\---.

Revised Edition ! -
A. P Sperling and Samuel D. Levison
Revised by Robert R. Beige
|

Over million copies in use, the r^iost effective step-bv-step

1/2
quide
available to learn the basics of arithmetic
 ARITHMETIC
MADE SIMPLE
by

A. P. SPERLING, Ph.D.

and

SAMUEL D. LE VINSON, M.S.

Revised by Robert R. Beige,

Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering,
Syracuse University

BOOKS
A MADE SIMPLE BOOK
DOUBLEDAY
NEW YORK LONDON TORONTO SYDNEY AUCKLAND
 A Made Simple Book
PUBLISHED BY DOUBLEDAY
a division of Bantam Doubleday Dell Publishing Group, Inc.
1540 Broadway, New York, New York 10036

Made Simple and Doubleday are trademarks of Doubleday,

a division of Bantam Doubleday Dell Publishing Group, Inc.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Sperling, A. P. (Abraham Paul), 1912-
Arithmetic made simple.
ISBN 0-385-23938-6
Includes index.
1. Arithmetic — 1961- . I. Levinson, Samuel D.
II. Beige, Robert R. III. Title.

QA107.S63 1988 513 87-24716

Copyright ®
1960, 1988 by Doubleday,
a division of Bantam Doubleday Dell Publishing Group. Inc.
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA
DECEMBER 1988
8 9
 CONTENTS

1 HOW MATHEMATICIANS SOLVE PROBLEMS 5

2 LEARNING TO USE OUR NUMBER SYSTEM 9

3 ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION OF WHOLE

NUMBERS 15

4 MULTIPLICATION AND DIVISION OF

WHOLE NUMBERS 24

5 ALL ABOUT FRACTIONS 39

6 LEARN TO USE DECIMALS WITH EASE 55

7 PERCENTAGE 69

8 HOW PERCENTS ARE USED IN DAILY

BUSINESS 78

9 HOW MONEY IS USED TO EARN MONEY 88

10 MEASUREMENT OF DISTANCE, WEIGHT,

AND TIME 97

1 MEASURES OF UNES, ANGLES, AND

PERIMETERS OF PLANE FIGURES 109

12
 CHAPTER ONE

HOW MATHEMATICIANS SOLVE PROBLEMS

DON'T BE AFRAID these words, you have the intelligence to do

all the mathematics in this book.
Most of us subconsciously think that we
assume we have three containers,
Let's
should know everything. We also think that
one measuring 5 cups, one measuring 3
a facility with mathematics is a sign of
cups, and one very large container that is
superior intelligence and ignorance of
unmarked. Our problem is to mark the
mathematics is equivalent to stupidity. We,
large container with lines indicating mea-
of course, know that this is ridiculous, yet
surements from 1 to 10 cups so it will look
these subconscious misconceptions can
like this:
and often do have a debilitating effect on
our ability to learn. Along with these mis-
conceptions often comes fear that the world
will find us out, fear that with failure I will
have to admit my stupidity even to myself.
Let's begin by saying, "I know not!" We
are engaged in this endeavor to learn. The
wise man knows that he knows not. If we
were not ignorant, we would know every-
thing and there would be nothing to learn.
So to learn we must be ignorant and there is
no shame in that. There is no shame in fail-
ure, either. We learn from failure, from our
Figure 1.
failures we will discover our errors, and
this IS learning. Shame only comes from
not trying. But we only have two measurements, the
3-cup and 5-cup, so we must figure out how
to use these 3- and 5-cup measures to mark
H-I-N-T all the lines on the large container.
Number 1 We could fill the 3-cup measure, pour it

in the large container, and draw a mark for

When studying mathematics, it's a good idea to
3 cups. Now we can fill the 3-cup measure
use a pencil and paper to write down ideas and
again, pour it into the large container, and
solutions. Don't try to keep a lot of things in
your head because it is easy to get confused.
mark it. Now we have marks for 3 cups and
6 cups.
One Mathematicians like to express solu-
further misconception: that there
are those who have a facility for mathemat- tions like this in an abstract way, known as

ics and those who do not. This is simply not "equations." Forproblem just de-
the
scribed, they would write an equation like
true. It is true that a facility in mathematics
this:
is a function of innate intellectual ability.
But if you have the intelligence to read 3 + 3 = 6
 Arithmetic Made Simple

Thisis read as "3 added to 3 equals 6" or it! (Check your answer under D.) Remem-
"3 plus 3 equals 6." This can also be ber, our problem was to mark off the large
expressed as: container in 1-cup intervals. Do you see the
general principle here? Once we have a
2X3 = 6
way to make a mark for 1 cup, we can make
This is read as "2 times 3 equals 6." all the other marks too. How? Just add 1
Now it's your turn. Can you figure out cup to 1 cup and we have two, add 1 cup to
how to make marks
for 5 cups and then 10 2 and we have 3, and so on.
cups using only the 3-cup and 5-cup mea- All right! Let's change the problem a lit-

sure? Can you write the equation for how tle. We again want to mark off a large con-
you found the 10-cup mark? (Check your tainer in 1-cup intervals as before, but now
answer at the end of this chapter under A.) instead of the 5-cup and 3-cup measure, we
Now find a way to make a mark on the large have a 2-cup and a 6-cup container.
container for 8 cups. Write an equation for
this also. (Check your answer under B at
the end of the chapter.)
To make a mark for 2 cups involves a
slightly different approach. First, we would
fill the 5-cup container, then pour the water
3-cup container until it's full. That
into the
which left in the 5-cup container is 2
is

cups! We would then pour this 2-cup

amount into the large container and mark
it. The equation for this is:
Figure 3.

5-3 = 2
What would be the "equation" for a 4-cup
This is read as "5 minus 3 equals 2."
mark? How about a 10-cup mark? That's
this 2-cup mark and one of our
Using =
correct, 2 + 2 + 6 10. Notice our
original 3-cup or 5-cup measures, how equation here has three numbers to the left
would we get 7 cups marked off on the large
of the " = " sign. We could have many
container? Write the equation. (Check it "-|-" signs,
numbers strung together by
under C.) Our large container now looks indicating that we should simply add them
like this:
all together. For example, we could get the
8-cup mark by 2 + 2 + 2 + 2 = 8.
Now, another way to get the 10-cup mark
would be to fill the 6-cup measure, pour it
into the large container, then fill the 6-cup
8
container again but pour enough out to fill

the 2-cup container. We would then have 4

cups left in the 6-cup measure, which we
would add to the large container, giving us
10 cups in the large container. Can you
figure out the equation that would describe
Figure 2. this? (Lx)ok under E at the end of the
chapter.)
Now do you think you can figure out how Remember, now, we are trying to find a
to get a mark for 1 cup? Don't be afraid, try way to get all the marks from 1 to 10 on the
 How Malhemaiicians Solve Problems

large container. This means we must get a in the 8. Now the 8-cup measure has only 2
1-cup mark. We know that if we can get a cups in it.

1-cup mark we can get all the marks. BUT

now we are working with a 2-cup and 6-cup 8 - (2 X 3) = 2
measure instead of the 3-cup and 5-cup
measure. Put the 2 into the large container and mark
Let's fill the 6-cup measure and pour off it; now with the 2- and 3-cup measure we
into the 2-cup measure. Write the equation can get the 1-cup. Suppose one of the origi-
for this. What if we now empty the 2-cup nal two measures was 6 and the other 3?

measure and again pour some of the Try this on your own. (The answer is at the

remaining liquid from the 6-cup measure end under F.) Now try to guess a general
into the 2-cup measure until it's full. The principle about what the relationship be-
equation for this is: tween the numbers must be to be able to get
a 1-cup mark.
6 - (2 X 2) = 2 These are the kinds of questions mathe-
maticians ask themselves; this is what we

The parentheses mean we multiply before call "logical thinking." It's just the kind of

we subtract Do you see that no matter how

.
thinking people do every day. It's the kind

we fill and empty from one container to the of thinking YOU have been doing. We
other, we cannot make the sum or differ- think of a problem, then guess and wonder

ence between them come out cup? to 1

what it all means. What can we conclude
Something different is happening here. from How does it apply to the simple
it?

When we had the 3-cup and the 5-cup mea- case? How does it apply to the more com-

sure, we were able to find the 1-cup mark plicated case? How does it apply to the

without too much difficulty. Also recall that general case? We guess, we wonder, and
the key to getting all the m£u:ks was to get we guess some more; this is how we make
the 1-cup mark. With both known contain- discoveries.

ers being of odd numbers (3 and 5), we The only difference between you and the

could find a way to get the 1-cup mark. But so-called mathematician is how many basic

now we have measures of even numbers arithmetic and mathematical fundamentals

(2 and 6), and no matter how many differ-

they have learned. So all you need is to

ent ways we try, we still can't get the begin learning the fundamentals and this

1-cup mark. The numbers 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, book will help you do just that .

11, and so on are called odd numbers; the Here are the answers to the practice
numbers 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, and so on are questions in this chapter.
called even numbers. Even numbers
always differ by at least 2. So we cannot A. 5 + 5 = 10

combine them by addition or subtraction to

B. 5 + 3 = 8
get an odd number and the number 1 is an
odd number. C. 2 + 5 = 7
What if the two original measures are
both odd but different from 3 and 5? What D. Fill the 3-cup container —pour it into the

if one is odd — 3—and

say, the other is
large container until water
—empty
is just

—pour
up to the 2-cup

even — say, 8 —could we then get a 1-cup

mark large container
of the 3-cup container into the large container
the remainder
and
mark? With the 3 and 8 we could fill the 8, - =
mark it. 3 2 1
then pour from the 8 into the 3, dump the
3, and then fill the 3 again from what's left E. 6 + 6 - 2 = 10
8 Arithmetic Made Simple

F. The problem with numbers like 3 and 6, even

though one is odd and the other is even, is that one H-l-N-T
is a multiple of the other. No how we add and
matter Number 2
subtract integral multiples of these two numbers, we
will always get an even number and we need an odd When studying a subject like mathematics, it

number, 1. is wise not to look too far ahead in the book.

You need to leam these subjects step by step,
In the later chapters, practice exercises
and material that you are not ready for can be
will follow each chapter. The answers to
You
frightening and discouraging. will under-
those exercises can be found beginning on stand the later material as you get to it.

page 154.
 CHAPTER TWO

LEARNING TO USE OUR NUMBER SYSTEM

HOW THEY COUNTED substitute for the piles of stones and sticks.
IN EARLY TIMES Others began to use dots .... instead of
scratches. As time went on people began to
From the very beginning of time man has
use symbols similar to the dots and
been in need of a method of expressing
scratches. The Maya Indians of ancient
"how many," whether it be sheep, plants,
Mexico wrote their numbers as follows:
fish, etc. At first man needed only a few
ways to express small quantities. But as
time went on, his requirements increased
and a system of numbers became essential.
Did you ever stop to wonder how the cave
1 3456789 10

Observe how they used the line and the dot,

men indicated that they wanted or needed with the line representing five dots.
one, two, or three items? Judging from what
we have observed among uncivilized tribes
in recent times, we know that they used
EARLY WRITTEN NUMBERS
parts of their bodies to indicate quantities. One of the first recorded systems for writing
For example, they indicated the number numbers was the use of tallies. Primitive
one by pointing to their noses, the number man used his own vertical scratches and
two by pointing to their eyes, and as time simply marked them down on the peeled
went on they learned to use their fingers to bark of a tree or "papyrus" as it came to be
express amounts up to ten. called. Although the identity of the first

When primitive men wanted to describe group of people to use written numbers has
the number of sheep in a large herd, they been we do know that the
lost to history,
found it do because they lacked
difficult to practice was begun by an ancient people
a number system such as we have today. living near Mesopotamia between 5000
Their methods were simple but intelli- B.C. and 4000 B.C. Their marks looked
gent, since they had no system for count- something like this: I , II, III, 1 1 1
1
, 1444 to rep-
ing above ten. As the flock passed by they resent the numbers one through five. The
placed one stone or stick in a pile for each later Egyptians were known to have written
sheep as it passed. The number of stones or their numbers similarly as follows:
sticks on the pile then indicated the num-
II III III nil nil
ber of sheep in the flock. This was inade-
n
quate since there was no way of telling
anyone else how large the flock was or for
1234567890
I II III nil III III nil nil inn

writing it on paper. To this day, when research workers

As the need for numbers increased, record information which they have re-
primitive man devised other methods of ceived from people, they use a tally system
keeping records. They cut notches in wood to keep their records. Of particular interest
and bone. They made scratches on the is the system we use in keeping a basket-
walls or on the ground in this form toI I I I ball score book. We still use the
10 Arithmetic Made Simple

convenient tally system to count by ones numbers on a clock face, and in other
and fives. But can you imagine the confu- places, it is worth taking a little time to
sion and difficulty of trying to show the learn how to read them.
acreage of Alaska in square yards by use of The Roman number system is based on
the tally system. seven letters, all of which are assigned
specific values. They are:

INTRODUCTION OF HINDU- I V X L C D M
ARABIC NUMERALS 1 5 10 50 100 500 1000
At first, the ancients developed names for
Here are a few rules to help you read
the numbers. They spoke of having one
Roman numerals.
sheep, two sheep, etc. But you can see how
difficultit would be to add or subtract
Rule 1. When a letter is repeated, its
columns of numbers expressed only in
value is repeated.
words. Thus we learn that arithmetic com-
putation did not begin until man came to
EXAMPLES:
use symbols for numbers. The kinds of
symbols used for numbers went through 1 = 1 II = 2 III = 3 XX = 20 CCC = 300
various changes starting with the simple
vertical mark of ancient Mesopotamia, pro- Rule 2. When a letter follows a letter

gressing to the combinations of the Egyp- of greater value, its value is added to the

tians, the familiar numerals of the Romans, greater value .

and finally to our present figures.

We are indebted to the Arabs for our EXAMPLES:
present method of writing numbers. For VI = 6 XV = 15 LX = 60 DC = 600
this reason, the numerals through 9, the
In these examples, observe that the
ingredients for any number combinations
we wish to write, were called Arabic num- smaller value I after the V means add 1 to

the 5 to give 6. In the same way, the V fol-

bers for a long time. But more recently his-
torians have discovered that the system of
lowing the X means add 5 to 10 which
writingnumbers now used by civilized peo- equals 15. Similarly, LX represents 10
added to 50 to give 60. To write 70, merely
ple throughout the world was originated by
add XX after the L to give LXX. In like
the Hindus in India. The Arabs learned the
manner, to write 800, add CC after DC to
system from the Hindus and are credited
with having brought it to Europe soon after
give DCCC.
the conquest of Spain in the eighth century
A.D. For this reason, we now properly call it
Rule 3. When a letter precedes a letter
of greater value, its value is subtracted from
the Hindu-Arabic system of numerals.
the greater value.

READING AND WRITING

EXAMPLES:
ROMAN NUMERALS
IV = 4 IX = 9 XL = 40
An early system of writing numbers is the
XC = 90 CD = 400
Roman system. It is generally agreed that it

is of little practical value in today's world of In these examples, note that the smaller

advanced mathematics. value I, in front of the V, means subtract 1

Because you will still see Roman numer- from 5 to give 4. In the same way, the X in

als used in recording dates, in books, as front of the L reduces the 50 by 10 to give
 Learning to Use Our Number System 11

40. In like manner, X in front of C means

100 less 10 or 90 and CD denotes 500 less
100 or 400.
Generally, the symbols are not repeated
more than three times to denote a number.
To show the number 40 you would write XL
and not XXXX. While occasionally 4 is
written as IIII, it is usually written as IV.

Rule 4. A horizontal bar over a letter or

letters indicates that the value given to the
letter or letters is to be increased one thou-
sand times .

EXAMPLES:

MCD = 1400 MCD = 1,400,000

Here are some additional examples of

Roman numerals and their Hindu-Arabic
number equivalents.

VII = 7 XXII = 22 = 113

CXIII
XI = 11 XXXVII = 37 CCX = 210
XIV = 14 XLI = 41 _MCM = 1900
XVIII = 18 LXII = 62 XICCC = 11,300

You are now ready to attempt your first

practice exercise. This book contains many

exercises to help you determine your own
rate of progress. When you complete an
exercise, check your answers with those in
the answers to practice exercises found on
Page 154.

Practice Exercise No. 1

Write the Roman numeral equivalents for these

Hindu-Arabic numbers.

8
12 Arithmetic Made Simple

UNDERSTANDING PLACE or four-place numbers, because each digit

VALUES occupies a place.
Write a one-place number here ,
In our number system, you can only under-
now a two-place number now a ,
stand the value of a digit when you are able
three-place number and finally a
,
to recognize it in its place.
four-place number
The number 9 standing alone means nine
ones. With a zero (0) after it, the number

becomes 90 and is read ninety. It is our ANALYZING NUMBERS

way of putting the 9 two places to the left of ACCORDING TO PLACE
the decimal.
VALUES
The zero (0), or cipher as it is sometimes
The number 23 is the same as saying 2 tens
called, thusbecomes a place holder. and 3 ones.
The same 9 with two zeros after it 543 means 5 hundreds, 4 tens, 3 ones.
becomes 900 and is read nine hundred. 6532 means 6 thousands, 5 hundreds, 3
The two zeros hold down two-place values tens, 2 ones.
this time.
Try these:
To illustrate the idea oi place values in a
58 means tens and ones.
different way, we can use the number 999, 734 means hundreds, tens,
which we read as nine hundred ninety- ones.
nine.
9354 means thousands, hun-
In a place-value chart, we could show it
dreds, tens. ones.
this way:
It is apparent that quantities of less than
100 will be composed of one or two digits,
I Hundreds Tens I I Ones I
that quantities of 100 through 999 will be
I 9 9 I I 9 I
composed of three digits and that quantities
of 1000 through 9999 will be composed
(a) The 9 in the ones' place = 9 of four digits. In like manner, quantities of
(b) The 9 in the tens' place = 90 10,000 through 99,999 will be composed of
(c) The 9 in the hundreds' place = 900 five digits and quantities of 100,000

Add them together, we get 999 through 999,999 will be composed of six
digits.

From this can be seen that as we move

it
By following this procedure, we can con-
struct a table to aid in reading numbers up
to the left of the decimal point, each digit in
a number is 10 times the value of the same to the hundred billions.

digit immediately to its right .

We therefore express varying quantities HOW TO READ LARGE

in our number system in two ways: (a) By NUMBERS
the magnitude of the digit, (b) By the place
With a dollar sign before it, this number
of the digit with reference to the decimal
represents the amount of money the U.S.
point.
Government took in from all sources of
A two-digit number like 23 is two places
income from January 1, 1985, until Octo-
removed from the decimal. Similarly, 542
ber 1986:
(a three-digit number) and 6532 (a four-
digit number) are three and four places
665,243,913,412
removed from the decimal point. These are
also referred to as two-place, three-place. Can you read it?
 Learning to Use Our Number System 13

TABLE FOR READING NUMBERS 4. One hundred twenty-five thousand, seven

hundred fifty.

5. Three million, six hundred twenty-three thou-

i S EA sand, four hundred thirty-four.
o
d «
e
1
o 6. Two hundred thirty-eight million, eight hun-
"1
3 S ?2
e
c
.2
^ o a
-a
dred sixteen thousand, one hundred ninety-seven.
= c o S S
Si M 1 2i J iJ -S J 2i 7. One hundred eight-five billion, three hundred

665 243 913 412 twenty-one million, one hundred forty-two thou-
sand, one hundred ninety.
Billions Millions Thousands Hundreds

We would read this number as six hundred

GROUPING AND WRITING
sixty-jive two hundred forty-three
billion,
LARGE NUMBERS
million, nine hundred thirteen thousand,
four hundred twelve. When you write numbers, you will note that

Using the above table as a guide, prac- they are grouped in threes. In reading num-
tice reading these numbers. (The correct bers and transcribing them to digits on
answers are given below.) paper, if you place a comma where the
word billion, million, or thousand occurs,
1. The total amount of money earned by the top the digits will be properly grouped as you
ten tennis professionals for the first half of 1986 was write them. Note that the comma is not
3,793,435 dollars.
used until there are five or more digits in a

2. Ivan Lendl was the top tennis winner for this number.
period. He won 672,675 dollars. You would write four thousand, two hun-
dred twenty-one this way: 4221.
3. The state of Alaska is estimated to cover
658,432 square miles.
How would you write three hundred fifty-
one?
4. A new house sold for 125,750 dollars.

5. The total surface area of the United States is Practice Exercise No. 3
approximately 3,623,434 square miles.
Use digits to write the indicated quantities, plac-
6. The population of the United States at the end ing commas where needed.
of the year 1985 was 238,816,197. 1. Six hundred ninety-eight.

7. The national deficit for the year 1985 was 2. Two thousand, four hundred sixty-five.
approximately 185,321,142,190.
3. Three thousand, four hundred twelve.

4. Thirty-three thousand, six hundred.

To give you an idea of how big some of
these numbers are, if you spend two hun- 5. Three hundred one thousand, four hundred
dred dollars a day it will take you almost sixty-five.

fourteen years to spend one million dollars. 6. Four hundred sixty-two thousand, three hun-
dred nine.
Answers to above questions
7. Six million, four hundred twenty-two thou-
1. Three million, seven hundred ninety-three
sand, seven hundred fifty-four.
thousand, four hundred thirty-five.

8. Nine billion, two million fifty.

2. Six hundred seventy-two thousand, six hun-
dred seventy-five. 9. Six hundred four million, three hundred sixty-
eight thousand, four hundred nineteen.
3. Six hundred fifty-eight thousand, four hun-
dred thirty-two. 10. Twenty-one billion, four hundred.
14 Arithmetic Made Simple

ROUNDING OFF WHOLE To the nearest

NUMBERS hundred thousand it would be 1,700,000

For convenience in using numbers and to

You can see that in rounding to the
make it easier to remember them, we often
nearest ten,we dropped the final two. In
use what is known as round numbers.
rounding to the nearest hundred, the 370
To round off a number, you read it or
was raised to 400. We can state the proce-
write it to the nearest ten, to the nearest
dure in a rule as follows:
hundred, to the nearest thousand, or ten
Rule for Rounding Numbers: If the
thousand, etc., depending upon how large
digit in the final place is less than 5, drop it
the number is and what degree of accuracy
when rounding to the next unit on the left
is needed.
and replace by "0." If the digit in the final
For example, 9 rounded off becomes 10.
place is 5 or more, replace it by "0" and
Rounding off 63 we would write it as 60.
increase the next digit on the left by 1.
In rounding off 523 it might become
520 or 500, according to the exactness
required. Practice Exercise No. 4
We can better illustrate the principle of
rounding off by taking a large number, for This exercise will test your ability to round off

example 1,672,372. numbers.

Round to the nearest ten.
Rounding off 1,672,372:
1. 391 2. 4624 3. 678 4. 8235
To the nearest
ten it would be 1,672,370 Round to the nearest hundred.
To the nearest 5. 741 6. 6251 7. 82,691 8. 96,348
hundred it would be 1,672,400
To the nearest Round to the nearest thousand, then to the nearest
thousand it would be 1,672,000 ten thousand.
To the nearest 9. 26,438 11. 388,760
ten thousand it would be 1,670,000 10. 68,770 12. 5,395,113
 CHAPTER THREE

ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION OF WHOLE NUMBERS

answer lines with a sheet of paper. Your

H-l-N-T answers should be written without hesita-
Number 3
tion. After each line, slip the paper down
and check your answers. Circle the exam-
The big secret in doing all mathematics is

feeling very comfortable with numbers, this

ples you missed.

means adding, subtracting, multiplying, and

We now begin to leam these skills.
dividing. Basic One Hundred Ad€Ution Facts
3

THE LANGUAGE OF ADDITION

A shop has 32 men on the day shift and 27
on the night shift. How many men are there
in both shifts?
To get the total we add:

these are addends

this is the sum
32 has 3 tens and 2 ones.
27 has 2 tens and 7 ones.
We add the 2 ones and the 7 ones t6 get
9 ones.
We add the 3 tens and the 2 tens to get 5
tens.
The sum is 5 tens and 9 ones or 59.
We read this as "thirty-two plus twenty-
seven 15 fifty-nine."
We can write this another way:
32 + 27
59. = The sign "+ " is read
plus and the sign " = " is read is or equals.
This is in the equation form introduced in
the first chapter. The entire process is

called addition.

SIGHT TEST IN MENTAL

ADDITION
Here are 100 addition facts you should
know by sight. Practice by covering the
16 Arithmetic Made Simple

Use a Card System to Perfect Your 2. Add 11 to each figure in the outer circle.
Mental Addition Thus mentally you will say 11 + 6 = 17,
11 + 26 = 37, 11 + 36 = 47, and so on around
When you finish the 100 examples, copy the entire outer circle. Repeat this process for num-
the ones which gave you trouble, using both bers from 12 through 19.
combinations as shown below, on cards
with the correct answer on the back.

9 6
6 9

Front of card Back of card

Below is another exercise for practice in

mental addition.
3. Follow same procedure as above using
numbers from 21 through 29 as shown in the inner
Speed Test circle.

Practice in Sight Addition

4. Follow same procedure as above using

numbers from 31 through 39 as shown in the inner
circle.
1. Add 1 to each figure in the outer circle; add 2
to figure; add 3 to each
each figure; add 4, 5, 6, 7,

8, 9.Thus mentally you will say = 6, 1+5

1 + 15 = 16, 1 + 25 = 26, and so on going COLUMN ADDITION THE
around the entire circle. Then add 2 + 5, 2 + 15, MODERN WAY
2 + 25, 2 -(- 35, etc. Continue this until you have
Here is a model example in column addi-
added every number from 1 to 9 to every number in
tion.
the outer circle.

w
 Addition and Subtraction 17

Since 16 is 10 ones and 6 ones, write the 6 GAINING SPEED IN COLUMN

in the ones' place of the answer. Then you ADDITION
mentally exchange the 10 ones for 1 ten and
One way to acquire speed in column addi-
remember add it with the numbers in the
to
tion is to get the habit of combining at sight
tens' column. (Some people say carry the 1
two digits in the same column that make
to the tens' column.) Add the numbers in
larger numbers.
the tens' column —
think 7, 9, 13. Since
Leam to pick out numbers close to each
this stands for 13 tens, write 3 in the tens'
other that make 10. These are easiest to
place of the answer. Again, mentally
spot.
exchange the 10 of the tens for 1 hundred
Look at the numbers in the preceding
and remember to add it to the numbers in
exercise. You will see, in brackets, combi-
the hundreds' column. Finally, add the dig-
nations that make larger numbers such as
its in the hundreds' column — think 3, 7, 8.
10, 9, 8, 7.
Write the 8 in the hundreds' place of the
Try the exercise again grouping the num-
answer.
bers. Now do the following exercise and
Check by adding up
perform the grouping on your own.

SUGGESTION AIDS FOR GOOD Practice Exercise No. 6

HABITS IN ADDING The exercise which follows contains five prob-
lems in column addition of large numbers. Apply
1. Learn your "addition facts." Practice
what you have learned about grouping numbers.
the list of 100 examples until you are sure
of them. (a)
2. Copy your numbers correctly.
3. Write the numbers clearly.
4. Keep the columns straight.
5. Start the addition at the right with the
ones' column.
6. Remember to add the exchanged
number to the correct column and add it
first.

Practice Exercise No. 5

The five problems in column addition which fol-

low will test your skill in adding columns. For the

time being you are to ignore the brackets. You will
be using them later on when you leam how to add
columns quickly.

(a) (b) (c) id) (e)

4S 58 39 76
39
56
93
58
Q
|42
158,

37
f75]
93|
65
48
47 67 92 48 53
85 77 74 91] 79
93 48 87 67 84
18 Arithmetic Made Simple

1. 44 + 32 = 14. 69 + 23 = 10. 5540 + 6474 + 5567 + 2829 +

7645 =
2. 28 + 26 = 15. 37 + 44 =
38 + 21 = 16. 24 + 23 =
3.
ADDING BY PARTIAL TOTALS
4. 22 + 29 = 17. 27 + 47 = If you have long columns to add, you will
5. 42 + 26 = 18. 28 + 12 = find the technique of adding by use of par-

6. 23 + 24 = 19. 24 + 67 = tial totals to be most effective and accurate.

When you use this method, you write down
7. 36 + 26 = 20. 93 + 19 =
the actual sum of each column as illus-

8. 24 + 36 = 21. 31 + 22 = trated below (do not carry any remainders

to the next column) and then add the
9. 27 + 58 = 22. 36 + 46 =
column totals to obtain the sum.
10. 36 + 25 = 23. 53 + 27 =

11. 33 + 26 = 24. 28 + 44 = EXAMPLE:

12. 28 + 38 = 25. 89 + 25 =

13. 45 + 15 =

To Add:
COPYING NUMBERS AND
ADDING
Before continuing further in your study of
addition, review what you have learned
so far by rereading and practicing the
"suggestion aids." If you do this conscien-
tiously, your work will improve.

Practice Exercise No. 8

Copy the numbers into columns carefully and

compute the sums. Do your work carefully and
check it when you have finished.

1. 18 + 22 + 37 + 43 + 15 + 47 =

2. 84 + 36 + 15 + 27 + 62 + 48 =
3. 55 + 31 + 43 + 17 + 22 + 19 =
4. 42 + 28 + 61 + 12 + 37 + 11 =
5. 67 + 28 + 24 + 12 + 55 + 82 =
6. 268 + 149 + 438 + 324 + 646 +
423 =
7. 300 + 419 + 325 + 299 + 346 +
195 =
8. 635 + 728 + 534 + 268 + 309 +
643 + 830 =

9. 2642 + 6328 + 2060 + 9121 +

3745 =
 Addition and Subtraction 19

THE LANGUAGE OF SUBTRACTION VOCABULARY

SUBTRACTION
Subtracting 24 from 36 leaves 12, written
PROBLEM: The baseball team started the this way:
season with 148 baseballs. At the end of a
36 minuend, the larger number from
month 36 were lost. How many were left?
which the smaller is taken
To find the answer, subtract 36 from
— 24 subtrahend, thenumber subtracted
14fi.
12 difference or remainder
148 minuend
— 36 subtrahend The minus sign (
— ) indicates subtrac-
tion.
112 difference

PROBLEM: In the second month 59 baseballs Illustrating Subtraction to a

were lost. How many more were lost the Beginner, Using Place Values
second month than the first?
36 = 3 tens 6 ones
To find the answer, subtract 36 from 59. — 24 = — 2 tens 4 ones
59 minuend 12 1 ten 2 ones = 12
— 36 subtrahend Always begin at the right.
23 difference Take 4 ones from 6 ones leaves 2 ones.
How many less were lost the first month Take 2 tens from3 tens leaves 1 ten.
than the second? One ten and 2 ones are 12.
Try these examples with the same place-
PROBLEM: At the end of the three-month value arrangements:
season they had 12 baseballs left. How
48 34 56 75 89
many would they hatJe to add to start the
- - - -
16 21 33 22 - 58
next season with the same amount?
To find the answer, subtract 12 from
14fi. THE METHODS OF
SUBTRACTION
148 minuend
— 12 subtrahend There are two methods currently in use
136 difference to solve subtraction problems. The Ex-
change or Borrow method is taught in
Each of these problems is solved by sub-
most schools in the United States today and
traction. But in each, the questions are dif-
is the one which is described in detail
ferent.
below. The other method, the one which
What are the questions answered by sub-
your parents probably learned in school, is
traction? How many ways can we say, sub-
known as the Carry or Pay Back method
tract 3 from 9?
and is discussed briefly.
(a) How many when we take 3
are left

from 9? ANS. 6
(b) How much more is 9 than 3?
Subtraction Method: Exchange or
Borrow
ANS. 6
(c) How much less is 3 than 9? ANS. 6
EXAMPLE:
(d) What is the difference between 3 and

9? ANS. 6 63 = 6 tens 3 ones = 5 tens 13 ones

(e) How much must be added to 3 to get — 27 = 2 tens 7 ones 2 tens 7 ones
9? ANS. 6 3 tens 6 ones = 36
20 Arithmetic Made Simple

5 13
or
- 27
36
(a) Start with the ones' place (at the
right). Since we cannot subtract 7 from 3,
we exchange one 6 tens for 10 ones
of the
giving 13 ones and 5 tens. Then we sub-
tract 7 ones from 13 ones which leaves 6
ones.
(b) Next we subtract 2 tens from 5 tens,

which leaves 3 tens. The difference is 3

tens and6 ones or 36.
To check your subtraction add the dif- —
ference to the subtrahend. What do you
get?
Try these examples and note the ex-
changes .

310 713 515 413

40 53 93 72
-26 -56 -27 -45 -88 -52

ADEPTNESS IN SUBTRACTION
REQUIRES DRILL AS IN
ADDITION
Keep in mind the fact that subtraction is
the opposite of addition. One is the inverse
of the other.

NOTE:
 Addition and Subtraction 21
5911

Front Back

With modifications, the circle arrange-

ments which you used to practice addition
may be used for additional practice in sub-
traction. This exercise will help to give you
the needed speed and accuracy in subtrac-
tion. In each case, subtract the smaller
number from the larger.
When you have become proficient in

subtraction involving one and two-place

numbers, you will be ready to proceed to

the more difficult subtraction examples

including numbers with more than two
places and zeros.

SUBTRACTION OF
THREE-PLACE NUMBERS
INCLUDING ZERO
4 15 10

560 = 560
-375 -375
185
(a) Start with the ones' place (at the
right). Since we cannot subtract 5 from 0,
exchange 1 ten of the 6 tens for 10 ones.
Then subtract 5 from 10, which leaves 5.
(b) Subtracting in the tens' place, 7 tens
cannot be taken from 5 tens (one of the
original 6 tens had been exchanged for 10
ones). Take 1 hundred of the 5 hundreds
and exchange it for 10 tens, giving 15 tens.
Subtract 7 tens from the 15 tens, which
leaves 8.
(c) In the hundreds' place, subtract the 3

hundreds from 4 hundreds (one of the origi-

nal 5 hundreds had been exchanged for 10
tens). Write the 1 in the hundreds' place.
The difference is 185.
—
To check your answer add the difference
to the subtrahend. The sum should equal

the minuend. Complete the following exam-

ples and note the exchanges
22 Arithmetic Made Simple

then 5 from 13 leaves 8. Pay back or carry

the 1 to the subtrahend and 5 from 12
leaves 7, 5 from 14 leaves 9, 6 from 8
leaves 2.
This method of subtraction is only
described as a matter of interest. It is not
suggested that any modem student, taught
by the exchange method, should practice
this older method.

ADDING AND SUBTRACTING

WITH MONEY
We have two methods of writing money val- How many of each are there in a dollar?
ues in numerical form. We may write them (a) (b) (c)
using the dollar sign and decimal point (d) (e) (f)

$.00 or we may write them, when the

amount is less than one dollar, by using the These are the columns for money num-
cent sign — 0. bers:

TABLE OF MONEY NUMBERS

EXAMPLE: Eighty-three cents may be
dollars cents
written as $.83 or 830.
When an amount of money consists of
dollars and cents, it is always written with a
dollar sign and decimal point. The decimal
point separates the dollars and the cents.
ill
EXAMPLE: Oneand forty-three
dollar is 1 g 1^ c
i
i
e ^ ^ -s -c 2^
cents must be written $1.43. Three dollars
can be written as $3 or $3.00. Practice Exercise No. 1
When you add or subtract money num-
Using the table above as a guide, write the follow-
bers, remember to do the following:
ing money values in numerical form as dollars and

ADD: cents.

1. Twelve cents
$13.25
6.12 2. Six cents

3.96 3. Sixty cents

05 4. One hundred one cents

$23.48 5. One dollar and thirty-two cents

(a) Write in the dollar sign for the first 6. Fourteen dollars and five cents

number and the answer. 7. Two hundred twenty dollars

(b) Write the dollars and cents in their 8. Two thousand, four hundred dollars and
proper columns. thirty-five cents

(c)There cannot be more than two num- 9. Twelve thousand, six hundred eighty-four
bers after the decimal point to indicate dollars and nineteen cents
cents. 10. Three milllion, thirty dollars and ninety-
These are our money denominations. eight cents
 Addition and Subtraction 23

Practice Exercise No. 12 nation of the two. Read the problems carefully
before trying to solve them.
Solve the following problems. Be sure to copy
them in columns correctly. 1. Connie is saving to buy a U.S. Government
Bond for 818.75. She has 815.30 in the bank. How
Add and check: much more does she need?
1. S3.02 + $16.41 + 81.20 + 852.65 =
2. Cynthia does baby sitting. Last week she
2. 85 + 823.64 + 816 + 8.83 = earned 84.25. The week before that she earned

= 83.50. This week she expects to earn 82.50. How

3. 37^ + 94«! + 84.82 + 7 cents
much will she have earned in the three weeks?
4. 812.58 + 83.00 + 470 + 88.29 =
3. David wants to buy swim Tins for 84.75 and
5. 810.32 + 815.61 + 8223.14 + 86.84 + water goggles that cost 83.59. He has saved 83.89.
875.38 =
How much more must he save to buy them?

Subtract and check: 4. Rhoda's mother bought a summer dress for

6. 810.57 - 83.89 = 818.50 marked down from 830.00, a box of nylon

stockings for 82.89 marked down from 83.00
7. 84.50 - 82.35 = and summer sandals at 83.50 reduced from 85.00.
8. 88.07 - 85.08 = How much did she save by buying at the reduced
prices?
9. 819.07 - 89.38 =
5. The Kellys bought a new car. The advertised
10. 8806.34 - 8468.75 =
price with equipment was 89455.82. The dealer
deducted 8200 from the advertised price. They
Practice Exercise No. 13
traded in their old car on which he allowed them
The money problems which follow can all be 82475. How much did they have to pay in cash for
solved by either addition or subtraction or a combi- the new car?
 CHAPTER FOUR

MULTIPLICATION AND DIVISION OF WHOLE NUMBERS

Suppose you received four packets of Chic- LEARNING MULTIPLICATION

lets and were told there were eight Chiclets MEANS MEMORIZATION
in each packet. How many Chiclets would
To beproficient in multiplication you must
there be in all four packets?
memorize the multiplication combinations.
The quickest way to find the answer The difficulties, in many cases, that stu-
would be by multiplication, although you
dents have in working with decimals,
could also get the answer by addition.
percentages and computing interest have
Multiplication is a short method of
been traced back to the fact that they
adding a number to itself several times.
have not memorized the multiplication
In the language of multiplication you
combinations. The basic multiplication
would say "4 times 8." This means combinations are frequently arranged as
8 + 8 + 8 + 8 or 32. In multiplication it multiplication tables to aid in memoriza-
is written 4 X 8 = 32 or
tion.

8 multiplicand
If you wish to make progress in arith-

X 4 multiplier
metic, you must Itam to recognize by sight

32 product
the product of any two numbers from 1 to

12. Below you will find the multiplication

The multiplicand is the number multi- tables from6 to 12. If you do not know
plied. them backwards and forwards, memorize
The multiplier indicates how many them now. Drill them into your head
times the multiplicand is multiplied. before you try to go further in this book.
The product is the result which comes Work with the multiplication combina-
from multiplying one number by another. tions as you did with the addition and sub-
The sign of multiplication is X ; it is traction facts. Make study cards for the
read times. combinations which give you trouble.
 Multiplication and Division of Whole Numbers 25

Write the multiplication combinations on

your study cards both ways. Your cards
should look like this:

9
X 8
26 Arithmetic Made Simple

Step 2. 5 X 5 is 25 + 1 is 26. Put

down 6 and carry 2 hundreds.
Step 3. 5 X 3 is 15 + 2 is 17. Put
down the 17. Product is 1765.

MULTIPLYING WITH A ZERO

IN THE MULTIPUCAND
EXAMPLE:

508
X 6
3048
Step 1. 6 X 8 is 48. Write 8 in the ones
column and remember to carry 4 tens.
Step 2. 6 X is zero tens. Adding the

carried over 4 tens, gives 4 in the tens

place. Write it.

Step 3.6X5 hundreds is 30. Write

this in the hundreds' and thousands'
columns. The product is 3048.

Practice Exercise No. 14

Do the multiplication examples below.

(e)

24
X 4
 Multiplication and Division of Whole Numbers 27

EXAMPLE:

63 This is the same as: 63 63

X 24 X 4 X 20
252 '^ partial product 252 1260
1260'*— partial product '

1512 product

For greater speed, multiplication is usu-

ally done in this shorter form:

EXAMPLE:
63
24
252
126
1512
Step 1. Multiply 63 X 4 as we did
before. Start by writing this product in the
ones' place.
Step 2. Multiply 63 X 2. Start by writ-
ing this product in the tens' place (the same
column as the multiplier).
Step 3. Add the partial products which
equal 1512.

MULTIPLYING BY THREE-
FIGURE NUMBERS
The proper methods for multiplying by
three-figure numbers are explained below.
You will notice that both a long way and a
shortcut method are described.

EXAMPLE:
708
X 346
28 Arithmetic Made Simple

NOTICE: Only zero is brought down

OTve EXAMPLE:
and placed same tens' column as the
in the
$2.43 X 100 = $243.00 or $243
zero multiplier. The partial product for the
next multiplication by 1, is placed next to
the zero, starting in its proper hundreds'
column. Check by interchanging the multi-
plicand and the multiplier and multiplying.

Practice Exercise No. 16

Do the multiplication problems below.

1. 476 4. 524 7. 425 10. 667 13. 680

X 58 X 67 X 143 X 678 X 476

2. 6534
 Multiplication and Division of Whole Numbers 29

1. 7 X 21 = 9. 809 X 6 = Mult^lying by Numbers a Little

= = Above or Below 100

2. 8 X 24 10. 608 X 7

9 X 37 = 11. 12 X 24 = EXAMPLE: 368 X 106 =

3.
368 X 100 = 36,800 and
4. 6 X 4« = 12. 15 X 31 =
368 X 6 = 2208
5. 5 X 39 = 13. 15 X 54 = 36,800 + 2208 = 39,008
6. 306 X 7 = 14. 13 X 43 =
EXAMPLE: 277 X 96 =
504 X 8 = 15. 18 X 32 =
7.
277 X 100 = 27,700.
8. 408 X 9 = 4 X 277 = 1108
27,700 - 1108 = 26,592
We may use our knowledge of multiply-
ing with zeros in applying many other short- Practice Exercise No. 19
cuts in multiplication. For example:
Find the products of the multiplication examples
below by using the shortcut methods.
Multiplying Rapidly by 5, 9, or 11 = =
1. 67 X 5 14. 57 X 99
EXAMPLE: 5 X 68 = ? 2. 73 X 5 = 15. 72 X 99 =
Make it 10 X 68 = 680. Take half and 3. 86 X 9 = 16. 84 X 101 =
it equals 340 because 5 is half of 10.
4. 94 X 9 = 17. 71 X 101 =

EXAMPLE: 9 X 17 = ? 5. 78 X 9 = 18. 256 X 99 =

X = X 99 =
Make 10 X 17 = 170 minus 17 =
it
6. 56 11 19. 283

153. Because 9 is the equivalent of 10 7. 62 X 11 = 20. 242 X 101 =

minus 1. = =
8. 83 X 11 21. 149 X 101

X = 9. 34 X 49 = 22. 326 X 104 =

EXAMPLE: 11 17 ?

10. 44 X 51 = 23. 258 X 103 =

Make it 10 X 17 = 170 plus 17 = 187.
Because 11 is the equivalent of 10 plus 1. 11. 83 X 48 = 24. 423 X 97 =

12. 62 X 52 = 25. 352 X 96 =

Multiplying by ^^Near"* Figures: 13. 68 X 99 =
It is often possible to multiply higher num-
bers more easily by working with figures
CHECKING RESULTS IN
that are near to even numbers. MULTIPLICATION

EXAMPLE: 49 X 26 = ? 49 is near 50. The most common method for checking a

multiplication problem interchange is to
Thus the multiphcand and multipher and
26 X 50 = 1300 multiply over again. But as a rule, the
1300 - 26 = 1274 checking should not be more lengthy than
the original problem.
EXAMPLE: 274 X 99 = ?

Make it EXAMPLE: You would check

274 X 100 = 27,400 473 , ... 265
"^^^^"^
27,400 - 274 = 27,126 X 265 ^y ''
X 473
30 Arithmetic Made Simple

But you would not be likely to check (a) We ask, how many tens and how
48,763 u •. 23 many ones are there in 64? Answer, 6
by making I
It
X23 ^ ^8,763 tens and 4 ones.
(b) If we divide 6 tens into 2 equal parts,
how many tens do we have in each
DIVISION OF WHOLE part? Answer, 3 tens.
NUMBERS
(c) If we divide 4 ones into 2 equal parts,
how many ones do we have in each
A Problem in Division
part? Answer, 2 ones.
There were 64 boys at the scout camp. Our quotient, therefore, is 3 tens and 2
They were to be broken up into 2 equal ones or 32.
groups. How many would there be in each
group? Definitions
To find the answer we have to divide 64 Division is a process of finding equal
by 2. This may be written two ways: parts of any quantity.
Division is the reverse of multiplication.
2>I64 or 64 The quotient multiplied by the divisor will
Written either way, the problem means give the dividend. In the example above,
that 64 is to be divided into two equal 32 X 2 = 64.
parts. In the problem above, division was used
The quantitybe divided (64) is called
to to find the size of the equal parts when the
the dividend. The number of equal parts total number was given.
into which it is to be divided (2) is the divi- Division is also used to find the number
sor. The resultant part of the division (32) of equal sized smaller groups contained in
is the quotient. a larger group.
The method is as follows: For example, suppose we had this prob-
lem. How many 6-man volleyball teams can
32 quotient
we organize among a group of 48 boys?
divisor 2 ) 64 dividend
6x METHOD: 48 H- 6 = 8 Ans.
4 To check the answer, multiply the quo-
4 tient (8) by the divisor (6). What do you get?

WHEN THE QUOTIENT IS NOT

EXACT
HOW WE EXPLAIN DIVISION
IN OUR SCHOOLS TODAY Sometimes the quotient is not exact. For
example, consider this problem.
EXAMPLE: 64 H- 2 = ?
Regroup the 64 as follows: PROBLEM: Organize the 64 scouts into 6-
60 equals 6 tens 4 equals 4 ones man volleyball teams. How many teams
would we have?

METHOD: 64 -H 6 = 10 with 4 left over.

The number left over is called the
remainder, and, of course, it must be less
than the divisor. Why?
Try another: 48 ^ 9 = ? How do we do
it?
 Multiplication and Division of Whole Numbers 31

METHOD: Think, 9 times what number

comes nearest to 48 and is not greater than
48? We try 9 X 5 and get 45. It seems all
right, but you can't be sure. Try 9X6,
that's 54.Too much. The answer must be
5, and since 45 is 3 less than 48, you have
a remainder of 3. Thus 48 -i- 9 = 5 and 3
remainder.

DIVISION DRILL
Facility in division requires drill in the fun-
damental division facts.

Since division is the reverse of multipli-

cation, they may be studied together.
Turn to the multiplication tables on page
24. Read them backwards. Assume a divi-

sion sign to be where the equal sign (

= )

is, and the = sign where the multiplica-

tion sign ( X ) is. Start with the 6 Times
Table and read the facts from right to left

(the reverse of the way you read them

for multiplication purposes). Thus you
would have 6-^1 = 6, 12 -^ 2 = 6,
18 -r 3 = 6, etc. Memorize them as you
did the multiplication tables. Skip around.
Now test yourself on the exercise below.
Make study cards for those you miss.

Practice Exercise No. 20

Do the division examples below as rapidly as you
can. This exercise will test your ability to do simple
division quickly and accurately.

sfs
32 Arithmetic Made Simple

Step 3. Multiply 4 X 4 = 16; 19 - 1. 7)525 5. 4)248 9. 3)968

16 = 3.
2. 9)414 6. 5) 145 10. 9) 199
Step 4. 3 is less than 4; therefore, bring
down the 2. 3. 6 ) 4926 7. 8)2488 11. 7 ) 1471
Step 5. Think, how many times is 4 con-
4. 8)4088 8. 9 ) 2898 12. 6 ) 6947
tained in 32? Try 8 as trial quotient. Place
it over the 2.
Step 6. Multiply 8 in the quotient by
divisor. 8x4 = 32. Subtracting 32 from LEARNING AIDS FOR TWO-
32 leaves no remainder. Answer in the quo- FIGURE AND THREE-FIGURE
tient is exactly 48.
DIVISION
Check both examples above by multiply- To divide by two-figure or three-figure
ing the quotients times the divisors. Do you numbers, you must pay special attention to:
get the dividend in each case? (a) Finding the correct partial quotient.
(b) Placement of the first-quotient fig-
Example C: Divide 327 by 4. ure.

Estimate: (c) Use of a zero as a place holder in the

quotient.
Try 4 X 50 = 200 The following examples will show you
4 X 80 = 320 how to apply these cues and carry out divi-
4 X 90 = 360 sion with two-digit and three-digit divisors.

The answer is between 80 and 90.

Example A: Divide 736 by 32.
81"'

4)327 Step 1 . Estimate:

32x 10 X 32 = 320
07 20 X 32 = 640
4 30 X 32 = 960
3 Answer between 20 and 30, nearer
is to 20.

Proceed as in previous examples.

23
Three is the remainder because there
32 ) 736
are no additional numbers to bring down.
64x
Write the answer as 81 or 8l|, which is
96
called a mixed number. The 4 part is
96
called a fraction. means 3 divided by 4.
It

We will explain more about fractions later.

Step 2. Divide 32 into 7. It can't be
CHECKING: Multiply the whole-number
done. Divide 32 into 73. It can be done. To
portion of the quotient times the divisor.
find trial quotient, think 7 -r 3(first num-
Then add the remainder to the product.
ber of dividend and number of divi-
first
Result is the dividend.
sor) = 2. Place this 2 over the 3 of the 73
because you are dividing 32 into 73, not 3
Practice Exercise No. 21 into 7.
Step 3. Multiply
The exercise below will test your ability to divide

by one-place numbers. Some of the examples which 32 X 2 = 64; 73 - 64 = 9.

follow have remainders in the quotient. Work care- Step 4. 9 is less than 32, therefore bring
fully and check your work. down the 6.
 Multiplication and Division of Whole Numbers 33

Step 5. Think, how many times is 32

contained in 96. Divide 9 by 3 (both first

digits as above) = 3. Try 3 in quotient.

Place it over the 6.
Step 6. Multiply 3 in quotient by divi-
sor. 3 X 32 = 96. Subtract 96 from 96
which leaves no remainder. Answer is
exactly 23.
Check by multiplying quotient times
divisor. What do you get?

Example B: Divide 13,482 by 321.

Step 1 . Estimate:
10 X 321 = 3210
20 X 321 = 6420
40 X 321 = 12,840
50 X 321 = 16,050

Answer
34 Arithmetic Made Simple

1. 34 ) 8170 6. 52)5460 11. 324)8748 16. 231 ) 78,540

2. 36 ) 3492 7. 46 ) 2085 12. 425 ) 18,275 17. 842 ) 58,940

3. 32 ) 736 8. 75 ) 3534 13. 116)47,098 18. 180 ) 9426

4. 64)5248 9. 88)6450 14. 235 ) 24,440 19. 357 ) 20,461

5. 24)7440 10. 87 ) 82,385 15. 298 ) 93,572 20. 581 ) 43,400

 MuUiplication and Division of Whole Numbers 35

7.
36 Arithmetic Made Simple

Estimating Products If there is a remainder, then a prelimi-

nary step is required. Subtract the remain-
For each problem below, several approximate
answers are given. None is exactly correct. Select
der from the dividend. Now the product of
the one that is nearest the correct answer in each the divisor and quotient should be equal to
case. this number.
check 18
Let's ) 7341. The answer was
6.The product of 62 times 68 is about:
407 and R15.
(a) 6600 (b)4200 (c) 3600 (d) 8600

(Hint: In estimating products, round all two-digit

(a) Subtract 15 from 7341. The new divi-

whole numbers to the nearest 10.) dend 7326 should equal 18 (divi-
sor) X 407 (quotient).
7. Which is the best approximation of the
(b) Cast out nines for this example.
product of 91 X 82?
(a) 720 (b)7200 (c) 72,000 (d) 720,000 407 4 + -I- 7 = 11 2
8. At a recent convention 138 organizations were X 18 1+8=9 X
represented. Each was invited to send a minimum of 7326 7-1-3 + 2 + 6= 18 -—
50 members but not more than 60. What is the best
For practice, check the answers to Prac-
estimate of the attendance?
(a) 8000 (b) 11,000 (c) 14,000 (d) 17,000 tice Exercise No. 22 by casting out nines.

9. A National League baseball park has 1562

rows of seats. Each row seats 32 persons. The best
SHORT DIVISION
estimate of the seating capacity is:

(a) 30,000 (b) 40,000 (c) 50,000 (d) 60,000 Short division is a method of doing division

10. The sponsoring group estimated that a new

with one- and two-place divisors by remem-
automobile toll road would be used by 30,000 cars bering most of the numbers carried forward
per day. They expected to collect an average toll of and employing a minimum of writing.
SI .60 from each car. What is the best estimate of This method is a time saver and entails a
the daily receipts? certain amount of mental arithmetic. It is
(a)S10,000 (b)S30,000 (c) $50,000 (d) $70,000 easiest with one-place divisors.

EXAMPLE: Divide 3469 by 6

Checking Division by Cculing Out
Nines NOTE: You do no writing other than what
is shown in the example below. You do not
Remember, we check division by multiply-
even put down the small carry numbers
ing the divisor by the quotient, which
which we have shown here as a study aid.
should give the dividend if there is no
remainder. We use "casting out nines" to
METHOD:
do this multiplication check.
Let's check the problem we did previ- 5 7 8*^'

ously: 6 ) 3 4*6^

328 ) 15416 DESCRIPTION: (a) Think, 6 times what is

closest to 34? Answer is 5. 6 X 5 = 30.

(a) Now 328 (divisor) X 47 (quotient)
Put 5 in the quotient over 4 and remember
should be equal to 15416 (dividend).
to carry 4.
(b) Cast out nines for this example:
(b) Think, 6 times what
is closest to 46?

328 3 + 2 + 8 = 13 4 Answer 6 X 7 = 42. Put 7 in the

is 7.

X 47 4 -»- 7 = 11 X 2 quotient over the 6 and remember to carry

154161 + 5 + 4+1+6=178- 8 4.
 Multiplication and Division of Whole Numbers 37

(c) Think, 6 times what

is closest to 49? DIVISION OF MONEY
Answer 6 X 8 = 48. Put 8 in the
is 8. NUMBERS
quotient over the 9 and there is a remainder
Do money numbers change our way of
of 1.
doing division? The answer is no.The only
There is another way of describing the
additional factor to be kept in mind is the
thought processes in short division. It may
use of the dollar sign and cents (decimal)
be familiar some parents who were taught
to
point, which separates the dollars from the
by this method and is worth noting here.
cents.

EXAMPLE: Divide 113,824 by 4.

2 84 56
4)TP?8^ Placement of Point for Dollars and
Cents
DESCRIPTION: Think, 4 into 11 goes 2
times and carry 3. Write the 2 in the quo- When the money number is the dividend

tient. and is written with the dollar sign and cents

Think, 4 into 33 goes 8 times and point, write the dollar sign in the quotient

carry 1. Write 8 in the quotient. and place the cents point directly above the

Think, 4 into 18 goes 4 times and point in the dividend. The correctness of

carry 2. Write 4 in the quotient. the placement of the cents point can be

Think, 4 into 22 goes 5 times and checked because the quotient will have
carry 2. Write 5 in the quotient. only two digits to the right of the point.
Think, 4 into 24 goes exactly 6 times.
Write 6 in the quotient. The answer is EXAMPLE: Divide $282.80 by 28.
28,456. Insert dollar sign and cents point before
By now you know the multiplication and dividing.
and 12 times tables.
division facts of the 11
With a little additional practice you can
28) $282.80
become as proficient in multiplying and
dividing by 11 and 12 as you are in multi- Now divide as usual
plying and dividing by the numbers 1
$ 10.10
through 10.
28 ) $282.80
28xxx
028
Practice Exercise No. 26
28
Do the 10 problems below using the short division
00
method.

5
Answer is $10.10.
1. ) 3429 6. 5)84,931

2. 6 ) 4594 7. 8)90,412 Try another example which has a re-

mainder.
3. 7 ) 7135 8. 9 ) 20,000

4. 8 ) 3653 9. 12 25,974
)
EXAMPLE: Divide $71.24 by 53.
5. 9)6486 10. 11 ) 37,433 Insert dollar sign and cents point before
dividing.
Try Practice Exercise No. 22 using the
short division method. Compare your re- $ .

sults for speed and accuracy. 53 ) $71.24

38 Arithmetic Made Simple

Now divide as usual equally by the 64 girls who went. How much did
each girl pay?
S 1.34"
53) $71.24 3. A haulage truck delivered four loads of face
brick to be used on a seven-story apartment build-
53 XX
ing. The first load contained 3,455 usable bricks,
182
the second 4,823, the third 3,237, and the fourth
159 How many
3,684. usable bricks were there in these
234 four loads?
212
4. The junior boys and girls of the Community
22
Center ordered 267 sweaters with the Center
First divide 71 by 53. What does that insignia at a cost of $7.80 each. How much money

give in the quotient? did they have to take out of the treasury to pay for all

the sweaters?
Since 18 is smaller than 53 what is the
first figure you bring down? 5. Henry's family started on a motor trip across
The next figure in the quotient goes to the country, headed for a destination exactly 2,000

the right of the cents point. Why? miles from their home. On Monday they drove 283
The answer is SI. 34 ^ The remainder .
miles, Tuesday 334 miles, Wednesday 247 miles

of 22 represents ff of a cent. and during the next three days 970 miles. How far

were they from their destination at the end of these

six days?
Practice Exercise No. 27
6. When Eileen's family went on a trip during
Do the eight problems below. Since you are work- the summer vacation, they traveled for 56 days and
ing with money numbers be sure to insert the dollar went a distance of 10,248 miles. How many miles
signs and cents points. did they average daily?

1. 76iS44.08 5. 146 ) $386.90 7. Eileen's father's car goes 14 miles on a gallon

2. 89 ) S706.60 6. 607 ) $4,843.86 of gasoline. At an average price of 890 per gallon,

how much did her father have to pay for gasoline to
3. 57 ) $52.44 7. 85 ) $40.80 travel the entire 10,248 miles?
4. 237)81,395.93 8. 54 ) $50.22
8. The Roanoke Scout Troop undertook to wrap
Red Cross packages. Each package takes 6 feet of
Practice Exercise No. 28 string. They had one ball of string containing 2500

feet of string, (a) Will there be enough string for 500

Review Test
packages? (b) For how many packages will there be
The problems below will serve as an excellent enough string?
review of addition, subtraction, multiplication, and
9. In a statewide team bowling competition, it
division of whole numbers. Indicate which process
was reported that the three leading bowlers finished
or combination of processes should be used and
with the scores of 289, 269 and 246 respectively.
then solve the problems.
What was the average score for these three games?
The Borg Corp. ordered a new duplicating
1.
10. Mr. Matlin, the bicycle dealer, sold 165
machine. The price including spare parts came to
boy's bicycles and 157 girl's bicycles this year. The
$2,852.67. The dealer allowed them $450 for their
boy's bikes sold for $91.00. The girl's bikes were $8
older equipment. How much did they have to give
higher, (a) How much money was taken in for the
the dealer in cash?
boy's bikes? (b) How much was taken in for the
2. Ellen's scout troop rented a bus to take them girl's bikes? (c) Was more or less money taken in for
to camp. The cost was $416.00 which was shared girl's bikes and how much more or less?
 CHAPTER FIVE

ALL ABOUT FRACTIONS

THE MEANING OF A This gives it a value of less than one, such

FRACTION as:

8» 4» 3» 4» 6*

An improper fraction is one in which

the numerator is either equal to or larger
than the denominator. This means that an
improper fraction has a value of one or
more than one, such as:

S 2 1
8' 8» 3-

These are improper fractions because:

Figure 4. (8 ^ 8), (9 -H 8), and (4 ^ 3) all have
quotients greater than or equal to one.
This circle (Figure 4) is divided into An improper fraction is composed of a
four equal parts. To indicate that we are whole number or a whole number and a
concerned with one of these four parts we fraction.
write 4. A number of this kind is called a We call it a mixed number when a
fraction. whole number and a fraction are written
A fraction by definition is: a part of any together, as for example:
object, quantity, or digit.

There are two numbers in a simple frac-

U or It

tion. The numerator is the number on top USES OF FRACTIONS

and indicates a proportion of the whole or
1. Fractions are used to help us find the
group. The denominator is the bottom num-
size or value of part of a sum of money.
ber and it tells how many equal parts there
are in the whole or in the group. These are EXAMPLE: John gets 9 dollars per day to
the parts of a fraction. take care ofall his daily expenses; he may

In our example: not spend more than 3 for his lunch. To take

- . , 1 — numerator 3 of 9 dollars
9-^3 =
means dividing it into 3 parts.

4 — denommator
traction hne -•• -, 1 • ,
3. One of those three parts or 3 is

therefore $3. Ans.

Notice the fraction line. This indicates
that the top number is to be divided by the 2. Fractions are used to help us find
bottom number. what part one number is of another.

EXAMPLE: George has three candy bars

which are to be shared equally by four
KINDS OF FRACTIONS
friends. What part or how much will each
A proper fraction is one in which the one get? (Ans. 4 of 3 or 4 of a bar for each
numerator is smaller than the denominator. one.)
40 Arithmetic Made Simple

3. Fractions are used to help us find the terms of the fraction 2, the fractions are
values of whole quantities when we know equal.
only a part. In dealing with fractions, it is important
that you learn to raise fractions to higher
EXAMPLE: A half bushel of peaches costs
terms or reduce them to lower terms without
$5.25. How much would a whole bushel
changing the values.
cost? (Ans. $10.50.)

4. Fractions are used to help express RAISING FRACTIONS TO

facts by comparisons.
HIGHER TERMS
Rule: To raise a fraction to one that
EXAMPLE: The population of one city is
has a higher denominator, multiply both
60,000. We are told that a neighboring city
the numerator and the denominator by
has a population f this size. What is the
the same number that will give the desired
population of the smaller city? (Ans.
denominator.
40,000.)

EXAMPLE: You can see from the diagrams

5. A fraction always means division.
above that 4 is the same as q. Suppose we
EXAMPLE: | means 9 divided by 5 or 5 ) 9 wanted to find out how many 24ths were
which is equal to if. We read it as "one and equal to 4 or g. How do we do it? This is a
four-fifths." (This is the method used to problem in raising a fraction to higher
change improper fractions into mixed num- terms.
bers.)
METHOD: Since 4 is now the denomina-
tor,we ask, 4 times ? equals 24. The
EQUIVALENT FRACTIONS answer is 6. Therefore we multiply by the
From the diagrams below (Figure 5), it can number 6.

be readily seen that 2 in A is the same as f

in B or I in C or 5 in D and ^ in E. 4X6 24
Now for 8- Similarly, 8 times ? = 24.
The answer is 3. Therefore we multiply by
the number 3.

2X3^^
8X3 24
NOTE: Multiplying the numerator and the
denominator of any fraction by the same
number does not change its value .

Practice Exercise No. 29

Raise the following fractions to higher terms.

1 i = 1
6.

2
*• 2
3
= -L
12
Figure 5.
3
«»•
i
4
= -^
16
These fractions I, 4, h 6' ^ ^^^ ^^^ equal
*• 4 20
in value. Thus, even though the terms of
the fraction ^ are obviously greater than
 All About Fractions 41

REDUCING FRACTIONS TO The largest even divisor of both 16 and 24

LOWER TERMS is 8.

Rule: To reduce fractions, divide both 16 ^ 8

=
2 ™ 16
Thus- =
2
-ANS.
.

the numerator and the denominator by the 24^8 3-

same number.
NOTE: Dividing the numerator and the
The process is the opposite of raising the
denominator of any fraction by the same
terms of a fraction. It is a process carried
number does not change its value
out very often in dealing with fractions
The test to determine whether a fraction
because it is generally considered advis-
is reduced to its lowest terms is to see
able to reduce fractions to their lowest
whether there is any number that can be
terms.
divided evenly into both numerator and
denominator. For example, try the 24 from
EXAMPLE: Reduce 777 to 8ths.
24 above and suppose we stopped at 4, think-

ing it was the largest divisor. In this way

METHOD: Ask yourself, 24 -t- ? equals 8.
The answer is 3. Therefore 16 H- 4
24 ^ 4
A ^^ 3 _
"
2 .

^^^ From this you can see that an additional

24 3 8
division by 2 would be needed to bring it
Suppose you wanted to reduce ^ to 6ths. down to lowest terms.
The divisor would be 4. Why?
4^2
^^4 U 6^2
24 ^ 4
This results in what we call a complex
fraction, one in which either the numerator Practice Exericse No. 30
or the denominatoris a fraction or a mixed Recuce these fractions to lowest terms.

number. Generally we avoid complex frac-

1.
tions because they are more complicated to
work with.
Most often it is desirable to reduce a
fraction to its lowest terms. This means
bringing the fraction down to the smallest
whole number in the numerator and the
denominator without changing its value.
Rule: To reduce to lowest terms,
divide both the numerator and the denomi-
nator of a fraction by the highest number
that can be divided evenly into both

EXAMPLE: Reduce 777 to lowest terms.

24
What numbers can be divided into 16?
2, 4, [8], 16

What numbers can be divided into 24?

2, 3, 4, 6, m, 12, 24
42 Arithmetic Made Simple

METHOD: EXAMPLE: Change ^ to a mixed number.

Write five as a fraction with one as a
(a)
METHOD:
denominator because f is 5 -r- 1 which is
j
?R
the same as 5. 21
(b) Raise the fraction to higher terms. 4 ) 87 remainder = ? divisor is ?

_ , o/^ (Multiplying numerator and The answer should be written 21?

Y -. = -T- denominator by same num-

ber does not change value. Practice Exercise No. 31
You will recall that a whole number writ- Change the mixed numbers below to improper
ten together with a fraction such as 2^ is fractions.

termed a mixed number.

1. 5i
Rule: To change a mixed number to
an improper fraction, change the whole
number part to a fraction with the same
denominator as the fraction; then add the
two numerators and place the sum over the
denominator.

EXAMPLE: Change 2 4} to an improper

fraction.

METHOD: T>^7_4;Soi=4 and now

4 + 4=4. We do this because fractions

must have the same denominator before we
can add or subtract them.

EXAMPLE: Change 65 to an improper frac-

tion. Think, 5 times 6 is 30 plus 8=5.
Similarly with 5 jh 7 times 5 = 35, plus

2 equals 37 over 7. 5 7 = ^
Rule: To change an improper frac-
tion to a whole or mixed number,
divide the numerator by the denominator and
place the remainder over the denominator.

EXAMPLE: Change ^ to a mixed number.

METHOD:
2R
13
41
means 41 H- 3 or 3 Ml
The remainder 2 is part of the divisor 3, so
we write it as 3 and the answer is I33.

Try another:
 All About Fractions 43

FINDING THE COMMON

DENOMINATOR
(1) Reduce the fraction to lowest terms if

not already in this form.

(2) Can one denominator, the largest, serve
for both fractions? If so, raise the lower
fraction.

EXAMPLE: Find a common denominator

between ^ and 3 and express both fractions
with this denominator.

METHOD: Can we raise f to 6th? Yes . Do it.

2X2 = 4
3X2 = 6
Ans. I and f

EXAMPLE: Find the common denominator

between 15 and 4.

METHOD: First reduce j§ by dividing the

numerator and denominator by 2.

10 ^ 2 = 5
16 ^ 2 = 8
Now raise f to 8ths.

3X2 = 6
4X2 = 8

Ans. i and i

If neither of the denominators can serve

as a common denominator then multiply
each denominator by a different number so
they are the same.

EXAMPLE: Find the common denomina-

tor for 2 and 3 and express both fractions
with this denominator.

METHOD: We cannot raise 2 to thirds, but

if we multiply 2 (the smallest) by 3 and 3
(the largest) by 2, both results will be 6. So
raise both fractions to 6ths.

1X3 = 3

Ans.
44 Arithmetic Made Simple

7 5 O
^'
5
6'
5.
12»
i
8 11 i L i
What is the LCD? Multiply 5x3x2 =
10 2 J. 2 12 1 2 2 30. (See alternative method of finding a
common denominator.)

Think 30 ^ 3 = 10;
ADDITION OF FRACTIONS 30
Fractions are called like fractions when
they have the same denominator. 2 X 10 = 20 or
1^
Rule: To add like fractions, add the
numerators and place the sum over the 3 ?
^ = 3T Think 30 -^ 5 = 6;
denominator.

EXAMPLE: Add 3
13
+ 3 + 3
5 3 X 6 = 18 or
18
30
o o o
1+3g + 5 9 ,1 .
= -L Think 30 ^ 2 =
= 8 ^ « \ 15;

1 X 15 = 15 or
EXAMPLE: Add F + c + r II
5 5 5

1+2r + 2
= -5 ,
,^
or 1 ANS.
. 20 + 18 + 15
^--12^ ANS.
^30
30 30
Rule: To add unlike fractions, Rule: To add mixed numbers, treat
change the given fractions to their equiva- the fractions separately, then add the results
lent fractions, all having the same denomi-
to the whole numbers
nator. Then add the numerators and place
the sum over the common denominator.
EXAMPLE: Add: 5j + 7|. What is the
LCD?
EXAMPLE: Add 3 + 7
O O 54 = 58

+ 7i = + 7i
What is the LCD? Think 8, 16, 24
12^ = 12 + li = 13^ Ans.

I
= ^ = Think 24 ^ 8 = 3;
EXAMPLE: Add 12f + ^ + 18i

5 X 3 = 15 = 37 What is the LCD. Think 6, 12, 18, 24,

24
30 That's it!
.

1 = 7^ = Think 24 -H 6 = 4;
O 24 123 = I23Q

20
5 X 4 = 20 = 37 1^ -
~ ai -
~ a-6.
24 c ^^ •^30

15 + 20^|§^jnA,s.
^24 18i= 18|
24 24
33^0 ~ 33 + I30 ~ 3430

2 3 1 21 ?
EXAMPLE: Add o + F + 3^ reduces to yx
2
 All About Fractions 45
Practice Exercise No. 33
Find the sums of the following fractions and
reduce your answers to lowest terms.

1. 7 -r 7 -r 7 9. 8^ + 9i

2. ^ + I 10. 4i + 7^ + 6^
3.^ + 411 11. 8| + i + 3^
4. 5i + 8i 12. 65 + S^ + 8^
5. 4 + 121 + 7| 13. 7| + 8i

6. l + i 14. 22i + 12^

+ 5i +
7. 2^2 + 5| 15. 4| 6f

8. 3s + 5io

SUBTRACTION OF FRACTIONS
In order to subtract one fraction from
another we must, of course, have like frac-
tions.
Rule: To subtract like fractions, sub-
tract the numerators and place the difference
over the denominator.

2 4
EXAMPLE: Subtract -z from -
5 5

4-2

5 3 —
6 6~'87 ±8~'ll
_^^ o _£_
11
"•9
Rule: To subtract unlike fractions,
find their LCD, and then find the difference
between the new numerators

3 7
EXAMPLE: Subtract 7 from 7:.
4 8
7
46 Arithmetic Made Simple

Practice Exercise No. 34 7. George bought a 3^ horsepower (H.P.) out-

board motor for his boat. Harry had a 7 H.P. motor
Do the subtraction of fractions below and reduce
while Jim was using a IO5 H.P. motor, (a) How
your answers to lowest terms.
much greater H.P. was Harry's than George's? (b)

1. 9| - 9| = 9. 15f - 5f
= How much greater was Jim's than Harry's?
2. 5-; - 5 = 10. 15j| - ^ = 8. Alex spent 2 hour on his spelling studies, 3

- = = hour on social studies and % hour on arithmetic. How

3. 7i i
11. lOi - 3i|
much time did he spend on his homework?
4. 5i - 3l
= 12. 8| - 3| =
9. Henry and Joe went fishing. Henry caught a
5. 1(^ - 2i
= 13. 55 - 2i
= bass that weighed 6g lbs. Joe caught one that

= = weighed 84 lb. How much heavier was Joe's fish?

6. 10 - i 14. 8i - 3|
10. Jack is expected to do 10 hours of chores
7. 15 - 7H 15. lOj - e| =
around the house and grounds per week, beginning
8. 12i - 111 = 16. I
- i - i
= Monday and ending Friday, during the summer to

earn his SI 5. 00 allowance. During the first week he

worked I2 hours on Monday, 24 hours Tuesday, Ij
Practice Exercise No. 35 hours Wednesday, j hour Thursday and I3 hours
Friday. His father decided to deduct from Jack's
The problems below will test your ability to add
allowance an amount proportionate to the time
and subtract fractions. Work carefully remembering
he failed to put in during the week. How much
what you have learned about finding common
allowance did Jack receive this first week?
denominators.

1. Lucille's mother is taking an overseas air-

plane trip. She is allowed 66 pounds for luggage.
MULTIPLICATION OF
Her large bag weighs 27g lb. , and her small bag 12^
FRACTIONS
lb. How many pounds is she below her limit?
Multiplying a Fraction by a Whole
2. Hank the center on the basketball team is 675 Number
inches tall. His rival for the position is 65^ inches
tall. How much taller is Hank? PROBLEM: Lewis had a package of chewing
gum containing five sticks of gum. He was
3. Ricky is expected to practice his accordion
permitted to take one stick of gum a day.
lessons 5 hours per week. Monday he practiced I4
What part of the package of gum did Lewis
hours, Tuesday j hour, Wednesday 5 hour. On
Thursday he did not practice. On Friday he put in Ij
use at the end of three days?
hours. How much more time must he practice to
METHOD: 1 stick of gum represents 5 of
make up the required total?
the package.
4. John and his father decided to wallpaper their By addition:
hobby room. They estimated the 4 walls would
require the following amounts of wallpaper: 2^
rolls, Sg rolls, I4 rolls and 2g rolls. How many

rolls would they need in all?

By multiplication: Using 5 each day for 3
5. Ruth decided to bake. She had 6 cups of days, means
flour.Her recipes called for 2$ cups for cookies, Ij
cups for a pie and 34 cups for a cake. How many
more cups of flour will she need?

6. Helen sells eggs during the summer. She sold

PROBLEM: In trimming a playsuit she was
125 dozen the first week, 9\ dozen the second week
and II4 the third week. How many dozen eggs must making in her sewing class, Laury needed
she sell the fourth week in order to have sold 50 12 pieces of ribbon, each f yd. long. How
dozen at the end of four weeks? long a piece of ribbon did she have to buy?
 All About Fractions 47

METHOD: If each piece is \ yd. and 12

pieces are needed, then she requires

12 X 2
10
12
..2
X - = = 24 = a^ ^ ,

yds. Ans.
.

NOTE: In multiplying fractions by whole

numbers, you may write the whole number
in fraction form (as an improper fraction) as
in the following examples:

EXAMPLE: Muhiply 5 X -

7X7
16 = 7
6
Ans.

2
EXAMPLE: Multiply 2 X -

f
x| = |=UANS.

Rule: To multiply a fraction by a

whole number, multiply the numerator of
the fraction by the whole number and place
the product over the denominator.

Multiplying a Whole Number by a

Fraction

PROBLEM: In a litter of 16 rabbits, it was

expected that 4 would be white. How many
white rabbits did they expect to find in the
litter?

lto>
48 Arithmetic Made Simple

Example 4: x of 21 =

3Xy = -=14ANS.
2 ^ 2142 , . .

Is there a difference between these?

2 2
3 X - and 3X3
The answer is no. Therefore complete
the wording of this rule by filling in the
spaces.

Rule: To multiply a whole number

by a fraction, multiply the of
the fraction by the
and pla^e the over the .

Practice Exercise No. 36

Multiply the fractions below. Reduce your
answers to lowest terms.

i
1. 2 X 13. i^
X 30

14. -^ofS

15. 8 X §

16. I X 7
 All About Fractions 49

The whole pie was originally divided into

6 parts. Since 3 of 2 pie is the same as 5 of
the whole pie, then

3''*2~32~6
REMEMBER: In the multiplication of frac-
tions, of means times.

PROBLEM: In a previous example we

referred to a litter of 16 rabbits of which 4
were white; suppose we said 3 of the white
rabbits had extra large ears. How many
rabbits with extra large ears would there
be?
50 Arithmetic Made Simple

This process has recently been termed in Practice Exercise No. 38

some school systems as "division before
Do the examples below. Use "division before
multiplication." In most books and many multiplication" where possible.
school systems it is called cancellation.
1. -X- -ySs^^
7. ix^
The actual process is division.
The effect is that of cancelling or reduc- 2 2 X i
8. i
X li

ing numbers in the numerator and denomi- 9. f X 71

nator before multiplying.
4. g X 3 10. I X 2^
Whatever you call it, the process is a
may be used C 3 ^
A li
X 7i
helpful time saver. It in many O. 4 ,2 11. U
places and can be used more than once in X 3 X
12. li U
the same problem. Observe how it shortens
the work in this problem.
DIVISION OF FRACTIONS
The method for dividing by fractions may
Example 2: ^ x f^ best be explained by the following situa-
tion:
The short way:
Compare these two problems.
1 1
2TT0 = 5
ai^^^ = 9 Ans. 1
X 10 = 5
^
2
1 2
The same answer is obtained when we
The long way:
divide10 by 2 as when we multiply 10 by 2-
16 X 24 ^ 384 This fraction can be The number 2 is the "reciprocal" of the
24 X 32 768 reduced to ? number 2 (which is f).
A reciprocal is an inverted number. We
Divide the numerator and denominator
say 5 is the reciprocal of 5; 3 is the recipro-
by 24 to get 32. Then divide both numerator
cal of 3; 2 is the reciprocal of f; 5 is the
and denominator by 16 to get 2- You see
reciprocal of 5.
this is effectively what we did when we can-
Rule: To divide by a fraction, multi-
celled the 16 and 24 out before we multi-
ply by the reciprocal.
plied.
To say this another way:

Example 3: Multiply
3
3 x - x
5 —2 Rule: To divide in a problem con-
o O 10 taining a fraction, invert the divisor and

Short way: then multiply.

In all division examples, it is important
that you learn to identify the divisor,

= 24 ANS. because the divisor is the number to be

15 inverted.

10 ^ 2 = 5 but 2 ^ 10 = ^ or |.

Long way: Again

3x5x2 30 2.3.
X— 7 ^ .

same as
3.2
—
8 X 6 X 15 = 720
'"^"^^' '^ ''^^'-
3 4
IS not the -7
4
:r
3
 All About Fractions 51

Dividing a Fraction by a Whole METHOD: We have to divide 12 by ^.

Number The divisor here is a fraction

PROBLEM: The apple pie in Al's restaurant

had been cut into eight pieces. There were TO

12 — ^3 or
12
-j — 3.
^ o 's ^"^
,

same
12
as -j-
^ 8
X -
five pieces left. That would be I of the pie.
If you and four friends each ordered one
piece, what part of the original pie would (Invert the divisor
each of you be getting? ^ X I = 32 Ans.
and multiply.)
METHOD: We have | to divide by 5. 1

The divisor here is a whole number. Look at the section of a ruler pictured
5 5 How many
.
c
Y IS the same as 3 X - here. 4 inch divisions are there
1 o in the 2 inch piece?

1
(Invert the divisor and
qX- = -Ans.
multiply.)
i'l»l'l'l'l'l'l'ltl't.l.l.l.l.

I 2

Now take I of a pie and divide it among

5 people. How much would each one get?
Look at the illustration. 4 ^

EXAMPLE: 9 -r
| = ?

15 13 ^^
^^^-

6 ^ •

Practice Exercise No. 39

EXAMPLE: 3 -;- 4 = ?
Find the quotients in the problems which follow.

1.1-^4 5. i ^ 14 9. 14 ^ f
1
2. 1^6 6. 4 - 5 10. 24 -r
I

5 •
1
~ 5 4 ~ 5
^'^^• 7. 5^1^ 11. 15 H-
I

1 4.1-^4 8. 15 ^ I 12. 45 -H
1

Dividing a Whole Number by a

Fraction
Dividing a Fraction by a Fraction
PROBLEM: Bart was repairing his boat. He
bought 12 runnings yards of fiberglass PROBLEM: Barbara had 4 yards of silk ribbon
material which was to be cut into pieces g forbows to put on her blouse. Each bow
yd. long for patching the lap seams. How needed ]^ yd. of ribbon. How many bows
many such pieces could he get out of it? could she make from the 4 yd.?
52 Arithmetic Made Simple

METHOD: We have to divide J by ^. Invert the divisor and multiply.

The divisor is the fraction ^
3
3.1..
—
"7 the same as
3
tt: IS -r
^ )4
X -r- = ^
9
.
ANS.
Dividing a Mixed Number by a
Proper Fraction
4 12 4 1

EXAMPLE: 63 -r x; change 63 to
—3'
In the section of the ruler pictured
above, how many g inch divisions are there 10 1

in a 2 inch section? Count them. , 20 2 ._ 20 ^ 3 ,^

-T^o-~^^^-^^
.

then ^^S.
o t5 d Z
Now divide 9 "^
o = ? 1 1

1
Invert divisor and multiply.

EXAMPLE: Q'="o=g^T=o ^NS.

Dividing a Proper Fraction by a

Mixed Number
Dividing When There Are Mixed
Ntunbers EXAMPLE: ^ -=r
if; change I4 to 7,

The same methods that are used for divi-

1
sion of proper fractions apply in division of
mixed numbers. However, we must first
,3.7 3^4
*^""8^4 = g''7 =
3
14^''-
._
change the mixed numbers to improper
fractions. Note the procedure in these
examples. Invert divisor and multiply.

Dividing a Whole Number by a

Mixed Number Dividing a Mixed Number by a
Mixed Number
EXAMPLE: 15 ^ I3; change 1§ to ^,
EXAMPLE: 5j -H \\

Change 53 to -r-; change I3 to x

15 5 16 ^ 3 ^ ._
-T'^o-T^a-^
. .

then Ans.

Invert the divisor and multiply as usual.

Dividing a Mixed Number by a

Whole Number
1 fk
EXAMPLE: 5^ -r- 8; change 5^ to -^,

16 8 _ 16 ^ _ 2
.

then y-I-yXg-3. 1
 All About Fractions 53

Since: Dividend ^ divisor = quotient METHOD:

Check: Quotient X divisor = dividend
5-| = yXy=15 gal. Ans.
EXAMPLE:
Let's try a more difficult example of the
15 - ^ = 9 same type.

Dividend
/^
-^ divisor
?
= \quotient
.

PROBLEM: Harold spent $4. This is f of

his weekly allowance. What is his weekly
Check: allowance?

METHOD: $4 what
^xi = f= i^ If is f , is \?

Quotient X divisor = dividend $4 -i- 2 = $2. This is r of his allowance.

Try this check with two fractions i = ^ X

I
= $6 Ans.

9 3 9 1 3
or4 -^ i
/ N = /
4^2_4^3_12_.
. .

Dividend -^ divisor quotient

1'3~12"2~^
Check:
Let's find a rule to fit what we did above.
2 y 1-~ 2 To find the whole, when a fractional
3 ^ 3

Quotient
^ X
t
divisor
9^
=
N dividend
amount is

the fraction that

known,
is
divide the
given.
amount by

Can we do the problem above in one

step?
Practice Exercise No. 40
Do the following examples involving division of
varied fractions. Check your work carefully.

1. 2| ^ 5. 2^ ^ i
9. 7f ^ EXAMPLE: If f of a number is 6 what is the
i T^
whole number?
2. 21 ^ 5 6. 3i -^
t 10. 6^ - i

•*• 2'ift
— g 7. oj — 25 11. 2j3 — ^
6^| = 6x| = 21 Ans.
4. 2t ^ 3^ 8. 65 - I 12. 6^-33 1

To check: Take | of 21. | X 21 = ?

Finding the Whole When a
Fractional Part is Given

We shall now discuss the methods of find-

ing the whole when a fractional part is

given. Practice Exercise No. 41

The examples and problems which follow will lest

PROBLEM: If i of the capacity of a gas your ability to work with fractions. The first eight
tank is five gallons, what is the full capac- examples require you to determine the whole when a
ity of the tank? fractional part is given. What is the whole if:
54 Arithmetic Made Simple

1. I of it is 15 5. t of it is 20 14. How many steel screws 5 inch apart will be

needed to fasten a piece of metal 3$ inches long?
2. 1^ of it is 7 6. 18 is I of it

15. One half of a birthday cake was divided

3. I of it is 6^ 7. I of ? = 30 among five girls. What part of the cake did each one
get?
4. I of it is 12 8. g of ? is 28
16. Martin is building a boat for resale. It will
Here are some problems in the use of fractions:
have 60 feet of moulding trim. He figures to use
9. A camera was sold for $45. The advertise-
brass head screws every of a foot. How many
4
ment said this was | of its regular price. What was
screws will he need?
the regular price?
17. A lumber dealer knows that the plywood
10. After 12 gallons of gasoline were put into an
boards he has piled up to a height of 9% inches are ij
empty gas tank, the needle indicated that it was 5
of an inch thick. How many boards are in the pile?
full. What is the full capacity of the tank?
18. Helen is making clothes for her doll. How
11. John has a 14 foot board from which he is to

cut shelves for his bookcase. Each shelf is to be 2^

many ^ inch strips of binding can she cut out of a
piece of material | of an inch wide?
ft. long. How many shelves can he get from the
board? 19. Roberta was told to rule lines g of an inch

12. At a supermarket a 5^ lb. chicken costs apart on a sheet of blank paper. The sheet of paper

S2.31. What was the cost per pound? was 9 inches long. How many lines would she get on
13. On a trip to the country the family traveled the page?

152 miles in 3g hours. What was the average speed 20. A scout troop hiked 12j miles in 44 hours.
per hour? What was the average distance traveled each hour?
 CHAPTER SIX

LEARN TO USE DECIMALS WITH EASE

We have learned how proper fractions may

be used to designate parts of a whole.
Our number system contains another
method of indicating parts of a whole. The
system is known as decimal fractions or
decimals for short because it is related in
every case to the number 10. It has been
previously explained that the word decimal
comes from the Latin word decern meaning
ten.
Thus decimal fractions are fractions
with denominators of 10, 1000,
100,
10,000, etc. However, the denominators
are not written but rather indicated in a
very ingenious way by the position of a dot
called the decimal point
To obtain a good foundation in under-
standing decimals, we should review our
previous discussion of place values of num-
bers.
We have learned that numbers in the
Hindu-Arabic number system have a value
dependent upon their placement with
respect to the decimal point. This is illus-

trated below.

left right
56 Arithmetic Made Simple
 Learn to Use Decimals with Ease 57

(a)Read the whole number as usual. The table which follows will help you
(b)Read the decimal point as "and." learn to read decimals of different denomi-
(c) Then read the decimal part, naming it nations.
according to the place-value column of the
last digit.

PLACE OF DIGIT HOW TO READ IT EXAMPLE

.. 3
First decimal place Three tenths .3isy^

Second decimal place Three hundredths .03 is

100

3
Third decimal place Three thousandths .003 is
1000

3
Fourth decimal place Three ten thousandths .0003 is
10,000

3
Fifth decimal place Three hundred thousandths .00003 is
100,000

3
Sixth decimal place Three millionths .000003 is
1,000,000

Practice Exercise No. 42 11. ( ) two hundred eighty-five

and eighty-five thousandths
In the parentheses ( ) next to the numbers writ-
12. ( ) nine hundredths
ten out inColumn A, place the letter of the corre-
13. ( ) fifteen and three hundred
sponding decimal number in Column B.
twenty-nine thousandths
14. ( ) eight ten thousandths
Column A Column B 15. ( ) twenty-four and sixty-

and seven tenths four hundredths

1. ) five a .3
2. ) fifteen thousand six and b .25
nine tenths .427 Practice Exercise No. 43
3. ) three tenths .09
Write the following numbers in decimal form.
4. ) two and eight thousandths .50
5. ) seventy-two and sixty- 5.7 1. five and seven tenths
three thousandths g 2.008 2. fifteen and twenty-eight hundredths
6. ) twenty-five hundredths h 15.329 3. forty-two and six thousandths
7. ) four hundred ninety-five i 72.063 4. two hundred twenty-three and three tenths
and sixty-seven hundredths j .0008 5. nine thousand twenty-nine and fifteen hun-
8. ) four hundred twenty-seven k 125.7 dredths
thousands I 24.64
O. 10 ^' 1000
9. ) one hundred twenty-five m 285.085
«• 1000 *"• 100
and seven tenths n 15,006.9
10. ) fifty hundredths o 495.67 8. 4t^
58 Arithmetic Made Simple

ANOTHER WAY OF READING EXAMPLE: Which is larger, .2 or .06? We

DECIMALS know that .2 is the same as .20 or ^x)

It is customary in business to read large whereas .06 is Tqq- Obviously .2 is larger

numbers like we read telephone numbers, than .06.

starting at the left and naming the digits in

EXAMPLE: Which is larger, .058 or .23?
order.
Starting with the decimal point, .23 has
2 tenths and 3 hundredths, .058 has no
Example 1: 3.1416 is read as:
tenths. Then .23 must be larger.
three-point-one-four-one-six.

EXAMPLE: Which is larger, .734 or

Example 2. 204.713 is read as:
.62000? Starting with the decimal point,
two-0-four-point-seven-one-three.
.734 has 7 in the tenths place or at least Iq.

At times when numbers are being read .62000 has only 6 in the tenths place or at
most ^.
to another person who is copying them, the
Therefore, 734 must be larger.
.
whole numbers are read as usual, while in
the decimal portion, the digits are read as
Look at the number .62000 above. Is it
larger than .62? Are they equal in value?
above.
Keep in mind:
Example2425.625 is read as:
3: (a) Writing zeros at the right-hand end of
two thousand four hundred twenty-five- a decimal does not change its value.

point-six-two-five. (b) Inserting zeros between a decimal

point and a number does change its value.
Practice reading these numbers aloud
.2 does not equal .02 or .002.
as they might be read in an office, as
2 does not equal 20 or 200.
described above.

1. 5.602 5. 150.193 9. 9421.31 Practice Exercise No. 44

2. 80.3 6. 6412.70 10. 2.0073
Find the largest number in each group of three.
3. 221.07 7. 82,420.37
4. 45.006 8. 78.03245 1. .3 .5 .40 6. .8 .79 1.1

2. .4 .42 .04 7. 53.0 53.001 53

COMPARING THE VALUES OF
DECIMALS 3. 5 .5 .05 8. .04 .0401 .0048

In comparing the value of proper fractions 4. .003 .03 .3 9. 2.91 2.902 .29

it may be necessary to find a common 3.01

5. 1.7 5.6 10. .008 .0008 .0079
denominator to decide which fraction is

larger.
Which is larger, f or jf? At first glance
INTERCHANGE OF DECIMALS
you might not know the answer.
AND COMMON FRACTIONS
Change 3 to jf. It is then obvious that jg Since decimals are another form of frac-
is larger. tions, it is often helpful to change from one
When you become more familiar with the form to the other. There are simplified
use of decimal fractions, you will be able methods for learning to do this easily.
to tell at a glance which is the larger of Rule: To change a decimal to a com*
two decimals. It is much easier to find the mon fraction, remove the decimal point
common denominators in decimal fractions and write in the indicated denominator.
than it is in common fractions. Reduce to lowest terms.
 Learn to Use Decimals With Ease 59

Example \. Change .25 to a common Some of the common fractions are used
fraction. so often and are so closely related to our
25 handling of money in every day use, that
= 71
it
.25 is twenty-five hundredths or -ttt^
is worth while memorizing them.
Ans.
Common
Example 2. Change .008 to a common fraction

fraction.
Decimal
equivalent
.008 is eight thousandths or
Decimal form
8 2 1
Ans.
1000 250 125

Two methods may be used for changing a

common fraction to a decimal.

Example L Change 4 to a decimal.

3 X 25 75
= .75 Ans.
4 X 25 100

Step 1 . Raise the fraction to one with a

denominator of 10, 100, 1000 etc.
Step 2 Rewrite as a decimal.
. .

Example 2-. Change i to a decimal.

.375 Ans.

= 8 ) 3.000
I
2 4xx
60
56
40

Step 1 . Divide the numerator by the

denominator.
Step 2. Write the quotient in decimal
form.

Rule: To change a proper fraction to

a decimal, divide the numerator by the
denominator.

NOTE: We will take up this kind of divi-

sion in detail at the end of this chapter. At
that time you will have a chance to practice
this method with more difficult but impor-
tant fractions
60 Arithmetic Made Simple

The basic unit of our money is one cent.

How many cents or pennies in one dollar?
One cent is therefore one hundredth, Tqo
or .01 of a dollar. Now you can understand
why one cent is written as $.01.
The decimal point separates the whole
dollars from the cents or fractional parts of
a whole dollar. $7. 52 denotes 7 whole dol-
lars, 5 ten-cent pieces and 2 one-penny
coins. Note how these follow our place-
value columns. For the decimal part we
could say 5 tenths of and 2 hundredths
?

of ? To the left of the decimal we would

.

say 7 ones. By this we would mean 7 one-

dollar bills.
Let us illustrate by place values
$435.62. We have 4 hundred-dollar bills,

3 ten-dollar bills, 5 one-dollar bills and 6

tenths of a dollar plus 2 hundredths of a
dollar.
Describe in place values $6758.04 ?
thousands ? hundreds ? tens ? ones
and ? tenths plus ? hundredths.

Practice Exercise No. 46

In the exercise below assume that you are given
change equal to the following amounts in the highest

exact denominations of bills and coins. You are to

indicate the number of coins or bills you would
receive depending upon the specific question.

EXAMPLES:

$ .83 How many pennies? ANS. 3

$ .91 How many dimes? ANS. 9
«1.51 How many half dollars? ANS. 1
1. How many dimes?
How many pennies?
How many one-dollar
bills?

How many twenty-five-

cent pieces?
How many fifty-dollar

bills?

How many dimes?

How many pennies?
How many one hundred-
dollar bills?
 Learn to Use Decimals with Ease 61

Practice Exercise No. 47

Arrange the decimals in columns and add.

1. .3 + .5 + .7 + .8

2. .33 + .7 + .08 -f- .65

3. 5.2 + 3 + 4.7 + .8

4. .53 + .96 + .55 + .84

5. 3.56 + 9.72 + 2.04 + 4.3

6. .079 + .026 + .04 + .085

Check each column by adding the other way.

7. 2.165 8. 25.3 9. 1.4574

62 Arithmetic Made Siny)le

Practice Exercise No

2.

3.
 Learn to Use Decimals with Ease 63

Practice Exercise No. 50 Example 2: Multiply a decimal by 100.

Find the position of the decimal point in each Method. 86.35 x 100 = 8635.
product. The decimal point is moved to the right

1. .15 X .32 = 480 6. 3.5 X .46 = 1610 two places.

2. .23 X 3.4 = 782 7. .1 X .047 = 470

Example 3: Multiply a decimal by 1000.
3. .04 X 3.44 = 1376 8. 6.02 X 25 = 15050
METHOD: 86.35 X 1000 = 86350.
4. 2.6 X .26 = 676 9. .15 x 8.7 = 1305 The decimal point is moved to the right

5. 6.3 X 1.33 = 837910. 53 x .34 = 1802 three places. Observe that was necessary it

to add a zero before the decimal point in

order to provide the third place.

Estimate each answer, then multiply to get the

correct answer.
Example 4: Multiply .086 by 100.

11. 8.2 X 6.5 = 16. 15.25 X 36 = METHOD: .086 X 100 = 8.6. Moving
the decimal two places to the right, we drop
12. .03 X .12 = 17. 250 X 1.8 =
the zero since it is meaningless before a
13. .83 X .94 = 18. 1.75 X 51 = whole number.
14. 75 X .038 = 19. .78 X 4.8 = If we now change the wording of the rule
for multiplying whole numbers ending in
15. 17.6 X 120.2 = 20. 223 x .031 =
zero, it will apply to all numbers including
decimals.

Rule: To multiply by 10, 100,

Multiplying Decitnab by 10, 100,
1000, etc., move the decimal point in the
1000
multiplicand one place to the right for each
In multiplication of whole numbers, you zero in the multiplier.
learned that to multiply a number by 10,
100 or 1000 you need only add to the right Practice Exercise No. 51
of the number as many zeros as there were
Multiply the short way by moving the decimal
in the multiplier.
point.
You remember that 453 X 10 is 4530
1. .04 X 10 = 9. 3.1416 X 10 =
and 852 X 100 is 85200.
Remembering where the decimal point 2. 5.37 X 100 = 10. 850 X 10 =
is in a whole number, even though it is not
X 100 = X 100 =
3. 6.3 11. .0051
written, you will see that in multiplying by
4. 852.1 X 10 = 12. 53 X 1000 =
10, we moved the decimal point one place to
the right In multiplying a whole
. number by 5. .037 X 100 = 13. .040 X 100 =
100 we moved the decimal point two places
X 1000 = 14. .003 X 10 =
6. 8.03
to the right.
7. 16.45 X 100 = 15. $16.47 X 10 =
Now observe the process with decimal
numbers. 8. 6.137 X 100 =

Example 1: Muhiply a decimal by 10. Division of Numbers by 10, 100,

1000
METHOD: 86.35 X 10 = 863.5.
The decimal point is moved to the right Ifit is possible to multiply by 10, 100, and

one place. 1000 by moving the decimal point to the

64 Arithmetic Made Simple

right, it should be possible to divide by 9. 1250 ^ 1000 = 13. $24.50 ^ 10 =

these numbers by moving the decimal point = =
10. 3.87 H- 1000 14. 5 ^ 10
to the left. Let's see how it works.
100 = 15. $125 H- 100 =

Example L Divide 27.61 by 10.

Moving decimal point one place to the
left.

27.61 -^ 10 = 2.761

Carrying out division:

 Learn to Use Decimals with Ease 65

Multiply as a decimal the dividend. You also learned that you

must have as many places in the quotient as
384 no places
you have in the dividend.
X .01 two places
As you might guess, the same principles
3.84 two places in the product
hold true for dividing in similar decimal
Rule: To multiply by .01, move the situations. Let us apply them to an actual
decimal point two places to the left (as if problem using decimals.
dividing by 100).

Dividing a Decimal by a Whole

Example 3= Multiply 583 by .001. Multi-
Number
ply as a fraction
PROBLEM: An automobile traveled 642.9
1 583
583 X = .583 Ans. miles in 12 hours. What was the average
1000 1000
rate of speed?
Divide by the reciprocal
METHOD: Divide 642.9 by 12.
1000 ) 583 = .583

Multiply as a decimal

583 no places
X .001 three places
.583 three places in the product

Rule: To multiply by .001, move the

decimal point three places to the left (as if

dividing by 1000).

Practice Exercise No. 53

Multiply the short way by moving the decimal
point.

1. .1 X 752 = 9. .001 X 282.1 =

2. .01 X 12.67 = 10. 100 X 25.9 =

3. .001 X 525 = 11. .1 X 25.3 =

4. 10 X 1.3 = 12. 10 X 2.53 =

5. 10 X .04 = 13. 100 X 5.684 =

6. .01 X 7.4 = 14. 287 X 100 =

7. .1 X .3 = 15. .001 X .39 =

8. 10 X 293.2 =

DIVISION OF DECIMALS
In dividing with money numbers you
learned to place the decimal point in the
quotient directly above the decimal point in
66 Arithmetic Made Simple

METHOD: Divide $122.95 by 24. 4 24.

1.30. ) 551.20.
$ 5. 12^ Ans.
520 XX
24 ) $122.95
31 2
120 XX
26
29
5 20
24
5 20
55
48
7 (a) Move decimal point two places in
divisor to make it a whole number.
When the remainder is a fraction which
(b) Move decimal point the same number
is less than 2 of the divisor it is dropped.
of places in the dividend.
Since the remainder in this case is ^ (c) Put decimal point in quotient directly
we drop the 7 as it is less than 2 of 24.
above its new place in the dividend.
(d) Divide as usual.
Dividing a Decimal by a Decimal Check your answers by multiplying the
Problem L How many aluminum washers quotient by the divisor.
.9 inch thick can be sliced from a piece of
aluminum tubing 13.5 inches long?
Practice Exercise No. 54
METHOD: Divide 13.5 by .9. In the examples which follow, divide until there
is no remainder. Estimate your answers first.
1 5.
1. 14) 19.6 6. 2.4 ) 372
.9. ) 13.5.
9x 2. 210)4.41 7. 2.3)62.376
45 3. 3.5) 1225 8. .81)46.413
45
4. 60) 1.5972 9. 1.6)117.92

5. 8 ) 16.24 10. .9)7.155

Rule: To divide a decimal by a deci-
mal, move the decimal point of the divisor
Rounding Decimals
as many places to the right as are necessary
to make it a whole number. Next move the At times, in dividing with decimals there is

decimal point of the dividend the same num- a remainder. Zeros may be added to the
ber of places, adding zeros if necessary. dividend and more decimal places found.
Observe that moving the decimal point However, some quotients will never come
one place to the right is the same as multi- out even. For example, try dividing one
plying by 10. You will recall that if we mul- by three. It is, therefore, customary to tell
tiply the divisor and dividend by the same the student how many decimal places are
number, it does not change the quotient. needed or desired in the quotient of any
division example.

Problem 2-. The price of admission to an

The instructions may be to find the
outdoor movie was set at $1.30 a car. The answer to the nearest tenth. To do this,
total receipts for the evening were $551.20. carry out the division to two decimal
places. If the digit in the hundredth's place
How many cars were admitted?
is five or more, increase the number in the
METHOD: Divide $551.20 by $1.30. tenth's place by one.
 Learn to Use Decimals with Ease 67

EXAMPLE: Round to the nearest tenth. Find the quotient to the nearest hundredth.
Original quotient
11. .35)48.38 16. 4.5)6.7943

25.63 becomes 25.6 12. 3.14)457.3 17. 7.3)84.879

87.35 becomes 87.4
13. .28). 2876 18. 9.07)35.748
1.09 becomes 1.1
14. .35)3.1314 19. 7.50)6.913
If you are instructed to tlnd the answer
to the nearest hundredth, carry out the 15. 7.7)63.466 20. 6.7)852.714
division to three decimal places. If the
digit in the thousandth's place is five or
more, increase the number in the hun- FRACTION AND DECIMAL
dredth's place by one. RELATIONSHIPS
Earlier in this chapter you learned how
EXAMPLE: Round to the nearest hun- to change decimals to fractions and vice
dredth. versa. You were told that you would have
Original quotient an opportunity to practice changing impor-
tant but difficult fractions to decimals.
247.541 becomes 247.54
REMEMBER: To change a fraction to a
27.085 becomes 27.09
decimal, divide the numerator by the
129.326 becomes 129.33
denominator. For example,

.1666 etc.
Practice Exercise No. 55 = 6)
I 1.0000 etc.
6
The following exercise will test your ability to
round off decimals. Round off to the nearest tenth. This type of division is carried out to
three or four places or more depending
1. 21.46 4. 18.08 7. 3.12 10. .41
upon the need. Where we are using instru-
2. 5.83 5. 102.39 8. 19.74 ments that measure as closely as a ten-
3. 6.67 6. 24.76 9. 9.98 thousandth of an inch, our arithmetic has
to be equally accurate. We would then use
Round off to the nearest hundredth.
decimals to at least four places. If we can
11. 2.624 14. 4.328 17. 3.275 20. 16.324 only measure up to thousandths, then our
arithmetic work in decimals is carried out
12. 6.071 15. 1.096 18. 25.666
to the nearest thousandth.
13. 20.015 16. 11.255 19. 102.285 An ordinary ruler is often divided into as
many as 64 parts to the inch. Because it
is easier to figure with 10, 100 and 1000,
Practice Exercise No. 56 many rulers are divided into lOths instead
Estimate the answer first. Find the quotient to the of 16ths or 32nds. For general use, how-
nearest tenth. ever, you will find your ruler divided into
fractional parts of 16ths, 32nds, or 64ths.
1. 12.25)471.68 6. 6.23)85.73
In many kinds of daily situations you will
2. 8.5)23.53 7. 7.21 ) 15.97 find yourself going from fractions to deci-

3. 5.4)52.16 8. 64.2)783.29 mal equivalents and back again. Automati-

cally,you think of 4 of a dollar as $.25. The
4. 1.8)4.007 9. 7.1 ) 46.24
employee in a sheet metal shop never talks
5. 4.6)23.745 10. .86 ) 4fi.203 of metal as ^ inch thick, he says .0625.
68 Arithmetic Made Simple

Practice Exercise No. 57

Find the decimal equivalents for each fraction
below and arrange them in the Table of Decimal
Equivalents. Carry your work to four places.

Table of Decimal Equivalenta

(a)H
1 _
~
4
 CHAPTER SEVEN

PERCENTAGE

R
70 Arithmetic Made Simple

Fractional equivalents of percents

10% =
 Percentage 71

MEMORIZING FRACTIONAL
EQUIVALENTS OF POPULAR
PERCENTS
Since percents are really fractions and a
form of decimals, you should have at your
fingertips the equivalent forms of the most
used fractions or percentages. While it is

important to know how to convert percents

to fractions and decimals, it is also impor-

tant to learn to interchange from memory
the most commonly used fractions, deci-
mals and percents.

Practice Exercise No. 63

Fill in the spaces in the chart and memorize it

when it is completed.

Table of Popular Percent—Fraction-

Decimal Equivalents

Percent
72 Arithmetic Made Simple

(a) Finding the size or value of part of a Method (a) by fractions

number or sum of money;
(b) Finding out what part one number is 37^% = = (see Table)
log I
of another;
(c) Finding the value of a whole quantity 15
when we know only a part.
The arithmetic procedures in this section I X
o
^=1
45 Ans.
will for the most part be a review. What you
will have to leam primarily are the new
Method (b) by decimals
terms and how to apply them properly.

37^% = .375
120
Percent of a Number
X .375
How do we find a percent of a number? 600
Compare this with finding a part of a num- 840
ber. 360
45.000 Ans.
Example 1: How much is 40% of 540?

Method (a) Example 3: Find 2% of $300.

Using fractions
Method (a) by fractions
40
40% =
100 5 2%= 2 1

5 of 540 is the same as

108

I
X ^= 216 Ans.

Method (b)
Using decimals

40% = .4

540
X .4
216.0 Ans.

REMEMBER: In order to work with per-

cents, you must convert them first to either
fractions or decimals.
Any percent can be converted to a frac-
tion by making the denominator 100 and
removing the % sign.
Any percent can be converted to a deci-
mal by moving the decimal point two places
to the left and removing the sign. %
EXAMPU: 2: Find SlH of 120.
 Percentage 73

Method (b) by decimals In the same way, we find 10% by moving

the decimal point one place to the left .

^% = .005
EXAMPLE: 10% of $523.50 = $52.35.
$500
You can apply these procedures to figure
X .005
other percentages mentally.
$2,500 Ans.
To find 11% of a decimal or money num-
You can see from the examples above ber — find 1% and 10% mentally and add
that in some instances it is easier to carry them together.
out the arithmetic computations with frac-
tions, while in others it is simpler to work EXAMPLE: 11% of $25. Take 10% =
with decimals. In Example 2 above, it is $2.50, 1% = $.25. Total = $2.75. Eas-
obviously easier to takeg of 120 than to ier than multiplying .11 X $25.
multiply 120 by .375. The method used is To find a familiar fractional part of 1%—
unimportant. The answers will be the same find 1% and divide.
both ways.

EXAMPLE: |% of $250.
Practice Exercise No. 65 1% is $2.50. ^ of $2.50 is $1.25. This is

Find the answers to the examples below, to the

easier than multiplying $250 by .005.
nearest hundredth, using either fractions or deci-
mals.
Practice Exercise No. 66
1. 5% of 140 9. 87|%of552
Do the following examples mentally. Use the
2. 20% of $30.50 10. 70% of 200 shortcuts discussed above.

3. 25% of 832 11. 6% of $1200 1. l%of25 9.

4. 335% of $90 12. 3% of $1500 2. 10% of $9.80

5. 37|%of248 13. 45% of 180 3. 1% of $4. 70

6. 66|%ofS2.40 14. 125% of 120 4. 10% of $52.80

7. 75% of 720 15. 2.5% of $50 5. 5% of 53

8. 62.5% of 176 6. 1% of 974

7. 10% of 1845
Shortcuts for Finding Percents
Mentally 8. 1% of 850

Some savings institutions pay 1% for the

use of your money at three-month intervals. Practice Exercise No. 67
Ifyou had $215 in savings at such a com- Solve the problems in percentage below.
pany, what would you get for the three-
The Jukes bought a refrigerator for $680.
1.
month period?
They had to pay 12% down and the remainder in 24
1% = .01. We can multiply by .01, by equal installments. How much money did they pay
moving the decimal point two places to the
down?
left. 2. The Hawks of the little league played 24
games and won 75% of them. How many games did
EXAMPLE: 1% of $215 !.15. they win?
74 Arithmetic Made Simple

3. Allan's father cams $37,800 a year. His At times, you will find it helpful to
employer deducts 85% for the pension plan. How identify the numerator as preceding the
much is deducted?
word is.
4. Ipswich took a test that had 240 questions.
His grade was 80%. How many did he get right?
Example 2: 50 is what part of 125?
5. EUie May sold $35 worth of Christmas cards.
She was allowed to keep 20% for herself. How much
did she earn? METHOD: numerator denominator
6. The city sales tax is 3%. How much tax must
be paid on the purchase of a bicycle selling for $42?
125 5
7. An automobile is priced at $8720. The dealer
125% off to promote a quick
will allow sale. How
much does he allow?
= 40% ANS.
I
8. Lois earns $142.50 a week. She is to receive
a 10% increase at the end of a year. How much will Step 1 . Write the numbers compared as a
she earn then? fraction.
9. To purchase traveler's checks, the banks Step 2 Change
. the fraction to a percent.
charge a rate of 1%. What does it cost to purchase
$350 in checks?
An example similar to the above could
10. In addition to his salary Mr. Kallipak re-
be worded differently.
ceives a commission of |% on the sales he makes.
How much extra would he earn in a week if he sold
$760 worth of merchandise? Example 3: What percentage is

150 of 60?
Finding What Percent One Number I I

is of Another numerator denominator

How do we number is
find what percent one
of another?Compare this with finding what
METHOD: -^ = -^ = ^2

part one number is of another. = 250% Ans.

2^

Example 1: In a basketball game, the Step 1 . Write numbers as a fraction.

home team made 12 foul goals out of 24 Step 2 Change
. the fraction to a percent.
tries. What percent of the attempts were Notice that you should not rely on using
successful? the larger number as the denominator. In
Example 3, the larger number happens to
METHOD:
be the numerator. This will be true in any
12 is what part of 24?
example when the percentage is greater
12 ^ 1
than ? .

24 2

Practice Exercise No. 68

= 50% Ans.
I Do the examples below carefully.

Step 1 . Write the numbers compared as a 1. What % is $1.25 of $2.50?

fraction.
Step 2. Change the fraction to a percent.
2. 15 is what % of 45?
In such problems as above, there may be 3. In %, what part of 28 is 7?

some difficulty in identifying the numerator 4. What % is $24 of $84?

and the denominator. Look for the word of,
since it is usually associated with the whole
5. What % is 15 of 10?

or denominator. 6. What % is 10 of 15?

 Percentage 75

7. 60 is % of 40?
what PROBLEM: A manufacturing company
8. 3 is what % of 100?
employs 200 machinists. This is 40% of all
their employees. What is the total number
9. What percent is 175 of 150?
of people they employ?
10. What percent is 6 of 200?
Method (a): We are saying, 200 is f of
what?
Practice Exercise No. 69 40 2
40% =
Solve the problems in percentage below. T00^'"5

1. Out of 150 shots in a target shoot, John hit the

200 ^ 3
=
bull's-eye 120 times. What percent of his shots hit

the bull's-eye?

A
100
2. small boat kit that regularly sells for S50 is
200
advertised for $37.50. At what percent of the regu-
^ = 500 Ans.
lar price is it being sold? 1

home to a vacation spot on

3. Sam's trip from his 1

Lake George 250 miles of which 160 miles are on

is
Step 1 Change the percent to fraction.
.

the New York Thruway. What percentage of the trip

is on the Thruway?
Step 2. To find the whole when a frac-
tional amount is given, divide the amount
800 eggs from his chicken brood,
4. Ronald got
of which 450 were brown. What percent were brown
by the given fraction.
eggs? Method 200 is 40% of ?
(b):
Mr. Keller bought a watch for $80. The clerk
5.
40% = .40 or .4
told him he would have to pay an additional $12 in

tax. What percent of the original price of the watch 500 Ans.
was the tax? 200 .4 or .4) 200.0
6. The school baseball team won 16 games and
Step 1 . Change the percent to a decimal.
lost 9 last season. What was their percentage of

wins?
Step 2 Divide
. as previously.

7. Debra earns an average of $9 per week baby There is still another method for doing
sitting. She pays $3 a week for a newspaper adver- this type of example. It is more of a reason-
tisement to get customers. What percent of her earn-
ing process. If you learn this method, you
ings remains as a profit?
will be able to apply it in many more diffi-
8. Frank started a newspaper route with 125
cult types of problems later on.
customers. At the end of three months he had only
100 customers. What percent of his customers did Method (c):
he lose? Since 200 employees is40%, then
9. There were 40 scouts present at a father and 1% would be afe of 200 or 5
son outing, but only 35 fathers were able to attend.
employees.
What percent of the fathers could not attend?
If 1% = 5, then 100% =
10. Spike won an $80 camera in a raffle. He
5 X 100 = 500 Ans.
sold it to Hock Shop Harry for $38. What percent of
its price did Spike sacrifice?
In our judgment,method (c) is the
easiest to remember and apply in doing
such problems. Once you grasp this
Finding a Number When a Percent method, you are not apt to forget it.
of It Is Given
Methods (a) and (b) are more of a rote
How do we find the whole when a percent of memory process and will be more
it is given? Compare this with finding the readily forgotten over a period of
whole when a part is given. time.
76 Arithmetic Made Simple

Practice Exercise No. 70 tity is rounded to the nearest one percent,

Do the examples below carefully.

the nearest tenth of a percent or the nearest
hundredth of a percent, depending upon
1. 75 is 5% of? 6. 80 = 8% of ?
the accuracy needed.
2. 30 is 3% of? 7. 6 = l%of?
3. $50 is 20% of? 8. 12 = 200% of?
Example L Change ^ to a percent and
round to the nearest lo of ^ percent.
4. 200 = 331% of? 9. 150% of? is $30
.2143 = 21.4% Ans.
5. 15 is 5% of? 10. 125% of? is 125
METHOD: 14 ) 3.0000
28 or 21^% Ans.
Practice Exercise No. 71
20
Solve the percentage problems below. 14
1. Gene intends to buy a used bicycle. He has 60
saved $15, which is 375% of the cost. What will the 56
bike cost? 40
2. Shorty sells magazines and is allowed to keep
REMEMBER: To change a decimal to a
10% of the money he collects. Last month he earned
percent, move the decimal point two places
$21.30. How much money did he collect for the
to the right and add the % sign.
month?
3. A pet store reduced the price on a puppy by
$9 which was 30% of its price. What is the price?
Example 2. Change .57167 to a percent

4. The ad stated that the salesman gets 20% of

and round to the nearest joo of a percent.
the sales price of the books he sells and that many METHOD: .5717 = 57-i^c Ans.
were earning $50 part time. How many dollars worth
of books must Fred sell to earn $50? REMEMBER: If last digit is five or more,
5. A basketball team "hit" with 27 field shots increase the preceding digit by one. If it is

for the basket. This was 30% of the tries they had less than five, drop it.

taken. How many shots had they attempted?

6. A special trip to Washington, D.C. was ad-
Practice Exercise No. 72
vertised at $215. This was 75% of the regular fare.
What was the regular fare? Round to the nearest whole percent.
7. Ely bought some tropical fish. Twelve of them
1. 13.7% 4. 96.1%
died in the first week. This was 8% of his total. How
many did he have at the start? 2. 54.2% 5. 91.8%
8. The Eisensteins rented a summer cottage for
$1200. If the rental cost is 5% of the value of the 3. 68.5%
house, what is its value?
Round to the nearest 75 percent.
9. Bob Brady owns 40% of a hardware store. His
share cost $84,000. What was the total cost of the 6. 14.3% 9. 56.44%
store?
7. 76.8% 10. 61.48%
10. Carolyn manages to save 20% of her allow-
ance each week. She put $19.20 in the bank at the
8. 82.25%
end of 8 weeks. How much does she get for a weekly
allowance? Round to the nearest 105 percent.

11. 19.382% 14. 134.682%

Rounding Off Percents
12. 65.716% 15. 79.996%
Percents may be rounded off in the same
manner as decimals. Sometimes the quan- 13. 23.495%
 Percentage 77

USING PERCENTS TO SHOW Practice Exercise No. 73

CHANGES Find the percent of increase or decrease in each
Percentage is often used to show an amount pair — mentally.

of increase or decrease in a quantity or 1. 30 to 35 6. S8 to $6

value. The portion of such change is ex-
2. 81500 to 81800 7. 25 to 15
pressed as a percent.
Usually, problems involving percentage 3. 7 to 14 8. 812 to 83

of changes or variations are two-step prob- 4. 82.00 to 83.50 9. 84.50 to 83.00

lems. They require a preliminary computa-
5. 50 to 75 10. 200 to 100
tion before you can attempt to find the
percentage.
Practice Exercise No. 74
PROBLEM: Last year 200 boys entered the Solve the two-step percentage problems below.
Soap Box Derby in our town. This year
1. A year ago Mr. Hadey's weekly salary was
there were 220 entries. What was the per- 8450. All the employees received an increase. His
cent of increase this year over last? salary is now 8495. What percentage raise did he

METHOD: (a) 220 - 200 = 20

receive?
2. In the first month of publication, a best sell-
... 20 ^ 10 ing novel sold 50,000 copies. The next month the
^^ 200 100 sale was 48,000 copies. What was the percentage
decrease in the sales?

(c)
^= 10% Ans.
3. School bus fares two years ago were 83 a
month. They are now 83.50 per month. What is the
percent of fare increase?
Step 1 . Find amount of difference.
4. If your household rent had been increased
Step 2. Write a fraction of the two from 8380 monthly to 8456 monthly, what would be
amounts being compared. the percentage increase?
Step 3 Express
. the fraction as a percent. 5. Mitch started working as a soda fountain clerk
earning 83.80 an hour.He was given a 12^% raise.
PROBLEM: The first day in the field, the What were new hourly earnings?
his
6. Tom spends 850 a month on his car. He earns
crew picked 400 quarts of strawberries.
88000 a year. What percent of his annual salary
The second day they picked 320 quarts.
does he spend on the car?
What was the percentage of decrease in the 7. Larry made 830 from his paper route, 815
number of quarts picked on the second from magazine subscriptions, 88 from mowing
day? lawns, and 87 from washing cars. What percent of
his earnings came from the paper route?
METHOD: (a) 400 - 320 = 80
8. In a basketball foul shooting contest for accu-

80 racy, Bob dropped in 75 out of 150 tries. Jim was

(b) Who
400 successful with 80 out of 175. had the better
percentage and by how much?
1 9. Out of a junior chamber of commerce mem-
(c) = 20% Ans.
I bership of 950, there was an attendance fo 725 at
the annual convention. What percent of the mem-
Step 1 . Find the difference.
bership did not attend?
Step 2. Write a fraction of the amounts 10. After using his bike for six months, Russ
being compared. sold it for 15% less than it cost. He sold it for 851.
Step 3 Express the fraction as a percent.
. What did the bike cost originally?
 CHAPTER EIGHT

HOW PERCENTS ARE USED IN DAILY BUSINESS

DISCOUNT—COMMISSION- Language of Di»count

PROFIT AND LOSS
List price 1 These terms are used
The arithmetic principles learned in han- Marked price to denote the original
dling percents play an important part in the Former price J
price.
daily business procedures concerned with
This is the amount
the practices of Discounts, Commissions, Discount or I

deducted from the

Interest and Profit and Loss. Reduction [
original price.
All of us come in contact with these busi-

ness practices very early in our lives. You This is the lowered

go to the department store and learn about price. To find net

Net price
discounts. Your family buys a home and price, subtract the
Sales price
someone talks about the real estate man's
discount from the list

price.
commission. At the bank they advertise the
latest interest rates. The business propri-
etor and the manufacturer have to think Rate of Discount
about profit and loss at all times. Rate of discount is the percent repre-
In order to understand these processes sented by the amount of the discount in
which are so common to everyday living, it
relation to the list price.
is necessary to become familiar not only Rule: To find the rate of discount,
with the mechanics of the arithmetic, but determine what fractional part the discount
also with the meanings of the special terms is of the original price and convert to a per-
used in each field. cent.
Rule: To find the amount of a dis*
count, multiply the list price by the rate of
discount
DISCOUNT
To attract customers or build good will, a Example L On sale, a fish tank was

dealer reduces the price of an article or the advertised at 20% off list price. The origi-

amount of a bill. This is a discount. nal tag read $5.50. What was the discount

A manufacturer sells goods to dealers, and the net price?

warehouses and jobbers for resale at Method (a):

reduced prices. The reductions in price

1. List Price
offered to these termed
merchants are
trade discounts. The reductions are from
the prices as advertised or listed in the
manufacturer's catalogs. All such discounts 2.

are generally expressed as a rate or percent

in relation to the original prices.
 How Percents Are Used in Daily Business 79

Step 1 . To find discount, multiply list Rate of

price by rate of discount.

Step 2. To find net price, subtract dis-

count from list price.

Method (b): An alternative method.

1. 100% - 20% = 80%

2. 80% of $5. 50 = ?

4
5^ .50 = $4.40 net price.

Step 1. Subtract rate of discount from

100%.
Step 2. Take this percentage of the list

price.
This second method is often easier when
Step 1 can be done mentally. This method
is especially helpful in working out succes-
sive discounts.

Example 2: A baseball catcher's mitt had

a sign on it saying "Formerly $27, Reduced
to $18." What is the discount and the rate
of discount?

'^
METHOD:

$27 - $18 = $9 discount

9_
27

1
o = 333% rate of discount

Step 1 . Subtract sale price from list

price.

Step 2. Find what fractional part the dis-

count is of the list price and convert to a
percent.

Practice Exercise No. 75

Following are some offerings from the local daily

newspaper. Fill in the missing quantities (to nearest
whole percent).
80 Arithmetic Made Simple

9. At a storewide "10% off sale," Donald's 1. Phil bought swim trunks at 15% off. He paid
father bought a fishing rod marked $29.95. What $4.00. What was the original list price?
did he pay? Disregard fractions of a cent. 2. Jerry bought a portable radio for $22 at a 20%
10. Alex was saving for a bicycle. On sale a discount. What was its list price?
$142.50 bike was offered at a 10% discount. Alex 3. Arthur bought a shirt at a discount of 18%.
had $137.00 in his account. Could he buy the bicy- He paid $18 for it. What was the price of the shirt
cle? How much over or under did Alex have in his before it was reduced?
account? 4. At the end of the summer Kenny bought a ten-
nis racket for $10.50 which he was told represented

To Find Original Price When Net a 25% discount. What was the original price?
Price Is Known 5. Lenny bought a damaged tool kit at a discount
of 33-;%. If he paid $22 for it, what was its original
EXAMPLE: The ad read, "Camera on sale at price?

$45, reduced 40%." What was the original

price?
(This problem is the same as finding the Figuring Multiple Discounts

whole when a percent is known.) In some business situations it is a practice

Method 1:
to give more than one discount. For exam-
ple, a dealer may offer a discount of 25% if
100% - 40% = 60% an outlet buys 100 dozen articles of mer-
If $45 is 60% chandise and an additional 10% if 200
dozen are purchased.
60
is 100% In some other cases, an extra discount is
100
given above a regular discount if payment
is made upon delivery or within a short
$45 X - = $75 Ans.
period after delivery.
Discounts granted in this way are re-
Step 1 . Subtract rate of discount from
ferred to as "chain discounts" or "succes-
100% to learn what percent of the whole
sive discounts."
the $45 represents.
In figuring such chain or successive dis-
Step 2. Find 60% of what = $45.
counts, it should be noted that the second
To check this answer, see whether a dis-
discount is figured on the net price after
count of 40% from $75 will give a net price
deducting the first discount. In the same
of $45. Take i of $75 and deduct. What do
way, a third discount in any chain is taken
you get?
on the net after the two previous discounts
are taken.
Method 2: Remember the 1% method
for finding the whole when a percent is
Example L The A-One TV set listed at
given.
$200. The manufacturer allowed a mail-
100% - 40% = 60% 20% and 10%
order firm trade discounts of
because they ordered two carloads. What
If $45 is 60% then 1% would be ?
was the net price per TV set?
If 1% is then 100% =
X 100 Method (a):
or $75.
20% of $200 = i
X $200 = $40 first

Practice Exercise No. 77 discount.

Solve the problems below. They will test your $200 - $40 = $160 first discounted
ability to use discounts to find the original price. price.
 How Perce nts Are Used in Daily Business 81

10% of $160 = li)

of $160 = $16 second 100% - 25% = 75%
discount.
75% of $240 or J X $240 = $180 first

$160 - $16 = $144 net price. discounted price.

Method (b): 100% - 10% = 90%

This is a variation of method (a).
90% of $180 or ;^ X $180 = $162 net
10% of $200 = lij
of $200 = $20. price.

$200 - $20 = $180. A still shorter way to do successive dis-

count problems is to do all the steps at the
20% of $180 = I of $180 = $36.
same time. Let's take Example 3 above.
$180 - $36 = $144 net price. There are 3 members to multiply: origi-
nal price X first discount X second dis-

Example 2: Take a 30% discount on count.

$200.
6
-66^
j^
X $200 =
-^^240- X - X
o
—Q = , $162 net price

$200 - $60 = $140 net price 1 1

Would you rather have successive dis- or X .75 X .9 = $162 net price
counts of 20% and 10% or a single dis-
count of 30%? Practice Exercise No. 78
You will observe from methods (a) and
Find the net price in the problems below.
(b) that it does not matter whether the larger
or the smaller discount is taken first. The List Price Discounts Net Price

net price is the same in both cases. 1.

Would this hold true if you had three dis-
counts of 20%, 10%, and 5% and varied
the order? Try it.

Is a single discount of 35% the same as

successive discounts of 20%, 10%, 5%?
Which is a greater discount?

Rules: Successive discounts cannot be

added together.
The order in which successive discounts
are taken does not affect the net price .

A shorter way to do successive dis-

count problems is to subtract the percent-
age of discount from 100% and multiply by
the result.

Example 3: A hi-fi set was listed at $240

with discounts of 25% and 10%. What is
the net price?

Method (b) is used here.

82 Arithmetic Made Simple

A farmer may employ an agent or a bro- Example L Bill went out selling Home
ker to sell his crops and pay him a commis- Chemistry Kits H-C-K Company on
for the
sion for his services. a 15% commission basis. He sold $275
A man buying or selling stocks listed on worth of kits the first day. What was his
the exchanges of New York, the Midwest or commission? What was the net proceeds to
the Pacific Coast, uses a broker to do the the company?
purchasing or selling and is charged a com-
Method (a):
mission.
A family selling a home usually places it Sales $275
with a real estate agent to whom it pays a Rate of Commission X .15
commission or brokerage fee. Commission $41.25 or

15
$275 X
100
Language of Commission and
Brokerage $275 X ^= $41.25
These words are used
Sales Volume Step 1. To find commission, multiply
to describe the money
Selling Price
received by the repre- gross proceeds by rate of commission.
Gross Proceeds
sentative for his
Base Sales $275
employer. -
Less Commission 41.25
These terms apply to Net Proceeds $233.75
Commission the amount of money
Step 2. To find net proceeds subtract
Brokerage the agent or broker
commission from sales volume (gross pro-
receives.
ceeds).

The net proceeds is the amount the Method (b):

employer finally receives. It is found by
deducting the commission from the gross 100% - 15% = 85%
proceeds.
The rate of commission is the percent
represented by the amount of commission
$275 X ^= 85
$233.75 Net proceeds

in relation to the selling price, volume or $275 - $233.75 = $41.25 Commission

gross proceeds. It is computed in the same
Step 1 . Subtract the rate of commission
way as the rate of discount.
from 100%.
Except for the variation of terms, the
Step 2 Take
. this percentage of the gross
arithmetic of commission is exactly the
sales.
same as the arithmetic you learned in find-
Step 3. Gross sales less net proceeds
ing percents and discounts.
equals amount of commission.
To find the rate of commission,
determine what fractional part the commis- In doing problems about commission,
sion is of the gross proceeds and convert to a proceed as the salesman or agent does.
percent They like to estimate their commission
To find the amount of commission earnings. In this way they know how much
or brokerage, multiply the principal to expect and it acts as a check on the com-
amount (gross proceeds, etc.) by the rate of putations that may be involved.
commission. Estimate the answer before solving.
 How Percents Are Used in Daily Business 83

Example 2. A real estate agent earned a 8. Clara sold $70 worth of magazines in one

commission of 5% for selling a lot at a sales week and received $14 as her commission. What
price of $22,500. What was his commis- was the rate of commission?

sion?
IVIATHEMATICS OF
Estimate —Consider
amount to be the
BUYING AND SELLING OR
$22,000. Think— 10% of $22,000 equals PROFIT AND LOSS
$2200. 5% is half of 10%. i of $2200 is
$1100. Estimated answer. Unlike the commission-type payment, we
have the earnings of the man who owns a
METHOD: business, he may be the retail storekeeper,

$ 22,500 the farmer, the manufacturer, the whole-

X .05 saler, the supplier of services. His earnings
$1125.00 Actual answer is reasonable. have to be figured on the cost of his prod-
ucts along with the cost of doing business or
"overhead expense" as it is called. After
Practice Exercise No. 79 paying for goods, commissions, rents, utili-

Do the following problems relating to commis- ties and other expenses he will have what is

sion. generally called a profit or loss.

The way in which profit and loss is com-
1. Peter's father is a furniture salesman who
puted is an important part of the arithmetic
receives a 3% commission on his total sales volume.
His sales during the week showed $400 for Monday, of everyday business. In some cases it is

$575 for Tuesday, $550 for Wednesday, $800 for quite simple as when an individual buys
Thursday, $250 for Friday and $1200 on Saturday. one item for immediate resale. In other
What was his commission for the week? cases, such as large manufacturing, farm-
2. A real estate agent sold a house for $125,400. ing, lumbering or any type of big business,
He was not a licensed broker and had to split the
the figuring of profit and loss statements is
regular 5% brokerage fee on a fifty-fifty beisis with
a highly specialized kind of mathematics
the office out of which he worked. What was his
commission?
which needs to be performed by a trained
3. Working on a straight 2% commission basis accountant.
Mr. Molitini sold 45 sets of plated silverware at For our purpose, we will take up the
$95.50 a set. What was his commission? more simple type of profit and loss situa-
4. Leon's mother works in the cosmetic section tions that everyone of us may come in con-
of the local department store where she receives a
tact with from time to time.
salary of $160 a week plus a commission of l|% on
sales. Her sales for the week were $1830. How
Example I. Mr. Rick sold 100 hammers
much did she earn for the week?
5. Allan's father works as a route salesman for a
at $1.00 each. He paid 75 cents per ham-
baking company. He receives a base salary of $150 mer.
per week, a commission rate of 12% on bread and What terms do we find in this simple
rolls and 15% on cakes or sweet goods. His sales for problem of profit and loss?
the week were $825 in bread and rolls and $750 in The cost or first cost is the payment for
sweet goods. How much did he earn? goods made by the businessman before
6. A real estate broker sold a house for
adding on expenses. Mr. Rick's first cost
$215,500. His commission arrangement was 5% for
for thehammers was $75.
the first $100,000 and 3% for any amount over it.

What was his commission?

The selling price is the amount received
7. Floyd sold a car for Mr. Janus for $1800. He by the businessman for the goods he sells.

received $72 as his commission fee. What was his Mr. Rick's selling price for the hammers
rate of commission? was $100.
84 Arithmetic Made Simple

The gross profit is the difference •GROSS COST-

between the selling price and the first cost. • SELLING PRICE •

In this case, the gross profit is:

$100 - $75 = $25

Now we ask what is Mr. Rick's margin of

1^ OVERHEAD »|< FIRST COST
profit?
When expressed as a percent, this mar- k LOSS -4«. MARK-

gin of profit is called the markup.

An unprofitable business. In an unprofitable situation,
Markup can be taken as a percent of the
noticehow the loss is due to the overhead, even though the
cost or of the selling price. For example: goods are sold above the purchase price.

$.25 _ 883% markup if taken on the cost

$.75 ~ per hammer.
Practice Exercise No. 80A
Jack sold Christmas cards one year. He placed
$ .25 _ 25% markup if taken on the ads to attract customers. He purchased boxes of
$1.00 selling price per hammer. assorted cards at 440 per box and sold them for 660
per box. In one month he sold $204.60 worth of
It should be noted that according to mod- cards and spent $13.64 on ads, postage and tele-
em accounting and department store man- phone calls. Answer the questions, doing all the

agement practices the idea of basing the necessary arithmetic.

markup on the selling price is favored. The (a) How many boxes of cards were sold?
reason for this is the fact that commissions $204.60 H- ? = ?
and other selling expenses are figured as
(b) What was the first cost of all the boxes sold?
percentages of selling price. Thus it simpli- 440 X ? = ?
fies such accounting to base profit and loss
(c) How much net profit was made?
on the selling price also. However, many
$204.60 - $13.64 - ? = ?
people in business continue to figure their
markup as a percentage of cost. Therefore (d) What was the amount of the markup per box?
660 — ? = ? markup
we shall practice both.
The previous example is oversimplified (e) The markup was what percent of the cost per

because we made no mention of overhead box?

9
expense. Actually we concerned ourselves TT~ = ? = ? expressed as a percent
only with the cost and therefore could only
compute the gross profit. (f) The markup was what percent of the selling
price per box?
9
^7- = ? = ? expressed as a percent

SELLING PRICE •

(g) The net profit was what percent of the gross

•
GROSS COST-
cost?
$204.60 - $13.64 - ?
= ? expressed
440 X No. of boxes + $13.64
as a percent
sold

U-NET OVERHEAD -»+«- FIRST COST

Profit (h) The net profit was what percent of the selling
priced
_ MARKUP OR _
GROSS PROFIT $204.60 - $13.64 - ?
= ? expressed as
$204.60
A profitable business a percent
 How Percents Are Used in Daily Business 85

Practice Exercise No. SOB

Fill in the blanks with the correct word or words.
EXAMPLE: First cost + markup = selling price.

1. First cost -f- overhead + profit =

2. Markup -I- = selling price

3. Overhead + first cost =

4. Markup less profit =
5. Selling price less profit =

6. Gross cost less first cost =

7. First cost + overhead less loss =
8. Overhead less markup =
9. Selling price less = profit

10. Gross cost = first cost +

In the problems which follow, we will not

consider overhead but will concentrate on
giving you practice in applying percent to
problems of buying and selling.

Example 2: A shirt that cost $18 was

sold by the haberdasher for $22.50. What
was the gross profit? What was the rate of
profit (markup) based on cost? What was
the markup based on selling price?

METHOD:

1. $22.50

= i = 25% based
4
on cost
86 Arithmetic Made Simple

Practice Exercise No. 82

In Problem 1 overhead is included. Problem lA is done as a sample. Before proceeding with Problems
IB-IE read the explanation below. Problems 2-11 will test your knowledge of profit and loss.
1.
 How PercerUs Are Used in Daily Business 87

9. Mr. Allen wants a line of suits to retail for on the selling price?
$140. His overhead plus profit is to be 40% based 11. Mr. Kahn had a good day in his teenage
on selling price. What price should he pay per shop. He grossed $2000. His accountants figured
suit? his overhead at25% of his dollar sales volume. He
10. Mary Dee made copper trinkets and sold 25 worked 372% markup based on selling price.
at a

of them at a price of88^ each. Her materials cost What was his overhead? What was his profit for the
her $8.00. What was her percent of markup based day?
 CHAPTER NINE

HOW MONEY IS USED TO EARN MONEY

nCURING INTEREST To find the interest, we take 5% of the

AND BORROWING principal.

Harold Blatz borrowed $400 from his / = X .05 = $20 or

neighbor. He agreed to pay his neighbor
5% for the use of the money. He promised MOO X _5_ _ ^^"
^
1 100 "
to repay the loan and the 5% at the end of a
year. How much would he have to give his The amount {A ) to be repaid =
neighbor at that time?
This is an elementary problem in com-
In this case, the time (T) was one year
puting simple interest. Problems in interest
and was not used as an additional multi-
require you to use most of the procedures
plier. If the loan had been taken for two
you learned in studying percentage but
years, we would have multiplied the inter-
include the additional factor of time. Inter-
est ($20) by 2.
est is a way in which money earns money.
With reference to time, note that 30 days
are considered a month and 360 days
DEFINITIONS are considered a year in figuring interest
Like percentage, discount, and commis- charges.
sion, the study of interest has its special
terms.
FINDING INTEREST BY
The interest (/) is the charge for the use
FORMULA
of money.
The principal (P) is the money bor- Rule: To find the interest for any given
rowed on which interest is paid. period of time, multiply the principal by
The rate of interest {R ) is the percentage the rate by the time

charged on the basis of one year's use of the Formula: I = P X R X T.

money.
The time {T) is the number of years, Example L Find the simple interest and
months and days during which the money is amount to be paid on $800 at 6% for 3
used. years.

The amount (A ) is the sum of the princi- / = (P) X .06(7?) X S{T)

pal and the interest. 8
In the problem given: = X =
.

/ 1
1
^ T^
J-WU
3 $144 Ans.
= $400
Principal
Rate = 5% / = ?

Time = 1 year
The interest is found by carrying out the $ 800 $ 48
same processes we use for any other per- / = X .06 X 3
cent problem. $48.00 $144
 How Money Is Used to Earn Money 89
Amount = Practice Exercise No. 83 (Continued)
+ $144/ = $944 Ans. 17.

Example 2. Find the amount that is to be

repaid if $500 is borrowed for 3 years 3

months and 15 days at 4% (3 months is

considered 90 days, ^ of a year or ^ = 4

of a year). We therefore find the interest for
4 of a year.

METHOD: I = P X R X T
$500 X .04 X 3 = $60.00

$500 X .04 X J = $ 5.00

4
15
$500 X .04 X .834
360
$65.83

Amount = P + I.
+ $65.83 = $565.83 amount.

Practice Exercise No. 83

Given the principal, rate and time, find the inter-
est and amount in the examples which follow.

Principal Rate Time Interest Amount

1. $575 2% lyr.

2. «200 5% lyr.

3. $350 3% lyr.

4. $550 6% lyr.

5. $400 4% lyr.

6. 6% lyr.

7. $1200 3% lyr.

8. $900 5% lyr.

9. $390 4% lyr.

10. $1500 2% lyr.

11. $600 4|% lyr.

12. $450 2^% lyr.

13. $900 5|% lyr.

14. $370 3|% lyr.

15. $550 4^% lyr.

16. $1200 l5% lyr.

90 Arithmetic Made Simple

Example 2-. How long will it take for money at 6% for 60 days is 1% of the prin-
$1200 to yield $60 in interest at a rate of cipal .

4%? Thus:
Interest on $140 at 6% for 60 days =
METHOD:
= $1.40
$1200 X .04 00 interest for 1 yr.
Interest on $355 at 6% for 60 days =
= U $3.55
iJH = T years Ans.
Observing what takes place we may
derive a useful rule for this so-called 6%
method:
Practice Exercise No. 84
To find interest for 60 days at 6%,
Solve the interest problems below.
move the decimal point in the principal two
1. What must be the rate of interest on $600 to places to the left.
produce $18 in l| yrs.?

2. How long will it take for $500 to yield $60 at

Practice Exercise No. 85
6% interest?

3. What rate of interest should be charged on Using the 6% method, find the interest on the fol-

$900 to earn $22.50 in 1 year? lowing for 60 days at 6%.

4. For how long must I lend $700 at 5% interest 1. $340 6. $111.30
to earn $52.50?
2. $865 7. $91.80
5. What rate of interest is required to produce
$120 in two years at simple interest when the princi- 3. $1450 8. $642.50
pal $1500?
is
4. $30 9. $1.20
6. To earn $24 at 4% simple interest, how long
must $900 be invested? 5. $921 10. $4259.30
What must be the
7. interest rate on $1600 to

earn $40 in 6 months?

Applying the 60 Day— 6% Method
8. How long will it take for $1 100 at 3% interest to Other Terms
to yield $82.50?
9. With $1400 to invest for 8 months, what rate It is often convenient to convert varied peri-
is needed to earn $56.00? ods of time and interests to fractions and
10. With $1300 to invest at 2% simple interest, multiples of the 60 day and 6% figure.
how long will it take to earn $78?

Example L Find the simple interest on

$630 at 6% for 96 days.
THE 60 DAY.6% METHOD OF
FIGURING INTEREST METHOD:
$ 6.30 = 60 days interest at 6% on $630
As noted before, in figuring interest, the
=
$ 3.15 30 days interest (2of 60 days)
banks and many businesses use a 360-day
$ .63 = _6 days interest (]^ of 60 days)
year divided into 12 months of 30 days
$10.08 = 96 days interest at 6% on $630
each.
On this basis, it is convenient to use
Example 2: What is the interest on $320
what is known as the 60 day-6% method of
for 30 days at 6%?
figuring interest.
Thus interest on $1.00 for 1 year at 6% METHOD: $3.20 = 60 days interest at
is six cents (.06). For 60 days it is ^ or one 6%.
cent (.01). From this fact that interest on
$1.00 for 60 days at 6% is one cent, we of $3.20 = $1.60 = 6% for 30 days
I
observe that the interest on any amount of Ans.
 How Money Is Used to Earn Money 91

Example 3: What is the interest on $420 COMPOUND INTEREST

for 60 days at 4%? In the preceding problems the interest was
METHOD: $4.20 = interest for 60 days at added to the principal at the end of the pay-
6%. ing period. This is termed simple interest.
There is another way in which interest is
2 2 =
Since 4% is - of 6%, ^ of .20 paid. This method is used by banks and is

$2.80 Ans. called compound interest to identify it.

Let us say that you deposit $150 in

Example 4: What is the interest on
the Mutual Credit Association. This bank
l2% for 4 months? advertises that it pays 4% compounded

METHOD: quarterly. The words "compounded quar-

.00 = interest at 6% for 2 months terly" mean that the interest is calculated
.00 = interest at 6% for 4 months every three months (or each quarter of a
year) and added to the principal. Each
1
Since l2% is t of 6%, 7 of 1.00 = addition to the principal in turn earns inter-
$2.00 Ans. est at following quarterly periods.
Here are the calculations that would
Practice Exercise No. 86 show how the bank arrives at the entries
you would find in your bank book if you left
Using the 60 day- -6% method try to find the
answers mentally.
$150 in the bank for one full year.

1. $500 for 2 months at 3%

ENTRIES:
2. 83000 for 3 months at 2% $150 Principal for 1st period — 1st
3. $600 for 6 months at 3% three months

4. $1200 for 2 months at 1% X .01 Interest rate for three months

(4% per year)
5. $750 for 4 months at 4%
$1.50 Interest for 1st period
6. $840 for 30 days at 3%
$150 + $1.50 = 151.50 New Principal
7. $5000 for 1 month at 6%
$151 Principal for 2nd period (only
8. $1100 for 1 year at 3% dollars are considered by the
Use pencil and paper for the following: bank)

9. $540 for 90 days at 5% X .01 Interest rate for three months

(4% per year)
10. $210 for 120 days at l|%
$1.51 Interest for 2nd period
11. $960 for 36 days at 3%
$151.50 + 51 = $153.01 New
12. $1080 for 110 days at 3|%
Principal
13. $1600 for 30 days at 2%
$153 Principal for 3rd period
14. $560 for 150 days at 4%
X .01 Interest rate for three months
15. $720 for 70 days at 7% $1.53 Interest for 3rd period
16. $628 for 90 days at 2% =
$153.01 + .53 $154.54 A'eti;

17. $960 for 36 days at 45% Principal

18. $840 for 72 days at 35%
$154 Principal for 4th period
19. $1840 for 63 days at 4% X .01 Interest rate for three months
20. $1960 for 12 days at 1^% $1.54 Interest for 4th period
92 Arithmetic Made Simple

$154.54 + $1.54 = $156.08— principal HOW TO USE A COMPOUND

at the end of one year for $150 at 4% com- INTEREST TABLE
pounded quarterly. There is no doubt that the computations for
Compare this with the result if the $150
the preceding exercises are lengthy and
had earned only simple interest at 4% for
time consuming, even if they are not diffi-
one year.
cult. As you might expect, would not be it
$150 X .04 = $6.00 @ simple inter-
practical for banks, lending companies and
est versus $6.08 @ compound interest
others who have to figure such interest fre-
(quarterly).
quently do the arithmetic each time.
to
With simple interest at 4% your money
Actually, they have made the computations
will be doubled in 25 years.
with the aid of computers and arranged the
With compound interest at 4%, com-
facts in convenient tables called Compound
pounded annually, your money will double Interest Tables. A sample table follows.
itself in approximately 172 years. If com-

pounded semiannually or quarterly, it will

take slightly less time to double itself. Compound Interest Table

One dollar invested at the % given is com-

Practice Exercise No. 87 pounded quarterly.

Find the total amount you would receive in each

TIME l\ PERCENTAGE
of the following examples. In all cases the interest is YEARS 4 4.5 5 5-5 6j
to be computed as compound interest.
1.040604 1.04.5765 1.050945 1.0.56145 1.061364 1.066602
1.082857 1.093625 1.104486 1.115442 1.126493 1.1376:19
1. On $100 for 2 years at 3% annually.
1.126825 1.143674 1.160755 1.178068 1.19,5618 1.2l:i408
1.172579 1.196015 1.219890 1.244211 1.268986 1.294222
2. On $250 for 2 years at 4% semiannually.
1.220190 1.250751 1.282ai7 1.314067 1.346a55 l.:i80420

3. On $.500 for Ij years at 3% semiannually. 1.269735 1.307991 347351

1.. 387845 1.429.503
1.. 1.472:1.58

1.321291 I.;i67852 1.415992 1.46.5765 1.517222 1.570419

4. On $800 for 3 years at 2% annually. 1.374941 1.430451 1.488131 548060 1.610:124 1.675012
1..

1.4:10769 1.495916 1.563944 1.6:14975 1.709140 1.786.570

5. On $650 for 4 years at 4% semiannually. 1.488864 1..564:577 1.64:1619 1.726771 1.814018 1.90.5.559

1.186697 1.956645 2.107181 2.269092 2.44:1220 2.6:10471

2.216715 2.447275 2.701485 2.981737 3.29066:1 3.6:111.54
Problems in Compound Interest 2.704814 3.060930 3.46:1404 3.918-201 4.432046 5.012517

6. If Mickey put $500 in a savings bank at 6%

interest payable semiannually, how much could he
To read the table, find the column that

withdraw at the end of two years and still have $.500 shows the rate of interest that is paid. Look
in the bank? down column until you come to the row
that
7. A neighborhood savings & loan association number of years indicated
that reflects the
pays interest at 7% per annum. If you deposited in the particular problem. This number
$200 and left it there for three years, how much shows how $1 grows in principal and inter-
would you have at the end of that period?
est, when compounded quarterly, in that
8. How much would $1000 earn for you at the
time.
end of three years in a bank at 35% compounded
semiannually?
9. At 55% compounded semiannually, how EXAMPLE: What amount will we find for

much will George get in interest at the end of five $1 deposited for 10 years at 4^% com-
years on the $1500 he received in gifts for his 13th pounded quarterly?
birthday?
PROCEDURE: Look down the 4^% column
10. If your parents set aside a trust fund of
$2000 in a first mortgage for you that earned 6% until you come to the 10-year row. The
and it was compounded semiannually, how much number is 1.56437. This means $1 will

would you have at the end of 10 years? grow to $1.56 in 10 years. If the original
 How Money Is Used to Earn Money 93

amount had been $100, you would multiply In borrowing money from an institution,

by 100 to get $156.44. the borrower usually has to sign a promis-

How would you find the amount for $1 at sory note, a chattel mortgage or other bind-
the end of 20 years at the 42% rate? Con- ing legal form. A promissory note is a
tinue down the 42% column to the 20-year promise to repay a loan on a certain date.
row. What number do you see there? Is it The interest charges on a promissory
2.44727? note are deducted in advance from the prin-
cipal or face value of the note. This is
EXAMPLE: Using the table, how much called discounting the note. The amount
would $2000 grow to in 5 years with inter- deducted is called the discount.
est compounded quarterly at 6%? The principal or face value of the note is

METHOD: Follow down the 6% column the amount borrowed.

and opposite the 5-year row in the table, The remainder left when the discount has
and we find that $1 compounded at 6% been deducted from the face of the note
quarterly for 5 years is $1.34685. is termed the net proceeds and is the

$2000 X 1.34685 = $2693.70 amount the borrower receives.

At maturity, which is the date the loan
Practice Exercise No. 88 is repayable, the borrower pays back the

full face value of the loan. Let's study an

Use the Compound Interest Table to solve the
example of a discounted loan,
problems which follow.

1. John's father placed $200 in a savings

EXAMPLE: Mr. Rieker borrows $300 from
account when John was bom. It has been earning
his localbank on a promissory note for 90
4% compounded quarterly for 15 years.
interest
How much does he now have in the bank? days at 6%. What
are the amounts of the

2. Ten years ago Henry put $100 in a bank that bank discount and the net proceeds?
compounded interest quarterly. If the bank book
METHOD:
shows $190.56, what rate of interest does this bank
90
pay? $300 X X
'^
= Interest
3. Find the amount to which $1000 will grow if
100 360
deposited at 5% compounded quarterly in
1
(a) 2 years
(b) 5 years X-^X^
100 360
18
4
$4.50
(c) 15 years. discount
4. Mr. Jacobson deposited $400 in a bank that
paid 6% interest compounded quarterly. He with-
or by 6%-60 day method
drew half the balance at the end of 4 years. How
much money was left in the account? $3.00 = 6% for 60 days
5. Malvern won $2500 in a TV name contest. He + 1.50 = 6% for 30 days
put it in a bank that pays interest at the rate of 5.5% $4.50 = 6% for 90 days
each 90 days. How much money will he have to use - $4.50 = $295.50 Net Proceeds
for tuition toward his college education at the end of
10 years? In discounting loans, the true rate of
interest is greater than the interest rate
indicated. In the previous example, the
BORROWING MONEY interest paid is $4.50 for $295.50 for 90
When money is borrowed from a bank or a days not for $300 for 90 days. If for exam-
lending institution, there are certain gen- ple, one borrows $10,000 at the 6% rate
eral practices observed, which you should for a full year, the discount is $600. This
know. makes a sizable difference.
94 Arithmetic Made Simple

Compute the actual interest rate on a

payment of $600 for $9400 for one year.
$600 is _%
of $9400? (To the nearest
tenth percent.)

Practice Exercise No. 89

Find the discount and net proceeds on these
loans.

Time Discount Net

Principal Rate Discount in Cash Proceeds

1.
 How Money Is Used to Earn Money 95

Example 2. If you buy an automobile and

the balance to be financed is $8051, the
finaiice rate is 10%, and the length of the
loanis 3 years, how much would the pay-
ments be, and what would be the true rate
of interest?

METHOD: The finance rate is 10%, so

88051 X .10 = $805.10. This is the
amount the finance company or bank
adds to the loan for each year of the loan,
since your loan is for three years,
3 X $805.10 = $2415.30 is the amount
added to the unpaid balance. This means
that you will be paying the finance com-
pany:

$8051 + $2415.30 = $10,466.30

To get the amount of the payments we

divide this amount by 36, the number of
months.

),466.30 ^ 36 = $290.73

However, when we multiply $290.73 by

36 we get only $10466.28 (because we
rounded off), so the monthly payments are:

35 @ $290.73 and @ 290.75 1

To figure out the rate of interest, we must

calculate the average loan; to do this, we
make the following table:

Month Payment Balance

1
96 Arithmetic Made Simple

Example L Mrs. Geiger purchased a TV

set for$100 from the ABC appliance store.
She was to pay the store monthly payments
of $10.00 until the loan was repaid. The
store charges 1.5% on the unpaid balance
each month. What interest rate did Mrs.
Geiger actually pay.

METHOD:
Month
 CHAPTER TEN

MEASUREMENT OF DISTANCE, WEIGHT AND TIME

We leam from history that many different On the subject of horses, in 1500 the
groups of people throughout the world English mile was established as eight fur-
developed systems of measurements for longs. If any parent wants to know, a fur-

their own needs. Using some methods that long is 40 rods.

we would regard as crude, and others that The first approach to real standardization

were more accurate, they devised ways of measurements, based on such variable
of measuring distance, weighing objects, parts of the body, was made by King Henry
judging the passage of time and so forth. I of England. Issuing a royal decree, he
The Egyptians gave evidence of the ear- announced that the distance from the point
liest systems of measuring distance in the of his nose to the end of his thumb on his
building of their pyramids, which date back outstretched arm as the lawful yard.
to 3000 B.C. As might be expected, in the To finally fix this distance or standardize

first systems for measuring distance, com- it, as we say, a bronze bar of this length was
parisons were made to sizes of parts of the kept as the Standard of Reference in the
body. You must have guessed that the 12- King's Exchequer in England.
inch foot ruler comes from the size of a In 1885 two copies of this standard were
man's foot despite the fact that men's feet sent to the United States and later accepted
vary in size from 6 inches to 20 inches. by the Office of Weights and Measures as
Fingernails, digits, arms, hand spans all legal standards of the United States.
became standards of length. Today at the Office of Weights and
A popular early standard of measuring Measures in Washington, D.C., we have
length was the cubit used by the Egyptians. extended this practice of maintaining stan-
It was the length of a forearm from the point dards for all of our units of measure such as
of the elbow to the end of the middle finger. the inch, foot, pound, and others which we
As you can see, the size of any cubit would shall learn to use in this chapter,
depend upon the size of the forearm of the
man doing the measuring. It was not very
DENOMINATE NUMBERS
standardized.
Another criterion of measurement, in In every part of our daily living we use
colonial America, was the hand. It referred numbers to tell us about quantities or
to the width of a man's hand with the fin- amounts such as 3 boys, 4 cows, 5 trees.
gers together. The heights of horses were This is the application of numbers to
measured in hands. It would be stated that objects that we name or describe. However,
a particular horse stood 15 hands high. If a denominate number is one that refers
the man doing the measuring had large, to a unit of measurement that has been
wide hands, he might claim to be buying a established by law or general usage. 1

small horse by his standards, although the quart, 2 inches, 5 pounds, 60 degrees are
horse could have been much above average examples of denominate numbers.
height. This caused a good deal of bicker- A compound denominate number is

ing. Today, a hand equals 4 inches. one that consists of two or more units of the
98 Arithmetic Made Simple

same kind, as 1 foot 2 inches, 3 hours 10 Although the others are used for special
minutes, pound 3 ounces.
1 purposes and will not be studied here, you
Denominate numbers are used to express should at leastknow what they are and how
measurements of many kinds, such as: they are used. They are:
(a) Weight (pounds) (a) Troy — for weighing gold, silver, and
(b) Time (seconds) other precious metals.
(c) Linearity (feet) (b) Apothecaries' —used by druggists
(d) Temperature (degrees) for weighing chemicals.
(e) Area (square inch) (c) Metric —used in scientific work.
(f) Volume (cubic yards)

(g) Angularity (degrees) Liquid Measure

(h) Liquids (quarts)
2 measuring cups 1 pint (pt.)
This classification is not complete. Sys-
16 fluid ounces (fl. oz. 1 pint (pt.)
tems of currency (dollars and cents, pounds
4 gills (gi.) 1 pint (pt.)
sterling and pence, etc.) as well as the vari-
2 pints 1

ous foreign systems of weights and mea- 1 quart (qt.)

32 fluid ounces/
sures are also denominate numbers.
4 quarts 1 gallon (gal.)
To gain facility in working out arithmetic
3I2 gallons 1 barrel (bbl.)
problems involving denominate numbers, it
2 barrels 1 hogshead
is necessary to know the most common
(hhd.)
tables of measures such as are given here
for reference. Take note of the abbrevia- Dry Measure
tions since they are given in the manner in =
2 pints (pt.) 1 quart (qt.)
which the values are usually written. = peck (pk.)
8 quarts 1

4 pecks = 1 bushel (bu.)

TABLES OF MEASURES 2o bushels = 1 barrel (bbl.)

Linear Measure —Measures Lengths Units of Counting

or Distances 12 units = 1 dozen (doz.)

12 inches (in. = or ") 1 foot (ft. or ') 12 dozen 1 , . .

144 units! = 1 ^"^^ <^-*

3 feet or 36 inches = 1 yard (yd.)
24 sheets = 1 quire
62 yards or I62 feet = 1 rod (rd.)
220 yards or g mile = 1 furlong (fur.
480 sheets = 1 ordinary ream
320 rods or 8 furlongs = 1 mile (mi.) 500 sheets = 1 printer's ream
1760 yards = 1 mile
Surface Measure or Square Measure
5280 feet = 1 mile
144 square inches 1 square foot
Weight Measures (sq. in.) (sq. ft.)

9 square feet 1 square yard

There are four different measures of weight.
(sq. yd.)
The common one is the avoirdupois. square rod
3O4 square yards 1

16 ounces (oz.) 1 pound (lb.) (sq. rd.)

100 pounds hundredweight (cwt.) 160 square rods

1
[
=1 acre (A.)
2000 pounds 1 ton or short ton 43,560 square feet
112 pounds 1 cwt. old measure 640 acres 1 square mile
2240 pounds 1 long ton (sq. mi.)
 Measurement of Distance, Weight, and Time 99

Volume Measure or Cubic Measure Practice Exercise No. 91

1728 cubic inches = 1 cubic foot Fill in ihe missing numbers. Use the preceding
tables if necessary.
(cu. in.) (cu. ft.)

27 cubic feet = 1 cubic yard 1. 1 ft. = ( ) inches

(cu. yd.) 2. ( ) ounces = 1 lb.

128 cubic feet = 1 cord of wood (cd.)

3. 1 peck = qt.
( )

4. 1 long ton = ( ) lb.

Time Measure 5. ( ) bushels = 1 barrel

60 seconds (sec.) = 1 minute (min.) 6. ( ) pints = 1 quart

60 minutes = 1 hour (hr.) 7. 1 dozen = ( ) units

24 hours = 1 day (da.) 8. 1 barrel = ( ) gallons

7 days = 1 week (wk.) =
9. ) sheets 1 quire
30 days = 1 month (mo.) (for
(

10. 1 pint = ( )
gills
interest, etc.)

360 days = 1 year (yr.) (for 11. 1 ream = ( ) sheets

interest calculations) 12. 1 rod = ( )

yards
12 months 1
=
= 1 year (yr.) 13. ( ) seconds 1 min.
365 days J
14. 1 week = days
366 days = 1 leap year
( )

10 years = 1 decade 15. 1 leap yr. = ( ) days

100 years = 1 century (C.) 16. ( )

yards = 1 mile

17. 1 ton = ( ) hundredweight

18. 1 gross = ( ) dozen

Angle Measure
19. 1 yd. = feet
60 seconds (") = 1 minute (')
( )

= 20. ( ) fluid ounces = 1 pint

60 minutes 1 degree (°)

90 degrees = 1 right angle (|_)

21. 1 bushel = ( )
pecks

360 arc degrees = 4 right angles 22. 1 printer's ream = ( ) sheets

360 angle degrees = 1 circumference (O) 23. 1 mile = ( ) rods

24. ( ) units = 1 gross

EQUATING DENOMINATE 25. 1 hour = ( ) minutes

NUMBERS 26. ( ) in. = 1 yd.

Every measurement has many units that are 27. ( ) days = 1 week
related to each other. For instance, in lin- 28. lb. = 1 ton
( )

ear measure we use inches, feet, yards,

29. 1 day = ( ) hours
rods and miles. In any situation you would
use the units that are best suited to the dis- 30. 1 gal. = ( ) quarts

tances concerned. You would measure dis- 31. 1 year = ( ) days

tances between cities in miles. You would 32. ( )

ft. = 1 rod
measure the distance from the top to the =
33. ( ) lb. 1 cwt.
bottom of this page in inches Therefore it is
.

34. 1 qt. = ( ) fluid ounces

important that you learn thoroughly the val-
ues and relationships of the most common 35. 1 mile = ( ) feet

units in the tables. 36. 1 decade = ( ) years

100 Arithmetic Made Simple

Name some common object that is measured in down 2 qt. and carry 1 gal. to the next
the following units: column. Adding gives 7 gal.

37. ounces 42. gallon 47. miles

38. feet 43. quart 48. barrel Practice Exercise No. 92

39. inches 44. quire 49. ton
Add the denominate numbers which follow.

40. bushel 45. century 50. dozen

1. 4 ft. 7 in. 6. 6 bu. 2 pk.
41. gill 46. month 3 ft. 7 in. 5 bu. 1 pk.

2. 23 lb. 12 oz. 7. 5 lb. 9 oz.

APPLYING THE FOUR 4 lb. 6 oz. 2 lb. 6 oz.

FUNDAMENTAL OPERATIONS 3. 4 qt. 1 pt. 8. 3 pt. 12 fl. oz.

WITH DENOMINATE NUMBERS 12 qt. 1 pt. 1 pt. 8 fl. oz.

4. 4 hr. 20 min. 9. 15 ft. 10 in.

Addition of Denominate Numbers 2 hr. 45 min. 3 ft. 9 in.

In adding denominate numbers, the pro- 5. 2 yd. 9 in. 10. 6 hr. 20 min. 10 sec.

cedure is the same as was used in learning 1 yd. 1 ft. 5 in. 7 hr. 40 min. 35 sec.

fundamental addition with place values, 2 hr. 12 min. 40 sec.

except that the carrying or regrouping must

fit the measure.
Subtraction of Denominate Numbers

Example 1: Add 2 ft. 8 in. and 1 ft. 6 in. In the of denominate num-
subtraction
bers we use
method of exchange or
the
METHOD:
borrowing in the same way as for ordinary
1 carry numbers, except that the exchange must fit
2 ft. 8 in. the measure.
+ 1ft. 6 in.

4 ft. 2 in. Ans.

EXPLANATION: List like units under each

other. Add the inches. Change 14 inches to

1 ft. 2 in.

Put down the 2 inches, carry the 1 to the

foot column and add this column.

Example 2: Add 4 gal. 3 qt. 1 pt. and 2

gal. 2 qt. 1 pt.

METHOD:
1 carry 1 carry

4 gal. 3 qt. 1 pt.

-f- 2 gal. 2 qt. 1 pt.

7 gal. 2 qt. pt. Ans.

EXPLANATION: List like units under each

other. Add the pints. Since 2 pints = 1
quart, we have zero (0) pt. and carry 1 qt.

to the next column. Add the quart column

which is 6 qt. Change to 1 gal. 2 qt. Put
 Measurement of Distance, Weight, and Time 101

EXPLANATION: Exchange 1 ft. for 12 in.

and add it to the 4 in. Then subtract as

usual.
NOTE: In the example the exchanges are
shown, but you should learn to make them
without noting them on paper.

Practice Exercise No. 93

Subtract and check by addition.

1. 10 wk. 5 da.
— 4 wk. 6 da.

2. 12 yr. 3
102 Arithmetic Made Simple

EXPLANATION: 13 hr. -^ 3 = 4 with 1 reports it will be 1 hour 50 minutes late. What time
remainder. Change hr. to 60 min. and will it arrive?
hr. 1

add to 30 min. 90 -^ 3 = 30 min. 6. Jim caught five fish varying in weight from 1

pound 4 pounds. Altogether the fish weighed 12

to
Example 2: Divide 38 lb. 10 oz. by 4. pounds 8 ounces. What is the average weight per
fish?
METHOD:
9 lb. l(^oz. Ans. 7. Sheila decided to make curtains for four equal
size windows. How much length can she allow for
4) 38 lb. 10 oz.
she has 10 yards 8 inches of cloth?
each window if
36
2 lb. + 10 oz. = 42 oz.
8. A vegetable dealer bought eight bushels of
fresh string beans. Each weighed 8 lb. 10 oz. What
EXPLANATION: should be the total weight of the delivery?

(1) Divide into pounds.

9. John, Bob and Joe went berry picking and
(2) Change remainder to ounces and add. agreed to share equally all they picked. When they
(3) Divide into ounces, change remain- finished they had a total of 2 pecks and 2 quarts.
der into fraction. How much did each one receive?

10. Mr. Bimler calculated that it took on

Practice Exercise No. 95 the average 3 hours and 15 minutes to complete a
custom-made suit in his shop. How many eight-hour
Divide the denominate numbers which follow.
work days must he allow to complete two dozen such
1. 2 ) 3 hr. 6 min. 6. 5 ) 42 min. 30 sec. suits?

2. 4 ) 10 yd. 8 in. 7. 8 ) 12 qt. 1 pt.

Changing from Higher to Lower
3. 3) lift. Sin. 8. 3 ) 4 qt. 12 fl. oz. Units of Denominate Numbers

4. 2)5pt. llfl. oz. 9. 4) 111b. 2 oz. In changing from yards to feet, quarts to

5. 6 ) 12 bu. 6 pk. 10. 2 ) 1 yd. 26 in.

pints or pounds to ounces you change from
higher value units to lower value units of
denominate numbers.
Practice Exercise No. 96
Rule: To change from higher to
The following problems will test your skill in
working with denominate numbers. lower denominate number units, multi-
ply the higher unit by the proper equivalent
1. Joan did babysitting for her neighbor at $2.75
How factor.
an hour. She sat from 7:30 P.M. to 11:50 P.M.
much did she earn?

One
Example L Change 4^ yards to inches.
2. Mrs. Abemathy bought two squash.
weighed 3 lb. 12 oz. and the other weighed 4 lb. 10 METHOD: Think, ? inches = 1 yard.
oz. At 300 per lb. , how much did she have to pay for
36 in. = 1 yd.
both squash?
Therefore, 4^ X 36 =
3. Dick bought 5 gallons of paint for his porch.
When he finished he had 1 gallon 3 quarts left. How 18
much paint did he use?

4. Norm worked on his science project for 2 I

X y= 162 in. Ans.

hours 20 minutes on Monday. On Tuesday he

worked for 1 hour 45 minutes. On Thursday he
spent 35 minutes on it. How much time did he
Example 2: Change 62 gallons to pints.
spend on the project?

The afternoon train is due to arrive at the

5. METHOD: Think, ? pints = 1 gallon.

Newark station at 2:35 P.M. The station master 8 pt. = 1 gal.

 Measurement of Distance, Weight, and Time 103

Therefore, 62 X 8 = 20. 96 in. = yd.

4 21. 34 oz. = lb.

X g = 52
Y pt. Ans. 22. 110 min. = hr.

1 23. oz. = i
lb.

Rule: To change from lower to 24. ton = 500 lbs.

higher denominate number units, di-

25. =
To '"''fi ft.

vide the lower unit by the proper equivalent

26. 48 n. oz. = qt.
factor.
27. 24 in. = yd.

Example L How many tons is an auto- 28. 48 in. = ft.

mobile weighing 3600 lb. ?

29. qts. = 10 gal.

METHOD: Think, ? pounds = 1 ton.

30. pt- = fl- oz.
2000 lb. = 1 ton
2

3600 36 9 ,4 A
Therefore,
2000
= 20 = 5= li^«"ANS.
THE METRIC SYSTEM OF
MEASUREMENTS
In the beginning of our study of denominate
Practice Exercise No. 97
numbers, we dealt with various units of
Fill in the blanks below.
measure based on the early English system
1. 2 ft. 8 in. = in. of measurements and modifications of the
2. 5 qt. 20 n. oz. = fl. oz.
practices of many ancient people.
Coming closer to modem times, in
3. 85 min. = hr. min.
France and in other parts of the world as
4. 29 pt. = gal. pt. well as in the United States, a different sys-

5. 40 oz. = lb.
tem of measurements has been introduced.
It is called the metric system. This system
6. 3 gal. 1 pt. = pt.
was specifically designed for convenience
7. 4| yd. = ft. and efficiency of use rather than as an out-
8. 14 pk. = growth of ancient practices based on the
bu pk.
sizes of parts of the body.
9. f yd. = in.
The metric system was devised in 1799
10. 5 hr. = min. in France. The French government had

11. 6qt. 1 pt. = engineers calculate how far it was from the
qt.
North Pole to the Equator and then took one
12. oz. = 5 lb.
ten-millionth of this length and called it a
13. 3 pt. 8 fl. oz. = pt. meter. By design, it is a decimal system in

14. 4 bu. 3 pk. = bu.

which the key units of measurement are
related to each other by multiples of 10. In
15. lb. = 10 oz.
the metric system many computations can
16. 4 pk. = qt. be easily performed just by moving the dec-
= imal point to the left or right.
17. 8nl. ft.

Another advantage of the metric system

18. 1 ft. 3 in. = ft.
is that the measures of length, volume and

19. 6 yd. 2 ft. = yd. weight are related to each other.

104 Arithmetic Made Simple

LINEAR MEASURE IN THE both scales on it. You may observe some
METRIC SYSTEM relationships which shall be pointed out in
the sections which follow (Figure 14).
As noted, the meter (M.) is the prime unit With the information given thus far, you
of length in the metric system. A meter, may note that to change 584 meters to cen-
which is a little longer than our yard, is timeters, you would merely add two zeros
39.37 inches. and get 58,400 centimeters.
The meter is further divided into ten To change 763 centimeters to meters,
parts or decimeters (Figure 12). you need only move the decimal point 2
Each decimeter is further divided into places to the left to give 7.63 meters.
ten parts called centimeters. There are Compare this last computation with our
100 centimeters in a meter (Figure 13). system. To change 763 inches to yards, you
Each centimeter is further divided into have to divide by 36. Of the two processes,
ten parts called millimeters. There are which appears easier?
1000 millimeters in a meter. In the larger units the metric system uses
It may help you to memorize these mea- the kilometer which is equal to 1000
sures if you recognize that the Latin pre- meters. This is the closest measure to our
fixes offer a valuable aid in understanding mile and is about I of a mile. In foreign
them. For example, deci means 10, centi countries the maps are marked in kilome-
means 100 and milli means j^ (not 1000). ters and you will now find the speedometers
The prefix for 1000 in this system is kilo. of cars calibrated in "kilometers per hour"
Examine the section of a ruler which has as well as "miles per hour."

Figure 12 One decimeter.

! CEMTIMETER
llllllllll

Figure 13

/ *cm
I
-^
Measurement of Distance, Weight, and Time 105

METRIC TABLES OF MEASURES

106 Arithmetic Made Simple

Measuring Weights by the Metric gms (approx.) and 1 oz. = 28.4 gms
System (approx.).

In the metric system, the unit of weights is

the gram. Practice Exercise No. 99

The gram {gm.) is equal to the weight of Solve the following problems.
a cube of water that cm. on an edge
is 1
1. If Peter weighs 140 lb., how many kilograms
(Figure 15). It is equal to .035 oz. in our would he weigh in the French metric system?
units of weight (avoirdupois). 2. If you were in a foreign country where the

Icu.emefwafw
metric system is used, what would you ask for if you
I gramwitght
wanted approximately: (a) 1 lb. of butter, (b) 2 lb. of
apples, (c) 1 oz. of cinnamon, (d) 5 lb. of potatoes?
3. A one-half oz. letter costs 70 to airmail in
Figure 15. 1 cu. cm. of water equals 1 gm. weight.
some foreign countries. What is the weight in

grams?
Weights in grams and fractions are used 4. In a 2 oz. package, how many pills will you
in measuring out dosages of medicines. get if each pill weighs 200 milligrams?
This system is used extensively by pharma- 5. A foreign airline allows a passenger to take

cists. The centigram is .01 gram and the aboard 25 kg. of luggage without extra charge.
Approximately how many pounds is that?
milligram equals .001 gram.
Larger metric-weight units are used by
the housewife and in industry in Europe. FIGURING CLOCK TIME IN
The kilogram (kg.), which equals 1000
DIFFERENT PARTS OF THE
COUNTRY
grams, is used more than any other unit of
weight and is equal to 2.2 pounds. Clock time is related to positions of the
In our system of weights, 1 lb. = 454 sun. It is also referred to as solar time. We
PACIFIC TIME MOUNTAIN TIME CENTRAL T/ME EASTERN TIME

Figure 16
 Measurement of Distance, Weight, and Time 107

say that the sun rises in the east and sets in Hou> to Figure Travel and Other
the west. We know that it is the earth that Time Differences
rotates.
Example 1: A plane left New York at
We say that it is 12 o'clock M (12 noon) 2:30 P.M. for Chicago. It arrived there non-
when the sun is directly overhead. This is stop, 4 hours 40 minutes later. What time
at the place when the sun crosses its merid- was it in Chicago?
ian. Thus, if it is noon where you are, it is
METHOD:
afternoon (P.M. or post meridian) at all
places east of you, because the sun had 1. 2:30 P.M., E.S.T. = 1:30 C.S.T.
been overhead in these places before it 2. 1:30
reached you. To the west of you, it is -I- 4:40
forenoon (A.M. or ante meridian), because 5:70 = 6:10 P.M.
the sun is not yet overhead in these places.
Step 1 . Change the starting time to the
Because the earth turns 360 degrees in
time it would be in the zone where the trip
24 hours, places that are 15 degrees (^ of
ends.
360°) to the east of you, should be one hour
Step 2 . Add the time of the trip.
ahead of your time. Places 15° to the west
If a trip starts and ends in the same time
of you, should be one hour earlier (behind)
zone, omit Step 1.
than your time.
If you take a plane trip across the United Example 2: A plane left Chicago at 3:30
States you must set your watch ahead or A.M., C.S.T, and arrived in New York at
back at different locations to obtain the
6:50 A.M., E.S.T. Find the total time in the
proper time. air?
If you start from New York and travel
METHOD:
west to San Francisco, you would set your
watch back an hour, three separate times. 1. 3:30 A.M., C.S.T. = 4:30 a.m.. E.S.T.
The map (Figure 16) will show you that 2. 6:50
the United States is divided into four time - 4:30
zones, each approximately 15° of longitude 2 hr. 20 min.
in width. The four time zones are Eastern,
Step 1 . Convert time of leaving to time it
Central, Mountain, and Pacific.
would be in zone where the trip ends.
Every place in each of these zones uses Step 2 Find. the difference.
the same standard time. For example, in
the Eastern time zone. New York, Cleve-
land and Miami have the same time.
Practice Exercise No. 100
A time zone to the east is one hour ahead
of its neighboring zone to the west . Use the map (Figure 16) for help if needed.

For example. New York in the Eastern 1. When it is 4 P.M. in Salt Lake City, what time
zone is one hour ahead of Chicago in the is it in (a)New Orleans, (b) Washington, D.C., (c)
Central zone. Seattle, (d) San Francisco, (e) Denver?

A time zone to the west is one hour earlier 2. You set your watch in New York on standard
time and take a plane to Los Angeles. To be in
(behind) than its neighboring zone to the
keeping with Los Angeles time, will you set the time
east.
ahead or back and how much?
As an example, Denver in the Mountain 3. If Denver is 2 hours behind New Jersey time,
zone is one hour earlier than Chicago in the approximately how many degrees of longitude is

Central zone. there between Denver and New Jersey?

108 Arithmetic Made Simple

4. The radio announcer states that the President popular. For many years now, the armed
will speak on a nationwide hook-up at 10:30 P.M., services of the United States have kept time
Eastern Standard Time. What time must people in
by the 24-hour clock.
Seattle, Washington tune in?
In working the 24-hour clock, time is
5. The Rose Bowl game starts at 2 P.M., Pacific
indicated as a four-place number, and
Standard Time. If you are in Delaware what time
obviously there is no need to indicate A.M.
will you tune in on your television set to see the

kickoff?
or P.M.

6. A Chicago to San Francisco plane leaves With the 24-hour clock, we start at mid-
Chicago at 9:30 A.M., Central Standard Time. The night which is the "zero hour" or 0000. 1
trip takes seven hours and fifteen minutes. Using A.M. is 0100 and 2 A.M. is 0200. Each hour
Pacific Standard Time, what time will the plane advances the time by 100, thus 3 A.M. is
arrive in San Francisco?
0300 and 8 A.M. is 0800. Noon becomes
7. A New York to Miami plane leaves New York
1200; 1 P.M. is 1300; 11 P.M. is 2300. Min-
at 10:15 A.M., Eastern Standard Time. The trip

takes four hours and thirty minutes. Using Eastern

utes are indicated by units — preceded by a
Standard Time, what time will the plane arrive in zero (0) if less than 10, because there must
Miami? always be four digits. 8:10 A.M. is 0810;

8. A Los Angeles to Denver plane leaves Los 1:15 P.M. is 1315; 11:59 P.M. is 2359; 12:01
Angeles at 9:30 A.M., Pacific Standard Time. The A.M. is 0001.
trip takes two hours and twenty minutes. Using You will find that after you learn to use
Mountain Standard Time, what time will the plane
becomes very much
the 24-hour clock, it
arrive in Denver?
easier to calculate travel time.
9. A New Orleans to New York plane leaves New
Orleans at 11:15 A.M., Central Standard Time. The
Practice Exercise No. 101
trip takes five hours and forty minutes. Using East-
em Standard Time, what time will the plane arrive Solve these problems relating to time.
in New York?
1. Change to time on a 24-hour clock:
10. A Dallas to Chicago plane leaves Dallas at
(a) 12:35 A.M., (b) 12:35 P.M., (c) 3 A.M., (d) 8:28
10:40 A.M., Central Standard Time. The trip takes
P.M.. (e) 11:35 A.M.
six hours.

will the
Using Central Standard Time, what time
plane arrive in Chicago?
2. Change to the 12-hour clock — note A.M. and
P.M.:

(a) 0045, (b) 1755, (c) 1203, (d) 1950,

ARMED SERVICES TIME>— (e) 0435.
THE 24-HOUR CLOCK 3. A plane took off at 0305 E.S.T. and landed at

1455 E.S.T. How long was it in the air?

There is frequently some difficulty in
4. A train left Chicago at 0135 C.S.T. and trav-
figuring time with the A.M. and P.M. desig- eled east to New York. U arrived 19 hours and 40
nations. A more convenient type of reckon- minutes later. What time did the train arrive in New
ing, the 24-hour clock, is becoming York, E.S.T., on the 24-hour clock?
 CHAPTER ELEVEN

MEASURES OF AND PERIMETERS

LINES, ANGLES,
OF PLANE FIGURES

LINES These are broken lines (Figure 19).

Everything you look at has lines. They are

so much a part of the objects we see, that
usually we fail to observe the lines. In fact
we are accustomed to recognizing objects
and even faces by what we call the outlines.
The outline of any object is nothing more
than a combination of the various types of
lines out of which it is shaped. We see in
these outlines many types of lines, let us
Figure 19
call them by name.
These lines are paraUel to each other.
They are the same distance apart at all
The Language of Lines
points and no matter how far you continue
A straight line is the shortest distance them, they will never cross each other (Fig-
between two points. These are all straight ure 20).
lines (Figure 17).

Figure 20

A horizontal line is a straight line that

is level with the horizon (Figure 21).

Figure 21

Figure 17 A vertical line is a straight line that is

perpendicular to the horizon (Figure 22).

These are curved lines (Figure 18).

Figure 18 Figure 22
110 Arithmetic Made Simple

A line is perpendicular to another line Types and Sizes of Angles

when it inclines no more to one side than
To know what an angle is, you must keep
the other. Such lines are said to be at right
in mind that it is really composed of the
angles to each other (Figure 23).
spokes or radii coming from a point of focus
(the vertex) which represents the center of a
circle. As shown, there are 360 degrees
around the point or center of the circle (Fig-
ure 26).

perpendicular
jC\
Figure 23

An oblique line is a straight line that is

neither horizontal nor vertical (Figure 24).

90* 90»

90° 90'

Figure 24

ANGLES
Figure 26
An angle is the figure formed when
two straight lines touch at a common point When we measured lines we used a lin-

called the vertex (Figure 25). ear measure, like inches, feet and yards.
The unit measure for angles is the
of
degree. This the symbol for a degree (°).
is

One degree would be written 1° and it rep-

resents 35Q of a complete revolution around
the circle or 350th part of the circumference
of a circle.
A straight angle represents half the dis-
tance around the circle, or 180°.
A right angle represents one-fourth
of a revolution around the circle or 90°.
*/i/fl
Another definition for a right angle is to

state that when two lines meet in a way as to

form a square comer, the result is a right

Figure 25.
angle. How many right angles in a circle

The lines that form the angle are called (Figure 27)?
the sides. If three letters are used to desig- An acute angle is less than a right angle
nate an angle, the vertex is read between or less than 90° (Figure 27).
the others. Thus Figure 25 is written Z.BFC An obtuse angle is more than a right

and is read angle BFC: the sides are BF and angle, but less than a straight angle. It is

FC. thus between 90° and 180° (Figure 27).

 Measures of Plane Figures 111

i4 to C as shown above. By definition, a

diameter isa line drawn through the mid-
dle of any circle which extends to the cir-
90'
v90' cumference at opposite ends.
(b) The center of the protractor is at point

Right Angles
B which is also the center of the circle, of
which the protractor is one half.
To measure an angle with a protrac-
12* tor: Place the center of the protractor at the
vertex (B) of the angle, and the diameter
of the protractor on a line with one side of
the angle (in this case, line BC). Read the
degrees where the other side of the angle
Acute Angles
{BD ) crosses the scale of the protractor. Is
angle CBD
above 55°?
Try measuring angle EFG pictured here
(Figure 29). What do you find
size it to be?
Is it larger than /. CBD above? It is 5°
greater.

Obtuse Angles
Figure 27

Measuring Angles

Angles are measured by determining the

part of a circle that the sides intersect.
Therefore to determine the size of an angle,
you measure the opening between the sides
of the angle and not the length of the sides.
To measure or "lay off angles, a protrac-
tor as shown in the illustration (Figure 28)
is used.

Figure 29

To draw an angle of given size with a

protractor: Draw a straight line for one
side of the angle. Place the center of the
protractor at the point of the line that is to

be the vertex of the angle, and make the

straight side of the protractor coincide with
Figure 28
the line. Place a dot on your paper at the
In using the protractor, observe these fea- point on the scale of the protractor that cor-
tures: responds to the size of the angle to be
(a) The diameter of the protractor is a drawn. Connect this dot and the vertex to
straight line or a straight angle of 180° from obtain the desired angle.
112 Arithmetic Made Simple

Practice Exercise No. 102 9. Measure Z. KAM

Answer the following questions pertaining to 10. Measure /L JAN
angles.

1.The hands of a clock or watch form angles. TRIANGLES—FIGURES WITH

How many degrees are in the angle when it is 12:15 THREE SIDES
(Figure 30)?
A triangle is a plane figure with three sides
that are joined to form three angles.
We use the sides as well as the angles as
a basis for naming triangles.
The symbol for designating a triangle is

A.

Parts of a Triangle

Figure 30

2. What degree angle would be formed if it

Figure 32
were exactly Yj minutes sifter 12?
3. What degree angle would be formed if it
The illustrated triangle (Figure 32) would
were 12:30? be referred to as triangle ABC and written
4. If the minute hand is on the 4 and the hour
hand forms an angle of 115° with the minute hand,
as A ABC.
The sides are AB, BC, and CA
what time is it?

5. Tell whether each of the following angles is

The angles are angle CAB, written
acute, obtuse, a right angle or a straight angle, (a)
Z. CAB, angle ABC or Z. ABC, and angle

45% (b) 81°, (c) 90°, (d) 180°, (e) 92°. BCAox /-BCA.
Use the diagram (Figure 31) for the following

problems. Using the Sides to Name the

Triangle

A which the three sides are of

triangle in
different lengths is called a scalene trian-
gle (Figure 33).

A
Figure 31

6. Measure Z. HAI

7. Measure Z. HAJ
8. Measure I. HAL Figure 33
 Measures of Plane Figures 113

A triangle in which two sides are equal The sides:

in length is called an isoscelee triangle. In AC = CB = AB
the word "isosceles" iso means equal and The angles:
sceles means sides. The size of the angles Z CAB = ^ ABC = Z. BCA
that are opposite the equal sides in an
isosceles triangle are also equal (Figure (Jaing the Angles to Name the
34). Triangle

If one of the angles of a triangle is a right

angle (90°), it is called a right triangle
(Figure 36). Triangle DEF is a right triangle
in which Z. FDE is a right angle (90°).
Notice how we draw a square at vertex D to
indicate a right angle.

Figure 34

The sides BC and AC are equal.

The angles CBA and CAB are equal.
A triangle in which the three sides are
equal is called an equilateral triangle
(Figure 35). In such a triangle, the angles
are also equal. The name equiangular is
also applied to this type of triangle. Each Figure 36
angle of any equilateral triangle measures
60 degrees.
A triangle in which all the angles are
acute (less than 90°) is called an acute
triangle (Figure 37). Triangle GHI is an
acute triangle because /- IGH, L. GHI, and
Z. HIG are each less than 90°.

Figure 37

A triangle in which one angle is obtuse

(more than 90°), is called an obtuse trian-
114 Arithmetic Made Simple

gle (Figure 38). In the obtuse triangle UKL, Example L If you know that two angles
A KLU is more than 90°. of a triangle are 72° and 53° how many
degrees is the third angle? What two names
may be applied to such a triangle?

METHOD: 1. We know that the sum of the

angles of a triangle is 180°.
2. We know that two angles equal
Figure 38 72° + 53° or 125°.
3. Therefore the third angle is 180° —
We have learned that in an equilateral or 125° or 55°.
equiangular triangle each of the angles was
4. Since all three angles are less than
60°. The sum of these is therefore 180°. If
90° and none are equal, it is an acute trian-
you check the angles of any other triangle,
gle and a scalene triangle.
you will observe the fact that:
Can we have an acute triangle that is not
The sum of the angles of any triangle
a scalene triangle?
is ISO*'
What type might it be?
Try this: 1. Draw a triangle on a piece of
paper. Make it any type you choose, either
a right triangle, acute, obtuse, isosceles,
Practice Exercise No. 103
equilateral or scalene. Label the vertexes Find the missing angle in the following triangles

as shown (Figure 39). and give two names to the triangles.

Figure 39

2. Cut out the triangle and tear off the

three comers, keeping each vertex as an
angle.
3. Place the torn pieces next to each
other, with the torn part facing out as in the
illustration (Figure 40).

Figure 40

Do your three pieces make a straight

angle of 180°? They should.
 Measures of Plane Figures 115

Polygons are named according to the num- A rectangle is a parallelogram that

ber of sides. For your purposes at this time, has four right angles in which the opposite
it is enough that you know the names and sides are equal.
recognize the more common types of poly- A rhomboid is a parallelogram that has
gons. opposite sides parallel but no right angles.
When all the sides and angles of a poly- A rhombus is a parallelogram that has
gon are equal, it is called a regular poly- four equal sides but no right angles.
gon. Among those shown below, how many A trapezoid is a quadrilateral having
are regular polygons (Figure 41)? one pair of parallel sides.
A trapezium is a quadrilateral in which
4 sides 5 sides no two sides are parallel.

Quadrilateral
a
Square Rectangle
6 side

Figure 41

Quadrilaterals

Among polygons with more than three

sides, the quadrilaterals are the group with Trapezoid Trapezium
which you will have the most contact.
Figure 42
Quadrilaterals are polygons with four
sides. There are six types of quadrilaterals
as shown in Figure 42: the rectangle, the
FINDING PERIMETERS
square (a special form of rectangle), the
rhomboid, the rhombus, the trapezoid and The word "perimeter" means to measure
the trapezium. Each of these has special around. It is derived from the word "peri,"
features different from the others (Figure which means around and the word "meter,"
42). which means to measure.
A general type among the quadrilaterals
is the parallelogram which is any four-
Perimeter of a Triangle
sided figure having the opposite sides par-
allel and the opposite angles equal. Example L John's father is placing a
A square is a parallelogram in which the steel fence around a triangular plot of
four angles are all right angles (90°) and the ground which he intends to use as a garden.
four sides aie all equal. How many feet of fencing will he need if the
116 Arithmetic Made Simple

dimensions are those given in the diagram Perimeter of a Square

below (Figure 43)?
To find the perimeter of the square ABCD
or the distance around add the lengths of
it,

the four equal sides or multiply one side by

four (Figure 45).
117'
Figure 43 A I B

METHOD: Measure the three sides and

add them together. Thus 75 + 61 + 117
= 253 Ans.
In stating the rule for finding the perime-
ter of a triangle we may simply say, add the
length of the three sides.
This rule can be stated as a formula
which is a short way of giving a rule.
We say: perimeter = side a + side 6 -I-

side c

or

D o
p = a + b + c {
Figure 45

Formula for perimeter of a square is

Example 2: Give the formula and find
the perimeter of this isosceles triangle in p =/+/+/+ /

which one of the equal sides is I2 inches or

and the base is I4 inches (Figure 44). p = 41 (this means 4 X /)

Measure one side of this square with

your ruler and multiply by 4. What answer
do you get?

EXAMPLE: What is the perimeter of this

baseball diamond if the distance from home
plate to 1st base is 90 feet (Figure 46)?
2nd Bas*

3rd Bate
IttBaM
1
3/4 In.

Figure 44

METHOD:/) = a + b + c

= U + U + 1^ Home
= 4! Figure 46
 Measures of Plane Figures 117

METHOD: p = 4/ METHOD: p = + 2w
21
= 4 X = 2X90 + 2X50
= ? = 180 + 100 = 280
or p = 2{l + w)

Perimeter of a Rectangle or = 2(140) = 280

Parallelogram

In both of these figures opposite sides are Perimeter of a Trapezoid

equal (Figure 47). In this figure (Figure 49) the 4 sides are all

I I of different length; therefore the formula

must be:

p=a-\-b+c+d
9 /1 6 in.

Figure 47

Therefore the formula for the perimeter

of the rectangle or a parallelogram is:

p = l+w+l+w Il/I6in 3/4 in.

or
p = 21 + 2w
or
p = 2{l + w) 7/8 in.

NOTE: The parenthesis after the 2 in the Figure 49

above equation means we add / to w, then
multiply this result by the number 2. When P = -^ " 16 + 4 - ^8 '"•
8 16
there is no arithmetic sign between a value
and a parenthesis, it is understood that
multiplication is implied.
Practice Exercise No. 104
Find the perimeters of the following figures.

EXAMPLE: Find the perimeter of a rectan- 1. A triangular plot that measures 40 feet, 50
gular-shaped basketball court that is 90 ft. feet and 70 feet on each of its three sides.
by 50 ft. (Figure 48). 2. A square having a side of 4^ feet.

3. A rectangle that is 10 feet long and 2^ feet

wide.
4. A triangle having sides of 135 feet, 180 feet

and 225 feet.

5. A parallelogram that is 13 feet wide and 18

feet long.
90 ft.
Solve the following problems:

6. How many feet of chicken wire fencing will

Mr. Henderson need for a rectangular yard that is 65

yards long and 5^ yards wide?
7. In warming up, the football team is required
to trot around the field twice. How far do they trot if
50 ft.
the field 300 ft. long and 160 ft. wide?
is

Figure 48 8. How many feet of baseboard is needed for a

118 Arithmetic Made Simple

bedroom that is 13| feet wide by 17 feet long in pencil, keeping the string stretched tight
which the entrance door is 30 inches wide? all the time as shown below (Figure 51).
9. How many feet of steel rod j inch in diame-
ter is needed to make a triangular gong used for
chow call on the ranch if it is an equilateral triangle
16 inches on a side?
10. It required 420 yards of barbed wire to fence
in a rectangular-shaped cattle-grazing field. If the

field is 130 yards long facing the road, what is its

width?

THE CIRCLE—A SPECIAL

PLANE HGURE
A figure which is a continuous curved line
is called a circle. It is curved so that every
point on the line is the same distance from Figure 51

a point called the center. Practice drawing small and large circles
Circles are usually drawn with a drafts- with the compasses and with the string and
man's tool referred to as a pair of com- pencil. What other material can you impro-
passes as pictured here. You fix one leg of vise for drawing a circle?
the compass as the center point of the cir-
The continuous curved line that forms
cle. Holding the top of the compass, you the circle is called the circumference.
twirl it so that the pencil point draws a com-
The distance from the center point to any
plete curved line. This closed curved line point on the circumference is a radius of
is a circle (Figure 50). that circle (Figure 52). All radii (plural) of a
circle are equal.

Figure 52

Figure 50
A straight line from one point on the cir-

You can also draw a circle using a string cumference to another which goes through
tied to a pencil. You hold the free end of the center of the circle is called a diame-
the string at a fixed point and rotate the ter.
 Measures of Plane Figures
119
A diameter is twice the size of a radius.
A diameter divides a circle into two
equal halves called semicircles.
Object
All diameters of the same circle are
equal.

Practice Exercise No. 105

The questions which follow will test your ability
to work with problems related to circles.

1. Draw a circle with a radius of: (a)

5 inch, (b) |
inch, (c) g inch; then give the size of the
diameter of
each.
2. If the diameter of a circle is 4| inches, what is
its radius?
3. In the circles pictured here (Figure 53) the
larger one is twice the diameter of the smaller. What
is its diameter?

Figure 53

Perimeter of a Circle

The perimeter of a circle is the distance

aroundit. The circumference
of any circle
is its perimeter.
You can find the perimeter of any circle
by measuring around it or by a formula,
as
we found for certain special types of
polygons.

An Experiment in Finding a Formula

for Circumference

1. Measure around a can of evaporated

milk. Measure the diameter across the top
(as close asyou can estimate).
2. Measure around a large can of fruit
juice. Measure the diameter
across the top.
3. Measure around a 500 piece.
Mea-
sure across the diameter.
120 Arithmetic Made Simple

(c) Practice Exercise No. 106

22
=
7r
y Solve the following problems.

1. A circular rock garden in a landscape set-

2
22 ting is 5 feet in diameter. How many feet of protec-

^ X >r = 44 in.
tive low fencing will be needed to go around the
garden?
1

Rule: Circumference = tt X diameter. 2. Tape is used to bind the edge of a circular

or piece of metal that is 10 inches in diameter. How

much tape is needed?
By formula: C = tt X d
= ird 3. Joan wanted to trim the crown of a hat with

or
ribbon. How much ribbon must she buy if the crown
measures 7^ inches in diameter?
C = TT X 2(radius)
= 27rr 4. The famous giant redwood Wawona tree in
California is about 28 feet in diameter. How many
Example 2-. A piece of aluminum wrap is feet would you walk if you went around it?

needed to wrap a can having a 82 in. diame-

ter. What is the shortest length that can be 5. The wheel of a full size bicycle is 26 inches in

used? diameter. How many feet does the bicycle travel

when the wheel makes one full revolution? How
METHOD:
many revolutions must it make to go a mile?
c = nd
22 6. The earth has a radius of about 4000 miles.
X 3;
How much distance would you cover in circling the
7
earth at the equator?
11 1

—
= 22 X 7- = 11 inches Ans. 7. How many
a circular track
times would you have to go around
in a mile run if the track has a

1 1 diameter of 840 feet?

 CHAPTER TWELVE

MEASURING AREAS AND VOLUMES

In finding perimeter, we measure the dis- Since each square is 1 ft. by 1 ft. we say
tance around a plane figure. it has a surface or area of 1 square fi.
To measure area, we find how much sur- The area of A is thus 6 square feet.
face is taken up by a plane figure. The area of B is 10 square feet.

Knowing just how much surface there is Surfaces or areas are measured in
in a particular plane figure becomes impor- —
square units square inches, square feet,
tant when we wish to cover such surfaces square yards
with paints, wallpaper, tiles, cements, car- A square inch is the surface covered by a
peting, draperies, etc. square that is 1 inch on a side.
A square foot is the surface covered by a

MEASURING AREAS square that is 1 foot on a side.

A square yard is the surface covered by a
Here is a problem to illustrate the differ- square that is 1 yard on a side.
ence between measurement of perimeter
Study the Table of Square Measure in
and surface: Chapter 10 and commit memory. it to
John constructed two rectangular board To aid your understanding of square
shelves for his room. One (A) is 6 ft. long
measure, complete the lines indicated in
and 1 ft. wide. The other (B) is 2 ft. wide
the square below (Figure 55). Reduced to a
and 5 ft. long. He intends to cover them
scale of 4, each segment is supposed to rep-
with linoleum tile squares that are 1 foot on
resent 1 square inch, while the whole is 1
a side. How many tiles are needed for each
square foot. After you draw the cross lines,
(Figure 54)?
count the boxes. Do you have 144 squares?
6 feet

(A) 6 feet

The perimeter is the same for both

shelves (14 ft.).

To cover the shelves, A takes 6 squares 1 ft. or 1 2 inches

and B takes 10 squares! Figure 55
122 Arithmetic Made Simple

Practice Exercise No. 107 decided what to use for covering. She mea-

Fill in the missing numbers.

sured it with her ruler and found that it was
6 ft. long and 42 ft. wide. How many square
1. 1 sq. ft. = sq. in.
feet of surface does she have to cover?
2. 1 sq. yd. = sq. ft.

Method. Area of Rectangle = Iw.

3. 1 sq. yd. = sq. in.
6 X 4i = 27 sq. ft. area
4. sq. rd. = 1 acre
6
5. 1 sq. mile = acres

6. sq. yd. = 1 sq. rod

7. sq. ft. = 1 sq. rod

8.

9. 9 sq.
sq.

ft.
ft.

= 1
= 1 acre

sq. yd.
w
10. 144 sq. in. = 1 sq. ft.

Finding the Area of a Rectangle

Figure 56
In the problem concerned with John's two
shelves we found the square area by draw- Look at the scale drawing in Figure 56.
ing in the squares and counting them. You can see that there are 6 squares across
There are easier ways. and 4 whole rows down. Then there is a row
In the second board (B), how many 1 ft. of six 2 squares. In the 4 rows there are
squares are there along the length? Five. 6 X 4 = 24. In the last row there is
How many 1 ft. squares are there in the 6 X ^ = 3, 24 + 3 = 27 sq. ft.
width? Two.
The number of square feet in the total
Finding the Area of a Square
surface is 5 X 2 or 10.
We then say that the area is 10 square The method for computing the area of a
feet. square is the same as for finding the area of
Rule: To find the area of a rectan- a rectangle because a square is just a spe-
gle, multiply the length by the width. cial form of a rectangle.

length width
EXAMPLE: How much surface needs to be
By formula: A = / X W
covered in a square ceiling that is 9 ft. on a
Area of a
A = Iw side?
Rectangle
METHOD:
Incomputing the area of such surfaces,
both dimensions must first be put in the Length = 9 ft. and width = 9 ft.

same units. If, for exarnple, the length is

Therefore Area = 9 X 9 = 81 sq. ft.

given in inches and the width in feet, one

of the measures will have to be changed Since both sides of a square are the same
before multiplying. we can give the formula as A = s , in

which the 5 means side and the small num-

EXAMPLE: Mrs. Rieber wanted to cover ber 2 written as an exponent means a num-
a rectangular bathroom floor but had not ber squared or multiplied by itself.
 Measuring Areas and Volumes 123

y Finding the Side of a Rectangle

If you know the area of a rectangle and one

side, you can find the other by division.

9'

Figure 58

Example 1: The rectangle shown here

(Figure 58) represents 18 square inches. If
Figure 57 it is 6 inches long, how wide is it?

If you counted the squares, you would

Look at the scale drawing and count the
find the width to be 3 inches. As a check
squares (Figure 57). Do you count 81?
I X w = A;3 X 6 = IS.
How much is 4 squared, written 4 ? Do
Without counting the squares, you can
you get 16? How much is 5 ? How much is
find the width by dividing 18 by 6 because
7 ? How much is 8^? Are your answers 25,
49 and 64 respectively?
if 3 X 6 = 18 then 18 ^ 6 = 3. We can
now state this as a rule.
Rule: To find the length or width of
Practice Exercise No. 108 a rectangle when the area and one
Use the formula to find the area for each of the dimension are given, divide the Area by
following. the given dimension

1. Width is 3 ft. and length is 7 ft. area in By formula: If i4 = / X w

sq. ft.?

2. Width is 1 in. and length is 2 ft. area Then w = A -^ I or w = -r

in sq. ft.?

3. Width is 30 ft. and length is 180 ft. This is stated as width is equal to the
area in sq. yd.? area divided by the length
4. Width is 43 rd. and length is 75 rd.

area in acres? And l=A-i-w or l= —w

5. Width is 6 in. and length is 12 in. area
in sq. ft.? This is stated as length is equal to the
6. Width is 1.5 ft. and length is 8 in. area divided by the width.
area in sq. ft.?

7. Width is 9 ft. and length is 6 ft area in Example 2: If the area of a rectangular

sq. yd.? 2400 square feet and it is 30 feet
field is
8. Width is 11 ft. and length is 11 ft area wide, how long is it?
in sq. ft.?

9. Width
METHOD: I = A -^ W
is 18 in. and length is 18 in.
2400
area in sq. ft.? / = 2400 H- 30 or
30
10. Width is 16 ft. and length is 16 ft. area
in sq. yds.? = 80 ft. Ans.
124 Arithmetic Made Simple

Finding the Area of a Parallelogram

Copy, on a separate sheet of paper, the par-

allelogram drawn below (Figure 59).

Parallelogram
I

( lieighf or I h
altitude) >

( base )

Figure 59

From the comer A, draw the line AE so

that it will make a right angle with the
opposite side. This line is called the height
(h) or altitude of the figure.
Cut off the right triangle AED (Figure
60), formed by the line AE and place it on
the opposite side to form a rectangle.

Figure 60

A
 Measuring Areas and Volumes 125

Practice Exercise No. 109

Given the base and height of the parallelograms
below, find the areas as directed.
126 Arithmetic Made Simple

Example 1: Find the area of the right tri-

angle shown here (Figure 66).

b=IOm. 12 ft.
Figure 66

NOTE: In a right triangle, the side is the 4. Base 18 in. Height 9 in.

height 5. Base 17 in. Height 7 in.

6. Base 3 ft. Height 2 ft.

METHOD: A = ^bh.
7. Base 110 ft. Height 45 ft.

= X 6 8. Base 100 ft. Height 50 ft.

2 (10 in- in.)

Finding the Area of a Circle

= 2*60)
There are several ways to arrive at the rule

= 30 sq. in.
for finding the area of a circle. An interest-
ing method is illustrated below (Figure 67).
This circle is constructed so that it has a
Example 2: Find the area of a triangle
radius of 10 units.
having a base of 6 inches and a height of 4
inches.
On the lower right-hand fourth, a square
is drawn with the radius as the side. Since

METHOD: A = -xbh the side of the square is 10 units, the area

of the square on the radius is r or 100
square units.
= 2(6 in. X 4 in.)

= |(24)

= 12 sq. in.

Practice Exercise No. 110

Find the areas of the following triangles.

1.

12 in.

20 !n.
Figure 67
 Measuring Areas and Volumes 127

Count the units that are within the Step 1 . r = 2 diameter or 2 = 7.

marked fourth of the circle. You will have Step 2. Substitute in the formula.
to count fractions of units in the square Step 3. Multiply tt by the radius
near the border of the circle. We estimate squared.
the number of squares in each row as fol-
lows: 10, 10, 9j, 9^, 9, 8i li 6i 5, 3— Practice Exercise No. Ill
this gives 782 square units in one-fourth of
Find the area of these circles, using — for tt.
the circle. In the whole circle you should
have 782 X 4 or approximately 314 square 1. Radius is 4.9 ft.

units.
2. Diameter is 5.6 in.
In comparing this approximate area of
3. Radius is 20 in.
the circle (314 square units) with the area
of the square on the radius (100 square 4. Diameter is 42 in.

units) we get 314 ^ 100 = 3.14. This,

5. Radius is 35 ft.

you will recall is the same ratio (tt) found

6. Radius is 18 in.
in connection with the circumference of a
circle. This leads to the rule: 7. Diameter is 28 in.

The area of a circle is 3 .14 or n times the 8. Radius is 21 ft.

square of the radius.

Practice Exercise No. 112

By formula:
The problems below will test your ability to work
A = 3.14 X r^ or y X r^ with plane figures.

1. Mr. Wright purchased a square lot of 160 ft.

Using 77 for 3. 14 the formula for area of a on a side. He divided it into plots of 5 ft. X 8 ft. for

circle is: bath houses. How many plots were there?

2. Lyle's father bought a television set with a
A = irr^
circular tube 24 inches in diameter. How many
square inches is the surface of the tube?
Example L Find the area of a circle 3. Mrs. Harmony plans to use 9" X 9"

whose radius is 6 inches. linoleum tiles to cover the kitchen floor. The room is

18 ft. long and 12 ft. wide. How many tiles will she
METHOD: need?
4. Weldon decided to make trianguW banners
A = 3.14 X (6 X 6) announcing a sale. They were to have a base of 12
A = 3.14 X 36 = 113.04 inches inches and to be 18 inches high. How many square
feet of material does he need for 10 banners?

Example 2: Find the number of square 5. Terry's father bought a rectangluar piece of

inches of copper in a circular serving tray land in the country. It measured 120 ft. by 400 ft.

that has a diameter of 14 inches. How much more or less than one acre did he have?

6. Alfred decided to go into the business of

METHOD: A = m^ making triangular comer shelves in mass produc-
tion. He decided they should be 8 inches in height
22
= X X How many can he make
/I
Y (7 7) with a base of 12 inches.
from 200 sq. ft. of lumber?

7 7. The sail on Paul's boat tore to shreds in a

22 and a base of 9 How
= y X 49 = 154 sq. in.
wind.
many square
It has a height of 15
feet of sail material will
ft.

he need
ft.

to

1 replace the sail?

128 Arithmetic Made Simple

8. Jill's father built a circular pool 15 ft. in

diameter and a walk 3 ft. wide around it. What is

the area of each?

9. For an election campaign, James made a cir-

cular poster with a diameter of 3 inches. Ben, his

opponent, made his with a diameter of 6 inches.
What is the area of each, and how much larger is

Ben's than James'?

10. A rug cleaning company charges 150 a
square foot to clean rugs in the home. How much
will it cost Mrs. Brown to have her circular-shaped
rug, which measures 10 ft. in diameter, cleaned?

MEASURING VOLUME
Figure 68
How much does it hold? How much space
does occupy?
it
A cube is a solid shape with six square

When you ask these questions you are sides in which the length, width and height

referring to the volume or capacity of an are equal and all of the angles are right

object. angles. It may also be called a rectangu-

When we spoke of surface or area, we lar solid or prism (Figure 68).
referred to plane figures because they took
up only one plane ox flat surface.
When we speak of volume, we refer to

solid figures.These are figures with more

than one plane. While plane figures have
only two dimensions, solid figures have the
added dimension of depth.
Think of volume as referring to contain-
ers of every shape and size.
A huge warehouse is a container. What
may it contain?
A coal bin is a container.
An oil drum is a container.
Every room in your house is a container.
A grocery carton is a container.
A can of soup is a container.
Figure 69
An ice cream cone is a container.
The measuring cups of Chapter 1 are A cubic inch is the space occupied by a
containers. cube 1 inch long, 1 inch wide, and 1 inch
When you determine how much the con- high.
tainer will hold, whether it is oil in the A cubic foot is the space occupied by a
drum, ice cream in the cone, or soup in cube 1 foot long, 1 foot wide, and 1 foot

the can, you are measuring its volume, or high.

capacity as we call it. How many cubic inches would there be
Volume is expressed in cubic units, such in a cubic foot? One way we can determine
as the cubic inch, cubic foot, or cubic yard. this is to take a figure equal to 1 cubic foot
 Measuring Areas and Volumes 129

and place in it cubes that are 1 cubic inch

in size.

Look at the illustrations. You can see

that 12 cubes would make 1 row across the
length of the bottom (Figure 69).
It would take 12 X 12 or 144 cubes to
make one layer in length and width across
the bottom (Figure 70).

Figure 70

To fill the one foot cube completely it

would take 12 layers or 12 X 144 or 1728
cubic inches. By looking at Figure 71 you
can see that you can count 1728 cubic
inches in 1 cubic foot.
130 Arithmetic Made Simple

Practice Exercise No. 113 Rule: The volume of a prism is equal

Problems in finding volumes of rectangluar to the area of the base X the height.
solids.
V = Ah
1. A carton is 18 inches long, 12 inches wide,
Example-. Find the volume of the illus-
and 8 inches deep. What is its capacity in cubic
trated rectangular prism if the area of the
inches?
base is 40 sq. inches and the height is 3 in.
2. A truck body is 10 ft. long, 61 ft. wide, and 4
(Figure 73).
ft. deep. What is its capacity?

3. Mr. Lyle bought a sandbox for his children

which measured 3 ft. by 3 ft. by 8 inches deep. How
many cubic feet of sand must he order to fill it?

4. The closet in Weldon's room is 3 ft. by 3 ft.

and 8 ft. high. How many pounds of moth flakes will

be needed if one pound protects 36 cubic feet?

5. What is the capacity in cubic feet of a freezer base = 40 sq. in

that is 32 inches wide, 36 inches long, and 27 Figure 73
inches high?
METHOD:
6. A $20 a cubic yard for-
contractor charges
labor and materials to make a driveway. How much V = Ah
will Mr. Quigg have to pay for a driveway 8 ft. wide,
= 40 X 3 = 120 cu. inches
50 ft. long and 6 inches thick?
Finding the Volume of a Triangular
7. A candy manufacturer makes fudge squares
Prism
1 inch by 1 inch by 5 inch thick. How many pieces
can he pack in a box that is 6 inches long, 4 inches Using the formula for the volume of a
wide, and 2 inches deep?
rectangular solid in the form given above,
we can apply it in finding the volume of
other prisms as illustrated here (Figure 74).
Another Way of Figuring the Volume
of a Rectangular Solid
We know from the measurement of surfaces
that the area of the base of a rectangular
shaped figure is found by multiplying
length times width. Thus A = Iw.
Since the volume of a rectangular prism
is found by multiplying length X width
X height, we could write the formula as:
V = A X h. A stands for area of the base 8 in.
and h for the perpendicular height of the
prism.
From this we derive an important and
helpful rule about finding the volume of any
prism.
Before stating the rule, we should define
the word prism. By definition: A prism is a
solid figure whose top and bottom bases are
equal polygons and whose other faces are 6 in.-

parallelograms . Figure 74
 Measuring Areas and Volumes 131

Example L Find the volume of the trian-

gular prism illustrated in Figure 74. The
EXAMPLE: Find the volume of the cylin-
base line of the lower triangle 6 inches
is
in Figure 75 if it has a radius
der pictured
and the altitude of the lower triangle /i is 4
of I2 inches and a height of 28 inches.
inches, while the perpendicular height of
the prism is 8 inches. METHOD: V = TTT^/l

METHOD: Find the area of the base trian- 77 = —

22
, r = -3 .

in.,
,

n
„„
=28 .

in.
gle.

22 3\2
A =^bh X 28

1
= (6 X 4) = 12 sq. in.
4
I 22 9
= == X 5 X 28 = 198 cu. in.
The volume of the prism is the area of the 7 4
base times the height.

V = Ah Radius = M/2»n
= 12 X 8 = 96
Step 1 . Find the area of the triangular
cu. in.
rZ^.
base.
Step 2. To find the volume, multiply the
area of the base by the perpendicular
height of the prism.

Example 2: Find the volume of a triangu- 28 in.

lar prism having a base with dimensions
of 6 = 8 inches,
height of the prism
/i

is
= 42 inches, and the
10 inches.
vX^
METHOD:

V = Ah in which A = -xbh
/
9 72
/I = -1 X 8 X = -j^ = 18 sq. in. Figure 75
I
V = 18 X 10 = 180 cu. in.
Practice Exercise No. 114
Finding the Volume of a Cylincler
Find the volume of the given figures.
It is not too difficult to demonstrate how the
Figure Base Information Height
same formula used volume of
for finding the
1. Cube Area = 16 sq. in. 4 in.
rectangular and triangular prisms can be
applied in finding the volume of a cylinder. 2. Triangular Area = 9 sq. in. 7 in.

Volume = Area of base X height. prism

Since the base of the cylinder is a circle,
3. Rectangular Area = 30 sq. in. 1 ft.

A = irr^ prism

Formula for volume of a cylinder is 4. Hexagonal Area = 120 sq. in. 4 in.

therefore: prism
132 Arithmetic Made Simple

5. Cylinder Area = 48 sq. in. 8 in. 13. A stainless steel cylindrical tank is used to
transport milk. The tank is 20 ft. long and has an
6. Cylinder Diameter 4 in. 6 in.
inside diameter of 5 ft. How many cubic feet of milk
7. Rectangular 8 in. long, 7 in. wide 9 in. does it carry? If milk weighs about 67 lb. per cubic
prism foot, how much does the full load weigh?
14. On a cattle ranch they constructed a water
8. Triangular Base 6 in., alt. 6 in. 8 in.
trough in the form of a triangular prism that ex-
prism
tended for 90 ft. The base was a right triangle with a

9. Cube 2 ft. long, 2 ft. wide 2 ft. base of 4 ft. and the perpendicular side 5 ft. Figure
a cubic ft. of water as 72 gal. How many gallons will
10. Cylinder 7 ft. radius 18 in.
the trough hold? (Figure 76).
Problems: Give answers to nearest whole number.

11. The local utility company erected a cylindri-

cal tank to store cooking gas. If it has a diameter of
200 feet and stands 91 feet high, what is the capac-
ity of the tank?
12. Gasoline is stored at the refinery in cylindri-
cal tanks that have a base diameter of 60 feet and
stand40 feet high. If 7^ gallons take up 1 cubic foot, Cattle Trough
how many gallons can be stored in each tank?
Figure 76
 CHAPTER THIRTEEN

COMPARISON OF QUANTITIES BY RATIO AND PROPORTION

RATIO This can be clearly demonstrated by the

performance of Pete's little league team. If
Pete's little league team won 15 games and
the question is how many games did they
lost 5 games.
win out of those played, you first write
We can compare these two number facts
games won and then games played. Thus
in several ways.
15: 20 or 3 out of 4.
(a) Pete's team won 10 games more than
If the question is how many games did
they lost.
they lose out of those played, you first write
(b) They won three times as many games
games lost and then games played. Thus
as they lost.
5 20 or 1 out of 4.
:

(c) Pete's team won three fourths of the

The quantities compared must be ex-
games it played.
pressed in the same units as in ordinary
In (a) we compared the two numbers by
division. We compare feet with feet and not
subtraction: 15 — 5 = 10.
with inches.
In (b) and (c) we compared the two num-
Reduce fractions to lowest terms.
bers by the process of division.
Ratios are written without units or

^ = = 7 dimensions.
(b) 15 5 (c) 15 -i- 20
1 4 As is true for fractions, both terms (num-
When two numbers are compared by the bers) of a ratio may be multiplied or divided

process of division, the result

by the same number without changing the
is called the
value of the ratio.
ratio of one quantity to the other.
Ratio means relationship.
Practice Exercise No. 115

In the following exercise write the ratio of the first

How to Indicate Ratio
number to the second number as a fraction. Write it

A may be first in the higher form and then reduce the ratio to
(a) ratio indicated as a fraction.
lowest terms.
The between the games won and the
ratio
total games played is 20- It can be stated as 1. 2 inches to 1 ft.

15 to 20 or 3 to 4. These are equivalent 2. 3 minutes to 1 hour

forms.
3. 2 quarts to 10 pints
(b) The same ratio may be written with a
4. $1.00 toSS.OO
colon between the quantities compared
15 : 20 or 3 : 4. It is still stated as 3 to 4. 5. 3 pints to a gallon

The colon (:) is an abbreviation of the divi- 6. 15 to 5

sion sign ( -^ ).
7. 24 to 12
When writing a ratio, you must be care-
8. 72 to 108
ful about which number is written first.

Write the number asked about first, then the 9. 5 to 5

number with which it is being compared.

134 Arithmetic Made Simple

Using the colon, express the items below as 6) are called the extremes while the sec-
ratios. First write them in higher form and then ond and third terms (3 and 2) are called the
reduce them to lowest terms.
means.
11. 5 in. to 10 in. Multiply the extremes 1 X 6 = ?

12. 2 oz. to 2 lb.

Multiply the means 3X2 = ?
Compare the products. Are they equal?
13. 200 to 800
Will they always be equal? Yes, if it is a
14. 84.00 to 500 true proportion.
15. 10 sec. to 1 min. Rule: In a proportion, the product of
16. 2 days to 12 hours
the means is equal to the product of the
extremes
17. 3 oz. to 1 lb. 5 oz.
If you write the proportion as equal frac-
18. 6 niin. to 20 sec.
tions, in this form q^-^^"^r» note that
19. 45 percent to 90 percent
the means and extremes are diagonally
20. .2 inch to .8 inch.
opposite each other and it follows that cross
products of a proportion are always equal
Practice Exercise No. 116
If you can make a proportion out of a
Solve the following problems pertaining to ratios.
problem, the rule offers you an easy solu-
1. Henry is 12 years old and his mother is 34. tion by the following method which is a pro-
What is the ratio of his age to his mother's? cedure used in elementary algebra.
2. Michael saved $10 of the $40 that he earned.
What is the ratio of the money he saved to the money
Example L If three postcards cost 10
he earned? What is the ratio of the money saved to
cents, how much would 12 cards cost?
the money spent?
3. On a vocabulary test of 100 words, Alfred METHOD: The ratio of 3 cards to their
received a mark of 80%. What is the ratio of the cost, 100, should be proportionate to the
number he answered correctly to the total number?
ratio of 12 cards to their cost.
4. A chemical for killing weeds contained direc-
tions which indicated a mixture of 4 oz. to a pint of
Thus, 3 : 10 :: 12 : ? We have to find the

value of the missing term. The letter x is

water. What is the ratio of the chemical to the total
amount of liquid to be used for spraying? traditionally used to denote a missing term

5. On a map, one inch is indicated as represent- or an unknown quantity. Rewriting the pro-
ing 10 miles. What is the ratio of the distance on the portion we get:
map to the actual distance?
3: 10:: 12:;c
1. 3 times :« = 10 times 12
PROPORTION or3x = 120
A proportion is a method of expressing
120
3;c ^
equality between two ratios. "^•3 3
The equation between the two ratios may
;c = 40 AnS.
be indicated by the double colon or propor-
tion sign (::) or with the sign of equality Step 1 . Product of the extremes equals
( = ). the product of the means.
For example, 1 : 3 :: 2 : 6 is a proportion Step 2. Divide both sides by the number
that is read, 1 is to 3 as 2 is to 6. ll may also that is the multiplier of x. Both sides of an
be written as 3 = f.
equation may be divided by the same num-
In any proportion, as in this one: ber without changing the value of the equa-
1 : 3 :: 2 : 6, the first and last terms (1 and tion.
 Comparison of Quantities 135

Example 2. A picture that is 6 inches To ILLUSTRATE: 2 : 5 :: 6 : 15.

long by 2^ inches wide is to be enlarged so 5 X 6 = 30, 30 ^ 15 = 2 or
that it will be 9 inches long. How wide must 30 ^ 2 = 15
it be to maintain the same proportions as
Thus in Example 2 above, 6 : 23 :: 9 : ?
the original?
Multiply the means 2f X 9 = 24; divide
METHOD: Ratio of original length to width the product by the known extreme; 24 -^

is 6 23. The proportionate ratio of new

:
6 = 4. The quotient is the unknown term.
length to width is 9 ac. :

Thus 6 :
2i :: 9 X :

1. 6 times x = 2^ times 9
or 6x = 24

6^ _ 24
"^^
6 " 6
X = 4> Ans.

Step 1 . Product of extremes equals

product of means.
Step 2. Divide both sides by the number
that is the multiplier of ;c.

The above process is the equation

method of solving problems containing
an unknown. As we noted, it is a method
which employs elementary algebra. Al-
though this is the preferred method, there
is also an arithmetic method for solving
proportions.
To use a strict arithmetic procedure for
finding the missing term in a proportion,
you may employ the following rule.
Rule: In a proportion, the product of
the means divided by either extreme, gives
the other extreme as the quotient. The con-
verse is also true.
 CHAPTER FOURTEEN

GRAPHS—PICTURES OF NUMBER COMPARISONS

It is said that one picture is worth a thou- If the bars of the graph are vertical, it is

sand words. Graphs are pictures. referred to as a vertical graph, and if the
They are used to illustrate vividly and bars are horizontal, it is called a horizontal
graphically all kinds of number facts and graph.
comparisons. The word graph is a short- In Figure 77 you see an example of a ver-

ened form of the word graphic which means tical bar graph showing a comparison of the
to illustrate by pictures. amount of average annual rainfall in one
In education and business the use of city at five-year intervals. Notice that the
many different types of graphs is standard graph has a title. Look for graphs in
practice. The most common types are: bar magazines. You will find that almost always
graphs, line graphs, pictographs, rectangle they contain a descriptive title.

graphs, and circle graphs. The same graph can be constructed as a

horizontal bar graph with the comparison of

BAR GRAPHS the amounts of rainfall on the horizontal

scale and the five-year intervals on the ver-
A popular and easy type of graph to read
tical axis as shown in Figure 78.
and make is the bar graph (Figure 77).
Generally, it is used to compare quantities
and to illustrate growth, improvement or a
trend. The significant quantities are repre-
sented by the length or height of a bar. For
this reason it is called a bar graph.

ANNUAL RAINFALL IN OUR CITY

40

2 30
1 _
20

10

1940 1945 1950 1955

Figure 77

In Figure 77 the vertical axis shows the

number of inches of rain. The horizontal
axis shows the years at five-year intervals .
 Graphs — Pictures of Number ComparLsorLs 137

1. Which was the driest year? Popular Vote Cast for President,

2. What was the amount of rainfall in by Major Party: 1952 to 1980

Millions of votes
the driest year?
50
3. Which year had the most rainfall? n Oomocrilc
M R«pot)l<C8n

4. How much difference was there be- 40

Orr>et major can<3k3ai93 r-

tween the driest and the wettest year?

5. What would be a reasonable estimate 30-

of the expected rainfall in any one year?

20-
If you read newspaper that the
in the
United States Government spent 820 bil-
10 —
lion dollars in 1984 while it only spent 500
and 700 billion dollars for the years 1980
and 1982, respectively, you know that 1952 1956 1960 1964
L
1968 1972 1976
I
1980

there is an increase, but you don't see the Figure 80

trend.
In Figure 79 a bar graph taken from
is
Who won the election in the year 1972,

United States Governmental Statistics. Republican or Democrat?

From this graph it becomes much clearer Are more people voting in later years of

how expenditures the graph?

are rising from year to
year. Just looking at the numbers the rate of
Does it look like the Independent votes

increase is not as apparent as it is with the

were taken from the Democrats or the
graph.
Republicans?
Who won the election in 1960?

US. GOVERNMENTAL EXPENDITURES

Practice Exercise No. 117B
IN BILLIONS OF DOLLARS

900 An automobile manufacturer had this graph

800 in the Instruction Booklet for new car owners
700 (Figure 81).
1

600 m-\ GASOLINE CONSUMPTION AND SPEED

500
400 H- < 20
300

Tiililt 1970 72 74
H~~|~

76 78
Figure 79
80 "82 '84
O
LJJ

UJ

^
15

mi 20 25 30
Car Speed
35
in

Figure 81
40
Miles Per Hour
1
60mph

What do you learn from the graph in Fig- Answer these questions based on the graph.

ure 79? 1. At what speed was the lowest gas mileage

Is the amount of money spent increasing obtained?
thesame each year? 2. At what speed was the best gas mileage
Do you expect the amount of increase obtained?
from 1984 1986 to be only 100 billion
to 3. What was the gas mileage at 60 mph?
dollars, as was between 1982 and 1984?
it
4. How many miles more per gallon can you
In Figure 80 we see a bar graph that has get at a speed of 30 mph than at a speed of 20
comparative data on the same graph. mph?
138 Arithmetic Made Simple

5. If we assumed that the gasoline con- Characteristics of the Line Graph

sumption increased at a steady rate as the speed
The line graph has two scales.
increased from 30 mph. to 60 mph. what would ,

be the miles per gallon at a speed of 50 mph. ? The scales do not have to start at zero.
The value of the spaces or intervals of
each scale is selected to fit the size graph
Hou) to Construct the Bar Graph
desired.
Decide first whether the bars are to be The graph is a series of dots or points
vertical or horizontal. This will depend upon that are connected by lines. It is made as if

the available space and possibly eye appeal. the tops of a vertical bar graph were joined
Select a scale with intervals so that the by lines and the bars erased.
largest bar will almost fill it. Look at the line graph in Figure 82.
Start the scale at zero. Notice how the line goes up (slope). The
The bars should be of equal width and slope of the line gives an indication of how
the spaces between them should be of equal fast things are changing. It conveys this
width. information much better than a bar graph.

Suggestions for Home Study Practice How to Construct a Typical Line

Graph
1. At a summer camp, the campers were asked
to vote for their first choice of a mid-morning ath- If we wanted to show the progress of the
letic activity, with the following results: swimming average weight increase of boys from age 8
75 votes, baseball 55 votes, basketball 50 votes,
to 14, we would use the type of line graph
tennis 25 votes, water skiing 40 votes. Construct a
The
shown in Figure 82. facts are given in
vertical bar graph showing the results of the voting.
the table below this graph.
Make up a suitable title for the graph.
2. Make a horizontal bar graph to illustrate the AVERAGE WEIGHT INCREASE FOR BOYS
following information. Round off to the nearest thou- AGE 8-14
120
sand. Add a title.

Ocean Ocean Depth

Arctic Ocean 3,953 ft.

Atlantic Ocean 12,880 ft.

Indian Ocean 13,002 ft.

Pacific Ocean 14,048 ft.

3. Construct a horizontal bar graph, with an

appropriate title, showing the population growth of
your state at 10-year intervals from 1900 to the
present.

UNE GRAPHS
The line graph takes its name from the
fact that either straight connecting lines or
curved lines are used to show the number
relationships.
The line graph is most applicable in

showing how relationships change. It is

most helpful when we want to illustrate
increasing or decreasing quantities.
 Graphs — Pictures of Number Comparisons 139

Steps to Follow in Constructing- a points are located for each age level.
Line Graph 4. Finally the dots or points are con-
nected with the solid line that you see in
1. Decide which scale is to be the vertical
the illustration (Figure 82).
axis. Since the age progresses at a uniform
rate,and weight is the varying item, you
would make weight the scale on the left or Interpretation
the vertical axis. The age factor will then be
What can we learn from the line graph in
on the horizontal scale. Figure 82?
2. Decide the intervals or size of the 1. Between what two age levels do we
steps needed in each scale. To do this, take show the least weight gain?
the highest number on the scale and sub- 2. Between what two age levels do we

tract it from the lowest. For the age scale, show the greatest weight gain?
you have 14 — 8 or 6. Since there will be a 3. Does weight increase at a steady rate

range of only size years between the lowest with age?

and highest age we let each year represent 4. Is the rate of weight gain greater or
one space or step. lower from 8 to 1 1 than from 1 1 to 14?
Using the same procedure for the weight 5. What is the average annual weight
scale, you have 113 — 55 or a difference gain per year from age 8 to 14?
of 58 pounds between the lowest and great-
est weight. Here you could not let each Using Two Line Graphs for
space one pound because there
equal Comparisons
would not be enough room on the page to
Plotting two lines on the same graph is a
make the scale. Therefore, you have to
common practice for showing significant
decide on a convenient interval. In this
comparisons.
case 10 pounds per interval seems logical,
In Figure 83 below we have plotted our
because would require about seven
it
original graph of average weights and the
spaces. This is so because we always start a
actual weights for a neighbor's son (Lenny)
little below the lowest number and go a lit-
when he was in this age range.
tle above the highest. Thus the weight scale
reads from 50 pounds to 120 pounds at 10-
COMPARISON ONE BOY'S WEIGHT WITH
pound intervals. THE AVERAGE AGE 8-14
120
3. Next you proceed to locate the points
on the graph after drawing 110
in the vertical
and horizontal lines. 100
At the line for each age level, you go up
the vertical scale and place a dot on the 90

age line that represents the corresponding

80
weight on the vertical scale. Thus for age 8
the corresponding weight is 55. This is 70

exactly midway between 50 and 60 on the

60
vertical scale. The first dot is placed at this
point. Next move over to the line for age 9. 60
The corresponding weight (from the table)
is 60. This falls exactly on the 60 line for

weight, and the second dot is placed at this

point. Proceeding in the same way, the

140 Arithmetic Made Simple
 Graphs — Pictures of Number Comparisons 141

nun otnu DUNtummiwutuMiwsuNH

You may notice that pictographs are fre-
quently used to present statistics on such
subjects as heahh, disease, and safety edu-
cation. The purpose is to brighten up cer-
tain morbid, depressing facts which must
be brought to the attention of the populace,
S9*
even though they are unpleasant.
/M.CH0MOL IN W009 Figure 86 contains another type of pic-
tograph showing the relation between the
Figure 85. Diagram of the probable effect of certain
percentages of filcohol in the blood. stopping distances of an automobile and
stages of fatigue. The symbols include the
picture of the automobile, and the dis-
Many companies and agencies prefer tances on a football field. These make pos-
to present information by means of picto- sible a comparison of the distance it takes
graphs because of the added interest and to stop a car moving at 60 miles an hour in
attention they attract. relation to the distances on a football field.

VliCC. NOKMAL MAS6IN Of SArCTY

IMC FATlMCe MAR6IN or SAftTY

r/4SK. ILL, OM SRAKt

PRU66EI
OR08UNK

Figure 86. Figures based on tests of cars having brakes in first-class condition traveling at 60 MPH on dry level concrete
surfaces.

Suggestions for Home Study Practice The graph consists simply of a rectangle
with the indicated divisions.
1. Make a pictograph of five different food items
and their caloric value. You can get this information
The title usually gives the entire quan-
from any diet book. tity, while each part is labeled in terms of
2. Look in the classified advertisements of your what it represents. There are labeled axes
local newspaper and make a pictograph that will such as those which appear in bar and line
compare the prices of several items. graphs.
The rectangle graph is especially useful
when we wish to compare parts with each
RECTANGLE GRAPHS other or parts with the whole quantity.
A rectangle graph is used when we You will sometimes see the rectangle
wish to illustrate proportionate parts of graph (Figure 87) referred to as a single bar
quantities. graph or divided bar graph. The reason for
142 Arithmetic Made Simple

this is that it generally consists of one large 6. Write a title describing the subject of
single bar, divided into parts. Like the bar the graph.
graph, it may run horizontally or vertically.

BUDGET FOR THE JONES FAMILY Suggestions for Home Study Practice
Income $1 200 Monthly 1. Make a rectangular bar graph based on the
(after taxes) following information concerning the age and num-
ber of drivers involved in automobile accidents.
360 300 180 120 120 60 60
T Age %
food rent clothing health misc.
and
recreation savings
utilities

Figure 87

In the rectangle graph you will note that

the bar is divided into equal fractional
parts.Each item takes up its share of the
whole in such a way that relationships can
be easily seen.

Practice Exercise No. 118B

Answer the questions below by studying Figure
87.

1. Which two items account for more than half

the budget?
2. What percentage of the income is set aside for
clothing?
3. How much will the Jones family save in a

year?
4. Which item consumes the largest part of the
budget and how much does it amount to annually?
5. What is the ratio of the recreation item as
compared with the expenditures for rent and utili-

ties?

Hints for Constructing Rectangular

or Divided Bar Graphs

1. Find the total amount to be represented

by the graph.
2. Find what fractional part of the total

each item represents.

3. Convert the fractional parts to per-

cents.
4. Divide the entire rectangle into equal
units so that the fractional parts may be
measured out easily.
5. Draw lines to show the percentage
parts represented by each item and label
the parts accordingly.
 Graphs — Pictures of Number Comparisons 143

We might best illustrate the similar

application of the rectangular bar graph
and the circle graph by converting the pic-
ture of the Jones family budget into a circle
graph (Figure 88).

Figure 88

Item
144 Arithmetic Made Simple

Source Percentage Type of Employment

Income Taxes from Individuals 40%
Income Taxes from Corporations 25%
Customs and Other Import Taxes 5%
Excise Taxes 20%
Borrowing 10%
2. Construct a circle graph to show the following
facts about the ways in which the residents of one
city earned the majority of their income.
 CHAPTER FIFTEEN

SIGNED NUMBERS

Jack and his sister Carolyn were playing

shuffleboard. They both scored plus 7's.
Then Jack landed in the "10 off box. The
score now stood +7 for Carolyn and —3
for Jack.
This is one of many instances in which it
is helpful to use a plus sign or a minus sign
in front of a number to indicate its direction
and value.
Up numbers used
to the present, all the
in thisbook have been positive numbers.
That is, none was less than zero (0).
Although we did use the minus sign, it
meant subtraction and did not represent a
value of less than zero.
In solving some problems in arithmetic
by short-cut methods, it is necessary to
assign a negative value to some numbers.
This is used primarily fornumbers with
which we desire to represent opposite quan-
tities or qualities, and can best be illus-
trated by use of a diagram. For example
consider a thermometer, as in Figure 90.

20^
146 Arithmetic Made Simple

Practice Exercise No. 120 METHOD: (-5°) + (-4°) = -9°. Add

Transpose the statements and numerical values
the changes. The sum is 9 and the sign
into signed numbers. is — because both changes were in the

same direction.
1. 5 lb. overweight

2. 15° above zero temperature

Rule: To add signed numbers of like
signs^find the sum of the numbers and give
3. 10 yard loss it the common sign.
4. 5% net loss
Example 3: A thermometer advanced 7
5. S50 profit
degrees ( + 7°) in one hour. The next hour it
6. 32° S. latitude dropped 3 degrees ( — 3°). What was its

7. 1000 ft. below sea level change in this 2-hour period?

8. 1858 A.D. METHOD: Look at the thermometer in Fig-

ure 90. Place your finger on zero, go up 7
9. West longitude 55°
units, then go down 3 units. The result
10. 18° below zero temperature
shows your finger at 4.

( + 7°) + (-3°) = +4°

ADDITION OF SIGNED This is obtained by subtracting the
NUMBERS
smaller from the larger, and giving the
Learning to use signed numbers requires result the sign of the larger quantity.
that you be introduced to some of the spe-
cial rules employed in the study of algebra. Example 4: Suppose the thermometer
It also prepares you for the equation advanced 7 degrees ( + 7°) the first hour
method of solving some difficult arithmetic and dropped 13 degrees (—13°) an hour
problems by an easier process. later. What would be the total change?
In using signed numbers, keep in mind
— METHOD: ( + 7°) + (-13°) = -6°.
that the + and continue to be used
This is obtained by subtracting the
as signs of addition and subtraction as well
smaller from the larger and giving the result
as signs of positive and negative values.
the sign of the larger quantity. Check the
Since a positive number is the same as the
answer by tracing the steps on the ther-
numbers used in arithmetic, when no sign
mometer.
is indicated, the + sign is understood.
Rule: To add signed numbers of
Example A thermometer records a rise
1: unlike sign%^find the difference and give it
of 5° in one hour + 5°). An hour later it
( the sign of the larger number.
rises 4° more + 4°). What was its change
(

in the two hours?

METHOD: ( + 5°) + + 4°) =( +9°. Add

the increases and the sum is given the plus
sign, to show that the temperature went up.

Example 2: The thermometer dropped 5°

in one hour ( — 5°). An hour later it dropped
another 4° ( — 4°). What was the tempera-
ture change in the two hours?
 Signed Numbers 147

7.
148 Arithmetic Made Simple

Example 3: Add 6a +46 +36 + 2a. 4. - 12a - 3a =

METHOD: Collecting like terms, 5. 8c - 15c =

6a + 2a = 8a 6. 96 - 46 - 36 =
46 + 36 = 76
7. 3a + 5a -f- 7a - 26 =
Expressing unlike terms separately, we =
8. 7a - 36 + 4a - 56
get 8a + 76 Ans.
This is an algebraic expression contain- Subtract
ing two terms. =
9. (19) - (6)

10. (18) - (-4) =

Practice Exercise No. 123
11. (-31) - (5)
=
The following exercise will test your knowledge of
addition and subtraction of signed numbers. 12. (-8) - (19) =
Add 13. (-11) -(-41) =
1. 6 + 5-1-4-3 = 14. (5a) - (2a) =
2. - 4 - 16 - 13 = 15. (-186) - (76) =
3. 7 - 14 - 21 + 3 = 16. (17c) - (19c) =
 CHAPTER SIXTEEN

HAND.HELD CALCULATOR

The first calculating machine was probably represents 10 and each upper bead 50. In
a pile of sticks or stones, and the person the nextcolumn the lower beads represent
doing the calculating no doubt did so by 100 each and the upper beads 500 each,
adding or subtracting from the pile. The and so on across the abacus. To begin use
abacus is a hand-operated calculating of the abacus all the lower beads are at the
machine in which numbers are represented bottom of the frame and all the upper beads
by beads on wires. The beads are in are at the top of the frame (as in Figure 91).
columns, contained in a rectangular frame, The abacus pictured has only ten columns
and are moved up and down to do the cal- and with just these 70 beads numbers up to
culating. The first abacus was no doubt 9,999,999,999 can be represented. Num-
sand in which marks were made and bers are entered by moving beads against
rubbed out as required. The most common the crossbar. The number 32 is entered by
form of the abacus is the ancient Chinese moving three beads in the tens' column
version called the suan pan, which means (second) against the crossbar and two beads
reckoning board. It has up to 13 columns of against the crossbar in the ones' column
beads, with each column divided into 2 (first). See Figure 92.
parts. The upper columns have 2 beads
each and are separated from the lower
columns by a horizontal bar. The lower
columns have 5 beads each (see Figure 91).

B$$$$se$s

3 2

Figure 92

'\X^ \ %

Figure 91 To accomplish addition, 32 + 6, we

move one upper bead in the ones' column
In the first column on the right the lower down to the crossbar (thus adding five) and
beads represent 1 each, while the upper one lower bead is slid up toward the cross-
represent 5. The next column to the left bar (adding one more, making six see—
is the tens' column, and each lower bead Figure 93). The abacus now reads 38.
150 Arithmetic Made Simple

PLUS1

3 8 4
Figure 93 Figure 95

Now toadd 2 more to the total of 38 Of course, a skilled operator would fore-
(38 + 2 =
40) by moving the last two see many of the steps and skip them. With
beads in the ones column up to the cross- skill it is possible to calculate at very high
bar. The lower part of the column is now speeds on an abacus. As a matter of fact
full (Figure 94A), and whenever this hap- some people can use an abacus faster than
pens it must be emptied immediately. This a skilled person can use an electric calcu-
is done by moving the last bead in the lator. There are many books on the abacus
upper part of the ones' column against the if you want to learn how to use one with
bar, adding five, and moving the five lower speed and accuracy.
beads down to the bottom of the frame. But Subtraction is performed in much the
now the upper part of the ones' column is same way, except that beads are moved
away from the crossbar instead of toward it,
as in addition.

ELECTRONIC CALCULATOR
The hand-held electronic calculator is

an ingenious device that operates by bat-

tery and uses solid-state devices like tran-
sistors and logic circuits to perform
mathematical functions. The answers are

DISPLAY
LOWER PART OF UPPER PART OF
ONES COLUMN FULL ONES COLUMN FULL

Figure 94A & 94B

"full" and must be emptied. (See Figure

94B.) This is done by moving one more

bead in the tens' column up against the bar

and then subtracting the ten in the ones'
column by moving the two upper beads to
the top of the frame (see Figure 95).
 Hand-Held Calculator 151

usually read on a display that is made up of The display reads 148. Ans.
LCDs (liquid crystal diodes) or LEDs
(light-emitting diodes). LCD displays are EXAMPLE: Add 456 to 32 to 11 and sub-
black on a gray background, while LED tract 41.
displays are usually red on black. Data is
METHOD:
entered via a keyboard like the one shown
in Figure 96. Enter 456 press + enter 32 press +
When numbers are entered, they begin enter 11 press — enter 41 press =
to fill the display by entering from right to The display reads 458. Ans.
left. If the number 3 is entered, it appears
When we wish to enter a number that
in the right-most position of the display. If
has a decimal part or is a decimal number,
we then number 2, the display
enter the
we use the key marked with the decimal
will read 32. Numbers will continue to
point, ".".
move across the display until sl function key
is pressed ( + , X , — , -h ). When a func-
EXAMPLE: Add 3.2 to .05 to 4.
tion key is pressed, the number that is in
the display and the function are stored by METHOD:
the machine. If we wish to add 32 to the
Enter 3 press . enter 2 press +
number 6,we would enter 3, then 2, (the press . enter 05 press + enter 4
display now reads 32); then we press the + press =
key (the display still reads 32, but the
The display reads 7.25. Ans.
value 32 is also stored inside the machine);
now we press the number 6 (the display Multiplication is performed by entering
now reads 6) and the storage inside the the multiplicand then pressing the function

machine now also contains the number 6 as key marked " X " followed by the multi-
well as the function + Now when we press .
plier, then press the key marked " = " to

the " =" key, the machine adds the 6 and read the answer in the display.

the 32, and the number 38 appears in the

display. Ifwe now wish to add 2 to the pre- EXAMPLE: Multiply 5X3
vious result of 38, we press the + and the METHOD:
38 enters into storage; now pressing 2 will
Enter 5 press X enter 3 press =
cause the 2 to appear in the display, and
the + and 2 are stored. Now pressing = The display reads 15. Ans.

causes the addition to take place and the Division is performed in the same way.
display reads 40. We enter the dividend, press the function
We can continue to add to this number key marked "-^", enter the divisor, then
by repeating the steps above. However, it is press the key marked " = " to read the quo-
not necessary to press the " =" key each tient in the display.
time, only at the last step when we wish to

see the answer that is stored. EXAMPLE: Divide 73 by 12

To clarify things let's do some examples:
METHOD:
Enter 73 press ^ enter 12 press =
EXAMPLE: Add 32 to 40 to 76.
The display reads 6.08333333 Ans.
METHOD:
The key marked "C" when pressed will
Enter 32 press + enter 40 press + erase the number that is in the display, so if
enter 76 press = we should enter a number by mistake, we
152 Arithmetic Made Simple

press C and the display will read 0. What if subtraction, multiplication, and division.
in the previous example we enter 32, then (See Figure 97.)
the + function, but then the 7 when we
wanted to add 6? If at this time we press the
key marked "C" the 7 will be erased from
the display, but the accumulator still has
32 in it even though we cannot see it. Now
we again press the function key +
(because this was erased also when we
erased the 7) followed by 6, then = , and
the display will read 38. Remember the
clear "C" erases the function as well as the
number, so the function must be reentered
as well as the number. It is a good idea to

press the C key before each new use of the

calculator to be sure that there are no val-
ues remaining in the machine when we
begin. This is not done in the examples
only to save space in printing.
Not all calculators work the same way
when we add or subtract and then multiply.

EXAMPLE: In one calculator when we:

enter 3 press + enter 6 press X

enter 5 press =
The display reads 33 Ans.
EXPLANATION: The calculation performed
was 3 + (6 X 5) = 33 (the multiplication
is performed before the addition).

EXAMPLE: In a different calculator when

we:

enter 3 press + enter 6 press X

enter 5 press =
The display reads 45 Ans.
EXPLANATION: The calculation performed
was (3 + 6) X 5 = 45 (the addition is

performed before the multiplication).

Most calculators work as in the second

example above, but the instruction booklet
that comes with the calculator should make
this clear.
Even the very inexpensive calculators
can do more functions than just addition,
 Hand-Held Calculator 153

is like the display, but it cannot be seen METHOD:

and is a place where values can be stored.

Key Marked *'MC'

This key is like the clear key, but it clears
the register called the memory and leaves
the display as it was, use it to be sure the
memory register is clejir before using.

Key Marked "MR**

This key takes the value from the memory
and puts it in the display.

Key Marked "M-**

This key will subtract the value of the dis-
play from the value of the memory; the
value of the display is unchanged while the
value of the memory is decreased.

Key Marked "M+**

This key will add the value of the display to
the value of the memory; the value of the
display will be unchanged while the value
of the memory is increased.

EXAMPLE:

(23 X 7) + (12 ^ 5) - (27.34 + .165)

 ANSWERS

Exercise No. 1 Exercise No. 8

1. VIII 7. LXXVI 12. DCCCII 1. 182 3. 187 5. 268 7. 1884 9. 23,896

2. XVI 8. LXXXIX 13. MCMLVIII 2. 272 4. 191 6. 224« 8. 3947 10. 28,055
3. XXIV 9. XCI 14. XCC
Exercise No.
4. XXXIX 10. CXIV 15. C_
5. XLVIII 11. CDLVI 16. MM 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
6. LIII 39 33 37 47 31
40 42 41 31 37
Exercise No. 2 39 43 30 33 32
33 34 40 38 35
1. 7 5. 78 9. 360 13. 1960
37,339 38,753 43,447 41,657 38,601
2. 23 6. 92 10. 631 14. 10,300
3. 46 7. 105 11. 971 15. 150,020
4. 69 8. 215 12. 1002 16. 1,905,000
Exercise No. 10

1. (a) 215 4«4 (d) 293

(b) 136 (c) (e) 399
Exercise No. 3
2. <a)52 (c)85 (d)284
(b)286 (e) 39
1. 698 6. 462,309 3. (a) 313 (b) 123 (c) 398 (d) 56 (e) 2524
2. 2465 7. 6,422,754 4. (a) 4410 (b) 5525 (c) 2201 (d) 3018 (e) 37982
3. 3412 8. 9,002,000,050
4. 33,600 9. 604,368,419
5. 301,465 10. 21.000,000,400 Exercise No. 1

1. $.12 6. $14.05
Exercise No. 4 2. S.06 7. $220.00
3. «.60 8. $2,400.35
1. 390 7. 82,700 13. 30,000
4. $1.01 9. $12,684.19
2. 4620 8. 96,300 14. 70,000
5. $1.32 10. $3,000,030.98
3. 680 9. 26,000 15. 390,000
4. 8240 10. 69,000 16. 5,400,000
5. 700 11. 389,000 Exercise No. 12
6. 6300 12. 5,395,000
1. $73.28 6. $6.68
2. $45.47 7. $2.15
Exercise No. 5 8. $2.99
3. $6.20
(a) 368 (b) 401 (c) 390 (d) 413 (e) 405 4. $24.34 9. $9.69
5. $331.29 10. $337.59

Exercise No. 6
(a) 3231 (c) 23,429 (e) 136,848 Exercise No. 13
(b) 4029 (d) 11,249
1. $3.45 $4.45 5. $6780.82
2. $10.25 $13.11
Exercise No. 7

1. 76 6. 47 11. 59 16. 47 21. 53

Exercise No. 14
2. 54 7. 62 12. 66 17. 74 22. 82
3. 59 8. 60 13. 60 18. 40 23. 80 1. (a)129 (b)80 (c)224 (d) 528 (e) 96
4. 51 9. 85 14. 92 19. 91 24. 72 2. (a) 504 (b)320 (c) 672 (d) 783 (e) 360
5. 68 10. 61 15. 81 20. 112 25. 114 3. (a) 2884(b) 2196 (c) 4536 (d) 1224 (e) 5250
A nswers 155
156 Arithmetic Made Simple

Exercise No. 28 (Continued)

6.
Ansrvers 157
158 Arithmetic Made Simple

Exercise No. 56
1. 38.50 6. 13.8 11. 138.23 16. 1.51
2. 2.8 7. 2.2 12. 145.64 17. 11.63
3. 9.7 8. 12.2 13. 1.03 18. 3.94
4. 2.2 9. 6.5 14. 8.95 19. .01
5. 5.2 10. 56.1 15. 8.24 20. 127.27

Exerciee No. 57

(a)
 Answers 159

Exercise No. 67
1. .12 X $680 = S81.60
2. I of 24 = 18
3. 35% 37,800 = .035 X 37,800
of = S1323
4. I of 240 = 192
5. i of $35 = $7
6. 3% of $42 = $1.26
7. 125% = i 8 X S8720 = $1090
8. 10% of 142.50 = 14.25, 14.25 +
$156.75
9. 1% of $350 = $3.50
10. 1% of $760 = $7.60, I of $7.60 = $5.70
160 Arithmetic Made Simple

Exercise No. 76 (Continued) Exercise No. 80A

5. i X 38.00 = 7.60, 38.00 - 7.60 = a. $204.60 -^ $.66 = 310 boxes
$30.40
or 100% - 20% = 80%, 80% of $38.00 =
$30.40
6. $10.98 -
-
$5.00 =
=
= 55%
$5.98, ^
$17.95 $5.00 |^ = 72%
$12.95,
7. $45 - $19 = $26, i = 58%
8. 30% of $49.75 = $14.92, $49.75 - $14.92
= $34.83
10% of $34.83 = $3.48, $34.83 + $3.4^
= $38.31 Ans. or
70% of $49.75 = $34.83, $34.83 + $3.48
= $38.31 Ans.
9. 90% of $29. 95 = $26.95
10. 90% of 142.50 = 128.25, $137.00 -
$128.25 = $8.75 (over)

Exercise No. 77

1. 100 15% = 85%, 85% of what is $4,

$4 ~ $4 X ff = $4.70
-;
100

100 - 20% = 80%, 80% of what is $22,

$22 -^ t = $22 X I = $27.50
100 - 18% = 82%, 82% of what is $18,
$18 - ^ = $18 X ^ = $21.95
4. 100 - 25% = 75%, 75% of what is $10.50,
$10.50 ^ I = $10.50 X I = $14
5. 100 - 331% = 66f%, 66|% of what is $22,

Exercise No. 78
1. $216 4. $418.95
2. $289 5. $120
3. $137.20

Exercise No. 79
1. Total iio $3775 = $113.25
$3775, of
2. $125, 400 X .025 = $3135
3. 45 X $95.50 = $4297.50, 4297.50 x .02
=
$85.95
4. 1830 X .015 = 27.45, 27.45 + 160 =
$187.45
$825 X .12 = $99, $750 x .15 = $112.50,
$99 + $112.50 + $150 = $361.50
5% of 100,000 = 5000, 3% of 115,500 =
3465, 5000 + 3465 = $8465
72 _
~ J2. _
— J. _ AC/
1800 300 25 ~ *''"
 Answers 161

Exercise No. 82 (Continued) Exercise No. 87

5. S.P. = Cost + Overhead + Profit $106.09 6. $61.73
335% + 10% = 433%, 435% of $6 = $2.60, $270.60 7. $228.94
$2.60 + $6 = $8.60 H- 24 = $.36 per can $522.84 8. $109.66
6. Cost + Overhead + Profit = S.P. $848.96 9. $467..34
235+ 90 + ? = 475, profit = 150, 5^ = 32% $761.50 10. $3611.22
7. ^ = 30%, tI = i = 26%
8. { = 20% Exercise No. 88
9. 60% of $140 = $84 $200 X 1.8
10. 25 X $.88 = $22 - S 8 = $14, ^ = $.636
166 = $237.32
= 63.6%
6.5%
11. 25% of 2000 = 500, i of $2000 = $750,
(a) $1104.49 (b) $1282.04 (c) $2107. 18
$750 - $500 = $250
1.2689 X $400 = $507.56,
507.56 - 2 = 253.73
Exercise No. 83 1.72677 X $2500 = $4316.93
I A I A
1. $11.50 $586.50 16. $18.00 $1218.00 Exercise No. 89
2. $10.00 $210.00 17. $34.00 $834.00 Discount Net Proceeds
3. $10.50 $360.50 18. $16.50 $316.50 $2.70 $537.30
4. $33.00 $583.00 19. $22.50 $1022.50 $3.50 $346.50
5. $16.00 $416.00 20. $7.50 $507.50 $2.75 $217.25
6. $51.00 $901.00 21. $20.00 $520.00 $1.00 $199.00
7. $36.00 $1236.00 22. $6.25 $256.25 $4.50 $145.50
8. $45.00 $945.00 23. $40.00 $440.00
9. $15.60 $405.60 24. $6.00 $606.00 Exercise No. 90
10. $30.00 $1530.00 25. $12.00 $412.00 = 36%
1. The actual interest is 3% X 12
11. $27.00 $627.00 26. $26.00 $326.00
12. $11.25 $461.25 27. $3.50 $178.50 To calculate number of months and amount
the of

13. $49.50 $949.50 28. $7.50 $1507.50 the last payment we make the following table:
14. $12.95 $382.95 29. $3.00 $203.00 Amount Payment on
15. $24.75 $574.75 30. $40.00 $840.00 Month of Loan Payment Interest Principal New Balance
$80.00 $10 $2.40 $7.60 $72.40
J72.40 $10 $2.17 $7.83 $64.57
Exercise No. 84
$64.57 $10 $1.94 $8.06 $56.51
1. 2% 6. 8 months $56.51 $10 $1.70 $8.30 $48.21
2. 2yrs. 7. 5% $48.21 $10 $1.45 $8.55 $39.66
3. 2|% 8. 25 yrs. $39.66 $10 $1.19 $8.81 $30.85
$30.85 $10 $ .93 $9.07 $21.78
4. I2 yrs. 9. 6% $10 $9.35 $12.43
$21.78 $ .65
5. 4% 10. 3 yrs.
$12.43 $10 $ .37 $9.63 $ 2.80
$ 2.80 $ 2.88 $ .08 $2.80 $
Exercise No. 85
From the table we see that the last payment is
1. $3.40 6. $1.11
$2.88 and that it takes 10 months to repay the loan.
2. $8.65 7. $.92
3. $14.50 8. $6.43 2. To find the total amount paid and the last pay-

4. $.30 9. $.01 ment, we need to calculate the following table:

5. $9.21 10. $42.59

Exercise No. 86
1. $2.50 6. $2.10 11. $2.88 16. $3.14
2. $15.00 $25.00 7. 12. $11.55 17. $4.32
3. $9.00 8. $33.00 13. $2.67 18 $5.88
4. $2.00 9. $6.75 14. $9.33 19 $12.88
5. $10.00 10. $1.05 15. $9.80 20. $.98
162 Arithmetic Made Simple

Exercise No. 90 (Continued) Exercise No. 95

So the total amount is (7 X $30) + $6.84 =
$216.84. We could also get the total amount paid by
adding the sums of the INTEREST and PAYMENT
ON PRINCIPAL columns.
3. MONTH BALANCE
2000 X .088 = 176 FINANCE CHARGE 1 2176.00
2000 + 176 = 2176 AMOUNT FINANCED 2 1994.67
2176 = 181.33
-i- 12 3 1813.34
NOW MAKE TABLE AT THE RIGHT BY 4 16;<2.01

SUBTRACTING SUCCESSIVELY THE 5 1430.68

PAYMENT AMOUNT OF 181.33 6 1269.35
7 1088.02
TOTAL THE MONTHLY BALANCES 8 906.69
TO GET 14. 144.22 AND DIVIDE 9 725.36
BY 12. 14.144.22 12 = 1178.69
-i- 10 544.03
THIS IS THE AVERAGE LOAN 11 362.70
12 181.37
176 -i- 1178.69 = 149
OR 15 PERCENT 14.144.22

Exercise No. 91

1. 12 10. 4 19. 3 28. 2000

2. 16 11. 480 20. 16 29. 24
3. 8 12. 5^ 21. 4 30. 4
4. 2240 13. 60 22. 500 31. 365
5. 2i 14. 7 23. 320 32. I65
6. 2 15. 366 24. 144 33. 100
7. 12 16. 1760 25. 60 34. 32
8. 31^ 17. 20 26. 36 35. 5280
9. 24 18. 12 27. 7 36. 10

Exercise No. 92
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
 Answers 163

Exercise INo. 98 (Continued)

23. The mile run— by 120 yd.
24. 66 in. x 2.54 cm = 167.64 cm
25. 35 mm. = 3.5 cm 3.5 ^ 2.54 = 1.37 in.

26. 336 X 8 = 210 miles (approximately)

27. Divide by § 50 X | = 80 Km per hr.

(approximately)

Exercise No. 99
1.
164 Arithmetic Made Simple

Exercise No. 110 Exercise No. 114 (Contirmed)

1. 120 sq. in. 5. 59.5 sq. in. 11. V = iTT^hf X (100)^ X 91 = 2,860,000
2. 72 sq. in. 6. 3 sq. ft. cu. ft.

3. 48 sq. ft. 7. 2475 sq. ft. 12. V = f X 30 X 30 X 40 = 113,143 X

4. 81 sq. in. 8. 2500 sq. ft. 7.5= 848,572 gal.
13. f X I X I X 20 = 393 X 67 = 26,331 lb.
14. V = Ah where /I = 56/1 = 5 (4 X 5) X 90
Exercise No. Ill = 900 X 75 = 6750 gal.
1. 75.46 sq. in. 5. 3850 sq. ft.

2. 24.64 sq. in. 6. lOlSf sq. in.

3. 1257|sq. in. 7. 616 sq. in.

4. 1386 sq. in. 8. 1386 sq. ft.

Exercise No. 112

1. 160 X 160 = 25,600 sq. ft., 5 X 8 = 40

sq. ft., 25,600 -^ 40 = 640 Ans.

2. f X 12 X 12 = 452? sq. in.

3. 18 X 12 = 216 sq. ft., area of tile | X | =
sq. ft., 216 H- ^ or 216 X f = 384 tiles
jf,

4. A = |6/i =5(12 X 18) = 108 sq. in. X 10

= 1080 sq. ^ 144 = 7.5 sq. ft.
in.

5. 120 X 400 48,000 sq. ft. - 43,560

=
(acre) = 4,440 sq. ft. more
6. A = i6/i = 6 X 8 = 48 sq. in. 200 x 144
= 28,800; 28,800 h- 48 = 600
7. /I = ^6/i = 45 X 15 = "1^ = 67^ sq. ft.

S. A = Trr', A (pool) = f X (^f = 176t5,

/I pool & walk = f X (t)^ = 3465,
346n - 176H = 169f = 169f area of walk
9. f X (1)2 = 7i!j, f X (3)^ = 28^, 28i^ -
7Ti = 21^
10. f X (5)' = 78? X i^ = $11.78

Exercise No. 113

1. V = Iwh 18 X 12 X 8 = 1728 cu. in.

2. V = Iwh 10 X 65 X 4 = 260 cu. ft.
3. 3 X 3 X f
= 6 cu. ft.

4. 3 X 3 X 8 = 72 cu. ft., 72 -^ 36 = 2 lb.

Ans.
5. 2f X 3 X 2i =
X 2 = 18 cu. ft.I X f
6. 8 ft. X 50 ft. = 200 cu. ft.; 200
X ift. -^ 27
= 7.4 yd.; 7.4 X $20 = $148
7. 6X4X2 = 48, 48-^5 = 96 Ans.

Exercise No. 114

1. 64 cu. in. 6. 75f cu. in.

2. 63 cu. in. 7. 504 cu. in.

3. 360 cu. in. 8. 144 cu. in.

4. 480 cu. in. 9. 8 cu. ft.

5. 384 cu. in. 10. 231 cu. ft.

 Answers 165
Exercise No. 118

1. Age 13 3. Age 13 to 14
2. Age 8 4. No, 12 to 13

5. 95 - 50 = 45, 45 ^ 6 = Tj lb. per yr.

average
6. 113 - 55 = 58, 58 H- 6 = 9i lb., 9| lb.
7i = 2i lb.

7. 11 to 14
8. 9; compared to 12

Exercise No. 118B

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
 INDEX
Abacus, 149-50 Borrowing money, and interest, 93-94
and addition, 149-50 See aUo Small loans
and subtraction, 150 Broken lines, 109
Acute angles, 110, 111 Brokerage. See Commission
Acute triangles, 113, 114 Business (daily), percentages in, 78-87
Addends, defined, 15 commission, 81-83
Addition, 15-18 discount, 78-81.93
and abacus, 149-50 profit and loss, 83-87

addends, 15 Buying, mathematics of. See Profit and loss

basic one hundred facts, 15

carrying in, 100 Calculator, hand-held. 149-53
column, 16-17 abacus, 149-50
copying numbers and, 18 electronic, 150-53
of decimals, 60-61 Capacity. See Volume
of denominate numbers, 100 Card systems, for mental addition, 16
and electronic calculator, hand-held, 151, 152 Carry, or pay back method, of subtraction, 19, 21-22
equals sign, 15 Carrying
of fractions, 44-45, 46, 54 in addition, 100
good habits in, 17 in multiplication, 25—26
language of, 15 Casting out nines
mental, 15-16, 17-18 and division, 36
of mixed numbers, 44, 46 and multiplication, 34-35
with money, 22-23 Centigram, 106
and multiplication, 101 Centimeters, 104
by partial totals, 18 Central time zone, 106, 107
plus sign, 15 Chain discounts. See Multiple discounts
sight test in mental, 15-16 Charge accounts. See Store charge accounts
of signed numbers, 146-47, 148 Circle, 118-20
speed in, 16, 17 area of, 126-27
vs. subtraction, 20 circumference of, 118, 119-20
sum, 15 defined, 118
of whole numbers, 15-18, 38 diameter of, HI, 118, 120
Afternoon, 107 perimeter of, 119
Algebraic sums and differences, and signed numbers, 147-148 radius of, 118
Altitude, measuring, 145 Circle graphs, 142-44
Angles and rectangle graphs, 142—43
acute, 110, 111 Circumference, of circle, 1 18, 1 19-20
drawing with protractor. 111 Clock time
measurements of, 99, 110-15 armed services, 108
obtuse, 110, 111 computations for. 107-8
polygons, 114-15 measurements of, 106—8
right, 110, 111 Column addition, 16-17
straight, 110 speed in, 17
triangles, 112-14 Commission, 81-83
types and sizes of, 110—11 amount of. 82. 83
Apothecaries, measurements by, 98 base, 82
Area computation of, 82, 83
of circle, 126-27 defined. 81
measurement of, 121-27 gross proceeds, 82
of parallelogram, 124-25 language of, 82
of rectangle, 122 net proceeds, 82
of square, 122-23 rale of, 82, 83
of triangle, 125-26 sales volume, 82
Armed services clock time, 108 selling price, 82, 83
Avoirdupois weight, 98 Common denominator, 42
finding. 43
Bar graphs, 136—38 Common fractions

horizontal, 136 and decimals, interchange, 58—59, 61

how to construct, 138 percentage changed to. 69-70
vertical, 136 Comparison of numbers. See Graphs
Base, 82 Comparison of quantities. See Proportion; Ratio
of rectangular prism, 130 Complex fractions, 41

Bookkeeping, 145 Compound denominate numbers, 97-98

168 Index

Compound interest, 91-93 before multiplication, 49-50

computation 91-93
of, vs. multiplication, 30
tables for, 92-93 for number of equal sized smaller groups, 30
Computers, 153 short, 36—37
Copying numbers, and adding, 18 for size of equal parts, 30
Cost, first, 83 study procedures 31-32
for,

Counting of three-figure numbers, 32—34

in early times, 9 of two-figure numbers, 32-34
measurements of, 98 of whole numbers, 30-34, 36-38. 51. 52. 65
and proper fractions, interchange, 59 with zero in quotient. 33-34
reading, 56-58 Divisor, defined, 30
rounding, 66—67 Dollars and cents, placement of point for, 37
subtraction of, 61-62 Dry measure, 98
writing, 56, 57
Eastern time zone, 106, 107
Decimeters, 104 Electronic calculator, hand-held, 150-53
Denominate numbers, 97-98, 99-103 and addition, 151, 152
addition of, 100 and decimals, 151
applying four fundamental operations with, 100-2 and division, 151
changing from higher to lower units of, 102—3 keys of. 152-53
changing from lower to higher units of, 103 and memory. 152—53
compound, 97-98 and multiplication. 151. 152
defined, 97 programming of. 153
division of, 101—2 Equals sign. 15
equating, 99-100 Equations. 5-7. 135
examples of, 97 Equiangular triangles. See Equilateral triangles
multiplication of, 101 Equilateral triangles. 113
regrouping of, 100 Equivalent fractions. 40
subtraction of, 100—1 Even numbers. 7
Denominator, 39, 74 Exchange or borrow method, of subtraction, 19-20, 21, 100
multiplying, 40 Extremes, defined, 134
See also Common denominator; Least common denominator
Diameter, of circle. 111. 118, 120 Finance rate, vs. interest, 94—95
Difference. See Remainder First cost. 83
Discount, 78-81, 93 Foot
defined, 78 cubic. 128
finding amount of, 78-80 square, 121
former price, 78 Forenoon. 107
language of, 78 Former price, 78
list price, 78 See also Original price
marked price.78 Fractional part, finding whole number from, 53
multiple, 80-81 Fraction line, 39
net price, 78 Fractions, 32, 39-54, 72
original price, 80 addition of, 44-45, 46. 54
rate of, 78-80 changing whole numbers to, 41-42
reduction, 78 and common denominator. 43
sales price, 78 decimal. 55
trade, 78 and decimals, relationships, 67-68
using, to find original price. 80 defined, 39
Discounting, 93 division of, 50—54
Distance, measurements of, 97, 98 equivalent, 40
Divided bar graph. See Rectangle graphs by fractions, dividing, 51-52
Dividend, defined. 30 by fractions, multiplying, 48-49
Division kinds of, 39, 41
and casting out nines, 36 and least common denominator (LCD), 42, 43-44
of decimals, 63-64, 65-67 meaning of, 39
defined, 30 memorizing equivalents of popular percentages, 71
of denominate numbers, 101-2 multiplication of, 40, 46-50, 64-65
drill in, 31 parts of, 39
and electronic calculator, hand-held, 151 to percentages, change of, 70
of fractions. 50-54 raising to higher terms, 40
with inexact quotient. 30-31 and ratio. 133
of money numbers, 37—38 reducing to lower terms. 41
 Index 169

short way of multiplying, 49-50 Length. .See Distance

subtraction of, 45-46, 54 Light-emitting diodes. See LEDs
uses of, 39-40 Like fractions
See also Common fractions; Complex fractions; Improper addition of, 44
fractions; Like fractions; Proper fractions; Unlike subtraction of, 45
fractions Like signs, adding signed numbers of, 146—47
Function key, in electronic calculator (hand-held), 151 Linear measure, 98
in metric system. 104
Cram, deFined, 106 Line graphs, i;i8-40
Graphs, 136-44 characteristics of. 138
bar, 136-38 for comparison, 139-40
circle, 142-44 how to construct, 138-39
line, 138-40 interpretation of, 139
pictographs, 140—41 Lines
rectangle, 141-42 broken, 109
Cross proceeds, 82 curved, 109
Gross profit, 84 fraction, 39
horizontal, 109
Hand, deflned, 97 language of, 109-10
Hexagon, 1 15 measurements of, 109-10

Hindu-Arabic number system, 10, 55 oblique, 110

Horizontal bar graphs, 136 parallel. 109
Horizontal lines, 109 perpendicular, 1 10
straight, 109. 110
Improper fractions, 39 vertical, 109
changing mixed number to, 42 Liquid crystal diodes. See LCDs
changing to whole or mixed number, 42 Liquid measure, 98
Inch, 99 List price, 78
cubic, 128 Loans. See Borrowing money; Small loans
square, 121 Longitude, measuring, 145
Installment buying, and interest, 94—95
Interest, 88-96 Marked price. 78
amount of, 88 Markup, defined, 84
and borrowing money, 93—94 Maturity, of loan, 93
compound, 91-93 Means, defined, 134
computation of, 88-96 Measurements, 97-108
and credit cards, 95 -*"
of angles, 99, 110-15
deHned, 88 of area, 121-27
vs. 94—95
finance rate, of circle, 118-20
formula for finding, 88-89 of clock time. 106—8
indirect cases of, 89-90 of counting. 98
and installment buying, 94—95 of denominate numbers. 97-98. 99—103
and percentages, 88 of distance. 97. 98
principal. 88, 93 of lines. 109-10
rate of, 88 metric system of, 98. 103-6
simple, 91 of perimeter. 115-17
60 day —6% method of figuring, 90-91 standardization of. 97
on small loans, 94-95 tables of. 98-99
on store charge accounts, 95—96 of time. 99
time, 88 of volume. 99. 127-32
true rate of, 93, 94, 95 of weight. 98. 106
Isosceles triangles, 113 Memory
and electronic calculator (hand-held), 152—53
Kilometer, defined, 104 and fractions. 71

and multiplication. 24-25

Lai^e numbers Mental addition. 17-18
grouping and writing, 13 card systems for. 16
reading of, 12-13 sight test in. 15—16
Latitude, measuring, 145 Meter, defined. 103. 104
LCDs (liquid crystal diodes), 151 Metric system, of measurements, 98. 103—6
Leastcommon denominator, 42 and decimals. 103. 105
finding, 43—44 linear measure in. 104
LEDs (light-emitting diodes), 151 Miles. 99
170 Index

Milligram, deHned, 106 Numbers

Millimeters, defined, 104 even, 7
Minuend, defined, 19 finding, when percentage is given, 75-76
Mixed numbers, 32, 39 finding, when percentage, one of another, 74—75
addition of, 44, 46 odd. 7
changing improper fractions to, 42 percentage of, 72-73
changing to improper fractions, 42 tht«e-figure, 25. 27. 32-34
dividing, by mixed number, 32 two-figure, 25, 26-27, 32-34
dividing, by proper fractions, 32 See also Denominate numbers; Large numbers; Mixed
dividing, by whole number, 32 numbers; Signed numbers; Whole numbers
dividing proper fractions by, 32 Number system, 9-14
dividing whole number by, 32 analyzing numbers according to place values, 12
multiplying, 49 counting in early times, 9
multiplying whole numbers by, 48 decimal point, numbers to left and right of, 11

percentage changed to, 69 Hindu-Arabic numerals, 10, 55

subtraction of, 45-46 large numbers, grouping and writing, 13
Money large numbers, reading of, 12-13
addition and subtraction with, 22—23 place values, understanding of, 12
and decimals, how related, 59-60 Roman numerals, reading and writing of, 10—11
division with, 37-38 "ten" in, 11

and multiplication, 28 whole numbers, rounding off, 14

See also Interest written numbers, early, 9—10
Mountain time, 106, 107 Numerator, 39, 74
Multiple discounts. 80-81 multiplying, 40
Multiplicand, 24, 62
interchange with multiplier, 29 Oblique lines, 110
zero in, 26 Obtuse angles, 110, 111
Multiplication, 24 Obtuse triangles, 113—14
and addition, 101 Octagon, 115
carrying in, 25-26 Odd numbers, 7
and casting out nines, 34—35 Original price, finding, when net price is known, 80
checking results in, 29-30 See also Former price; List price; Marked price
of decimals, 62-65 "Overhead expense," 83
of denominate numbers, 101
division before, 49-50 Pacific time, 106, 107
vs. division, 30 Parallel lines, 109
and electronic calculator, hand-held, 151, 152 Parallelogram, 115
of fractions, 40, 46-50, 64-65 area of, 124-25
and memory, 24—25 perimeter of, 117
of mixed numbers, 48, 49 Parentheses, in equations, 7
and money, 28 Partial totals, addition by, 18

by "near" figures, 29 Pentagon, 115

by numbers a little above or below 100, 29 Percentages, 69—77
by numbers ending in zero, 26 in business (daily), 78-87
by number with zero in multiplier, 27-28 and common fractions, changed to. 69-70
of numerator and denominator of fraction, 40 comparing. 71
product, 24, 62 decimals, changed to, 70
rapidly by 5, 9. or 11, 29 from decimals to, changed, 70
shortcuu in, 28-29, 49-30, 64-63 defined. 69
sign of, 24 finding, one number of another, 74—75
table of six to twelve, 24 finding number when percent is given, 75—76
of three-figure numbers, 25. 27 from fraction to, changed, 70
of two-figure numbers, 25. 26-27 and interest. 88
of whole numbers. 24-30. 34-36. 38. 46-48. 63 memorizing fractional equivalents of popular, 71
with zero in multiplicand, 26 mental shortcuts for finding. 73
Multiplier. 24. 62 and mixed number, changed to, 69
interchange with multiplicand. 29 of number, 72-73
zero in, 27-28 rounding off, 76
to show changes, 77
Net price, 78 uses of, 71-76. 77
finding original price from, 80 Perimeter, measurements of. 115—17
Net proceeds. 82. 93 of circle, 119
Note. See Promissory note of parallelogram, 117
 Index 171

of rectangle, 1 17 formula for finding, 134—35

of square, 1 16-17 means of. 134
of trapezoid, 1 17 Protractor, drawing angles with, 1 1

of triangle, 115-16
Peq3endicular lines, 1 10 Quadrilaterals, 115

Pictographs, 140-41 Quotient

Place holder. 60 defined, 30
zero as, 60 when not exact, 30-31
Place values zero in. 33-34
analyzing numbers according to, 12
in decimals, 55-56 Radius, of circle. 118
subtraction with, 19 Rate of commission, 82, 83
understanding of, 12 Rale of discount. 78-80
Plane figures, 121 defined, 78
computations with, 127 finding, 78-80
vs. solid figures, 128 Rate of interest, 88
Plus sign, 15 Ratio. 133-34
Polygons, 114-15 computation of. 133-34
hexagon, 115 defined. 133
octagon, 115 and fractions, 133
parallelogram, 115 how to indicate, 133
pentagon, 115 Reciprocal. 64. 65
quadrilaterals, 115 defined. 50
rectangle, 115 Rectangle, 115, 124
regular, 115 area of. 122
rhomboid, 115 length or width of, 123
rhombus, 115 perimeter of, 117
square, 115 side of, 123

trapezium, 115 Rectangle graphs, 141-42

trapezoid, 115 and circle graphs. 142—43
Price hints for constructing. 142

former, 78 Rectangular solid or prism, 128

list, 78 Rectangular solids, volume of, 129-30
marked, 78 Reduction, 78
net, 78 Regrouping, of denominate numbers. 100
original, 80 Regular polygon. 115
sales, 78 ^ Remainder, 30, 32
selling, 82, 83 defined, 19
Principal, 88. 93 finding, 34
Prism, volume of, 130 Rhomboid, 115
See also Rectangular solid or prism; Triangular prism Rhombus, 115
Problem solving, 5—8 Right angles. 110. Ill
Proceeds Right triangles. 1 13, 126
gross, 82 Roman numerals, reading and writing of, 10—11
net, 82, 93 Rounding off

Product, 24, 62 decimals, 66—67

Profit, gross,84 percentages, 76
Profit and loss, 83-87 whole numbers, 14
computation of. 84—87
defined, 83 Sales price, 78
first cost. 83 Sales volume, 82
gross profit, 84 Scalene triangles, 112. 114
markup, 84 Selling mathematics of. See Profit and loss

selling price, 83 Selling price. 82, 83

Promissory note, 93 Short division. 36—37
Proper fractions. 39 Sides. 110
and decimals, interchange. 59 of rectangle, 123
dividing, by mixed number, 52 Sight test
dividing mixed number by, 52 in mental addition, 15—16
Proportion, 134-35 in subtraction, 20-21
computation of, 135 Signed numbers, 145—48
defined, 134 addition of, 146-47, 148
extremes of, 134 and algebraic sums and differences, 147-48
172 Index

applications of, 145 Tally system, 9-10

computation of, 146—48 'Ten," related to number system, 11

defined, 145 Three-figure numbers

for opposite directions, 145 division of, 32-34
subtraction of, 147, 148 multiplication of, 25, 27
and symbols, 147-48 Three-place numbers, subtraction of, 21
Sign of multiplication, 24 Time, 88
Simple interest, 91 measure, 99
Single bar graphs. See Rectangle graphs See also Clock time
60 day —6% method of Figuring interest, 90-91 Trade discounts, 78
Small loans, interest on, 94-95 Trapezium, 115
See also Borrowing money Trapezoid, 115
Solar time. See Clock time perimeter of, 117
Solid figures, vs. plane figures, 128 Travel, figuring time differences for, 107

Square, 115 Triangles, 112-14

area of, 122-23 acute, 113, 114

perimeter of, 116—17 area of, 125-26

volume of, 129 equilateral, 113
Square foot, 121 isosceles, 113
Square inch, 121 obtuse, 113-14
Square measure, 98, 121 parts of, 112

Square yard, 121 perimeter of, 115—16

Standard time, 107 right, 113, 126
Stock market, 145 scalene, 112, 114
Store charge accounts, interest on, 95—96 sum of angles of, 114

Straight angles, 110 using angles to name, 113—14

Straight lines, 109. 110 using sides to name, 112-13
Swan pan version, 149 Triangular prism, volume of, 130—31
Subtraction, 19-23 Troy measures, 98
and abacus, 150 24-hour clock. See Armed services clock time
vs. addition, 20 Two-figure numbers
basic 100 facts, 20 division of, 32—34
cards for speed in, 20—21 multiplication of, 25, 26-27
carry or pay back method, 19, 21-22
of decimals, 61-62 98
Units of counting,
of denominate numbers, 110—101
Unlike fractions
difference or remainder, 19
addition of, 44
exchange or borrow method, 19-20, 21, 100 subtraction of, 45
of fractions, 45-46, 54 Unlike signs, adding signed numbers, 146-47
language of, 19
methods of, 19-20,21-22
Vertex, of angle, 110
minuend, 19
Vertical bar graphs, 136
of mixed numbers, 45—46
Vertical lines, 109
with money, 22-23
Volume
with place values, 19
computations of, 131-32
sight test in, 20-21
of cube, 129
of signed numbers, 147, 148
of cylinder, 131
speed in, 20-21
defined, 128
subtrahend, 19
measurement of, 99, 127-32
of three-place numbers, 21
of rectangular solids, 129-30
vocabulary, 19
sales, 82
of whole numbers, 19-23, 38
of square, 129
Subtrahend, defined, 19
of triangular prism, 130-31
Successive discounts. See Multiple discounts
Sum, defined, 15
Surface measure, 98 Weight measures, 98, 106
Surfaces. See Area Whole numbers
Symbols, and signed numbers, 147—48 addition of, 15-18, 38
changing to fractions, 41-42
Table of decimal equivalents, 68 changing improper fraction to, 42
Table of money numbers, 22 decimals, 56—57, 58, 65
Table of popular percent-fraction-decimal equivalents, 71 dividing, by fraction, 51

Tables of measures, 98-99 dividing, by mixed numbers, 52

 Index 173

dividing decimal by, 65 subtraction of. 19-23, 38

dividing fraction by, 51
Written numbers, early, 9-10
dividing mixed number by, 52
division of, 30-34, 36-38, 51. 52, 65 Yard. 97
finding, from fractional part, 53 square. 121
multiplication of, 24-30. 34-36, 38, 46-48, 63
multiplying, by fraction, 47-48
multiplying, by mixed numbers, 48 and multiplication, 26, 27-28
multiplying fraction by, 46-47 as place holder. 60
rounding off, 14 in quotient. 33-34
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Contents: How Mathematicians Solve Problems Learning to Use Our Number System Addition and
Subtraction of Whole Numbers Multiplication and Division of Whole Numbers All About Fractions
Learn to Use Decimals with Ease Percentage How Percents Are Used in Daily Business How
Money Is Used to Earn Money Measurement of Distance, Weight, and Time Measures of Lines,

Angles, and Perimeters of Plane Figures Measuring Areas and Volumes Comparison of Quantities

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