + =1 12. − + =1
9 16 4 4 4 9
 214

13. x 2+ y 2−z 2=16 14. x 2− y 2−z 2=16

x2 y2 z2 y2 z2 x2
15. − − =1 16.. − − =1
16 9 4 4 9 9
x2 y 2 x2 z 2
17. + =2 x 18. + =3 y
9 4 4 1
19. y 2 +22=4 x 20. x 2+ y 2=4 z
x2 y 2 z x2 z 2
21. − = 22. + =2 y
9 16 4 4 4
z2 y2 z2 y 2 z2
23. + = 24. + =x 2
16 9 4 4 4
215
 216

CHAPTER 12
Vector and Planes and Lines

12-1 Vectors.There are two special kinds of physical quantities which are
dealt with extensively in physics and in mathematics. One kind has magnitude
only, and the other has magnitude and direction. A quantity which has magnitude
only is called a scalar. The length of an object, expressed in terms of a chosen
unit of length, is a scalar. Mass, time, and density are other illustrations of scalars.
A quantity which has both magnitude and direction is called a vector. Forces,
velocities, an accelerations are examples of vector. These quantities have direction
as well as magnitude.

A vector is customarily represented by an arrow. The length of the arrow

represents the magnitude of the vector and the arrow pointed in the assigned
direction. Thus a force, for example, could be represented graphically by an arrow
pointing in the direction in which the force acts and having a length (in a
convenient unit) equal to the magnitude of the force.

Two vectors are said to be equalif they are parallel, have the same
magnitude (length), and point the same way. The vectors A and B in Fig. 12-1 are
equal. If a vector has the same magnitude as A and points in the opposite
direction, it is denoted by –A.1

As might be inferred from the definition, vectors are of great importance in

physics and engineering. They are also used to much advantage in pure
mathematics. They study of solid analytic geometric, in particular, in facilitated
by application of the vector concept. Our immediate objective in the introduction
of vector, however, is their use in dealing with planes and lines in space. To
pursue this study, it is necessary first to consider certain operations on vectors.

1
The bold facedtype indicate that the letter represents a vector.
 217

12-2 Operations on vectors.It may observed that a directed line segment

(section 2-1) is a vector. In numerous places we have added and subtracted
directed line segment. In all this cases the vectors have had same, or the opposite,
directions. To obtain the sum or the difference of two such vectors, we have
applied the usual method of adding and subtracting algebraic quantities. We now
define the sum and difference of two vectors where there is no restriction as to
their directions.

To find the sum of two vectors A and B, we draw from the head of Aa
vector equal to B. the sum of A and B is then defined as the vector drawn from the
origin of A to head of B (Fig. 12-2).

Since the opposite sides of parallelogram are equal and parallel, it may be
seen from Fig. 12-3 that the sum of two vectors is independent of the order in
which they are added. That is,
 218

A+B=B+A

Hence vector are said to be commutative with respect to addition.

The sum of three vectors A, B. and C may be obtained by adding C to

A+B. it is easy to show geometrically that the sum of three or more vectors is
independent of the order of addition. For example,

A + B + C = (A + B) + C = A + (B + C)

This is called the associative law of addition.

To subtract the vectorB from the vectorA, we first draw the vectors from a
common origin.Then the vector extending from the end of B to the end of A and
pointing toward the end of A is defined as the

Difference A – B. the triangle formed by the vectors B, A – B, and A shows

that.

B + (A – B) = A

That is, A – B is the vector which added to B gives A.

The product of a scalar m and a vector A, expressed by mA, is a vector m

times as long as A, and has the direction of A if m is positive, and the opposite
direction if m is negative. If m = 0, the product is a zero vector, if m = -1, the
product is –A. (see Fig. 12-5).
 219

If m and n are scalars, the sum of mA and nA is A vector m + n times as

long as A. this is expressed by

mA + nA = (m + n) A
(1)

The vectors A and B and A + B form the sides of a triangle (Fig. 12-2). If
each of these vectors is multiplied by a scalar m, then mA, mB, and m(A + B)
form a similar tiangle, and hence

m(A + B) = mA + mB
(2)

Equation (1) and (2) show that vectors and scalars obey the distributive law
of multiplication.

12-3 vectors in rectangular coordinate plane. Vectors are conveniently

dealt with when they are expressed as the sum of vectors parallel to the coordinate
axes. The letters i and j are usually employed to represent vectors of unit length
from the origin to the point (1,0) and (0,1) respectively. Any vectors in the plane
can be expressed as the sum of scalar times i and a scalar times j. thus the vector
V (Fig. 12-6) may be written as

V = ai + bj.

The vectorsai and bj are called the components of V. the vector ai is the x-
component and bj is the y-component. The lengths of V, ai, and bj are denoted
 220

respectively by the symbol |V |,|a| ,and |b|. These quantities, by the Pythagorean
Theorem, satisfy the relation.

|V |=√ a2 +b2

The quotient of V and |V | is a vector of unit length in the direction of V. A

vector is called a unit vector if its length is unity.

If V1 and V2 are vectors in terms of their components

V 1=a1 i+b1 j , V 2=a2 i+ b2 j ,

Then

V 1 +V 2=( a1+ a2 ) i+ ( b1 +b2 ) j

Thus the sum is a vector whose x- and y-components are the sums of the x-
and y-components respectively of the two given vectors.

Similarly, we have

V 1−V 2 =( a1−a2 ) i+ ( b1−b 2 ) j

Example 1. Vectors are drawn from the origin to the points A(3,-2) and
´ A and OB=B
B(1,5). Indicating these vectors by OA= ´ , find A + B and A – B.

Solution. The vectors (Fig. 12-7) are

A=3i−2 j, B=i+5 j

Their sum is

A+ B=4 i+3 j

And their difference is

A−B=2 i−7 j

2
Example 2. Find the vector from the origin to the point of the way from
3
A(1,3) to
 221

B(4, -3).

Solution. The required vector is equal to the vector from the origin to A

2
plus of the vector from the point A to point B. indicating the vectors from the
3
origin to A and B by A and Brespectively, we have

A=i+3 j

B=4 i−3 j

B− A=3 i−6 j

Hence the required vector V is

2
V =i+3 j+ (3 i−6 j)
3

¿ 3 i− j

Exercise 12-1

In problems 1-4 find the sum of the vectors from the origin to the given
points. Also subtract the second vector from the first. Draw all vectors.
 222

1.A(2,3), B(-4,5). 2. A(5,0),

B(0,4)

3. A(3,-2), B(-1,-4). 4. A(6,7), B(-

5,-5).

Determine a unit vector having the direction of the vector in each problem
5-8.

5. 3i + 4j. 6. 3i – 12j. 7. 12i – 5j.

8. 2i – 3j. 9. i+ 2j. 10. 4i + 3j.

Find the length of each vector 9-12 and the cosine of the angle which the
vector make with positive x-axis.

11. i + j. 12. –i+ 3j. 13. i + 0j.

14. 0i +3j. 15. –3i +2j. 16. 5i + 12j.

17. Find the vector from the origin to the mid-point of the vector P1´P2
joining P1(3,6) and P2(5,-8).

18. Find the vectors from the origin to the trisection points of the vector
P1´P2 joining the points P1(-3,4) and P2(12,-5).

12-4 Vectors in space. In the three-dimensional rectangular coordinate

system the unit vectors from the origin to the points (1,0,0), (0,1,0), and (0,0,1)
are denoted respectively by i, j, and k. any vector in space can be expressed in
terms of these unit vectors. Thus the vector from the origin to the point A(a,b,c) is

´ A=ai+bj+ck
OA=

The vectors ai, bj, and ck are the x-, y-, and z-components of vector A. the
length of the vector A may be obtained by using the lengths of the sides of the
right triangles OCA and ODC (Fig.12-8). From the Pythagorean relation, we have
 223

( OA )2=( OC )2 + ( CA )2

2 2 2
¿ ( OD ) + ( DC ) + ( CA )

¿ a2 +b 2+ c 2

Hence the length of A is

| A|=√ a2 +b 2+ c2

The vector from P1 ( x1 , y 1 , z 1 ) to P2 ( x2 , y 2 , z 2 )in Fig 12-9 has the

components ( x ¿ ¿ 1−x 2) i,( y 2− y 1) j ,(z 2−z 1)k . ¿Hence it is expressed by

P1´P2 =( x ¿ ¿ 1−x 2)i+( y 2− y1 ) j+(z 2−z 1) k ¿

The length of the vector P1´P2 , or the distance d between the points P 1 and
P2, is

d= √( x 2−x 1)2 +( y 2− y 1)2 +( z 2−z 1)2

 224

Example. The points A(1.-2.3), B(-4,5,6), and C(5,7,0) are vertices of a

triangle. Express the sides as vectors and find the length of each side.

Solution. The vectors from the origin to the given points are

´ A=i−2 j+3 k
OA=

´
OB=B=−4 i+5 j+6 k

´
OC=C=5 i+7 j

The sides, expressed as vectors, are

´
AB=B− A=−5 i+ 7 j+3 k

´
BC=C−B=9 i+2 j−6 k

´
CA=A−C=−4 i−9 j+ 3 k

The lengths of the vectors are

´ |= √ (−5 )2 +7 2+3 2=√ 83

| AB

´ |=√ 92 +22+ (−6 )2=11

|BC

´ |=√ (−4 )2 + (−9 )2 +32= √ 106

|CA
 225

Exercise 12-2

Find the distance between the points A and B in each problem 1-4

1. A(-3,2,0), B(6,-4,2) 2. A(3,1,4),

B(1,-1,-2)

3. A(5,7,1), B(6,-3,2) 4. A(4,4,0),

B(-2,1,-2)

In each problem 5-8 the given points are the vertices of a triangle.
´ , BC
Determine the vectors AB ´ ,∧CA
´ and the lengths of these vectors

5. A(6,8,1), B(0,2,1), C(0,-4,-5

6. A(2,3,-2), b9-2,1,3), C(3,8,0)

7. A(3,3,3), B(4,5,5), C(1,2,5)

8. A(2,4,5), B(6,8,-1), C(-2,-2,1)

Determine a unit vector having the direction of the vector in each problem
9-12.

9. 6i + 3j – 6k 10. 2i – 4j +
4k

11. 2i – j – 3k 12. i + j + k

13. Find the vectors from the origin to the mid-point and the trisection
points of the line segment (1,-3,7), (7,3,-2). What are the coordinates of the
terminal points of these vectors?

14. Find the equation of a sphere of radius 5 and center at (1,-2,3)

15. Find the center and radius of the sphere x 2+ y 2+ z 2 +4 x−2 y+ 6 z =0

16. Find the coordinates of the points which divide the line segment
(4,5,7), (2,3,5) into four equal parts.
 226

17. Find the vector from the origin to the intersection of the medians of
thetriangle whose vertices are A(4,2,1), B(-5,7,0), and C(4,-3,5).

18. The line segment (3,4,6), (-1,1,0) is produced by its own length
through each end. Find the coordinates of the new ends.

12-5 The scalar product of two vectors. So far we have not defined a
product of two vectors. Actually there are two kinds of products of two vectors
which have arisen in physics and are extensively used. We shall define one of
these products and make some applications to geometry.

The scalar product of two vectors A and b, denoted by A ∙B, is defined by

the equation

A ∙ B=| A||B|cos θ

Where θ is the angle between the vectors when drawn from a common
origin (Fig. 12-10). It makes no difference whether θ is taken as positive or
negative, sincecos θ=cos (−θ). However, we shall restrict θ to the range from 0 °
to180 °. The angle θis 0 ° if A and B point in the same direction, and is equal to
180 ° if they point oppositely. The name scalar is used because the product is a
scalar quantity. This product is also called the dot product, since the product is
indicated by placing a dot between the two vectors.

In the figure the point M is the foot of the perpendicular to the vector A
drawn from the point of B. the vector from O to M is called the vector projection
of B on A. the vector projection and A point in the same direction, sinceθ is an
 227

acute angle. ifθ exceed 90 °, then A and the vector from O to M point oppositely.
The scalar projection of B on A is defined as|B|cos θ. The sign of the scalar
projection depends oncos θ. Using the idea of scalar projection of one vector on
another, the dot product may be interpreted geometrically as

A ∙ B=| A||B|cos θ

= (length of A) times (the scalar projection of B an A)

We could also say that the dot product of A and B is the length of B times
the scalar projection of A on B.

It follows immediately from the definition of scalar product that

A ∙ B=B ∙ A
(1)

Hence the dot product of two vectors is said to be commutative.

We next establish the distributive law from the scalar multiplication of

vectors. If we let b and c stand for the scalar projection of B and C on A, we see
(Fig. 12-11) that the sum of the scalar projection of (B + C) on A. Hence

| A|( b +c )=| A| b+| A|c

And

A ∙ ( B+C )= A ∙ B+ A ∙ C (2)

Equation (2) expresses the distributive law for the multiplication of vectors.
Since the dot product is commutative [equation (1)], we have also

( B+C ) ∙ A=B ∙ A+ c ∙ A
(3)

From equation (2) and (3) it may be seen that the scalar product of two sums
of vectors may be carried out as in multiplying two algebraic expressions, each of
which consists of more than one term. Thus, for example,
 228

( A+ B ) ∙ ( C + D )= A ∙ C+ A ∙ D+B ∙ C+ B ∙ D

If two vectors are expressed in terms of i, j, and k, the scalar product can
be found in a simple way. Let the vectors A and Bbe expressed as

A=a1 i+ a2 j+ a3 k

B=b 1 i+b2 j+b 3 k

To obtain the dot product of A and B, we first determine the dot products of
the unit vectors i, j, and k. we have

i∙ i= j∙ j=k ∙ k =1

i∙ j= j ∙ k=k ∙ 1=0

Hence we obtain

A ∙ B=a1 b1 +a2 b2 +a 3 b 3
(4)

Equation (4) shows that the dot product is obtained by the simple process of
adding the products of the corresponding coefficients of i, j, and k.

Since cos 90° =0 and cos 0 ° =1, it evident that the scalar product of two
perpendicular vectors is zero, and the scalar product of two vectors in the same
direction is the product of their lengths. The dot product of a vector on itself is the
square of the length of the vector. Tjat is,

2
A ∙ A=| A|
 229

Example 1. Determine whether the vectors

A=3i+ 4 j−8 k

B=4 i−7 j−2 k

Are perpendicular.

Solution. The scalar product is

A ∙ B=12−28+16=0

Since this product is zero, the vectors are perpendicular

Example 2, vectors are drawn from the origin to the points A(6,-3,2) and
B(-2,1,2). Find the angle AOB.

´ by A and OB
Solution. Indicating OA ´ by B, we write

A=6 i−3 j +2 k

B=−2 i+ j+2 k

To find the angle, we substitute in both members of the equation

A ∙ B=| A||B|cos θ

The product in the left member is A ∙ B=−12−3+ 4=−11. The lengths of A

and B are | A|=√ 36+8+ 4=7 ,|B|= √ 4+1+ 4=3.hence

A ∙ B −11
cos θ= =
|A||B| 21

−11
θ=cos−1 =122 ° (nearest degree)
21

EXAMPLE 3. Find the scalar projection and the vector projection of

B = 2i - 3j - k on A =3i -6j + 2k.

Solution. The scalar projection of B on A is |B| cos 0, where is the angle

between the vectors. Using the equation
 230

A . B = |A| |B| cosθ,

we have

A.B
|B| cosθ=
¿ A∨¿ ¿

Since A . B = 6 + 18 -2 = 22 and |A| = √ 9+36+ 4=7, it follows that

22
|B| cosθ=
7

The scalar projection of B on A is 22/7. Since the scalar projection is

positive, the vector projection is in the direction of A. The vector projection is
therefore the product of the scalar projection and a unit vector in the direction of
A. This unit vector is A divided by its length. Hence the vector projection of B on
A is

22 3 i−6 j+2 k 22
. = (3 i−6 j+2 k )
7 7 49

EXERCISE 12-3

Find the dot product of the vectors in each problem 1-4. Find also the cosine
of the angle between the vectors.

1. A = 4i -j + 8k, 2. A = 5i -3j + 2k,

B = 2i + 2j -k. B = -i + 7j
+ 13k.

3. A = l0i + 2j + 11k, 4. A = i + j + 2k,

B = 4i -8j -k. B = 8i + 4j + k.

In each problem 5 and 6 find the scalar projection and the vector projection
of B on A.
 231

5. A = I –j –k , 6. A = 3i + 3j + k,

B = l0i - llj + 2k. B =I -2j -2k.

7. Find the angle which a diagonal of a cube makes with one of its edges.

8. From a vertex of a cube, a diagonal of a face and a diagonal of, the cube
are drawn. Find the angle thus formed.

The points in problems 9 and 10 are vertices of a triangle. In each determine

the vector from A to B and the vector from A to C. Find the angle between these
vectors. Similarly, find the other interior angles of the triangle.

9. 4(3,4,2), B(1,7,1), C(-2,3,-5).

10. A(-2,-l,l), B(l,0,-2), C(0,-3,l).

11. Let α , β , dan γ denote the angles which the vector A = ai + bj + ck

makes with the positive x-, y-, and z-axes respectively. Using A .i, A . j, and A . k,
findcos α , cos β ,∧cos γ. The cosines of α , β ,and γ are called the direction cosines
of the vector A. Show that cos 2 α +cos 2 β +cos2 γ=1.

12-6 The equation of a plane. We have discovered (Section 11-3) that a

linear equation in one or two variables represents a plane. In Section 11-4, we
stated without proof that a linear equation in three variables also represents a
plane. We shall now prove that the locus of a linear equation, in one, two, or three
variables, is a plane.

Suppose that a point P1( x 1 , y 1 , z 1) is in a given plane and that a nonzero

vector

N = Ai + Bj + Ck

is perpendicular, or normal, to the plane (Fig. 12-12). A point P(x,y,z) will

lie in the given plane if and only if the vector Pt P is perpendicular to N. Setting
the scalar product of these vectors equal to zero, we obtain the equation
 232

P1 P = 0,
N .⃗ (1)

or

A(x – x1) + B(y – y1 + C(z – z1) = 0. (2)

This is the equation of the plane which passes through P1( x 1 , y 1 , z 1) and is
perpendicular to the vector N = Ai + Bj + Ck. Substituting D for the constant - A
x 1 - B y 1- C z 1, we write the equation in the form

Ax + By + Cz + D =0. (3)

Conversely, any linear equation of the form (3) represents a plane. Starting
with this equation, we can find a point P1( x 1 , y 1 , z 1) whose coordinates satisfy it.
Then we have

Ax1 + By1 + Cz1 + D = 0.

This equation and equation (3) yield, by subtraction,

A(x – x1) + B(y – y1) + C(z – z1)=0,

which is of the form (2). Hence equation (3) represents a plane

perpendicular to the vector N = Ai + Bj + Ck.

THEOREM. Any plane can be represented by a linear equation. Conversely,

the locus of a linear equation is a plane.
 233

EXAMPLE I. Write the equation of the plane which contains the point P1 (4,
-3,2) and is perpendicular to the vector N = 2i-3j + 5k.

Solution. We use the coefficients of i, j, and k as the coefficients of x, y, and

z and write the equation

2x – 3y + 5z + D =0.

For any value of D this equation represents a plane perpendicular to the

given vector. The equation will be satisfied by the coordinates of the given point
if

8 + 9 + 10 + D =0, or D = -27.

The required equation therefore is

2x – 3y + 5z - 27 =0.

EXAMPLE 2. Find the equation of the plane determined by the points

P1(l,2,6), P2(4,4,l), and P3 (2,3,5).

Solution. A vector which is perpendicular to two sides of the triangle is

normal to the plane of the triangle. To find such a vector, we write

→
P1 P2 =3 i+2 j−5 k

→
P1 P2 =i+ j−k

N = Ai + Bj + Ck

The coefficients .1, B, and C are to be found so that N is perpendicular to

each of the other vectors. Thus

→
N . P1 P2 = 3A + 2B – 5C = 0,

→
N . P1 P2 = A + B - C =0.
 234

These equations give A = 3C and B = -2C. Choosing C = 1, we have N = 3i

2j + k. The plane 3x -2y -z + D = 0 is normal to N, and passes through the given
points if D = -5. Hence we have

3.r – 2y + z -5 = 0.

EXAMPLE 3. Find the distance d from the point P(6,4,-1) to the plane 2x +
3y – 6z - 2 = 0.

Solution. Let R be any point of the plane (Fig. 12-13). The scalar projection
of the vector HP on a vector perpendicular to the plane gives the required
RP and a
distance. This scalar projection is obtained by taking the dot product of⃗
unit vector normal to the plane. The point (1,0,0) is in the plane, and using this
RP = 5i + 4j k. Either of the vectors.
point for R, we have ⃗

2 i+ 3 j−6 k
N=±
7

is a unit vector normal to the plane. Hence

10+ 12+ 6 28
RP=±
N. ⃗ =¿ ±
7 8

We choose the ambiguous sign + in order to have a positive result. Thus we

get d = 4
 235

EXAMPLE 4. Find the angle 6 between the planes 4x % 2 + 5 = and x + 2y

- 2z + 3 = 0.

Solution. The angle between two planes is equal to the angle between their
normals (Fig. 12-14). The vectors

4 i−8 j−k i−2 j−2 k

N 1= , N 2=
9 3

are unit vectors normal to the given planes. The dot product yields

−19
cos θ = N 1 . N 2 = , and θ=112 °
27

The planes intersect, making a pair of angles equal (approximately) to 112°,

and a second pair equal to 68. Choosing the smaller angle, we give the angle
between the planes as 68°.

EXERCISE 12-4

Write the equation of the plane which satisfies the given conditions in each
problem 1-8.

1. Perpendicular to N = 3i - 2j + 5k and passes through the point

(1,1,2).
2. Perpendicular to N = 4i - j - k and passes through the origin.
3. Parallel to the plane 2x 3y 4z = 5 and passes through (1,2, 3).
4. Perpendicular to the line segment (4,0,6), (0, 8,2) at its mid-point.
 236

5. Passes through the origin and is perpendicular to the line through

(2, 3,4) and (5,6,0).
6. Passes through the points (0,1,2), (2,0,3), (4,3,0).
7. Passes through the points (2,-2,-l), (-3,4,1), (4,2,3).
8. Passes through (0,0,0), (3,0,0), (1,1,1).

Find the distance from the given point to the given plane in each problem 9-
12

9. 2z- y + 2z + 3 = 0; (0,1,3).
10. 6x + 2y - 3z + 2 = 0; (2, -4,3).
11. 4x- 2y + 2-2 = 0; (-1,1,2).
12. 3x- 4y- 5z = 0; (5, -1,3).

Find the cosine of the acute angle between each pair of planes in problems
13-16

13. 2x + y + z + 3 = 0, 2x - 2y + z - 7 = 0.
14. 2x + // + 2z - 5 = 0, 2x - 3y + Qz + 5 = 0.
15. 3j - 2y + z - 9 = 0, x - 3y - $z + 4 = 0.
16. j - 8// + 4 - 3 = 0, 4j + 2y - 4z + 3 = 0. 17.
17. Show that the planes
A1 x + B1 y +C1 z + D1=0
A2 x + B2 y +C 2 z + D 2=0

are perpendicular if and only if

A1 A 2 +B 1 B2 +C1 C2=0

18. Determine the value of C so that the planes 2x 6i/ -f Cz = 5 and x

3v + 2z = 4 are perpendicular
19. Use vectors to show that the distance d from P1 (x 1 , y 1 , z 1) to the
plane Ax + B y +C z + D = 0 is
| Ax 1+ By 1+Cz 1+ D|
d=
√ A 2+ B2 +C 2
 237

12-7 The equations of a line. Let L be a line which passes through a given
point P1 (x 1 , y 1 , z 1) and is parallel to a given nonzero vector

V = Ai + Bj + Ck

P1 P is parallel to V (Fig.
If P(x,y,z) is a point on the line, then the vector ⃗
P1 P isparallel to V, the point P is on the line L. Hence P is
12-15). Conversely, if ⃗
on L if and only if there is a scalar t such that

P1 P=tV
⃗

Or

(x - x 1)i +(y - y 1)j + (z- z 1)k = Ati + Btj + Ctk. (1)

Equating corresponding coefficients of i, j, and k, we obtain the equations

(x - x 1) = At, (y - y 1) = Bt, (z- z 1) = Ct,

or, transposing,

x = x 1 + At, y = y 1 + Bt, z = z 1 + Ct. (2)

 238

When is given any real value, equations (2) determine the coordinates
(x,y,z) of a point on the line L. Also there is a value of t corresponding to any
point of the line. Equations (2) are called parametric equations of the line.

By solving each of the parametric equations for t and equating the equal
values, we get

x−x 1 y− y 1 z−z 1
= = (3)
A B C

These are called the symmetric equations of the line.

The planes which contain a line and are perpendicular to the coordinate
planes are called projecting planes.

Equations (3) represent three projecting planes. This becomes evident when
we write the equations as

x−x 1 y− y 1 x−x 1 z−z 1 y− y 1 z −z1

= , = , =
A B A C B C

These equations, each in two variables, represent planes perpendicular

respectively to the xy-, xz-, and yz-planes. These equations represent a line, and
hence the line is the intersection of the planes. Any two of the equations, of
course, determine the line. We notice also that any one of the equations can be
obtained from the other two.

A line in space may be defined by two planes which pass through the line.
Hence there are infinitely many ways of defining a line, since infinitely many
planes pass through a line. However, it is usually convenient to deal with the
projecting planes.

If a line is parallel to a coordinate plane, one of the quantities A, B, and C in

equations (3) is zero, and conversely. In this case, one member of the equation
would have zero in the denominator and could not be used. If, for example, A =
and B and C are not zero, then the line passing through P1 (x 1 , y 1 , z 1) is parallel to
the vector V = Bj + Ck. Hence the line is parallel to the xy-plane and
 239

consequently the plane x = Xi contains the line. If two of X, B, and are zero, say
A = B = 0, then the line is parallel to the z-axis. Hence the line is the intersection
of the planes x = x 1 and y = y 1. Thus we see that when a denominator of a
member of equations (3) is zero, the corresponding numerator equated to zero
represents a plane through the line in question.

EXAMPLE 1 . Write the equations of the line through (2, 1,3) which is
parallel to the vector V = -2i + 4j + 6k.

Solution. The equations of the line in the symmetric form (3) are

x−2 y+ 1 z−3
= =
−2 4 6

These equations in the parametric form (2) are

X ≠ 2 – 2t, y = -1 + 4t, z = 3 + 6t

EXAMPLE 2. A line passes through the points P1(2, 4,5), P2 (- 1,3,1). Write
its equations.

Solution. The vector from P2to P1,

P2 P1 ,=3i−7 j+4 k ,
⃗

is parallel to the line. Hence we get

x−2 y+ 4 z−5
= =
3 −7 4

P1 P2 , instead of⃗
Had we used the vector⃗ P2 P1 ,the signs would be reversed
in all the denominators.

EXAMPLE 3. Find a symmetric form of the equations

x + y - z - 7 - 0, x + 5y + 5z + 5 = 0.

Solution. We multiply the first equation by 5 and add to the second equation
to eliminate z. We subtract the first equation from the second to eliminate x. This
gives the equations
 240

6x + 10y - 30 = 0 and 4y + 6z + 12 = 0

By solving each of these for y, we obtain

−3 x+15 −3 z−6
Y= ,Y=
5 2

Combining these equations and dividing by 3, we obtain the symmetric

equations

x−5 y z +2
= =
5 −3 2

EXAMPLE 4. Write the equations of the line passing through the points P1
(2,6,4) and P2 (3,-2,4).

Solution. The vector from P1 to P2 is

P1 P2 =i−8 j
⃗

Hence the required line is parallel to the xy-plane. The plane x = 4 contains
the line. This plane is perpendicular to two of the coordinate planes. We use the
first two members of equations (3) to get another plane containing the line. Thus
we have the defining equations

x−3 y+ 2
z = 4, = ,
1 −8

z = 4, Sx + y - 22 = 0.

Notice that we could not use the third member of the symmetric equations
because its denominator would be zero. We did, however, set the numerator of
that member equal to zero to obtain one of the planes.

EXAMPLE 5. Find the equation of the line through (2, - 1,3) and parallel to
the planes 2x - y + 4z - 5 = 0 and 3x + y + z - 4 = 0.

Solution.Normals to the planes are given by the vectors

N 1= 2i - j + 4k,
 241

N 2 = 3i + j + k.

The required line is perpendicular to these vectors. Hence, if V = Ai + Bj +

Ck is parallel to the line, we have

N 1. V = 2A - B + 4C = 0,

N 2 . V = 3A + B + C = 0.

Solving these equations for A and B in terms of C, we get A = - C, B = 2C.

Hence V = -Ci + 2Cj + Ck. Taking C = 1, then V = -i + 2j + k. The equations of
the line may therefore be written as

x−2 y +1 z−3
= =
−1 2 1

12-8 Direction angles and direction cosines. The angles α , β, and γ which
a directed line makes with the positive x-, y-, and z-axes respectively are called
the direction angles of the line. The cosines of the direction angles are called the
direction cosines of the line. The direction cosines of a line represented by
equations of the form (2) or (3) may be found by the use of vectors. The vector

V =Ai + Bj + Ck

is parallel to the line. Having chosen one direction along the line as positive,
then one of the vectors V or its negative points in the same direction as the line.
The direction cosines are easily determined by using the dot product, as in
problem 11, Exercise 12-3.

The angles formed by two lines which do not intersect are defined to be
equal to the angles formed by two lines which do intersect and are parallel to the
given lines. Hence vectors can be employed in finding the angles formed by two
lines in space.

EXAMPLE. Assign a positive direction to the line represented by the

equations
 242

x−1 y +5
=
4 −2

and find the direction cosines.

Solution. The vectors 4i - 3j - 2k and - 4i + 3j + 2k are parallel to the line.

We select the positive direction of the line upward, so that y is an acute angle.
Then the vector V = - 4i + 3j + 2k points in the positive direction of the line.
Using the dot product, we get

i . V = |i||V | cos α ,

-4 = √ 29 cos α

−4
cos α =
√29
3 2
Similarlv, j . V and k . Vvieldcosβ = and cos γ =
√29 √29

EXERCISE 12-5

Write a vector which is parallel to the line represented in each problem 1-4.
By setting x, y, and z, in turn equal to zero, find the points in which the' line cuts
the coordinate planes.

x−6 y +2 z +3 x y−2 z−3

1. = = 2. . = =
2 1 3 −2 1 1

x−3 y z−4 x−2

3. = = 4. . =
3 −1 2 1

y+ 1 z−4
=
2 3

In each problem 5-14 write in two ways the equations of the line which
passes through the given point and is parallel to the given vector.
 243

5. P(4,-3,5); -2i + 3j + 4k. 6. P(0, 1, -2); i - J + 2k.

7. P(1, 1,2); 2i + 3j - k. 8. P(-2,-2,3); 5i + 4j + k.

9. P(2, -1, 1); 2i + j. 10. P(3,3,3); i + k.

11. P(4,3,2);j + 2k. 12. P(0,0,0);i.

13. P(0,0,0);j. 14. P(0,0,0);k.

Write the equations of the line through the two points in each problem 15-22

15. (1,2,3), (-2,4,0). 16. (0,0,0), (3,4,5).

17. (1,0,2), (0,2,1). 18. (2,4,0), (1,2,8).

19. (2,5,4), (2,4,3). 20. (0,4,3), (0,4,4).

21. (-1,3,4), (3,3,4). 22. (0,0,2), (0,0,4)

Find a symmetric form for each pair of equations in problems 23-26.

23. x - y – 2z + 1 = 0, 24. x + y – 2z + 8 = 0,

x – 3y – 3z + 7 = 0. 2x - y - 2z + 4 = 0.

25. x + y + z - 9 = 0 26.x + y - z + 8 = 0

2x + y -zi + 3 = 0. 2x - y + 2z + 6 = 0

27. Find the direction cosines of the lines defined in problems 1-4 of this
exercise. In each case select the positive direction of the line so that y is an acute
angle.

Find the cosine of the acute angle formed by each pair of lines in problems
28-31 .

x−1 y+ 1 z−3 x−1 y+ 1 z−3

28. . = = ,. = =
2 1 2 2 −2 1

x+2 y+ 2 z x−1 y−1 z −4

29. . = = , = =
3 6 2 1 2 −2
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30. x = 3 + t, y = 5 – 8t, z = 2 + 4t;

X = 3 + 4t, y = 5 – 2t, z = 2 – 4t.

31. x = t, y = -2t, z = 3t;

x = 6t, y = 4t, z = -2t.

In each problem 32-34 find the equations of the line which pusses through
the given point and is parallel to each of the given planes.

32. (0,0,0); x -y + z = 4,x + y-2z + 3 = 0.

33. (2,1,3); 2x - 3y + 2z = 5, 3x + 2y – 2z = 7.

34. (-l,5,-5); x – y = 5, y + z + 3
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