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LESSON 1

Objectives:

By the end of this lesson, the students will be able to:

1. understand the importance of studying history of architecture;

2. know the influences on the development of the different ancient architectural
styles;
3. identify and distinguish the four major constructive principles used on the
different ancient architectural styles;
4. be introduced to the elements of classical support and the classical orders;
5. appreciate primitive and prehistoric architecture through understanding the
cultural stages and the types of structures during the prehistoric times;
6. understand the development of Egyptian architecture;
7. distinguish the architectural character of Egyptian architecture; and
8. appreciate Egyptian architecture through its sample structures.

Pre-test 1

Instruction: Write the letter that corresponds to the correct answer before each number.
Strictly no erasures.2 points each.

1. Earliest form of dwelling.

a. dolmen b. rock cave c. temple d. tents &
huts
2. The simplest, earliest & most perfect among the Greek orders.
a. Composite b. Corinthian c. Doric d. Ionic
3. King of Egypt, ruler, highest priest in Egypt.
a. Slave b. Pharaoh c. Vizier d. Chancellor
4. Traditional start of history.
a. writing b. hunting c. metalworking d. planting
5. Egyptian structures had no downspout, drainage, gutters due to.
a. annual flooding b. absence of rain c. cloudless skies d. sand
storms
6. Male figure in kneeling position supporting the world at his shoulders.
a. Atlas b. Caryatid c. Canephorae d.
Telamon
7. Draped female figure carrying a basket on her head.
a. Atlas b. Caryatid c.Canephorae d. Telamon
8. A cylindrical support, usually structural but often decorative.
a.Column b. Baluster c. Pier d. Pilaster
9. Megalithic monument used for astronomical observations, worships &
burials.
a. Menhir b. Dolmen c. Cromlech d.
Stonehenge
10. Most special & important part of an Egyptian temple.
a. Pylon b. Court c. Sanctuary d.Service
chambers
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GENERAL TOPIC

INTRODUCTION

Architecture has always been very close to civilizations and their development, in fact
we can see architecture as a mirror, reflecting civilizations changes, advancements and
hopes throughout history. The same applies to other forms of art and culture, but
architecture, since it is not only a form of art but also catering to fundamental human
needs, can sometimes be a deeper portrait of what happened in a certain place at a
certain time.

By studying history of architecture, we not only study history of civilizations, but, since
architecture is a coherent chain of events, styles, tendencies, beliefs and techniques,
we also gain a direct understanding of how and why architecture is made today, and
clues to how architecture can be tomorrow.

INFLUENCES ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF ARCHITECTURE

a. Geographical

b. Geological

c. Climatic

d. Religious

e. Social & Political

f. Historical

CONSTRUCTIVE PRINCIPLES

1. Post & Lintel/Column & Beam/Columnar & Trabeated - a system in which two
upright members, the posts, hold up a third member, the lintel, laid horizontally
across their top surfaces; most common system.

2. Arch & Vault – fundamental construction system used to span the space
between walls, piers, or other supports and to create a roof or a ceiling.

3. Corbel & Cantilever - a corbel (or console) is a piece of stone jutting out of a wall
to carry any superincumbent weight. A cantilever is a beam supported on only
one end.

4. Trussed construction – use of a structure comprising one or more triangular units

constructed with straight slender members whose ends are connected at joints
referred to as nodes.

ELEMENTS OF CLASSICAL SUPPORT

I. Basic Forms
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 Pier - An upright support, generally square, rectangular, or composite. In

medieval architecture there are massive circular supports called drum
piers.
 Column - A cylindrical support, usually structural but often decorative.
 Pilaster - A true pilaster is a rectangular element of vertical masonry
which projects only slightly from the wall and has both a capital and a
base.
 Pedestal – construction upon which a column, statue or memorial shaft is
elevated.
 Engaged Column - A column which is attached to the wall so that only
half of the form projects from the wall.
 Baluster/Ballustrade – any of a number of closely spaced support for a
railing.

II. Special Forms

 Caryatids – draped female figure without hands &
carrying nothing
 Canephorae – same as caryatids but this time with
basket on her head
 Atlas/Atlantes – male figure in kneeling position
supporting the world at his shoulders
 Telamon/Telamones – male figure in standing
position in place of a column
 Anta Column – pier or pilaster formed by a
thickening at the end of the wall

CLASSICAL ORDERS

Orders – includes the column (capital, shaft, base) with an entablature which is
following a certain rule with regards to systems of designing.

From Greece
1. Doric Order – the simplest, earliest & the most perfect among the orders, made
up of wood.

2. Ionic Order – the most sophisticated, less heavy than the Doric order.

3. Corinthian Order – the slenderest, elegant & the most elaborated order.

From Rome
4. Composite Order – roman elaboration of the Corinthian order.
5. Tuscan Order – the simplified version of the Roman Doric Order & has no shaft
flutes.

Primitive Architecture

Structures:

- A hut or house for shelter,

- a shrine of some sort for worship,

- a stockade for defense,

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- a cairn or mound over the grave of the chief or hero.

Materials: (often of a perishable nature)

- Poles for the framework;

- wattles, skins, or mud for the walls;

- thatching or stamped earth for the roof.

Pre-historic Architecture

Cultural Stages

1. Stone age - a broad prehistoric time period during which humans widely used
stone for toolmaking. It is termed prehistoric since humanity had not yet started
writing—the traditional start of history (i.e., recorded history).

 Paleolithic (Old stone age) – Greek palaios (old) &lithos (stone).

 distinguished by the development of the first stone tools; Paleolithic humans
made tools of stone, bone, and wood
 humans grouped together in small societies such as bands, Human
population density was very low, around only one person per square mile
 The economy of a typical Paleolithic society was a hunter-gatherer economy:
subsisted by gathering plants and hunting or scavenging wild animals.
(Humans hunted wild animals for meat and gathered food, firewood, and
materials for their tools, clothes, or shelters).
 Lower Paleolithic humans constructed shelters such as the possible wood
hut at Terra Amata.
 At the end of the Paleolithic, specifically the Middle and or Upper Paleolithic,
humans began to produce works of art such as cave paintings, rock art and
jewelry and began to engage in religious behavior such as burial and ritual.
 By the end of the Paleolithic era people began to settle down into permanent
locations, and began to rely on agriculture for sustenance in many locations

 Mesolithic (middle stone age) – Greek mesos (middle) &lithos (stone)

 was characterized by rising sea levels and a need to adapt to a changing
environment and find new food sources.
 The development of microlith tools began in response to these changes.
Microlith tools permitted more efficient hunting, while more complex
settlements, such as Lepenski Vir developed based around fishing.
 Domestication of the dog as a hunting companion probably dates to this
period.
 Early housing was circular in plan & was widely distributed throughout south-
west Asia, where the transition to houses with rectangular rooms took place
between 9000-7000BC. In most regions, evolution was from semi-
subterranean drystone huts, to apsidal houses in mud or stone, & finally to
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rectangular houses in tauf (loaf-shaped bricks of mud and straw) or mud

bricks.

 Neolithic (New stone Age) – Greek neos (new) &lithos (stone)

 characterized by the adoption of agriculture, the so-called Neolithic
Revolution, the development of pottery and more complex, larger settlements
such as Çatal Hüyük and Jericho.
 Architectural character in the Neolithic period in the Near East derives from
houses of similar size superimposed one above the other, constructed of
mud, & rebuilt by each generation, the earlier buildings being absorbed into
settlement mounds.
 In the ancient Near East (8000-6000BC) small communities were composed
of single-roomed houses with flat roofs, built of mud or stone, with walls &
floors buttressed & mud-plastered internally & painted in a variety of earth
colours.
 Most villages consisted of contiguous dwellings, with access by way of the
roofs, but some villages had narrow alleys & courtyards.
 During this period, the character of these simple villages changed in 4 ways:
- Through improvement in construction & planning resulted in multi-
roomed, thin-walled houses of mud brick;
- Through the emergence of non-residential buildings for work, storage
& ritual purposes;
- Through more open forms of village layout, including streets; and
- Through the more widespread construction of walls for many
purposes including defense.
 The first large-scale constructions were built, including settlement towers and
walls, e.g., Jericho and ceremonial sites, eg: Stonehenge.
 The Ġgantija temples of Gozo in the Maltese archipelago are the oldest
surviving free standing structures in the world, erected c. 3600-2500 BC.
Skara Brae located on Orkney island off Scotland is one of Europe's best
examples of a Neolithic village. The community contains stone beds, shelves
and even an indoor toilet linked to a stream.
 Around 2 million years ago, Homo habilis is believed to have constructed the
first man-made structure in East Africa, consisting of simple arrangements of
stones to hold branches of trees in position.

2. Bronze Age - period in pre-historic society when the most advanced

metalworking (at least in systematic and widespread use) included smeltingcopper
and tin from naturally-occurring outcroppings of copper and tin ores, creating a
bronzealloy by melting those metals together, and casting them into bronze artifacts.
The Bronze Age also included the domestication of the horse.

3. Iron Age - stage in which tools and weapons whose main ingredient was iron
were prominent. The adoption of this material often coincided with other changes in
society, including differing agricultural practices, religious beliefs and artistic styles.

Types of Architecture during the Pre-historic Period:

I. Dwellings

 Rock Cave – earliest form of dwellings

Stages of evolution of cave:
 Natural cave
 Artificial cave
 Cave above the ground
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 Tents & Huts – made from tree barks, animal skins & plant leaves

EVOLUTION OF HOUSES

A. Beidha – first huts were curvilinear; semi-subterranean & up to 4m (13ft) in

diameter. The dwellings & storerooms were grouped in clusters within walled
courtyards, & the whole village was surrounded by a stone wall.
B. Imiris Gora – houses were round or oval, 3m to 4.5m (10-15ft) in diameter, &
were built of mud brick on stone foundations.
C. Khirokitia –round houses 3-8m (10-26ft) in diameter. The lower parts of the
walls were made of local limestone & the domed superstructure or mud brick.
D. Ain Mallaha – there were about 50 drystone huts on an open site of some
2000 m2 (21,500 ft2), most of them circular, semi-subterranean & rock-lines,
from 3m to 9m (10-30ft) in diameter. The beehive forms were constructed of
reeds or matting & were probably supported on posts.
E. Arpachiyah – dwellings were keyhole-shaped in plan & had walls up to 2m
(7ft) thick, rectangular anterooms were up to 19m (62ftz0 long and the
domed chamber up to 10m (33ft) across; the walls were of plastered tauf,
occasionally painted red & roofs were thatched.
F. Beidha – later, this post-house style was accompanied by free-standing
polygonal houses with rounded corners. These were followed by rectangular
stone houses, & finally by clusters of stone-built houses & workshops. Each
house had one room measuring 7x9m (23x30ft), with floor & walls of white
burnished plaster decorated with a red stripe at floor level. Outside was an L-
shaped, walled courtyard & each had several workshops about 8m (26ft)
long, clustered together.
G. Hacilar – rectangular dwellings were built of mud bricks on stone
foundations; they appear to have been multi-roomed, plastered internally and
painted in cream and red bands. The dwellings were close-packed with
access by way of roofs. Later more substantial rectangular mud-brick houses
10x4m (33x13ft) were built with walls over a meter thick. Some houses had
vestibules flanked by lean-to brushwood and plaster cooking areas.
H. Jarmo – in the Zagros mountains, had a population of about 150 people and
was made up of 20-30 small, rectangular mud houses. Each house had an
open courtyard measuring roughly 3x4m (10x13ft) and comprised several
small rectangular rooms packed into a space about 5x6m (16x20ft).
I. Umm Dabaghiya - domestic architecture was exceptionally neat, houses
were oriented north-south & were close-packed, although each had its own
walls. Each house comprised a living room, kitchen & 1 or 2 further rooms
1.2-2m (4-7st) square, constructed of tauf without stone foundations. Usually
one room was divided by an arch spanning its width, one of the earliest uses
of this form of construction. Houses were decorated internally with plaster &
red paint, & wall-paintings in black, red & yellow showed hunting scenes.
J. Can Hasan – houses were close-packed & square or rectangular in plan.
Later buildings were thick-walled & built of mud brick reinforced with timber.
Here also some houses had lightweight upper storeys.
K. Tell Hassuna – round structures 2.5-6m (8-20ft) across, & rectangular
dwellings 10x2.5m (33x8ft) in plan, larger & more sophisticated buildings in
which passages & courtyards finished with gypsum plaster separated large,
single-storey, multi-roomed houses with flat roofs & interior courtyards.
L. Umm Dabaghiya- at a later stage, storage blocks were built around open U-
shaped courtyards, the buildings were single-storey, with roofs of branches &
reeds covered in plaster & furnished with trapdoors.
M. Hacilar – in its final stages, Hacilar was fortified with a stone wall, which
enclosed an area 70x35m (230x115ft); within it the settlement consisted of
houses, a granary, guard-house, potters’ workshops & shrines. Before it was
abandoned in 4800BC, it was heavily fortified & its central courtyard was
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ringed by blocks of two-storey houses, with roof access and separated from
each other by small fenced yards.
N. Mersin – the fortress of Mersin, was entered by a tiered gateway with
projecting towers. The garrison’s quarters, which surrounded a central open
courtyard, had flat roofs, & comprised rows of barrack-like rooms which
abutted the defensive walls at the rear & had small walled yards to the front.
O. Tal-i-Iblis – houses were built with thick-walled, heavily buttressed
storerooms grouped at the center, & surrounded by larger living rooms with
red plaster floors. One of the houses had an elaborate arch & contained
infant burials.
P. Djetun – houses were built in mud & sun-dried brick tempered with straw.
Houses were rectangular in plan, each with one room about 5x6m (16x20ft).
The walls were coated with mud plaster & were occasionally painted red or
black. Each house had a courtyard & outbuildings, sometimes shared with a
neighbor.
Q. Tell-es Sawwan – houses had stone foundations, uniform in size & were
constructed of moulded mud bricks. Wall & floors were coated in mud plaster
& were externally buttressed to take beams supporting a roof of reeds & clay.
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II. Religious Monuments

 Monolith – single block of isolated upright stone of

considerable size, often in the form of an obelisk or column.

 Cairn/Carn – a heap of stones piled up as a

monument, tombstone or landmark.

 Megalith –a very large stone which has been used

to construct a structure or monument, either alone or together with other
stones. Megalithic means structures made of such large stones, utilizing an
interlocking system without the use of mortar or cement.

1. Menhir – prehistoric monument consisting of an upright

megalith, usually standing alone but sometimes aligned with others;
memorial of victory over one tribe

2. Dolmen – 2 or more large upright stones supporting a horizontal

stone slab; usually regarded as a tomb

3. Cromlech – circular arrangement of megaliths enclosing a

dolmen or burial mound, indicates place of religious rites

4. Stone Row – made up of 3,000 stones spaced upright; could be

single, double or triple/complex line; the principle is that the tallest stones
are located on the western side situated on higher ground than its
eastern counterpart, smaller stones on the eastern side are also at
smaller intervals from each other; entrance with flat topped pillar on 1
side & a pointed one on the other could indicate sexual symbolization;
processional/ religious/ ceremonial purpose; they were never straight.

5. Stonehenge – megalithic monument erected in the early Bronze

age 2700BC on Salisbury Plain, Wiltshire, England, consisting of 4
concentric rings of trilithons & menhirs centered around an altar stone
believed to have been used by a sun cult or for astronomical
observations & seasonal events such as summer & winter solstice,
equinox & lunar eclipses; posts & lintels were made with tongue &
grooves (tenon & mortice); stones were not of uniform length thus the
digging of soil must be accurate so that lintels would be of same exact
height; undergone 4 periods of building & use:

a. Stonehenge I – probably a place of Neolithic astronomical

observations, worship & burials for about 7 centuries
- ditch (2.1m deep, 6m wide) & bank (1.8m high)
- Aubrey holes (56 pits, 1m wide diameter, 4.9m apart, representing
56-day difference between 5 solar years & 5 lunar years,
discovered by John Aubrey in 17th century, re-used for burials or
cremated human bones)
- Pair of stones
- 4 large wooden supported timber lintels to form a triple gateway
- Sarsen Stone/ Heel Stone (tertiary sandstone, 35 tons, allows 250
men to transport & to erect it, later replaced by the present Hell
Stone/Friar’s Heel, 24o angle of inclination

b. Stonehenge II – introduction of a new axis, a more east than previous

one
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- Addition of the Avenue (510m)

- Addition of the Bluestones (1.8m apart, came from Preseli
Mountains, 135 miles from Stonehenge)
- Former pair of stones realigned to mark the direction of the
midsummer
- North & South Barrows with Station Stones (most southerly rising
& most northerly setting of the moon, once every 18.5 years;
rising sun at midsummer & setting sun at midwinter)

c. Stonehenge IIIA – composed of 30 upright stones in uniform height

capped by a horizontal ring of stone lintels
- 30 trilithons
- 5 trilithons or central trilithons also called Sarsen Horseshoe,
accurately arranged

d. Stonehenge IIIB – addition of Y & Z holes (59 holes in all, 59 days in

lunar months)
- Bluestone Horseshoe – 19 bluestones, 19 cycles of the moon,
crucial for the prediction of eclipses

e. Stonehenge IIIC – some bluestones in IIIB were re-used in IIIC, some

were re-shaped, & some were jointed together
- Bluestone circle (60 stones)
- Bluestone Horseshoe (19 stones, the final arrangement of the
bluestones)

f. Stonehenge IV – the avenue was extended from the end of the first
straight stretch built in period II to the river Avon near west Avebury.

III. Burial Mounds

 Tumulus or “Barrow” – earthen mounds used for

burials of several to couple hundred of ordinary persons.

 Passage grave/Chamber grave/Gallery grave –

consists of a roof burial chamber & narrow entrance passage covered by a
tumulus; believed to have been used for successive family or clan burials
spanning a number of generations.
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Egyptian Architecture(500BC-1st century AD)

I. Influences

A. Geographical Influence

Habitable Egypt known as “The Land of Pharaohs” & “Desert Land” is a narrow
strip of land along the Nile River covering a distance of about 770 miles. It is
flanked by rock cliffs & deserts. Located on the northeastern part of Africa,
bounded by the Mediterranean Sea on the north, the Arabian Desert & the Red
Sea on the east, the Libyan Desert on the west & the first cataract on the south.

The Nile Valley has been the site of one of the most influential civilizations which
developed a vast array of diverse structures encompassing ancient Egyptian
architecture. The narrow valley of the Nile, fertilized by the periodic overflow of
the river, was flanked by rocky heights, nearly vertical in many places, which
afforded abundance of excellent building stone, while they both isolated the
Egyptians and protected them from foreign aggression. The Nile River is their
means of communication, highway & lifeline. Egypt’s greatest wealth was its
fertile soil.

B. Geological Influence

The alluvial soil formed by the rich deposits of silt in the Nile area makes the
country fertile and suitable to agriculture. The alluvial soil was also used for
making bricks, burned & unburned. The following are the materials used for
construction:
Stone – abundant building material, had powerful influence upon Egypt’s
architectural expression
Soft stone – limestone, sandstone, alabaster
Hard stone – granite, quartzite, basalt, porphyry
Sand dried/sun baked mud bricks – made up of clay & chopped stone for
pyramids & temples
Wood – scarce & if ever used, was confined to light construction, acacia,
palm & sycamore were used for this purpose
Date Palm & Palm leaves – for roofing & roofing material
Acacia – for their boat
Sycamore – mummy cases
Papyrus & Lotus stems – used for hut-making & the flowers for decoration

C. Climate Influence

Cloudless skies, powerful sunshine & warm dry desert air characterize Egypt &
account for conditions that are monotonously uniform. The annual flooding of the
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Nile River (from July to November) makes the country suitable to vegetation.
Structures have no downspout, drainage, gutters due to absence of rain. No
windows to cut heat penetration & sandstorm.

D. Religious Influence

Egyptian religion was ‘monotheistic’ in theory & ‘polytheistic’ in practice. Usually

temples were erected & dedicated to a single god, but in some temples several
gods & deities were worshipped. Animals were worshipped as symbols of the
deities. The cat, dog, hawk, bull, ram, crocodile, ibis & other fauna in mummified
state are found in the tombs. The Egyptians had the conception of the duality of
man, the spiritual & the physical.

Pyramids were built because they believe in “Life after Death” & for the
preservation of the dead’s body. Pharaoh is not only king but also “god” both
political & religious ruler, when he dies, he becomes “osiris” – god of the dead.
Magnificent tombs & temples were erected in honor of their kings. The tombs
were equipped with those things to which the deceased were accustomed in life
– food, arms, furniture, etc. Priests were considered as the divine
representatives of the Almighty. Worship at the great shrines, however, was
reserved for the enlightened few. Worship was not congregational.

Different Egyptian Gods & Goddesses:

a. Amun-Ra - chief God

b. Rah - symbol of the sun, hope for eternal life, sun god
from Heliopolis

c. Atum - world creator

d. Osiris - god of the dead

e. Isis - wife of osiris

f. Horus - sky god, son of osiris, also incarnation of

“Ra” himself

g. Set - dread god of evil, brother of osiris

h. Hathor - cow goddess of music & pleasure

i. Thot - ibis headed god of wisdom/ god of letters

j. Anubis - jackal headed god of death/ god of

embalmment

k. Ptah - god of craftsmen, artisan, artist & architect

l. Serapis - bull god
m. Osiris, Isis & Horus - constituted the holy trinity

E. Historical Influence

30 dynasties – started from 3rd millennium BC to Roman Period. Egypt was part
of Persian Empire for 2 centuries before the invasion of “Alexander the Great”
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1. Ancient Kingdom (1st -10th Dynasty) – with Memphis as the capital, during
this period different great works were almost exclusively sepulchral;
development of 2 types of tomb: Mastaba & Pyramid

2. Middle Kingdom (11th – 17th Dynasty) – with Thebes as the capital, the
monuments of this period were tombs & temples; types of tombs include the
structural & pyramidal found at Abydos (venerated burial grounds of Egypt)
built of bricks & the tombs cut in the vertical cliffs of the east bank of the Nile
Valley; important personalities:
a. Mentuhetep II – developed 3rd type of tomb “Rock-cut Tomb”
b. Senusrets – erected the earliest known “Obelisk” @ Heliopolis
c. Amenemhat I –founded “Great Temple of Amun” @ Karnak

3. Hyksos Invasion (13th -17th Dynasty) – interrupted the current of Egyptian

art history, during this period, no buildings of importance were erected due to
widespread disturbances.

4. New Empire (18th to 20th Dynasty) – capital was still Thebes, age of
conquests & erected vast edifices; impressive & stupendous creation of
Egypt belong to this period, & it was in these that the characteristic elements
of Egyptian architecture were brought to perfection & carried out on grand
scale; important personalities:
a. Thotmes I – began the additions to the Temple of Amun, Karnak
b. Hatshepsut – queen of Egypt, famous for her funerary temple @ Mt. Der-
El Bahari
c. Thotmes IV – known as the one responsible for the cleaning away of
sand from the famous “Sphinx”
d. Amenophis III – erected the reknowned “Colossi of Memnon”, one of the
wonders of the world
e. Rameses I – began the construction of the “Great Hypostyle Hall” @
Karnak
f. Rameses II – finished the construction of the “Hypostyle Hall” & also
erection of the “Rock Temple @ Abu-simbel” & the “Ramesseum”,
Thebes.

5. Decadence & Saitic Periods (20th to 26th Dynasty) – capital was Sais, no
buildings of importance were built during this period.

6. Ptolemaic Period (27th to 30th Dynasty) – the temples erected were

characterized by rich elaboration of architectural details; capital was
Alexandria; important personalities:
a. Ptolemy II – built the Pharaohs or the “Light House”, one of the wonders
of the world.
b. Ptolemy III – founded the “Great Serapeum” @ Alexandria.

7. Roman Period – end of Egyptian national power, Egypt became a

Roman province

F. Social & Political Influence

Egyptian life centered around religion. Large control of the country’s wealth was
under the hands of the clergy. The spoils of war were given to the temples.
Monarchy – form of government
Pharaoh – King of Egypt, ruler, highest priest in Egypt
Son of Pharaoh – normal successor to the throne
Vizier – King’s most powerful officer
Chancellor – controls the royal treasuries, granaries & supervises the census
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Chief Steward – in charge of the King’s personal estate & household

Social Ranks:
1. Noble Families – royal throne with his family
2. Soldiers, Viziers, Chancellors, Chief Steward
3. Fishermen, farmers, craftsmen, merchants – ordinary Egyptians
4. Slaves – lowest form; together with enforced laborers from foreign
lands, became available for construction of public works

II. Architectural Character

 Simplicity

 Monumentality

 Solidity

 Systems of Construction
 Post & Lintel

 Columnar or Trabeated

 Principal Materials
 Stone – used for tombs & temples

 Brick – used for houses even for royal palaces, fortresses, the walls of
temple precincts and towns, and for subsidiary buildings in temple
complexes

 Principal Structures
 Tombs
 Temples

 Obelisks

 Sphinx

 Features
 Battered wall – inclination from base to top of the façade

 Hieroglyphics – pictures & writings from the walls inscribed for decorative
purposes as well as to record historic events or spells

 Bas-relief – sculptural relief that projects very slightly from the background;
also called basso-relievo, low relief

 Comparative Analysis
 Plan – asymmetrical, complex; buildings are planned along a central axis;
courts & halls were designed to produce an impressive internal effect;
“Hypostyle hall” is the grandest achievement of Egyptian axial planning

 Walls – generally thick, made of stones laid without mortar; characteristic

“batter wall”
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 Openings – no windows; colonnades & doorways were spanned by massive

timber lintels usually square-headed

 Roof – flat, made of massive flat stones, columns closely packed to support
roof
 Columns – concealed inside the external walls, others never functioned
structurally, used as decorations elaborated with painting & low relief carving;
made of stones; spacing was determined by the length of the lintel; Types:

a. Polygonal Column - has eight (octagonal) or sixteen

(hexdecagonal) sides

b. Palm Type Capital & Palmiform Column - do not actually

represent palm trees, but rather eight palm fronds tied to a central pole
c. Lotiform Column – has ribbed shafts representing the stems of
the Lotus, & capitals in the form of a closed (bud) or open lotus flower
d. Volute Capital - are the double curls in the form of spirals on
either side of the capital.
e. Papyrus Capital & Papyriform Column - can have either circular
or ribbed shafts, representing single- or multi-stem papyrus plants. It can
be open or close; Bud & Bell Capital
f. Coniform Column – characterized by a fluted shaft surmounted
by a capital representing the branches of a conifer tree
g. Tentpole Column - used to support structures such as military
tents, shrines and so on.
h. Campaniform Column – sometimes took the shape of a floral
column or pillar, some had circular, ribbed or square shafts (pillars), they
all had some form of flower shaped capital
i. Composite Column – an evolutionary extension of the
campaniform columns with capital decorations including floral designs of
any number of real, or even imagined plants; variation could be endless
& they became so utterly stylized that the original floral motifs could
hardly be recognized.
j. Hathor-headed Capital & Hathoric Column – shows osiris
carvings of the head of Goddess Hathor often had a simple, round shaft
 15

k.
Osiris/Osiride Pillar –
take the form of a
statue of the
whole body of god
osiris,
distinguished by
crossed arms.
l. Square
Pillar - does not
exceed 6 times
the diameter

 Mouldings
a. Torus/Roll – semi-circular, convex moulding that covers angles/sharp
angles of walls
b. Gorge/Hollow – found at the upper portion of wall, usually combined with
a wall; consisting of a large cavetto decorated with vertical leaves & a roll
moulding below
 Ornament – most important element, always symbolical
a. Solar disks & vulture with outspread wings – symbol of protection
b. Spiral & feather ornament
 Rope & Feather – called Vitruvian Scroll (symbol of eternity)
 Continuous Coil Spiral
 Quadruple Spiral
c. Scarab/ Sacred Beetle – symbol of resurrection
d. Papyrus, Lotus &
Palm – symbol of
fertility
 16

III. Examples of Egyptian Structures

I. Tombs: (3 types)

a. Mastaba – tomb made of mud brick, rectangular in plan with a flat & sloping
sides, from which a shaft lead to underground burial & offering chambers.
 used by pharaohs & royalty
 usually with 3 important elements:
1. Offering Chapel (Stele) / Outer Chamber – an upright stone slab or
pillar (sometimes wood) with a carved or inscribed surface used as a
monument, marker or as a commemorative tablet in the face of a
tomb or temple
2. Serdab/Statue Chamber – inner
chamber containing the statues of
dead pharaoh & member of his family
3. Sarcophagus – chamber containing
the gold/guilded coffin of the pharaoh
reached by an underground shaft.
Ex: Mastaba of Thi (Royal architect in Egypt)

b. Pyramid – evolved from mastaba; massive

masonry structure having a square base & 4
smooth, steeply sloping sides & meeting at an
apex,
 used to contain the burial chamber & the
mummy of the pharaoh & royalty
 four sides face the cardinal points due to
their belief in the power of the sun (belief
that it attracts energy)
 entrances normally were from the north
side
 accompanied by tomb of pharaohs,
servants (who volunteered to be buried
alive with the pharaohs), treasure house
(swords, clothes of pharaohs) & sphinx
(guard the pyramid)
 17

 built by 100,000 men for 20 years.

 usually part of a complex of building within a walled enclosure:
1. Offering Chapel
2. Mortuary temple – for the worship of the dead
3. valley building or temple – (on the Nile) where purification rites,
embalmment & mummification were performed
4. elevated causeway or platform – connects the valley building to the
pyramid

 Types:
1. Step Pyramid – ex: Pyramid of King Zoser or Iser
– built by Imhotep, world’s first large-scale monument in stone; this
pyramid shows no less than 5 changes in the course of building; 60m
high
2. Bent / Blunt Pyramid – ex. Pyramid of Seneferu;2
degrees of inclination of slope 54.15o in the lower part & 43o in the
upper part; 102m high, 187m in square plan; has 2 entirely
independent tomb chambers, reached one from the north & one from
the west side
3. Slope Pyramid– ex. 3 famous Pyramids of Gizeh
a. Pyramid of the Cheops/Khufu (The Great
Pyramid)– 146.4 m high & 230.6 sq. m. in plan, more than twice
the area of the famous “St. Peter’s Basilica in Rome”; angle of
inclination is 51o52minutes built solidly of local stone, the pyramid
originally was cased in finely dressed Tura limestone blocks
weighing approx. 2500kg (2.5 tons) which are bedded in a thin
lime-mortar, used as a lubricant during fixing rather than adhesive
& are laid with amazingly fine joints; Elements:
 Ascending Passage – located approximately 1/3 of the way
down the Descending Passage, the similarly sized & angled
passage climbs 44.50m through the core masonry
 Descending Passage – 4-foot square, perfectly straight &
almost featureless passage plunges through the core of the
pyramid & into the bedrock, at an angle of about 26.5o
 Subterranean Chamber – the ceiling & walls of this chamber
appear to be finished, but the floor is a complex jumble of
highs & lows; with a horizontal entrance passage that passes
through an approx. 6-foot square ante-room & with a much
smaller horizontal passage that extends over 50ft beyond the
chamber
 Queen’s Chamber – almost square with a gabled roof, this
features a large “niche” in its east wall, it also features small
air shafts which do not penetrate to the exterior
 Grand Gallery – 46.6m long, 2.1m wide, 8.5m high passage
covered by a ramped, corbelled vault the continues upward at
the same 26.5o angle as the Ascending Passage into the very
heart of the pyramid
 King’s Chamber – 10.5m long, 5.2m wide & 5.8m high lined
with granite contains the coffer (block of red Aswan granite,
hollowed out on the inner sides) with small air shafts
penetrating to the exterior of the structure; indicates it was
constructed entirely separate from the pyramid’s core, & that it
can move independently presumably to avoid being crushed
or damaged by subsidence or earth tremors
 Relieving Chambers – located above the King’s chamber,
appear to have been designed to protect the main chamber
from the weight of the masonry above
 18

 Air Shafts – extends from the north & south walls (Queen’s &
King’s Chamber) may have been for ventilation or to allow the
free passage of the Ka or spirit of the dead king
b. Pyramid of Chepren or Khafra – 143 m high & 708
sq. ft in plan; has steeper slope (52 o20minutes); the remaining
buildings of the complex are better preserved than in other cases
c. Pyramid of Mykerinos or Menkaura – 66.5m high &
109 sq. m. in plan with sides sloping at 51o

c. Rock-cut or Rock-hewn tombs – cut deep into the mountain rock, used
by the nobility; ex. Tombs of the Kings (The Valley of the Kings), Thebes –
contain 63 tombs & chambers (ranging in size from a simple pit to a complex
tomb with over 120 chambers) & was the principal burial place of the major
royal figures of the Egyptian New Kingdom, together with those of a number
of privileged nobles; royal tombs are decorated with scenes from Egyptian
mythology & give clues to the beliefs & funerary rituals of the period

II. Temples

o Only high priests can enter, ordinary people had no access to the
inner regions of the temples which could only be entered after elaborate
purification rituals
o Temple buildings in the New Kingdom were made of stone; their walls
covered with colored scenes carved onto the stone, showing the Pharaoh
fighting in battles and performing rituals with the gods
o Activities of the temple revolved around the worship & celebration of
the god’s cult & religious festivals
o Temples owned land, livestock & received donations & taxes, in order
to support the large armies of priests & servants

o Classes:
a. Mortuary – built for the worship of the pharaohs; developed
from the offering chapels of the royal mastabas & pyramids, assuming
early permanence & ever greater importance
b. Cult – built for the worship of the Gods, used as a place of
offering of pharaoh to the God

o Components of Egyptian Temples:

1. Entrance Pylons – massive sloping towers fronted
by an obelisk, statues of Pharaohs & avenue of Sphinx, monumental
gateways to an ancient Egyptian temple, consisting either of a pair of tall,
truncated pyramids & a doorway between them or of one such masonry
mass pierced with a doorway; often carved and painted with scenes of
the Pharaoh, Gods& Goddesses emphasizing a king's authority since it
was the public face of a cult building.
 Avenue of Sphinx – where mystical monsters were placed
2. Hypaethral Court – large court open to the sky, with decorated walls
showing scenes of the Pharaoh and the gods, had a transitional purpose,
serving as an interface between the outside world and the sanctified
regions deeper within the temple. People were only allowed to enter the
Outer Courtyard on festival days. similar to Roman atrium
3. Hypostyle Hall – a pillared hall entirely roofed except for the central aisle
which was lit by windows; considered the reception area of the god and
where only the priests and the Pharaohs were allowed to enter; was used
for religious rituals; scenes of religious rituals were carved into the walls
 19

4. Sanctuary – most special and important part of the temple; It was a very
dark and relatively small room; only the High Priest & the Pharaoh could
ever enter; In the middle stood the shrine with the statue of the god; The
floor sloped steadily upwards until the sanctum was reached, while the
roof was lower, usually surrounded by passages & chambers used in
connection with the temple service.
 Service Chambers
5. Sacred Lakes/Pools - priests used water from the sacred lake to perform
rituals in the temple. These pools allowed both the priests and followers
to attend and perform their religious rites in a state of purity.

o Examples of Temples:
1. Great Temple of Abu Simbel – most stupendous &
impressive of all rock-cut temples; pylon is 36m wide & 32m high with 4
seated colossal statues of Rameses II (20m high); the hall beyond, 9m
high, has 8 Osiris pillars & vividly colored reliefs; the central hall is the
sanctuary & containing 4 statues of gods & a support for a sacred boat
2. Small Temple, Abu Simbel – built by Ramese II, close to the
Great Temple, dedicated to his wife Queen Nefertari & the Goddess
Hathor; façade is 27.4m wide & 12.2m high; comprises with 6 niches
recessed in the face of the rock containing 6 colossal statues, 10m high
3. Funerary Temple of Mentuhetep, Der-El-Bahari, Thebes –
double-terraced at the base of steep cliffs with a small, completely solid
pyramid that stood on the upper terrace
4. Mortuary Temple of Queen Hatshepsut, Der-el-Bahari - 3
terraced court with ramps leading up to the chief sanctuary & the burial
place in a corridor tomb hollowed into the cliff; limestone columns flank
the great court & support the ceilings of the halls each have 16 flutes;
resemble the Greek Doric style & are comparable to the Greek in the
refinement of proportions
5. Great Temple of Amun, Karnak – largest & grandest of all
Egyptian temples, was not built upon one complete plan but to the work
of many kings; was commenced by Amenemhat 1; occupying an area of
21 hectares; erected over a period of 1,200 years; its Great Hypostyle
Hall has 134 columns (world’s largest columnar structure); capitals were
of papyrus flowers & bud capitals; the central columns rise above the
sides to form the clerestory window grills in the walls to illuminate the
nave
6. Temple of Luxor, Thebes – dedicate to the Theban triad,
Amun, Mut & Khons;
7. Temple of Elephantine – one of the small so-called Mammisi
temples or birth houses which often stood in the outer enclosures of large
temples
8. Temple of Seti I, Abydos – has 2 pylons, 2 forecourts & 2
hypostyle halls & is unique in having 7 sanctuaries side by side; the
reliefs on the walls of close-grained limestone are among the finest in
Egypt
9. Temple of Isis, Philae – column capitals are coarser & more
ornate, varied in design from column to column & have very deep abacus
blocks
10. Temple of Horus, Edfu – mainly processional cult temple;
built in 3 stages (temple proper, outer hypostyle hall & perimeter wall &
pylons; all inner rooms were completely dark & windowless;
11. Temple of Ramesseum, Thebes
 20

12. Temple of Mammisi, Edfu – standing in the outer enclosure

of the Temple of Horus, is typical of all externally colonnaded birth-
houses
13. Temple of Hathor, Dendera – most imposing standing in a
brick-walled temenos 290m by 280m; closely resembles that at Edfu
except in lacking pylons; stairs lead to the roof where ceremonies took
place
14. Temple of Khons, Karnak, built by Rameses III

III. Obelisks – monumental pillars usually in pairs at the temple entrances.

o Huge monoliths, square in plan topped by pyramidal
summit, which was the sacred part
o 4 sides are cut with hieroglyphics
o Many obelisks were removed from Egypt by the
Roman emperors
o Approximate height is 9-10 times the diameter of the
base
o Considered the symbol of “Heliopolis” or the sun god
o Ex. Obelisk in the Piazza of St. John Laterano – monolith of red granite from
Aswan; was brought to Rome from the Temple of Amun at Karnak where
it was originally erected by Thothmes III & is the largest known, 32m high
(without the added pedestal), 2.7m square at the base & 1.9m at the top
& weight about 230 tons
Cleopatra’s Needle, Embankment London – originally at Heliopolis, was
brought to England from Alexandria in 1878; bears inscriptions of
Thothmes III & Rameses II; 20.9m high, 2.4m x 2.3m at the base &
weighs 180 tons

IV. Sphinx – mystical monster with a body of a lion & head of a man or
“androsphinx”, head of a hawk or “heirosphinx”, & head of a ram or “criosphinx”
o Ex. Great Shpinx at Gizeh near the Pyramid of the
Cheops – resemble the God Horus (God of Rising Sun) 73.2m long length,
20m high; the face being 4.1m across

V. Dwellings – ordinary dwellings were 1-2 storeys high made of crude brick
with flat & arched ceilings & a parapeted roof partly occupied by a loggia
o Rooms looked towards a north-facing court; most
workers’ establishment constituted a considerable village, laid out on rigidly
formal lines
o Though in towns even the better houses were on
constricted plots & therefore might be 3-4 storeys high
o Where space allowed, mansions stood in their own
grounds, laid out formally with groves, gardens, pools & minor structures
surrounding the rectangular, crude-brick dwelling, this having its door &
window openings dressed around in stone
o Columns & beams, doors & window frames were
made from precious timber, typically with a central hall/living room, raised
sufficiently high with the help of columns to allow clerestory light on one or
more sides, for first floors were only partial
o Regularly, there were 3 fundamental parts: a reception
suite, on the cooler, north side of the house; service & private quarters
o Archaic palaces were faced with overlapping vertical
timbers, giving the so-called “palace façade” effect which left its decorative
impress upon funerary stone architecture for some time
 21

o Stone was used only sparingly, for column-bases,

door-sills & the flooring for baths; Mud brick was the material used for walls
with wood for columns & roofing beams

VI. Fortresses – most of the fortresses were on the west bank of the Nile or on
the islands, there were close communication between one fortress and the next
o Ex. Fortress of Buhen – the main wall stood 4.8m thick
& 11m high, reinforced along its exterior by projecting rectangular towers; at
wider intervals along the revetment of the paved rampart beneath the main
wall there were semicircular bastions, having triple loopholes with single
embrasures through which archers could cover the ditch below them by
cross-fire; the ditch was dry, with a scarp & about 9mwide by 7m deep

 Architects

o Mentuhetep II – developed the rock-cut temple

o Senusrets – built the obelisk @ Heliopolis
o Amenemhat I – founded the temple @ Karnak
o Thotmes I – began additions to the temple of Ammon,
Karnak
o Hatshepsut – built the funerary temples @ Der-el-
Bahari
o Amenophis III – erected the Colossi @ Memnon
o Rameses I – builder of the Hypostyle Hall, Karnak
o Seti I – built the temple in Abydos
o Rameses II – builder of the Temple of Abu Simbel
o Ptolemy II – built the Pharos of Lighthouse
o Ptolemy III – built Great Serapeum, Alexandria