CSTC COLLEGE OF SCIENCES TECHNOLOGY AND COMMUNICATION, INC.

CSTC College Bldg. Gen. Luna St. Maharlika Hi-way, Pob. 3, Arellano Sub. Sariaya Province of Quezon R4A
Registrar’s Office: 042 3290850 / 042 7192818
CSTC IT Center: 042 7192805
Atimonan Contact Number: 042 7171420

SCHOOL OF TEACHER EDUCATION

Instructional Module in Organic Chemistry

Preliminaries
I. Module Number 3
II. Module Title Introduction to Atomic Theory
III. Brief Introduction The atomic theory is the foundation upon which modern chemistry has
been built. An understanding of atomic structure and the ways in which atoms
interact is central to the understanding of chemistry. In this module, we will have
first look at the atomic theory.
IV. Module Outcomes In this module, you will be acquainted to atomic theory by John Dalton, the
subatomic particles, ions and isotopes and the quantum mechanical model.

Lesson Number 1
Lesson Title •The Atomic Theory of Matter
•The Subatomic Particles
•Ions and Isotopes
•The Quantum Mechanical Model
Brief Introduction of Credit for the first atomic theory is usually given to the ancient Greeks, but
the Lesson the concept may have had its origin in even earlier civilizations. The Atomic
Theory of Leucippus and Democritus held that the contributed subdivision of
matter would ultimately yield atoms, which could not be further divided.
Lesson Objectives At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:
1. Recognized the importance of John Dalton’s atomic theory.
2. Compare the fundamental laws established by Dalton and other
scientists to support the atomic theory.
3. Differentiate between mass number and atomic number, and between
ions and isotopes.
Lesson Proper
I. Getting Started

Given the picture below, the students will label the subatomic particles of an atom
Guide questions:
1. What are the three subatomic particles of an atom?
2. How will you differentiate the three subatomic particles?

II. Introduction/Discussion of Content (Including processing of content & suggested activities)

The Atomic Theory of Matter

In 1803, John Dalton (1766- 1844) proposed a theory of matter. He is regarded as the father of
chemical theory in recognition of the importance of his atomic theory to the development of chemical
knowledge.

Dalton’s Atomic Theory

1. All matter is composed of tiny individuals called atoms.
2. All atoms of a particular element are identical, but the atoms of one element differ from the atoms
of any particular any other element. Each element has unique atoms.
3. Atoms of different elements combine with each other in certain whole- number proportions to form
compounds.
 CSTC COLLEGE OF SCIENCES TECHNOLOGY AND COMMUNICATION, INC.
CSTC College Bldg. Gen. Luna St. Maharlika Hi-way, Pob. 3, Arellano Sub. Sariaya Province of Quezon R4A
Registrar’s Office: 042 3290850 / 042 7192818
CSTC IT Center: 042 7192805
Atimonan Contact Number: 042 7171420

4. In any chemical reaction, atoms are rearranged to form new compounds; they are not created,
destroyed, nor changed into atoms of any other element.
Laws that Support the Atomic Theory
1. Law of Conservation of Mass- states that in a chemical reaction, matter is neither created nor
destroyed, or more accurately, there is no detectable change in mass during an ordinary chemical
reaction. This implies that the total mass of the products must equal to the total mass of the
reactants. Example. Decomposition of mercury (II) oxide into mercury and oxygen. Ten grams of
mercury (II) oxide decomposes into 9.26 g of mercury and 0.74 g of oxygen
2. Laws of Definite Proportions-states that different samples of any pure compound contain the same
elements in the same proportion by mass. Joseph Proust (1754- 1826) established the second law.
Example. A 100 g of the compound cupric oxide (CuO) always has the same composition as a kilo
of this sample or any other weight. It contains the two elements in same proportion by mass,
namely 79.89 part of copper (II) to 20.11 parts of oxygen.
3. Law of Multiple Proportions- states that the mass of one element that can combine with a fixed
mass of another element are in ratio of small whole number. Example. In ferrous chloride (FeCl2),
56 atomic mass unit (amu) of iron is combined with 72 amu of chlorine, while in ferric chloride
(FeCl3), 56 amu of iron is combined with 105 amu of chlorine. Therefore, with the fixed mass of
iron, chlorine has a ratio of 2:3.

Discovering the Structure of Atom

All matter is composed of the same building blocks called atoms.
There are two main components of an atom. The nucleus contains
positively charged protons (p+) (discovered by Eugen Goldstein) and
uncharged neutrons (n0) (discovered by James Chadwick). Most of
the mass of the atom is contained in the nucleus. The electron cloud is
composed of negatively charged electrons (e-) (discovered by Joseph
John Thomson). The electron cloud comprises most of the volume of
the atom.
The charge on a proton is equal in magnitude but opposite in sign to the charge on an electron. In a
neutral atom, the number of protons in the nucleus equals the number of electrons. This quantity, called
the atomic number (Z) , is unique to a particular element.
For example, every neutral carbon atom has an atomic number of six, meaning it has six protons in
its nucleus and six electrons surrounding the nucleus. In addition to neutral atoms, we will encounter
charged ions.
• A cation is positively charged and has fewer electrons than protons.
• An anion is negatively charged and has more electrons than protons.
The number of neutrons in the nucleus of a particular element can vary. Isotopes are two atoms of the
same element having a different number of neutrons. The mass number (A) of an atom is the total
number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus. Isotopes have different mass numbers. The atomic
weight of a particular element is the weighted average of the mass of all its isotopes, reported in atomic
mass units (amu).
Isotopes of carbon and hydrogen are sometimes used in organic chemistry. The most common isotope
of hydrogen has one proton and no neutrons in the nucleus, but 0.02% of hydrogen atoms have one
proton and one neutron. This isotope of hydrogen is called deuterium and is sometimes symbolized by the
letter D.
Each atom is identified by a one- or two-letter abbreviation that is the characteristic symbol for that
element. Carbon is identified by the single letter C. Sometimes the atomic number is indicated as a
subscript to the left of the element symbol, and the mass number is indicated as a superscript. Using this
convention, the most common isotope of carbon, which contains six protons and six neutrons, is
designated as
 CSTC COLLEGE OF SCIENCES TECHNOLOGY AND COMMUNICATION, INC.
CSTC College Bldg. Gen. Luna St. Maharlika Hi-way, Pob. 3, Arellano Sub. Sariaya Province of Quezon R4A
Registrar’s Office: 042 3290850 / 042 7192818
CSTC IT Center: 042 7192805
Atimonan Contact Number: 042 7171420

Subatomic Particles of Some Elements

Name of Atomic Atomic mass Number of Number of Number of
Element Number electrons protons neutrons
Lithium 3 7 3 3 4
Gold 79 197 79 79 118
Neon 10 20 10 10 10

Naturally Occurring Isotopes of Some Elements

Name Atomic No. Protons Electrons Neutrons Mass No. % Natural
Abundance
Lithium- 6 3 3 3 3 6 7.5
Lithium- 7 3 3 3 4 7 92.5
Carbon- 12 6 6 6 6 12 98.90
Carbon- 13 6 6 6 7 13 1.10
Carbon- 14 6 6 6 8 14 *

Figure 1.1 contains a truncated periodic table, indicating the handful of elements that are routinely seen in
this text. Most elements in organic compounds are located in the first and second rows of the periodic
table.

Carbon’s entry in the periodic table.

Across each row of the periodic table, electrons are added to a particular shell of orbitals around
the nucleus. The shells are numbered 1, 2, 3, and so on. Adding electrons to the first shell forms the first
row. Adding electrons to the second shell forms the second row. Electrons are first added to the shells
closest to the nucleus.

Each shell contains a certain number of

orbitals. An orbital is a region of space that is high
in electron density. There are four different kinds of
orbitals, called s, p, d, and f.
The first shell has only one orbital, an s orbital. The
second shell has two kinds of orbitals, s and p, and
so on. Each type of orbital has a particular shape.
For the first- and second-row elements, we must
consider only s orbitals and p orbitals.
An s orbital has a sphere of electron density. It is lower in energy than other orbitals of the same
shell, because electrons are kept closer to the positively charged nucleus.
A p orbital has a dumbbell shape. It contains a node of electron density at the nucleus. A node means
there is no electron density in this region. A p orbital is higher in energy than an s orbital (in the same shell)
because its electron density is farther away from the nucleus.
Across each row of the periodic table, electrons are added to a particular shell of orbitals around the
nucleus. The shells are numbered 1, 2, 3, and so on. Adding electrons to the first shell forms the first row.
Adding electrons to the second shell forms the second row. Electrons are first added to the shells closest
to the nucleus.
Each shell contains a certain number of orbitals. An orbital is a region of space that is high in
electron density. There are four different kinds of orbitals, called s, p, d, and f.
 CSTC COLLEGE OF SCIENCES TECHNOLOGY AND COMMUNICATION, INC.
CSTC College Bldg. Gen. Luna St. Maharlika Hi-way, Pob. 3, Arellano Sub. Sariaya Province of Quezon R4A
Registrar’s Office: 042 3290850 / 042 7192818
CSTC IT Center: 042 7192805
Atimonan Contact Number: 042 7171420

The first shell has only one orbital, an s orbital. The second shell has two kinds of orbitals, s and p, and so
on. Each type of orbital has a particular shape.
For the first- and second-row elements, we must consider only s orbitals and p orbitals.
An s orbital has a sphere of electron density. It is lower in energy than other orbitals of the same shell,
because electrons are kept closer to the positively charged nucleus. A p orbital has a dumbbell shape. It
contains a node of electron density at the nucleus. A node means there is no electron density in this
region. A p orbital is higher in energy than an s orbital (in the same shell) because its electron density is
farther away from the nucleus. An s orbital is filled with electrons before a p orbital in the same shell.

The First Row

The first row of the periodic table is formed by adding electrons to the first shell of orbitals around
the nucleus. There is only one orbital in the first shell, called the 1s orbital.
Each orbital can have a maximum of two electrons. As a result, there are two
elements in the first row, one having one electron added to the 1s orbital, and one having
two. The element hydrogen (H) has what is called a 1s1 configuration with one electron in
the 1s orbital, and helium (He) has a 1s2 configuration with two electrons in the 1s orbital.

The Second Row

Every element in the second row has a filled first shell of electrons. Thus, all second-row elements have a
1s2 configuration. Each element in the second row of the periodic table also has four orbitals available to
accept additional electrons: one 2s orbital, the s orbital in the second shell three 2p orbitals, all dumbbell-
shaped and perpendicular to each other along the x, y, and z axes.

Because each of the four orbitals in the second shell can hold two electrons, there is a maximum
capacity of eight electrons for elements in the second row. The second row of the periodic table consists of
eight elements, obtained by adding electrons to the 2s and three 2p orbitals.

The outermost electrons are called valence electrons. The valence electrons are more loosely
held than the electrons closer to the nucleus, and as such, they participate in chemical reactions. The
group number of a second-row element reveals its number of valence electrons. For example, carbon in
group 4A has four valence electrons, and oxygen in group 6A has six.

The Maximum Number of Electrons Allowed per Principal Energy Level

Principal Energy Level, n Maximum No. of Electrons Allowed per Energy Level= 2n 2
1 2 x (1)2 = 2
2 2 x (2)2 = 8
3 2 x (3)2 = 18
4 2 x (4)2 = 32
5 2 x (5)2 = 50
6 2 x (6)2 = 72

Electron Configuration of Atoms

The electron configuration of an atom is a description of the orbitals its electrons occupy. Every atom has
an infinite number of possible electron configurations. At this stage, we are concerned primarily with the
ground-state electron configuration— the electron configuration of lowest energy. We determine the
ground-state electron configuration of an atom by using the following three rules.
 CSTC COLLEGE OF SCIENCES TECHNOLOGY AND COMMUNICATION, INC.
CSTC College Bldg. Gen. Luna St. Maharlika Hi-way, Pob. 3, Arellano Sub. Sariaya Province of Quezon R4A
Registrar’s Office: 042 3290850 / 042 7192818
CSTC IT Center: 042 7192805
Atimonan Contact Number: 042 7171420

A mnemonic device for determining the

order in which sublevel fil

Rule 1: The Aufbau (“Build-Up”) Principle. According to the Aufbau principle, orbitals fill in order of
increasing energy, from lowest to highest. In this course, we are concerned primarily with the elements of
the first, second, and third periods of the Periodic Table. Orbitals fill in the order 1s, 2s, 2p, 3s, 3p, and so
on.
Rule 2: The Pauli Exclusion Principle. The Pauli exclusion principle
requires that only two electrons can occupy an orbital and that their
spins must be paired. To understand what it means to have paired spins,
recall from general chemistry that just as the Earth has a spin, electrons
have a quantum mechanical property referred to as spin. And just as the
Earth has magnetic north (N) and south (S) poles, so do electrons. As
described by quantum mechanics, a given electron can exist in only two
different spin states. Two electrons with opposite spins are said to have
paired spins.

When filling orbitals with electrons, place no more than two in an orbital.
For example, with four electrons, the 1s and 2s orbitals are filled and are
written 1s2 2s2. With an additional six electrons, the set of three 2p orbitals is filled and is written 2p x2 2py2
2pz2. Alternatively, a filled set of three 2p orbitals may be written 2p 6.

Rule 3: Hund’s Rule. Hund’s rule has two parts.

The first part states that when orbitals of equal
energy (called degenerate) are available but there
are not enough electrons to fill all of them
completely, then one electron is added to each
orbital before a second electron is added to any
one of them. The second part of Hund’s rule states
that the spins of the single electrons in the
degenerate orbitals should be aligned. Recall that
electrons have a negative charge; partially filling
orbitals as much as possible minimizes
electrostatic repulsion between electrons. After the
1s and 2s orbitals are filled with four electrons, a
fifth electron is added to the 2px orbital, a sixth to the 2py orbital, and a seventh to the 2pz orbital. Only after
each 2p orbital contains one electron is a second electron added to the 2px orbital. Carbon, for example,
has six electrons, and its ground-state electron configuration is 1s2 2s2 2px1 2py1 2pz0. Alternatively, it may
be simplified to 1s2 2s2 2p2. Table 1.3 shows ground-state electron configurations of the first 18 elements
of the Periodic Table. Chemists routinely write energy-level diagrams that pictorially designate where
electrons are placed in an electron configuration. For example, the energy-level diagram for the electron
 CSTC COLLEGE OF SCIENCES TECHNOLOGY AND COMMUNICATION, INC.
CSTC College Bldg. Gen. Luna St. Maharlika Hi-way, Pob. 3, Arellano Sub. Sariaya Province of Quezon R4A
Registrar’s Office: 042 3290850 / 042 7192818
CSTC IT Center: 042 7192805
Atimonan Contact Number: 042 7171420

configuration of carbon, 1s2, 2s2, 2p2, shows three energy levels, one each for the 1s, 2s, and 2p orbitals.
Moving up in the diagram means higher energy. Electrons in these diagrams are drawn as arrows. The
Aufbau principle tells us to place the first four electrons in the 1s and 2s orbitals, and the Pauli exclusion
principle tells us to pair the two electrons in each orbital (shown as arrows with opposing directions). The
remaining two electrons are left to go into the 2p level, and because there are three such orbitals, the
second part of Hund’s rule tells us to place these electrons in different orbitals with their spins aligned
(shown as arrows pointing in the same direction). We will use energy-level diagrams later in this chapter to
explain bonding and throughout the book when discussing relative energies of orbitals.

Name of Element Electron Group Number Period Number

Configuration (Arabic)
Sodium 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s1 1 3
Oxygen 1s2 2s2 2p4 16 2
Scandium 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3 4
4s2 3d1

Note:
Ends with… Group Number
s1 1
s2 2
dn+2
p n+12
f n+2

III. References
Bayquen, A. et. al. (2012). Chemistry. Quezon City: Phoenix Publishing House, Inc.
Brown, W. et. al. (2018). Organic Chemistry. United States of America: Cengage Learning
Smith, J. G. (2020). Organic Chemistry. New York: McGraw-Hill Education
 CSTC COLLEGE OF SCIENCES TECHNOLOGY AND COMMUNICATION, INC.
CSTC College Bldg. Gen. Luna St. Maharlika Hi-way, Pob. 3, Arellano Sub. Sariaya Province of Quezon R4A
Registrar’s Office: 042 3290850 / 042 7192818
CSTC IT Center: 042 7192805
Atimonan Contact Number: 042 7171420

Prepared by: Reviewed by:

ERIC L. JARO, LPT, MAEd JOHN MARC R. MENDOZA, MAEd, MLIS

Professor, PEC201 Program Head, School of Teacher Education

Validated by: Approved by:

_______________________ JESS JAY M. SAJISE, DBA

_______________________ Vice President of Academic Affairs External