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Aeronautical Piston Engines Course

Here are the definitions of the requested terms from the specified pages of the FAA A and P Powerplant Handbook: - Bore - The diameter of the cylinder. The bore is the diameter of the hole in which the piston moves up and down as the engine operates. Actvity #2 Refer to FAA A and P Powerplant Handbook 1-24 to 1-26 and explain the following terms: - Stroke --------------------------------

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100% found this document useful (1 vote)

535 views157 pages

Aeronautical Piston Engines Course

Uploaded by

Kelton Wade

We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.

Available Formats

Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd

You are on page 1/ 157

Art Williams and Harry Wendt Aeronautical Engineering School

PISTON ENGINES
Duration: 100hrs.

Total Hours as per ICAO Doc. 7192, Part D1: 250hrs.

(With OJT’s & Practicals)

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Syllabus – ICAO Doc. 7192, Part D1, Second Edition-2003; Chapter 6.3
Syllabus – AWHWAES AES 1, Part 4, 4.5.3. Knowledge Level: 3
A. Principles of operation and terminology
– Understanding of the following terms:
• bore
• stroke
• top dead centre (TDC)
• bottom dead centre (BDC)
• swept volume
• clearance volume
– Calculation of mechanical and thermal efficiency
– Four-stroke operating cycle: efficiency, volumetric efficiency, piston displacement and
compression
ratio
– Two-stroke operating cycle: piston displacement and compression ratio
– Valve operating cycle: valve lead, valve lag and valve overlap
– Layout and typical firing order of in-line, horizontally opposed, vee and radial piston
engines

B. Engine construction: Top end

– Constructional features, function, classification and material composition of: cylinders,
pistons, piston

C. Engine construction: Valves and valve operating mechanisms

– Constructional features, function, classification and material composition of: rocker
assemblies, push
rods, cam followers, tappets, inlet and exhaust valves/seats/guides/springs
– Valve types: poppet, sleeve, rotary, disc and reed

D. Engine construction: Bottom end

– Constructional features, function, classification and material composition of: crankshafts,
cam shafts,
cam rings, engine casings, sumps, and accessory/reduction gearboxes
– Typical ball, roller and plain bearings

E. Engine power
– Calculation of mechanical efficiency, thermal efficiency, volumetric efficiency, piston
displacement
and compression ratio from given information
– Effect of incorrect valve timing on the above parameters
– Measurement of piston displacement, compression ratio and manifold pressure

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F. Engine power measurement

– Determination/calculation of horsepower (HP) and/or kilowatt (KW); indicated
horsepower (IHP); \
friction horsepower (FHP); brake horsepower (BHP); indicated mean effective pressure
(IMEP);
brake mean effective pressure (BMEP); friction mean effective pressure (FMEP)
– Plot of fuel consumption and engine power charts from given information

G. Factors affecting engine power

– Rich and lean mixture burn rates and effect upon engine
– Symptoms and causes of: pre-ignition, detonation, after firing and backfiring
– Calculation of brake-specific fuel consumption (BSFC) from given engine data
– Definition of the following terms:

• stoichiometric mixture
• rich best power mixture
• lean best power mixture
• cruise power mixture

H. Classification of engine lubricants and fuels

– Properties and specific uses of mineral, ashless dispersant, detergent and hypoid oils
– Terms in relation to engine oil ratings: viscosity and viscosity index, flashpoint, pour
point and cloud
point
– Classification methods of piston engine fuels (aviation gasolines)
– Terms in relation to piston engine fuels: octane rating, anti-knock additive (tetraethyl
lead),
performance number, volatility, specific gravity, and Reid vapour pressure test values
– Grease: types, characteristics and uses

I. Magneto ignition system principles

– Magneto principles
– Terms: “E” gap, flux eddies, flux reversal, etc.
– Function of contact breaker and condenser/capacitor distributor
– Primary and secondary systems

J. Ignition systems
– Construction of polar inductor and rotating magnet magneto types
– Effect on timing of magneto points gapping
– Advanced and retarded ignition timing
– Magneto switches, harnesses, screening and bonding
– Construction and function of magneto compensating cam
– Battery ignition systems
– Auxiliary ignition systems, booster coil, induction vibrator and impulse coupling
– Low and high tension systems
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Art Williams and Harry Wendt Aeronautical Engineering School

– Safety precautions associated with ignition systems

K. Spark plugs and ignition leads

– Constructional features and materials, temperature classification, reach, gapping and
effect on spark
plug performance
– Diagnosis of engine condition by spark plug appearance
– Ignition lead/harness construction, features and screening

L. Float chamber carburettors

– Principles, features and construction
– Configurations, updraught and downdraught
– Operation of: throttle valves, main and idle jets, power enrichment systems, float
chambers, discharge
nozzles, accelerator pumps, mixture control systems, and altitude control
– Causes and effects of impact, throttle and fuel ice
– Carburettors heat

M. Pressure injection carburettors

– Principles, features and construction
– Operation of air/fuel metering forces, mixture control system, idle system, acceleration
system and power enrichment system (manual/airflow)

N. Fuel injection systems

– Principles, features and construction
– Operation and function of air/fuel metering forces, impact tubes, venturis, flow dividers,
throttle
valves, altitude mixture controls, fuel injection nozzles, fuel injection pumps, fuel control
units, and
electronic control

O. Lubrication systems
– Principles, features, operation and construction of wet and dry sump lubrication systems
– Operation, features and construction of pressure pumps, scavenge pumps, oil coolers, oil
cooler
regulators, oil tank/hoppers, relief valves, check valves, oil filters, and oil dilution systems
– Oil pressure regulation and indication

P. Induction, exhaust and cooling systems

– Construction and operation of typical engine induction/ intake and alternate air systems
– Construction, features, material and operation of typical engine exhaust systems
– Engine cooling: air and liquid, and cooling efficiency
– Radiators, liquid jackets, pipes and connections
– Coolant fluids: types, characteristics and hazards
– Heat exchangers, fins, baffles, cowls, cowl flaps, gills, panels, and air seals

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Q. Supercharging/Turbocharging
– Principles and purpose of supercharging and its effects on charge density and
temperature; brake
horsepower (BHP); manifold absolute pressure (MAP); detonation; revolutions per
minute (RPM);
fuel consumption
– Construction and operation of typical geared supercharger
– Construction and function of impeller; diffuser; engine gear drives; turbine; intercooler
– Understanding of the following terms:
• rated altitude
• critical altitude
• overshoot
• boot strapping
• upper deck pressure
• manifold pressure
– System configurations: internal (supercharger), external (turbo supercharger), multi-
stage and multi-
speed
– Differences between ground and altitude boosted engines
– Function and construction of system control components: absolute pressure controller;
variable
absolute pressure controller; ratio controller; manifold pressure relief valve; waste gate
assembly
– Operation and function of system with ground adjusted waste gate valve and manifold
pressure relief
valve
– Function, requirements and operation of lubrication system
– Identification of supercharging faults involving low power, surging, low deck pressure,
high deck
pressure, low critical altitude, and low oil pressure
– Lubrication system and protective devices
– Control system adjustments

R. Rotary (Wankel) engine theory

– Analysis of Wankel (rotary) cycle
– Rotor design and shape: rotor tip seals
– Combustion chamber shape and sealing
– Rotor shaft and epitrochoidal gear drive to output shaft
– Unit construction, weight, power, and fuel consumption
– Lubrication system
– Carburation and control system adjustments

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S. Piston engine installation

– Safety precautions associated with the installation and removal of engines
– Storage, preservation and inhibiting techniques required for piston engines
– Engine bearers, anti-vibration mounts, and bearer mounting points
– Hoses, pipes, feeders and connections from systems to engine
– Control lines and cable lifting points
– Inspection of engine bearers for serviceability and condition
– Cowls, drains, electrical wiring, exhaust and inlets associated with engine installations

T. Piston engine operation, maintenance and ground running

– Precautions and pre-start checks prior to ground running a piston engine
– General precautions for starting, running and stopping a piston engine
– Use of power charts and graphs to determine engine performance
– Determination of piston engine defects from data obtained during an engine run
– Maintenance procedures: removal, replacement and inspection of valve operating
assemblies, cylinders, pistons, bearings and associated components
– Top-end overhauls
– Understanding of the use of maintenance data in Specification 100 or 2100 of the Air
Transport
Association (of America) (ATA)

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Principles of Operation and Terminology

Actvity #1

Refer to FAA A and P Powerplant Handbook 1-24 to 1-26 and explain the following terms:
• Bore -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
• Stroke ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
• Top Dead Centre (TDC) -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
• Bottom Dead Centre (BDC) -------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
• Swept volume ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
• Clearance volume ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
. Total volume -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

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Mechanical and Thermal Efficiency

Activity #2:

Refer to FAA A and P Powerplant Handbook 1-35 to 1-37 and explain the following terms:

Mechanical Efficiency -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

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What is the formula for thermal efficiency? -------------------------------------------------------------

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

FOUR-STROKE OPERATING CYCLE:

Activity # 3:

Refer to FAA A and P Powerplant Handbook 1-26 to 1-7 and describe with the use of
diagrams the following:
Intake
Intake stroke:------------------------------------------- -------
-------------------------------------------------------------- ------
-------------------------------------------------------------- ------
--------------------------------------------------------------
Compression
-----

Compression stroke:-----------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------------------
-. Power

Power stroke----------------------------------------------- ---

Exhaust stroke-------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------

Volumetric Efficiency
Refer to FAA A and P Powerplant Handbook 1-36

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Formula for Volumetric Efficiency:

Piston Displacement: Refer to FAA A and P Powerplant Handbook 1-28

Notes--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------
Formula for displacement:

Compression Ratio: Refer to FAA A and P Powerplant Handbook 1-29

Two-Stroke Operating Cycle:

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Operation:
Down Stroke:
First the piston is moved downside from TDC to BDC to let the fresh air enter
into the combustion chamber. The fresh air -fuel mixture gets into the
combustion chamber through crankcase. Crankshaft rotation – 180°
Up Stroke:-
Here happens all the magic. The piston is pushed up from BDC to TDC. The fuel -
air mixture gets compressed & spark plug ignites the mixture. As the mixture
gets expanded, the piston moves down. During up stroke, the inlet port is
opened. While this inlet port is opened, the mixture gets sucked inside the
crankcase. When the mixture is pushed up into the combustion chamber during
the previous up stroke, a partial vacuum is created as no mixture is left behind
in the crankcase. This mixture is ready to go into the combustion chamber
during down stroke but remains in the crankcase until the piston goes up till
TDC. Crankshaft rotation – 360°.Two strokes get completed along with one
power cycle. From the 2nd down stroke onwards the exhaust gases get exp elled
out from one side while a fresh mixture enters into the combustion chamber
simultaneously due to partial vacuum created in the combustion chamber after
removal of exhaust gases. This is the beauty of the engine. Both things happen
at the same time which makes it a 2 stroke engine.

Another variant of the 2 stroke engine : the inlet & outlet ports on the same
side. Here, there is no need to open inlet ports intermediately. The cylinder
head is designed such that the exhaust port is closed during combus tion &
opens after combustion. The piston itself closes & opens the port accordingly.
The process remains the same, difference here is just the design. You might
have observed a protrusion on the surface of piston. This design helps the
exhaust gases to flow through exhaust port easily giving it a direction.

As the crankcase is sucking air-fuel mixture continuously, it is practically

impossible to lubricate the piston & connecting rod. Therefore the fuel has to
be mixed with oil or lubricant (2%-5%) in 2 stroke engine.

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Valve Operating Cycle:

We have said that the reciprocating piston engine is a means of converting the heat energy
obtained from the internal combustion of an air/fuel mixture into useful work. This
conversion of energy is accomplished as follows:

Basic Operation

A combustible mixture of fuel and

air is induced into the cylinder via
inlet valve.
The mixture is compressed and
ignited. The pressure produced by
The rapid expansion of the burning
mixture acts on the piston forcing it
down the cylinder.

The linear movement of the piston is

converted to rotary motion by the
connecting rod and crankshaft
mechanism.

When the burning gases have

performed their useful work they are
discharged from the cylinder
through the exhaust valve. The
mechanically operated valves are
timed to open and close at the right
moment.

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1. Induction: (first downstroke)

Inlet valve is open, piston moves down the cylinder (from TDC to BDC), fuel/air
mixture is drawn into the cylinder (the charge).

2. Compression: (first upstroke)

Both valves are closed, piston moves back up the cylinder (from BDC to
TDC), fuel/air mixture is compressed into the combustion chamber.

3. Power: (second downstroke)

Both valves remain closed, spark occurs igniting the compressed fuel/air
mixture. Rapid expansion of the burning mixture forces the piston back down
the cylinder (from TDC to BDC).

4. Exhaust: (second upstroke)

Exhaust valve is open, piston moves back up the cylinder (from BDC to TDC). The
burnt gases having now performed their usual work on the power stroke, are
expelled into the atmosphere.

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VALVE TIMING
The theoretical four-stroke cycle that has been described indicates that the valves open or
close when the piston is precisely at TDC or BDC. In practice the theoretical four-stroke
cycle is operationally inefficient mainly due to three factors:
 The inertia of the coming fuel/air mixture and the out-going combustion gases.
 The burning rate of the fuel/air mixture, which although rapid, is not instantaneous.
 The ineffective crank angle formed between the connecting rod and the crankshaft
around the TDC and BDC positions, where for a larger rotary movement of the
crankshaft there is a relatively small linear movement of the piston.

These deficiencies can be minimized by varying the valve timing and the point of
ignition

THE MODIFIED FOUR-STROKE CYCLE

In practice the opening and closing of the inlet and exhaust valves varies about the TDC and
BDC positions. The actual timing depends upon engine type. I am going to describe a
typical application.

It is usual to represent practical valve operations and the point of ignition on a valve and
ignition timing diagram which indicates the angular position of the crankshaft when each
valve commences to open and finishes closing. A typical example of such a diagram is
illustrated, Fig. 3.

Study the diagram and take special note of the terms, lead, lag and overlap. You will need
to remember them and recall their purposes.

Valve lead. This indicates that the

inlet valve has opened before the
piston has reached TDC, also that
the exhaust valve opens before
BDC.

Valve lag. This indicates that the

inlet valve closes after the piston
has passed BDC and that the exhaust
valve closes after the piston has
passed TDC.

Valve overlap. This is the period when

both the exhaust and inlet valves are
open together with the exhaust valve
closing and the inlet valve opening.

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How the modified cycle differs from the theoretical version: One factor that we said
affected engine efficiency was the inertia of the incoming fuel/air mixture – it was slow to
start moving when the inlet valve opened. Some delay is inevitable as the mixture is
stationary in the induction manifold while the valve is closed, and when the valve opens the
charge has to accelerate to the speed of the piston. This can be alleviated by opening the
inlet valve early.
INLET VALVE LEAD

For the induction stroke, the opening of the inlet valve is initiated before TDC to ensure
that it is fully open when the piston commences its downward stroke, so reducing the time
between the piston moving down the cylinder and the charge flowing in.
Once the mixture starts to flow it wants to keep going so why not let it?
INLET VALVE LAG
This inlet valve is kept open as long as possible to induce the maximum cylinder charge.
Because of its momentum, the incoming gas will continue to enter the cylinder for some
time after the piston has passed BDC; therefore, the closing of the inlet valve is delayed
after BDC until a point when the pressure in the cylinder is approximately equal to the
pressure in the induction manifold.

Layout And Typical Firing Order Of In-Line, Horizontally Opposed, Vee And Radial
Piston Engines

CONSTRUCTIONAL ARRANGEMENT
Activity # 4: Disassemble the cylinder assembly provided and identify/label all of the
parts.

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ENGINE TYPE CLASSIFICATION

Refer to FAA A and P Powerplant Handbook 1-4 to 1-5.
In-line Engines

In-Line Engines Can Be Divided Further Categories

Cylinders are arranged in a row, running forward to aft of the engine, they can be inverted
or upright, although most types in use today will be of the inverted type, as this allows
better forward vision for the pilot. Another advantage afforded by the in-line type is that
the frontal area is limited, allowing smaller cowlings, thus reducing the drag factor. With
the standard in-line engine, the number of cylinders is normally limited to six, this being
the maximum number that can be cooled efficiently by the passing airflow.
There will one only one crankshaft, and in the inverted engine it is located above the
cylinders.

V Type Engines:
Although classed as an in-line engine, the upright cylinder or inverted V engine differs from
the standard in-line engine by having the cylinders arranged on the crankcase in two rows,
forming a letter V. The main advantage of this arrangement is that the engine is

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considerably shorter than the standard in-line type; this is because the two sets of
connecting rods can be attached to the same position to the crankshaft pin, therefore there
will be major saving in weight, without a reduction of power output.

The flat opposed type is the most popular of all the in-line engines, used in light aircraft
powerplants. This type of engine has the cylinder mounted horizontally; the main
advantage of this arrangement is that it is very compact and very flat, allowing it to be
installed in small nacelles.

Most installations have an even number of cylinders helping to reduce vibration levels. The
H type of flat opposed engine shown in Fig. 2 is an adaptation of the standard flat opposed
engine, it gives a higher power output due to the addition of another serious of cylinders.

Radial Engines Refer to FAA A and P Powerplant Handbook 1-4 to 1-7

The radial engine arrangement has a row or rows of cylinders arranged radially around a
central crankshaft. The number of cylinders fitted to each row will be an odd number,
normally five, seven or nine. As the cylinders are located evenly in a circular plane, all the

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pistons will be connected to a single crankshaft; this arrangement reduces the weight of the
engine by reducing the number of moving parts, leading to a large power output.
Some radial engines may have more that one row of cylinders, the most popular being the
two row radial engine. The two row design utilizes two rows of seven or nine cylinders.
The cylinders in the two row system are staggered, thus affording the best means of air
cooling. This ensures that the front cylinders does not mask off the airflow to the rear row
of cylinders. The radial engine therefore has the lowest weight to power ratio of all
the engines and will be found on most large pure piston engined aircraft.

Its main disadvantage, however, is its size, producing a drag problem. Cooling is another
main problem area.

ENGINE CYLINDER NUMBERING

The engine is generally viewed from the rear when numbering the cylinders, however,
some British made engines may be numbered from the front.

No. 1 cylinder is at the rear end, with the highest cylinder number at the propeller shaft
(Fig. 4 (a)). The V type and opposed in-line engines have two rows of cylinders, these are
left and right as viewed from the rear. No. 1 is the first on the right, followed by No. 2 on
the left, and again ending up with the highest number near the propeller shaft.

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In the double system, the No. 1 cylinder is at the top in the rear row and No. 2 cylinder is
therefore the next one round (clockwise) in the front row. This numbering system carries
on right round the whole engine (remember clockwise is as viewed from the rear).
Another way to remember the two row radial engine numbering system is that all odd
numbers will be found on the rear row, and even numbers on the front row.
Engine construction: Top end

Cylinder construction:
 Cylinder head-Aluminum alloy
 Cylinder barrel-Steel

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Cylinder Heads
Cylinder heads can be manufactured in one of three basic shapes.

As the purpose of the cylinder head is to provide a place for combustion, the following
components will be located in this area: 1.In the inlet valve, 2.The exhaust valve,
3 .The sparking plug.

Cooling is an important factor when considering the design of a cylinder head.

A series of cooling fins is fitted to the cylinder head assembly. The arrangement of these
fins increases the total cooling area of the cylinder head by as much as 500%, thus
affording a large increase in cooling efficiency.
Areas that are subjected to higher temperatures, for instance exhaust valves areas
have cooling fins considerably larger, thus allowing greater cooling in these regions.

Activity # 5:
Refer to FAA A and P Powerplant Handbook 1-15 to 1-16 and answer the following
1- What are the major factors to be considered in the design of the cylinder?
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

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Cylinder Barrels
Refer to FAA A and P Powerplant Handbook 1-16
Notes
Hardening of cylinder barrels-
New barrels are protected by Nitriding ------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Worn cylinder barrels could be restored by Chroming-----------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Type of rings for chrome plated cylinders-----------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------.

Attachment methods are:

 Threaded joint,
 Stud or bolt joint.

The threaded joint is achieved by heating the cylinder head, chilling the cylinder barrel, and
screwing both parts together. As both components revert back to normal ambient
temperature, the screw threads grip each other, providing a gas tight joint.

The other method, the stud and nut method joint both cylinder head and barrel together
and attaches them to the crankcase pad.

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Although cooling is achieved normally by using fins to increase the cooling area, some
cylinders are cooled by water that is ported around the cylinders and heads in a water
jacket.

Choke Bore Cylinder Barrel:

Machining the cylinder barrel for proper taper or “choke” is critical for efficient engine
performance and lifetime of aircraft cylinders. As an aircraft cylinder expands under normal
operation the upper portion of the cylinder barrel will expand greater than the lower portion
of the barrel. When this occurs, loss of engine power, excessive oil consumption and blow by
can occur even on a new cylinder. To correct for this anticipated and known expansion.

PISTONS Refer to FAA A and P Powerplant Handbook 1-12 to 1-13

The piston moves up and down in the cylinder and acts as a moving barrier transmitting
the forces from the burning gases to the crankshaft via the connecting rod.
Pistons are normally manufactured from aluminum alloy and have a series of
circumferential grooves cut into the piston skirt to accommodate a series of rings that are
designed to prevent the loss of the compressed gases during operation.
Bosses within the piston assembly allow the piston to be attached to the connecting rod
small end by a piston pin, also known as a gudgeon pin.

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The piston pin can either be fully floating, being able to rotate and slide within the piston bosses
and connecting rods, or of the stationary type, where movement is not permitted and the pin is
locked in place.

The inside of the hallow piston has a series of fins for cooling purposes. These fins present
a large cooling surface for the lubricating oil to impinge upon, and carry away some of
the heat generated within the cylinder head into the oil system.

PISTON RINGS

Because of the differences in expansion rates, i.e. the aluminum piston expanding faster
than the steel cylinder barrel, a working clearance must be maintained between the piston
and the cylinder walls to prevent the piston seizing in the barrel. Some method must be
used to prevent gas losses between the piston and the cylinder walls during the
Compression and power strokes in particular and piston rings are used for this purpose.
They will:-
 Seal gases within the cylinder during the compression and power strokes,
 Prevent oil from the crankcase entering the cylinder head,
 Allow the heat of the piston to be transferred through the rings to the walls of the
cylinder and then to the cooling fins or coolant.

A series of grooves has been machined into the circumference of the piston skirt to
accommodate the piston rings. Manufactured from Grey cast iron or chrome-plated mild
steel and are in fact sprung slightly open to allow them to be slipped over the piston during
fitment and to ensure that each ring can spring against the cylinder wall.

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Once fitted into the piston groove and assembled into the cylinder, the gap at the joint of
the ring must be sufficient to allow for thermal expansion, but at the same time, ensure
a good airtight sliding joint. Various types of joint arrangements are used but because of
these cast iron construction, handling of the rings during fitment to the piston must be
carried out with extreme caution as they are easily snapped.
Chrome rings are used on steel cylinder walls. Never use chrome rings on chrome
cylinders.

Piston rings are divided into two basic types:

 Compression rings,
 Oil rings.
Compression Rings

Compression rings prevent the compressed gases from leaking past the piston within the
cylinder. The number of rings fitted to the piston will depend largely upon the design
requirements of the engine and also upon the pressure created within the cylinder head
during operation. In normal circumstances there will be three compression rings located at
the top of the piston skirt. The positioning of these rings within the piston skirt grooves in
relation to each other, is most important. If new rings are fitted, there will obviously be a
gap at the joint. Gases can escape through this gap and if all three gaps were lined up, then
there would be a continuous gas leak past the piston.
To reduce the possibility of gas leakage, the ring joints should be staggered around the
circumference of the piston.

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Sideways movement of the piston rings within their grooves is essential to allow the rings
to expand against the cylinder walls, but too much movement or wear will allow gases to
escape.

Oil Control Rings and Scraper Rings Refer to FAA A and P Powerplant Handbook 1-14

The oil rings can be divided into two types:

 Oil control rings
 Oil wiper or scraper rings.
Follow the Manufacture’s instructions. In some cases fitting the piston rings in reverse will
have a totally opposite effect to that for which they have designed, and could lead to early
failure of the engine.

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Valves and valve operating mechanisms

Constructional Features and Functions. Refer to FAA A and P Powerplant Handbook 1-

17to 1-13
Notes: The functions of the valves are:--------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------
Most aircraft engine valves are known as poppet valves and fall mainly into the types
shown- the mushroom and the tulip type.
Draw and label Tulip type solid Draw and label tulip type showing
hollow head hardened tip, face, neck and head
mushroom valve

Due to the difference in operating temperatures the inlet and exhaust valves may be
manufactured from different materials, such as: (Fill in the blanks)
Inlet valves
Exhaust valves

The inlet valve is cooled by the incoming fuel/air mixture and is already closed and sealed
as the exhaust valve is opening. However, the exhaust valve seat and head are subjected to
the high exhaust gas temperatures.

A valve is closed by two or more concentrically mounted coil springs, coiled in opposite
directions, of a high grade steel wire that is not affected by the temperatures generated in
the cylinder head. Using two or more springs with different vibrations frequencies
prevents the valve from bouncing on its seat when it closes.

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The valve and springs are held in place on the cylinder head by a valve spring retainer
which fits over the stem of the valve and the ends of the springs. The retainer is locked
in to place by conical shaped collet halves that fit into grooves located at the upper end
of the valve stem.

Activity # 6:
Refer to FAA A and P Powerplant Handbook 1-21 and label the diagram below.

As the camshaft rotates, the lobe will pass its point of maximum lift, and the valve springs
will return the valve to the closed position. Some in-line engines have the camshaft located
on the top of the cylinders, very similar in arrangement to a motor car overhead cam
system. One advantage of this system is that the rocker arms are directly operated form
the shaft and not through a series of push rods.

Multiple Valve Springs- 1- Dampen out oscillation/vibration/bouncing 2- Protect

against breakage. (Fail -safe)

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Activity # 7 :
Refer to FAA A and P Powerplant Handbook 1-1 and draw a labeled the diagram of the
radial engine valve train.

The Purpose Of The Tappet is to convert the rotary action of the camshaft lobe into the
reciprocating action of the push rod, so that the rocker arm will open the valve at the
correct time, the tappet is in contact with the push rod and the camshaft. A spring in the
push rod assembly keeps the tappet against the camshaft and the rocker arm against the
valve. Oil is normally ported up the push rod to the rocker arm for lubrication purposes.

The system, however, has one major drawback, that being the need to have valve
clearances. A slight clearance between the rocker arm and the valve stem must be
maintained to ensure that the valve can close fully.

The clearance are adjusted when the engine is cold, but as the engine heats up, thermal
expansion takes place and the clearance may reduce to such a degree that the valve may be
held open by the rocker arm, causing eventual damage to the valve seat. As clearances may
differ between the inlet valves (cold air/fuel going in) and the exhaust valves (hot gases
going out), some method must be used to ensure that the valve clearance are always
maintained within laid down limits. This is done using hydraulic tappets.

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Fig. (a) shows the valve in the closed position and the spring A is holding the plunger
against the camshaft, thus eliminating any clearance in the valve linkage. In this position
oil is being continuously fed from the engine lubrication system into the plunger reservoir,
through the plate valve to the am and also down the centre of the push rod to the rocker
arm.
As the camshaft lobe contacts the tappet body, it moves it to the left closing the plate valve
and shutting off the supply of engine oil to the plunger reservoir (Fig. (b).)

This, in fact, has now created a hydraulic lock, and further movement of the tappet body
causes the push rod to open the valve. As the lobe passes its point of maximum deflection,
spring A extends and allows the body to contact the camshaft, again eliminating any
clearance in the valve linkage.

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Sleeve valves

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Engine construction: Bottom End

Engine Layout
Refer to FAA A and P Powerplant Handbook 1-5 to 1-24

Crankcase Sections - Refer to FAA A and P Powerplant Handbook 1-5 to 1-7.

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The Structural Design of The Radial Engine: Refer to FAA A and P Powerplant Handbook
1-5

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IN-LINE ENGINE CRANKCASES

Activity # 8: Refer to FAA A and P Powerplant Handbook 1-5 and describe the construction
of an engine crankcase.

Purpose:--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
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-------------------------------------------------------Material/Strength and construction--------------------
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------Forces encountered during operation-------------------------------------------------------------------
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-------------------------------------------------------------
Provisions for propeller mounting:-----------------------------------------------------------------------------
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Mounting for cylinders and other components:--------------------------------------------------------------
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------------------------------------------------------------------------
Lubrication and storage of oil:----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
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Attachment point to airframe:----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
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-------------------------------------------------------
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Sealing:---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
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Accommodation for heating and cooling of fuel/oil::------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
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--------------------------------------------------------------------------
Why is Crankcase Breathing necessary and how is it achieved?-----------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
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-----------------------
RADIAL ENGINE CRANKCASES

The radial engine may contain as many as seven structural parts.

Nose Assembly
The nose assembly houses the propeller support bearings, as well as the propeller
reduction gearing.

In most cases the nose section will be manufactured from aluminum alloy, affording
strength with lightness. The use of aluminum alloy does tend to damp out any vibrations
caused by the propeller reduction gearing. As the nose section may contain oil components
that are required for the reduction gearing, adequate oil sealing must be achieved between
the power and nose sections.

Attachment of the nose section to the power section is achieved by either studs or by nuts
and bolts.

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Power Sections

The power section could consist of up to four subsections, depending upon the number of
rows of cylinders. Because of the extremely high loads experienced in this area, the
crankcase is normally manufactured from a steel forging or a high strength alloy.

Shown above are two rows of cylinders, each cylinder having its own mounting pad on the
casing. As with the in-line engine, the cylinders are normally attached to the casing by nuts
and studs. These casings also support the main crankshaft for the radial pistons.
Supercharger Assembly

Most high power radial engines have some form of supercharger to compress the air/fuel
mixture as it leaves the carburetor. These are normally internally driven by the power
section, and are attached to the aft of the power section. The supercharger casing is
manufactured from aluminum alloy or a magnesium alloy, and contains various exit orifices
for fuel/air mixture pipes to be fitted, allowing the compressed mixture to be ducted to the
cylinders.
At the rear end of the casing will be located the accessory drive casing.
Accessory Assembly

The accessory assembly casing contains the necessary bearings and bushes required to
support the accessory drive shafts of the various components that may be located on the
gearbox. It is usually manufactured from an aluminum alloy.

Crankshaft

Refer to FAA A and P Powerplant Handbook 1-8

Notes:
Purpose of crankshaft:----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
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------------------------------------------------
Journals ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
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----------------------------------------------

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Main bearings---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
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Lubrication of lubrication of journals/ bearings and crankpins/small end bearings------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
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----------------------------------------------------------------------------
Crank Pins-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
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----------------------------------------------------------------------
Crank throw-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
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Crank cheek-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
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-----------------------------------------------
Counterweights------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
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------------------------------------------------

BALANCING
Counterweight Method- Refer to FAA A and P Powerplant Handbook 1-10
Dynamic Balancing Method- Refer to FAA A and P Powerplant Handbook 1-10

Notes:-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
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If a pendulum suspended from the crankshaft (A) is subjected to a series of impulses from
the engine, it will swing from side to side in frequency with these impulses (B). However, if
another pendulum is suspended below (C) the first pendulum, it will tend to absorb the
impulses and swing itself, leaving the upper pendulum stationary. This therefore is the
basic principle of the dynamic damper, where the pendulum weights are suspended in
arms attached to the crankshaft (D).

Single row radial engine crankshaft.

CRANKSHAFT ARRANGEMENTS

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Connecting Rods: Refer to FAA A and P Powerplant Handbook 1-10 to 1-12

CONNECTING RODS
Movement of the crankshaft and pistons creates high loads on the connecting rods, so they
have to be designed and manufactured to withstand these loads without creating too much
weight.

A heavy connecting rod would produce high inertia forces during its reciprocating motion,
so, to reduce the weight of the connecting rod, the cross sectional area is normally a letter
H or I in shape.

Connecting rods can be divided into three categories:-

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The Plain Connecting Rod

This type is associated with in-line or opposed engines.

The connecting rod has a letter I cross sectional shape and consists of a small end bush, and
a big end bush, which is always split into two sections known as the big end bearing shells.
A retaining cap holds the shells around the crank pin. The cap is either bolted to the
connecting rod by nuts and bolts or studs may be fitted to the connecting rod for the cap to
fit onto.

The small end bush is usually of a bronze type material and is force fitted into the small end
of the connecting rod. Through this bush is fitted the pin that attaches the piston to the
connecting rod, (the piston or gudgeon pin). One important point to remember is that the
crankshaft and connecting rods are normally balanced during manufacture, therefore it is
essential to retain an even balance, and any rods that are removed from the crankshaft, are
replaced in the same order when re-assembling after a major overhaul.

To assist you however, you may find that the connecting rods are numbered,
corresponding to the cylinders to which they are to be fitted.

The Fork and Blade Connecting Rod

This method is used in engines where the cylinders are arranged in a V shape. Here the
fork is divided at the big end bearing to provide space for the blade rod to the fitted and
secured.

The forked rod has a two piece bearing shell, and associated retaining caps attached by
either bolts or studs. The blade rod fits between the two retaining caps of the forked rod
and is retained on the shells by a single retaining cap secured by bolts and studs. An
adaptation of this method consisting of a master rod and an offset articulated rod.

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Label the diagram below.

The Master and Articulated Rod-

Big end shells are normally lubricated via the hollow crankshaft, and the small end and
knuckle pins are normally splash lubricated from oil passages within the connecting rods.

Activity # 9: With the use of the training aids and Cessna 421 aircraft in the workshop, list
all of the engine accessories and briefly describe their construction, operation and function.
ACCESSORY SECTION

Accessory Function Construction Operation

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Manufactured from either aluminum or magnesium alloy, the accessory section contains
the necessary drive shafts to operate the above systems and components.

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Ball, Roller and Plain Bearings Refer to FAA A and P Powerplant Handbook 1-22 to 1-24

Notes

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Ball Roller Plain

Reduction Gearboxes

Refer to FAA A and P Powerplant Handbook 1-24 to 1-25

Notes:-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
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Cam Shafts and Cam Rings- Refer to FAA A and P Powerplant Handbook 1-19 to 1-20
Activity 10 # Disassemble the nose section of the radial engine provided in workshop and
sketch the cam ring and radial engine valve train.

Activity # 11 . With the cylinder removed from the GTSIO 540 engine in the workshop,
remove the hydraulic tappet to gain access to the camshaft lobe.

Notes
Cam rings------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
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Cam drums----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
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--------------------------------------------------

Engine power
Piston Displacement
Refer to FAA A and P Powerplant Handbook 1-29

Activity # 12. Calculate the displacement of the Cessna 421 engine in the workshop.

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Compression Ratio
Refer to FAA A and P Powerplant Handbook 1-29

Given: 133 cubic In. when piston at bottom of cylinder and 19 cubic In. when piston is on top of
cylinder.
Calculate the compression ratio.

Mechanical Efficiency
Refer to FAA A and P Powerplant Handbook 1-36

Thermal Efficiency
Refer to FAA A and P Powerplant Handbook 1-36

Volumetric Efficiency
Refer to FAA A and P Powerplant Handbook 1-36

Manifold Pressure
Refer to FAA A and P Powerplant Handbook 1-30

Effect of Incorrect Valve Timing

Piston Displacement

Compression Ratio

Mechanical
Efficiency

Thermal Efficiency

Volumetric
Efficiency
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Manifold Pressure

Engine Power Measurement

Horsepower (HP) and/or Kilowatt (KW)- Refer to FAA A and P Powerplant Handbook 1-
28

Indicated Horsepower (IHP)- Refer to FAA A and P Powerplant Handbook 1-31

Friction Horsepower (FHP) Refer to FAA A and P Powerplant Handbook 1-33

Brake Horsepower (BHP) Refer to FAA A and P Powerplant Handbook 1-32

Indicated Mean Effective Pressure (IMEP) Refer to FAA A and P Powerplant Handbook
1-31

Brake Mean Effective Pressure (BMEP) Refer to FAA A and P Powerplant Handbook 1-33

Friction Mean Effective Pressure (FMEP) Refer to FAA A and P Powerplant Handbook 1-
33

Plot of Fuel Consumption and Engine Power Charts From Given Information
Engine power is dependent on the weight of charge induced. Density, pressure and
temperature are greatest at sea level, decreasing in varying degrees with altitude increase.

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Factors affecting engine power

Rich and Lean Mixture Burn Rates and Effect upon Engine- Refer to FAA A and P
Powerplant Handbook 10-32-Fuel Metering.

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Pre-Ignition- Refer to FAA A and P Powerplant Handbook 1-31-----------------------------------

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Detonation- Refer to FAA A and P Powerplant Handbook 10-30-----------------------------------
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After Firing – Refer to FAA A and P Powerplant Handbook 1-31-----------------------------------
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Backfiring- Refer to FAA A and P Powerplant Handbook 1-31--------------------------------------
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Calculation of Brake-Specific Fuel Consumption (BSFC) From Given Engine Data-
Refer to FAA A and P Powerplant Handbook 2-5

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Stoichiometric Mixture -Refer to FAA A and P Powerplant Handbook 2-4

Rich Best Power Mixture- Refer to FAA A and P Powerplant Handbook 2-3 to 2-4

Lean Best Power Mixture- Refer to FAA A and P Powerplant Handbook 2-3 to 2-4

Cruise Power Mixture- Refer to FAA A and P Powerplant Handbook 2-3 to 2-4

Classification of engine lubricants and fuels

OILS
Mineral
Engine Break-InTeledyne Continental Motors, Inc.

Your engine was operated on a factory test cell before leaving Teledyne Continental
Motors. However, complete ring seating has not occurred and must be accomplished
during the first 25 hours of engine operation after installation. A straight weight non-
dispersant mineral oil conforming to SAE J1966 is recommended for the break-in period. If
you fly less than once per week, a straight mineral oil with corrosion preventative (MIL-C-
6529 Type II) should be used for the first oil change period (25 hours). The proper
viscosity of the oil should be selected based on ambient operating air temperature. Refer to
the Operation & Installation manual specific to your engine or the Airplane Flight Manual /
Pilot Operating Handbook for the viscosity and grade of oil required. Refer to the most
current version Service Bulletin SIL99-2 for approved lubricants. Piston ring seating is
paramount to proper engine break-in. Your understanding of the factors involved in the
break-in process will aid in correctly operating the engine during this important time.
Piston ring seating means the rings and the cylinder wall must wear-in together to provide
an effective seal for the combustion chamber and to keep combustion gas blow-by and oil
consumption to a minimum. During ring seating, the basic purpose is to establish metal-to-

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metal contact between the piston ring face and the cylinder barrel. In order for this
process to take place, the rings must breach the lubricating film of oil on the cylinder wall.
As the rings begin to seat, the ring-to-cylinder wall surface area increases and it becomes
harder for the rings to breach the protective film of oil. You can aid in this process by
keeping the combustion chamber gas pressures at high levels during the early stages of
break-in. The higher combustion gas pressures, as controlled by throttle position, force the
piston rings to expand against the cylinder walls, breaching the protective film of oil and
allowing the slight wear that we are trying to achieve. Refer to Figure 2. The top ring will
be affected the most, so it is likely that the rest of the rings will take a little longer to seat.
During initial break-in it is not uncommon to have cylinder head temperatures above the
normal range for several minutes. This elevated temperature is an indication that initial
ring seating is taking place. As the rings begin to seat to the cylinder walls, the
temperatures will drop. This usually occurs over a period of 10 to 20 minutes. Cylinder
head temperatures can remain slightly elevated for several more hours until complete ring
seating has been accomplished. Ideally, the rings should seat within the first 10 to 15 hours
of engine operation as evidenced by stabilized oil consumption and decreased cylinder
head temperatures. Since this engine is either new or rebuilt, it has “tighter” running
clearances than the engine you just retired. It stands to reason that cylinder head
temperatures and oil temperatures can run slightly higher. While hot oil runs thinner and
aids in ring seating, it is important that you do not let either temperature red line. The
accuracy of your cockpit instruments becomes very critical. It is imperative that your
cockpit gauges are tested and if necessary calibrated to insure that you do not exceed any
operating temperature limits during engine break-in and normal operation. During the
production testing of your engine, the fuel system was adjusted to verify proper operation.
Aircraft fuel system supply pressures may differ from those used in our production test
facilities. These differences in pressure will affect fuel system adjustment. Optimum
performance of the fuel system will play a vital role in engine break-in. You must insure
that your mechanic has verified and, if necessary, adjusted the Fuel Injection System in
accordance with the aircraft manufacturers and Teledyne Continental Motors maintenance
instructions and the latest version of TCM Service Bulletin SID97-3.
Engine Break-InTeledyne Continental Motors, Inc.

Recommended Break-in Flight Tips: 1. Conduct a normal take-off with full power full rich
conditions and monitor the engine RPM, oil pressure, cylinder head temperatures and oil
temperatures. 2. Reduce to climb power in accordance with the flight manual and maintain
a shallow climb attitude to gain optimum air speed and cooling. 3. Level flight cruise should
be at 75% power with best power or richer mixture for the first hour of operation. 4. The
second hour power settings should alternate between 65% and 75% power with the
appropriate best power mixture settings. Vary the power setting every 15 to 30 minutes
utilizing best power settings. Best power mixture settings are necessary to maintain high
cylinder combustion pressures. 5. Engine controls or aircraft attitude should be adjusted,
as required, to maintain engine instrumentation within specifications. 6. The descent
should be made at low cruise power settings with careful monitoring of engine pressures
and temperatures. Avoid long descents with cruise RPM and manifold pressure below 18
In. Hg. If necessary, decrease the RPM sufficiently to maintain manifold pressure. Best
power mixtures occur between 75 and 125˚F rich of peak exhaust gas temperatures.
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Mixtures richer than best power actually reduce cylinder pressures and cylinder
temperatures and can increase the time required to properly seat the piston rings. Best
economy mixture settings reduce cylinder pressures and should be avoided. Reduced
cylinder pressures with increased cylinder temperatures can result in “glazed cylinder
walls,” which can only be corrected by removing the cylinders to re-hone the barrels and
replace the piston rings.

Ashless Dispersant- Refer to FAA A and P Powerplant Handbook 6-4

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Detergent

Hypoid Oils A hypoid gear oil is a lubricant that is designed to operate effectively with
hypoid gear designs. Most gearboxes and differentials use hypoid gear designs and the
lubricant must contain EP (extreme pressure) additives to prevent wear between the
sliding surfaces of a hypoid gear mesh.

Refer to FAA A and P Powerplant Handbook 6-4

Viscosity ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
------------

Viscosity Index----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
------------

Flashpoint----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------

Pour Point-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----------

Cloud Point---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----------

Piston Engine Fuels (Aviation gasolines)

Petroleum

Almost all aviation gasoline is of a petroleum origin and is composed of one, or more than
one of the following:-
 Straight run gasoline which is obtained by distillation,
 Natural gasoline that are used in blending to produce easy starting qualities,
 Cracked or reformed spirits, made by pressure and heat treatments of petroleum
fractions.

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AVIATION FUEL – QUALITIES AND REQUIREMENTS

Although we have mentioned the general requirements of aviation fuels, perhaps now is
the time to discuss those requirements in more detail.

Anti-Knock Rating

After the fuel/air mixture has been ignited, the flame should spread across the combustion
chamber in an even manner, causing an appropriate rise in temperature and pressure.
If the fuel is not sufficiently knock resistant, then at a temperature and pressure critical to a
particular fuel, and this can differ from fuel to fuel, spontaneous combustion will occur in
the unburnt fuel and create an audible explosion. This explosion or ‘click’ is known as
‘knock’ or ‘detonation’.
The pressure and temperature at which this phenomenon takes place is governed by the
chemical composition of the fuel.

Apart from the rough running of the engine, this knocking reduces the life of the engine as
the unwanted explosions cause the piston crown to burn and even collapse.
Detonation or knocking can be attributed to an incorrect air/fuel mixture or the use of
a fuel with a poor anti-knock value (rating).

Volatility

The volatility of aviation fuel can be expressed as the ability of a liquid to change readily
from the liquid to the evaporated state with or without the application of heat.
Many properties of aviation fuel can be related to volatility; oil dilution, easy starting, and
vapour locking.

Normally, on leaving the carburetor the fuel/air mixture is heated at the exhaust heater hot
spot as it passes to the engine cylinders. The carburetor mixes fuel and air in the correct
proportions but the mixture on leaving the carburetor still contains small droplets of fuel.
The exhaust hot spot will cause further evaporation of these droplets so that the fuel is
totally evaporated into the air as it goes into the cylinders.

If the fuel has a low volatility level complete evaporation may not be achieved, thus causing
variations in the power developed by the engine, leading to poor performance and rough
running.

The ability of an engine to start easily is very much dependent upon the number of volatile
fractions contained within the fuel. Hence a sufficient proportion of the fuel must be
vaporized to allow the fuel to burn. If this vaporization does not occur, the engine will not
start. Normally, the air/fuel mixture is not inflammable unless it contains about 1½% of
the fuel vaporized.
One of the most potentially dangerous problems with aviation gasoline is the phenomenon
of vapour locking.

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A vapour lock may develop if the fuel is vaporized before it reaches the carburetor. You
may have experienced a similar condition on an extremely hot day whilst driving a car.
When vapour locking takes place, bubbles form in the fuel line, thus preventing fuel passing
to the carburetor or greatly reducing the flow. This condition could cause a serious
reduction in engine power output, particularly at full power.
Aviation fuels are normally blended with a number of gasolines to ensure they are resistant
to vaporising before they reach the carburetor.

A Reid vapour pressure bomb is used to check the vapourising qualities of fuel. For this
check a pressure gauge is attached to one end of a sealed container, and the gauge will then
indicate the vapour pressure at various temperatures.
The volatility of aviation gasoline has a marked effect on the cold starting ability of the
engine. High volatility ensures quick warm up and starting, especially during low
temperature conditions. A reduction of time to warm up can be achieved by establishing
the correct volatility of the fuel, however, if the fuel is too volatile, vapour locking could
occur.

Oil Dilution
Another factor to consider with aviation is the problem of oil dilution. Oil dilution can
occur if the boiling point of the fuel is too high. This is because any unburnt fuel will pass
into the engine if incorrect evaporation has taken place. The fuel will wash the oil off the
cylinder walls, and then escape past the piston rings into the sump with serious damage
being caused to the engine as a result of the reduced lubrication properties of the
lubricating oil.

Corrosion
Finally the corrosive elements of gasoline have to be taken into account. These elements
are caused by the sulphur and additives content of the fuel.
Sulphur that causes corrosion is known as corrosive sulphur. Sulphur that causes
corrosion after combustion is known as total sulphur.

Sulphur and sulphur compounds when burnt in air form suplphur di-oxide which, when
mixed with the water content of the exhaust products from the fuel, forms sulphuric acid.
This acid will cause corrosion within the components of the exhaust system.

OCTANE RATING(NUMBER)
Aviation gasoline is rated for engine fuel purposes, according to its anti-knock value. This
value is expressed as an octane number.

Aviation gasoline can be rated in two ways, either as a mixture of hydrocarbons or as a

single hydrocarbon. Two of the hydrocarbons used in aviation gasoline are:-

 Iso-octane,

 Normal heptane.

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Whilst normal heptane is of low anti-knock quality, iso-octane possesses ideal anti-knock
qualities and is the main ingredient of aviation gasoline.
The quality of the fluid is expressed in the percentage of iso-octane in the fuel mixture. For
example, a reference fuel of 83 octane means a mixture of 83% iso-octane in normal
heptane.

Anti-Knock Additive (Tetraethyl Lead)

Aviation fuels have now been developed that have anti-knock qualities greater than 100
octane, which is in itself pure iso-octane. A special classification of these fuels is used, and
they are given a performance number, in this case to improve the performance a calibrated
amount of TEL is added.

PERFORMANCE NUMBER
When ordinary gasoline is rated, this rating will be below 100 octane. However pure iso-
octane with additional TEL added will bring the rating above 100; it will then be given a
performance number.
Since the anti-knock performance of a fuel will also depend on the air/fuel ratio, this
performance number is comprised of two numbers:-

 The lean mixture rating,

 The rich mixture rating.

Examples of performance number are 100/130 – 115/145. the first number is the lean
mixture performance rating and the second number is the rich mixture performance rating.
The chart in Fig. 1 represents the performance numbers obtained by mixing TEL with is-
octane.

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Much concern has been expressed amongst pilots and maintenance engineers at the
difficulty of obtaining adequate supplies of aviation gasoline (Avgas). The Civil Aviation
Authority responded to this growing concern by allowing certain types of engines to use
motor gasoline (Mogas) instead of aviation gasoline. The types of engines and aircraft
together with any limitations in the use of Mogas are laid out in Airworthiness Notice 98.

The major limitations for the use of Mogas as a substitute for Avgas are:-

 The Mogas must be a four star motor gasoline to BSI Specification BS40940:1978.

 No flight to be made if the temperature of the fuel in the tanks exceed 20°C (Vapour
locking).

 The aircraft must not be flown above 6000 ft.

 Unless it is known, on a particular flight that the proportion of motor gasoline in

the aircraft’s fuel is less than 25% the aircraft shall be assumed to be using motor
gasoline.

Specific gravity of avgas

 Avgas 100LL is a liquid and has a specific gravity of 0.68-0.74 @ 60ºF (15.6ºC).

Grease:

Magneto Ignition System Principles

HIGH TENSION (HT) IGNITION - Refer to FAA A and P Powerplant Handbook 4-2

Magneto:
A change of magnetism acting on a coil of wire will induce a current in that wire. The
strength of the current depends on:-

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1. the strength of the magnetic field

2. the rate of change of magnetism
3. the number of turns of wire in the coil

THE PRIMARY OR LOW TENSION (LT) CIRCUIT Refer to FAA A and P Powerplant
Handbook 4-4
Notes:

 The pilot operated

switch. Known as ignition, magneto or mag. Switch. When this switch is closed or
OFF, the primary circuit is completely earthed, and opening of the circuit – the
magneto is ‘dead’.

Unlike all other electrical switches, these operate in the opposite sense.
When the contacts are closed, the switch is off.

THE SECONDARY OR HIGH TENSION (HT) CIRCUIT- Refer to FAA A and P Powerplant
Handbook 4-6

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Magnetic Circuit: Refer to FAA A and P Powerplant Handbook 4-2

 Rotating Magnet- in which a permanent magnet rotates between extensions of the

armature core known as pole pieces. All of the other components are stationery.
This is now the most widely used type of magneto and is the one which we will
study.

(a) The magnet is fully aligned with the pole pieces (sometimes called the ‘full register
position’) and there is maximum flux flow from the N pole through the armature core
to the S pole and the magnetic field around the armature is at a maximum.
(b) As rotating continues the lines of force are being cut off when the magnet
poles leave the pole pieces. The flux through the core is diminishing and the
field around the armature is collapse.
(c) The magnet has now turned through 90 degrees (to the ‘neutral position’), the lines of
force are short circuited through the pole pieces and the armature magnetic field is

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zero.
(d) As the magnet rotates through the neutral position, its poles begin to align
with the pole pieces, and flux flow commences through the core but in the
opposite direction – a flux reversal has taken place. The core flux increases
as the magnet turns until, at the next full register position, it again is at a
maximum.

It is evident that a further 180 degrees of rotation will have produced two flux reversals for
one revolution of the magnet. These flux reversals are very important because it is at this
point in the operation that the maximum primary current is going to be achieved.

As the magnet revolves, the core flux changes, as does the magnetic field around the
primary winding (a). It is not the magnitude of the flux but the rate at which it changes that
determines the voltage induced in the primary winding. The maximum rate of exchange
occurs when the magnets’ neutral position is just passed – the point where flux reversal
occurs (a). This is where the primary current is at its highest and is the instant when the CB
points are opened to break the circuit thus causing the magnetic field to collapse across the
secondary winding.
The voltage induced in the secondary depends on:-
 The strength of the field created by the primary current which in turn depends
on the strength of the magnet, the speed of rotation and the number of turn in
the primary winding.
E Gap
Refer to FAA A and P Powerplant Handbook 4-2
E Gap setting: Refer to FAA A and P Powerplant Handbook 4-26

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Contact Breaker
Refer to FAA A and P Powerplant Handbook 4-2
Notes:

Condenser/Capacitor Refer to FAA A and P Powerplant Handbook 4-4

Distributor: Refer to FAA A and P Powerplant Handbook 4-4

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Notes-Dielectric inspection
and cleaning of distributer.
Refer to FAA A and P
Powerplant Handbook 4-4

Ignition systems
Construction Of Magnetos-
Activity # 13: Refer to FAA A and P Powerplant Handbook 4-11 and disassemble a Slick and
Bendix magneto provided in the workshop. List all of the parts and describe their function.

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Effect On Timing Of Magneto Points Gapping

Refer to FAA A and P Powerplant Handbook 4-4

Advanced Ignition Timing- Refer to FAA A and P Powerplant Handbook 4-22 to 4-27

Retarded Ignition Timing Refer to FAA A and P Powerplant Handbook 4-15 to 4-20

Magneto Switches, Harnesses, Screening and Bonding-

Refer to FAA A and P Powerplant Handbook 4-28 to 4-30
LOW TENSION (LT) OR SWITCH LEADS

The construction of these items is basically similar to that of the HT leads but because they
carry a low voltage of higher current, the cable core is often larger in diameter and the
insulation is less thick. For screening and protection purposes they have an outer covering
of metal braid. Suitable connectors couple the ends to the ignition switch and the magneto
contact breaker.

SERVICING AND TESTING OF IGNITION LEDS AND HARNESSES

Activity # 14 Follow the procedures below and conduct an inspection of the ignition
harness provided in the worhshop.

Visual Inspection
There always precedes the testing of any component or system. For our purpose we shall
consider an installation harness and the items we would look for during the visual
inspection would include:-
 Loose cables, sleeves, and connectors at distributor block and sparking plugs,
 Insecurity of attachment bolts and screws,
 Perishing of insulation – indicated by hardening and cracking,
 Damage to metal braiding, rigid conduit, plug and distributor connectors,
 Oil soakage, which is indicated by swollen and softened insulation. (This is
generally more relevant to unscreened separate leads.)
The electrical tests – which follow the visual inspection – would require the plug leads
and distributor block to be disconnected. This will give the opportunity to complete the
harness check by examining:-
 The plug nut for freedom of rotation deformation and thread damage, and the plug
terminal components for good condition,
 The distributor block for cracks and signs of tracking and the security and
effectiveness of the lead connections to the block.

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Construction and Function of Magneto Compensating Cam

Battery Ignition Systems - Refer to FAA A and P Powerplant Handbook 4-19

Auxiliary Ignition Systems, Booster Coil, Induction Vibrator And Impulse Coupling-
Refer to FAA A and P Powerplant Handbook 4-19 to 4-20

Safety Precautions Associated With Ignition Systems

- Follow maintenance manuals for all listed procedures and safety tips.
- A open magneto switch circuit will cause a live magneto-always assume magneto is
live when turning propeller.
- Avoid operating open ignition system when fuel fumes and fuel is present.
- Do not install dropped sparkplugs.
- Operating/testing magneto high tension systems, spark plug tester, starter
vibrators, booster coils or impulse coupling magnetos could deliver a high voltage
shock if you are in contact with the circuit.
- Do not contact live circuits when testing spark plug leads.
- Wear safety goggles when cleaning sparkplugs.
- Allow engine to cool down prior to removal of ignition system parts. Wear leather
gloves to avoid burns.
- Protect skin from cleaning solvents.
- Do not apply graphite grease to last three threads of sparkplug- plug could be
shorted of graphite makes contact to electrodes.
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- Do not shut down an engine with the ignition system off first—always fuel off first
to clear cylinders.
- Always clear prop prior to activating ignition/starting circuits on aircraft.
- When P Leads are disconnected from magneto during maintenance and spark plugs
leads disconnected, any rotation of prop would cause sparking at leads, this could
ignite flammable substances around engine.

Further Considerations:
 Fitting a plug to a hot engine results in torque loading altering as the engine cools.
 Over-torquing a plug can cause plug and/or insert damage.
 Under-tightening a plug can result in loose plugs, gas leakage, and engine
inefficiency.
 A plug dropped onto a hard surface must not be fitted, even if visual examination
shows no defects. Return it for proper inspection – the insulator could be cracked.
 Never use open ended spanners for plug removal or fitting.

IGNITION SWITCHES

The type of switch used varies with the manufacturer and the numbers of engines on the
aircraft, and they are prominently mounted on the instrument panel in a position
convenient for the engine operator (Fig. 5).

Generally, for one engine, they take the

form of either two separate toggle
switches in one housing or a single
rotary switch. The toggle switches may
be identified L and R for the ignition
systems they control but, unlike other
electrical switches, are ON when the
toggle is up. The rotary switch has four
positions which are clearly marked
OFF-L-R-BOTH
When the switches are in any position
but OFF, the magnetos are ‘live’. They MAGNETO VENTING
are also dangerous, especially for some
time after engine shut down when the The magneto and its components cannot be
engine is warm and fuel vapours may be hermetrically sealed for internal cleanliness
present. This is why a propeller is because they are subjected to temperature and
never moved by hand until a physical pressure changes in flight, hence they become
check is made of the magneto switch prone to the effects of condensation. If the
positions. interior of the magneto becomes wet there is
the possibility that the high voltage current
arching across the rotor/block gap could be misdirected to another segment or the
magneto case. This is ‘flashover’ and often leaves a fine carbon track as the spark
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evaporates the moisture and burns dirt particles lying on the non-conducting surface of the
distributor. The carbon track remains as a continuous cause of misfiring and power loss.

The normal arching which takes place across the distributor components results in
unavoidable erosion of their surfaces. In the presence of moisture, arching also produces
corrosive gases which attack the metal and leave high resistance deposits.

To reduce these effects, all magnetos are vented and drained. The venting has to take into
account the possibility of inflammable vapours being present in the confines of the engine
cowling. Protection from fire due to magneto sparking is achieved by covering the vents
with fine mesh gauze discs. These allow air through the magneto and at the same time act
as flame traps on the Davy lamp principle. You will have met these flame traps when you
were dealing with induction systems.

You should now be able to appreciate the maintenance requirement for regular inspection
of the vents for obstruction and the interior of the magneto for corrosion and evidence of
tracking.
MAGNETO SPEEDS

Every cylinder of a four-stroke engine requires a spark for every two revolutions of the
crankshaft. The greater the number of cylinders the faster the magneto must revolve. If we
look at our two-pole magnet magneto (two sparks/rev.) we shall see how and why there
are speed limitations on its use.
Consider this example formula:-

Magneto speed = No. of Cylinders__________ x engine sped

2 x sparks/rev. of magneto

Our magneto on a four cylinder engine would need to be driven at:

4__ = 1 x engine sped

2 x2

for a six cylinder engine: 6__ = 1.5 x engine speed

2 x2

If we consider both these engines running at a speed of say 2,400 rev./min., their magneto
speeds respectively would be 2,400, 3,600 rev./min.

In practical terms this means that a two sparks/rev. magneto is suitable only for engines of
up to 6 cylinders because, with a greater number of cylinders the magneto rotational
speeds are too high. If we assume a 6 cylinder engine take off speed of 3,200 rev./min. the
magneto would be rotating at 4,800. Very much higher speeds would be both mechanically
and electrically too stressful.

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To cater for larger engines we need a magneto capable of providing more sparks per
revolution. How this is achieved is the subject of the next section.

Sparkplugs- Constructional features and materials:

Refer to FAA A and P Powerplant Handbook 4-21 to 4-22

Plug Body
This is made from high tensile steel, sometimes plated to resist corrosion and with a
standard hexagon to accept a standard socket or plug spanner.
Body Thread
This is a close tolerance thread which fits into the cylinder head.
Sealing Washer
This ensures a gas tight air for the thread, and is often made of copper.

Screen
This an extension of the body which completes the screening of the HT lead.
Connector Thread
This accepts the sleeve nut which secures the HT lead to the plug.
Earth Electrode
One or more project towards the centre electrode from the plug nose. They may be of
nickel alloy but more likely of platinum or iridium.
Central Electrode
This is designed to allow for thermal expansion. It conducts the HT pulse from the contact
inside the sleeve to the plug nose. The lower end is often of a nickel alloy. Sometimes it
incorporates a resistor to help reduce electrode erosion and ignition interference spikes.

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Ceramic Insulator

This is secured and sealed into the body during manufacture. It supports and insulates the
central electrode. It is extended at the outer end to insulate the plug lead from the
surrounding metal sleeve. Ceramics are very brittle heat resisting materials.
Some older types of plug may be met with which are classified are ‘detachable’. That is, the
screen sleeve is removable from the body for cleaning purposes. The sleeve insulation
material could be mica or a ceramic.

The total number of plugs on an engine is generally known as a ‘set’ and those associated
with one magneto are frequently called a ‘half set’.

Temperature Classification- Hot/Cold

Refer to FAA A and P Powerplant Handbook 4-22
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Reach-Long/Short
Refer to FAA A and P Powerplant Handbook 4-22
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INSPECTION AND SERVICING OF SPARKING PLUGS

Activity # 15 - Refer to FAA A and P Powerplant Handbook 4-30 to 4-35

Inspect and service a set of spark plugs for installation.
Activity Procedure Results
(serviceab
le/unservi
ceable
Removal Refer to FAA A and P Powerplant Handbook 4-32
Inspection A visual inspection for obvious damage, distortion, cracked
insulators, faulty electrodes, corrosion, etc. Any of these faults
will cause the plug to be rejected.
De- Using an approved solvent but without total immersion. It is not
greasing he same as cleaning.
Cleaning Refer to FAA A and P Powerplant Handbook 4-33

Second Refer to FAA A and P Powerplant Handbook 4-35

Inspection
SparkGap Refer to FAA A and P Powerplant Handbook 4-35
Setting
Testing Refer to FAA A and P Powerplant Handbook 4-33

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Storage The whole set is then protected from corrosion and may be
stored for a short time, in a cupboard which is heated to avoid
condensation.
Long term storage or transit requires the plugs to be packed
individually with an identification label in clear plastic tubes
from which the air is evacuated before sealing. They are packed
in a strong box with identification and certified serviceable labels
on the outside.

Installation Refer to FAA A and P Powerplant Handbook 4-34 to 4-35

Diagnosis of Engine Condition by Spark Plug Appearance:

Refer to FAA A and P Powerplant Handbook 4-30
Appearance Diagnosis
Carbon fouling
Oil fouling
Lead fouling
Graphite fouling
Gap erosion

Ignition Leads - Ignition lead/harness construction, features and screening.

Refer to FAA A and P Powerplant Handbook 4-8 to 4-9-------------------------------------------------
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Maintenance and Inspection of Ignition Leads- Refer to FAA A and P Powerplant

Handbook 4-28 to 4-30
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Activity # 16 - Refer to FAA A and P Powerplant Handbook 4-38 to 4-3

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Carry out ignition lead test on the ignition harness provided in the workshop.

Result-Serviceable- Rectification Retest-

yes/no Serviceable-
yes/no

Float Chamber Carburetors

, power enrichment systems, float chambers, discharge
nozzles, accelerator pumps, mixture control systems, and altitude control
– Causes and effects of impact, throttle and fuel ice
– Carburettors heat

Principles, features and construction: Refer to FAA A and P Powerplant Handbook 2-6 to
2-9

The Float Chamber Carburetor

Used on light aircraft, the simplest and cheapest but prone to icing. It is adversely affected
by flight maneuvers.
The Pressure Injector Carburetor
More sophisticated than the float chamber type, this gives precise metering of fuel and a
more accurate air/fuel ratio. It is less prone to icing, and is less affected by flight
maneuvers.
The Injector System
Direct port injection gives the best fuel distribution. It is even less prone to icing, and more
economical and is unaffected by flight maneuvers.

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Configurations, up-draught and downdraught

ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS Refer to FAA A and P Powerplant Handbook 2-3 to 2-5

When ordinary gasoline below 100 is graded, it carries a single octane number, 87 for
instance, but above 100% a performance figure will be used.

However, the anti-knock qualities will differ according to the air/fuel mixture, therefore
the performance figure will be expresses in two numbers, one for lean mixture and one for
rich mixture. An example is shown below:

 100/130

 115/145

The first number of each set is the lean performance number, and the second is rich
performance number.

Fuel octane or performance numbers of fuel are indicated by the engine manufacturers and
must be adhered to at all times. Incorrect fuel use can lead to loss of power, overheating,
detonation and eventually engine failure.
MIXTURE
The chemically correct mixture, or air/fuel ratio, is 15:1. This stoichiometric ratio gives the
highest combustion temperature when all the oxygen and fuel are used up, but is also so
hot that it leads to detonation. A richer mixture, or weaker mixture, than stoichiometric,
lowers the combustion temperature; slightly rich is better as the extra fuel has a cooling
action, a weaker mixture results in a power loss as all the oxygen is not used. For
maximum power,

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most engines run at 12.5:1; this extra fuel ensures that all cylinders get a little richer than
stoichiometric because the mixture is not always eventually distributed in the induction
manifold.

Weak Mixture

A weak mixture burns more slowly and at lower temperatures that stoichiometric, and
although the power is down, an increase in efficiency due to the cooler burn gives a
decrease in fuel consumption so ‘specific fuel consumption’ drops.

Rich Mixture

At power setting above the cruise range, any increase in rpm and cylinder pressures result
in higher mixture temperatures and eventually detonation. To overcome the problem, the
mixture is cooled by the addition of extra fuel. At full power take off, a ratio of
approximately 10:1 is common, with most of the extra fuel use for cooling, as there is not
enough oxygen in the mixture to burn it.

CARBURETTOR ICING Refer to FAA A and P Powerplant Handbook 2-9 to 2-10

Heated air for the carburetor is provided by a heater muff surrounding the exhaust
manifold. Air is taken into the muff and heated by the exhaust pipes. Selection of a valve
by the pilot allows this hot air to circulate the carburetor to remove any icing build up.

The continual use of carburetor heating systems, however, does create additional
problems. Remember density and its effects on engine performance? The warmer the air,
the less dense it becomes, with an associated drop in engine performance.

Therefore, the use of carburetor heating is restricted to short periods which are just long
enough to allow the heat to disperse the ice.

FLOAT CHAMBER CARBURETTOR -Construction

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Operation
The supply of fuel from the aircraft tanks to the float chamber is controlled by a float
operated needle valve to the predetermined level within the chamber, the chamber is then
vented to atmosphere above the fuel level.
The float chamber is one side of a ‘U’ tube, the other end of which is the discharge nozzle,
and is situated at the throat (narrowest part of the venturi.)

The air flow into the induction manifold, caused by the induction down stroke of the piston,
passes through the throttle housing venturi, which causes an increase in speed and a
decrease in pressure and temperature.
The depression will cause fuel droplets to be drawn off and atomized from the end of the
discharge nozzle, which vaporizes as it mixes with the air, thus providing a fuel air mixture.

As the fuel is drawn off from the nozzle, the level of fuel in the float chamber will drop, the
float will lower thus opening the needle valve to allow more fuel into the float chamber
from the aircraft thanks until sufficient fuel has entered the float chamber to raise the float,
and thus close the needle valve.

When the engine is running, fuel is being constantly drawn off the discharge nozzle, so the
needle valve will find a sensitive position where the chamber is being replenished at the
same rate as the fuel is used.

Throttle Value and Main Jet

Up to now there has been no control over the amount of fuel or the rate of air flow passing
to the engine, so a calibrated orifice, or main jet, is situated in the line from the float
chamber to the discharge nozzle, shown in Fig. 3 below.

This is calibrated to supply a mixture for the cruise condition of approximately 14:1. The
air flow is regulated by means of a throttle butterfly valve, situated downstream of the
venturi, and is connected to the pilot’s throttle lever. The engine power will now be
governed by the position of the butterfly valve controlling the amount of mixture allowed
to go through the induction manifold to the cylinders.

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Slow Running, Idle and Cut Off

With the butterfly almost closed in the position for idle or slow running, the amount of air
passing through the venturi, will be insufficient to cause a large enough pressure drop to
draw off fuel, but the gap between the throttle housing and the edge of the butterfly will
now create its own mini venturi. A line is taken from the ‘U’ tube before the main jet, and
then routed to an outlet at the edge of the butterfly valve. In this line there will also be a
calibrated orifice known as the slow running jet. The flow from this jet will cease as the
throttle is opened, as the mini venture will no longer exist.

An air duct taken from just below the butterfly throttle valve allows air to mix with the fuel
before it enters the main air stream so atomizing or emulsifying the fuel and assisting
vaporization.

An adjustable screw ‘A’ allows fine adjustment of the flow from the slow running jet to give
the correct air/fuel ratio required at slow running. This screw is called the slow running
mixture control screw.

As an alternative, a screw may be fitted at ‘3’, to allow for the adjustment of emulsified fuel
instead of the neat fuel adjustment at ‘A’.
A simple plunger type valve, sprung loaded in the on/open position, is situated in the slow
running fuel supply line. Controlled from a lever in the cockpit, it will, when operated,
overcome the spring and cut off the fuel supply to the slow running jet, causing the engine
to stop, as the mixture, now flowing to the engine, is so weak that it can no longer support
combustion. The operation of idle cut off will only be effective when the throttle lever is
also in the idle or slow running position.

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The idle cut off acts as a safety device to prevent the engine running on due to pre-ignition,
which may occur when the engine had stopped and the ignition has been switched off.

The release of the idle cut off in the cockpit will allow the spring to reposition the valve to
on/open.

Pressure Balance Duct (PBD)

At this time the float chamber is vented into the relatively still air within the engine
cowlings. The air intake inlet is subject to changes in altitude, aircraft attitude and
temperature, all of which will affect and cause pressure variations through the venturi,
which in turn will affect the air fuel ratio due to the difference between float chamber and
air intake pressures.

To overcome the problem of varying fuel flows, a pressure balance duct is incorporated,
which extends the float chamber vent line to the air intake. Any changes which take place
in the air intake, will immediately be felt within the float chamber, so maintaining the
correct fuel flow for the air going through the intake (see Fig. 5).

The Diffuser

The increase power through the cruise range, more air and fuel will be required. Opening
the throttle butterfly valve will allow more air to the cylinders and this increased air flow
passing through the venturi will cause a greater pressure differential, which in turn will
cause an increase in the fuel flow from the discharge nozzle.

Unfortunately, the inertia flow rate characteristics of air and fuel are different; this
difference causes too much fuel to be drawn off, so causing the mixture gradually to
become over rich throughout the cruise range.

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To overcome this problem, a diffuser is built into the discharge line between jet and nozzle
(see Fig. 6); the diffuser consists of a tube having a number of small holes drilled in rows
just below the top of the tube. The air tapped form the pressure balance duct is routed to
the space around the outside of the tube.

As the demand for more fuel increases the fuel level in the discharge tube will descend,
establishing a lower level in the tube. This new level will have exposed the first row of
holes in the diffuser above the fuel level, which will allow some of the air from the pressure
balance duct to bleed through the holes to reduce the pressure drop, which in turn will
reduce the tendency of the fuel flow to enrich the cruise air/fuel ratio. Opening the throttle
further will cause the next row of holes to be exposed to pressure balance duct air, so
allowing an increase in fuel flow while maintaining the correct air/fuel ratio.
A secondary feature of the diffuser is that the air, when bleeding through the diffuser, helps
to emulsify the fuel resulting in a more volatile mixture.

CONTROL OF MIXTURE RATIOS

There is a need to have control over mixture ratios for two reasons:-

 flying the aircraft with economy in mind,

 compensating for changes in the aircraft’s altitude.

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Mixture Control at Altitude

Let us look at altitude first. If the aircraft climbs with a fixed throttle setting, the pressure
of atmospheric air entering the air intake will decrease, which in turn reduces the weigh of
charge going to the engine. Remember that the air/fuel ratio is a function of weight, i.e.
fourteen pounds of air to one pound of fuel at cruise.

Although the weight of air is decrease with increase in altitude, the volume of air is
unaltered; it is this value air rushing through the venturi that causes the pressure
differential change, which in turn decides the fuel flow, and in this case the mixture will be
enriched with an increase altitude.

To overcome this problem, air is tapped from the pressure balance duct and is allowed to
enter the discharge tube above the diffuser via a control valve. The amount of air passing
the control valve will have a direct effect on the pressure differential, which causes a
deduction in fuel flow to maintain our 14:1 ratio. The overall effect of the weight of charge
entering the cylinders at altitude is a reduction of volumetric efficiency, therefore power
will fall of with a fixed throttle climb to altitude.

Note that the amount of air passing the control valve is under the direct control of the pilot
by means of the altitude mixture control lever shown in Fig. 7.

Mixture Control Economy

When flying with a fixed throttle setting and a stable altitude, the pilot is given a choice of a
ratio of 14:1 rich cruise, or 17:1 lean or weak cruise. The lean cruise ratio is selected by the
pilot using the mixture lever, which allows more air to the discharge tube, so reducing the
pressure differential, hence the fuel flow. This will cause a small drop in engine power
output, but in return there will be a cooler burning of the mixture and a lower specific fuel
consumption.

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POWER AND ENRICHMENT JET

An increase in power selection above cruise will reach best power at an air/fuel ratio of
about 12.5:1. This apparently rich mixture ensures that all cylinders get at least the
minimum requirement of fuel. Any further increase in power selection will require extra
amounts of fuel because the main jet, which is designed for the cruise range, cannot supply
enough fuel to keep the air/fuel ratio constant when the larger quantity of air is entering
the engine, so an additional jet may be fitted, known as the power jet, as shown in Fig. 8.

It is usually operated by a cam controlled by the pilot’s throttle power lever. If the best
power ratio was maintained up to take off, then detonation is liable to occur due to
increased pressures and temperatures in the cylinders; the power jet is so arranged that
some extra fuel is added by the power jet to cool the mixture up to take off.

At take off, which is the most critical time for an aircraft and its engine, to ensure that there
is no possibility of detonation occurring, even more fuel is added for cooling, to give a ratio
of around 10:1. This extra fuel is not burn, as there is not enough oxygen available. The
fuel acts as a coolant, and results in black smoke, indicating a rich mixture, from the
exhaust. This cooling fuel is supplied by yet another jet, known as the enrichment jet, and
is usually cam operated from the pilot’s power lever in a similar way to that for the power
jet (see Fig. 9).

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ACCELERATION

When the throttle is opened quickly, there will be an immediate increase of air flow into the
engine, but unfortunately the response of the fuel metering system is less quick, resulting
temporarily in a weak mixture. To overcome this, an accelerator pump is fitted, and is
activated by linkage from the throttle control (see Fig. 10 below).

The accelerator pump consists of a small chamber connected to the float chamber with a
non return valve (NRV), which allows fuel to flow from the float chamber to the accelerator
pump. A fuel line is taken from the pump to the air stream immediately before the venturi.
At the top of the accelerator pump chamber is a piston type plunger held in the up position
by a spring.

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The accelerator pump plunger is operated by a cam, which is actuated by the throttle
linkage. Any quick movement of throttle will cause the plunger to move down, and the NRV
will close under the fuel pressure, preventing the return of the fuel to the float chamber.
The fuel is forced along the fuel line to just before the venturi and forced thorough the fixed
orifice, thus enriching the mixture until the fuel metering system has caught up with the
airflow. The rate of enrichment is therefore dependent upon the speed of movement of the
pilot’s throttle.

THE AIR BLEED

An alternative to the diffuser is the air bleed, shown in Fig. 2.

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The main jet is placed at the bottom of the discharge tube, and an air bleed duct routes
atmospheric or pressure balance duct pressure air to the lower end of the discharge tube,
so atomizing the fuel. When the venture depression is strong, the fuel will be diluted in a
similar manner to that of a carburetor fitted with a diffuser, shown in Fig. 3.

MIXTURE CONTROL

The two methods of mixture control that we shall cover in this booklet are:-

 needle type with cut off

 air bleed type with cut off.

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Needle type with Cut Off

In this case the mixture is mechanically reduced, as shown in Fig. 4.

This is achieved by a needle valve which protrudes into an orifice where the fuel leaves the
float chamber and is held open (rich position) by a spring. The orifice is closed on the
selection of ‘lean’ by the cockpit leaver, which through a direct linkage, depresses the
needle to overcome the spring and so reduces the fuel available at the main jet. If the lever
is selected to ‘cut off’, then needle passes fully into the orifice, the fuel supply is then
stopped, thus stopping the engine.

This method of stopping the engine by using the mixture control lever is common, and the
need for an extra control of riddle cut off is eliminated.

Air Bleed type with Cut Off

This is yet another method of achieving mixture control. In this method, the air pressure
above the fuel in the float chamber is controlled to vary the pressure difference between
the float chamber and the venturi (see Fig. 5).

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IDLING
The alternative idling system is shown in Fig. 6.

The carburetor shown uses the air bleed previously described instead of a diffuser. A fuel
duct is taken from downstream of the main jet and routed to the throttle housing adjacent
to the throttle valve. In this case the orifice is the idle jet, an air bleed orifice allows air to
mix with the fuel to atomize it before it reaches the idle jet, and an adjustment screw allow
the idle mixture to be adjusted.

Other variations may include the adjustment of the fuel before it mixes with the air, or the
adjustment of the air bleed to vary the mixture strength. Some carburetors have more than

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one orifice adjacent to the throttle valve to provide a gradual transition to the main jet as
the throttle is opened.

A cut off valve may be fitted to the duct to provide engine shut down.

To achieve its purpose, a float chamber carburetor may use any combination of the
modifications so far described in the booklet.

POWER AND ENRICHMENT

The two methods to be covered in this book let are the:-

 needle type,

 back suction economizer.

Needle Type

Our basic carburetor, has a cam operated valve jet for enrichment. Some float chamber
carburators are fitted with one jet which is varied in size by a needle valve; it is known by
various names, e.g. power jet, enrichment jet, or economizer. Consider Fig. 7.

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The needle valve, which is spring assisted to the fully in or closed position, allows no fuel to
flow through the jet as the cruise throttle setting, i.e. ‘economiser’.

As the throttle moves above the cruise range, the linkage from the throttle valve opens the
jet by withdrawing the needle. Fuel then flows from the float chamber to the discharge
tube as well as to the main jet (hence the name ‘power’). At full throttle opening, the needle
is in effect fully out of its orifice to give the extra fuel needed for cooling.

The needle is progressively pulled out above the cruise range, thus progressively enriching
the mixture in the power range.

Some engines have this power jet controlled by a sealed bellows which is sensitive to the
manifold pressure. More pressure, more fuel, so the enrichment is related to engine power
rather than throttle position.

Back Suction Econmiser

Up to now we have considered adding the fuel as required, but some carubrettors are set
rich to start with for the power range, and weakened for the cruise range. This
arrangement is known as a back suction economizer, and is shown in Fig. 8.

A pipe joins the top of the float chamber to a point after the throttle valve, and is known as
the economizer channel. In the pipe is a calibrated orifice, the economizer jet. Not that air
flows through the pipe, not fuel.

The metering of fuel for the cruise range is achieved by altering the pressure drop between
the float chamber and the venturi. When the throttle valve is fully, or nearly, open, the
pressure at the point where the air is sampled is more or less the same as that in the float
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chamber. But when the throttle valve is closed to the cruise position, the air flowing past
the throttle valve creates a depression which is felt in the float chamber, thus lowering the
pressure drop and resulting in less fuel, giving a weaker mixture for the cruise range.
Above the cruise range, little or no depression is felt, so the pressure drop is unaffected,
resulting in a rich mixture for the power take off range.

ACCELERATION
Fig. 9 below illustrates a sophisticated acceleration pump; it is in effect a two stage pump.

It consists of an accelerator pump piston to which is attached a delayed action plunger,

which is held away from the piston by a spring. The extended part of the piston passes
through the wall to a lower chamber which houses the delayed action plunger. Both
chambers are filled with fuel, via non return valves, from fuel in the float chamber.

Movement of the throttle causes the accelerator pump piston to pressurize the fuel in the
upper chamber, and to open the non return valve to allow fuel to discharge into the air
stream adjacent to the venturi, thus enriching the mixture. At the same time, the plate
which is in the lower chamber attached to the accelerator pump piston, moves down,
compressing the spring. When the accelerator pump piston, reaches the bottom of its
stroke, the spring re-asserts itself, forcing the fuel in the lower chamber through a
restrictor via the NRV to the same delivery tube to enrich the mixture.

So if there is a quick opening of the throttle which results in an immediate increase in the
air flow, the normal fuel metering devices cannot cope with the demand. Therefore a weak
mixture and a hesitation on acceleration would occur. With the aid of the accelerator
pump, there is an initial discharge of fuel from the acceleration pump piston, followed by a
more progressive discharge from the delayed action plunger, by which time the normal
metering system will have caught up with the extra fuel demanded by the extra air going
into the engine.
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Note that some accelerator pumps have a controlled bleed past the piston so no extra fuel
is added during gentle acceleration.

AUTOMATIC MIXTURE CONTROL

In order to relieve the pilot of the need to adjust the mixture as the aircraft climbs to
altitude, some carburetors are fitted with an automatic mixture control which senses the
drop in pressure that occurs as altitude increases and adjusts the fuel/air ratio to suit the
less dense air. Fig. 10 shows one type of automatic mixture control.

The mixture control valve is situated above the discharge tube and diffuser, the pressure
difference between the float chamber and the venturi is altered by the amount of
atmospheric or balance duct pressure directed to the discharge tube and diffuser.

It is just like the manually operated mixture control described in Booklet No. 1, but instead
of a manual control we have a servo piston operated by engine oil in a servo unit which
moves the linkage to operate the mixture control valve. The supply of pressure oil is
directed to either the top or bottom of the piston by a piston valve which in turn is
controlled by an aneroid capsule sensitive to atmosphere pressure.

Operation

As the aircraft climbs and the atmospheric pressure drops, we need less fuel to maintain
the air/fuel ration; therefore the mixture control valve needs to select more air to the top of
the fuel in the discharge tube, thus reducing the pressure drop between the float chamber
and the venturi, so reducing the fuel flow rate. The drop in atmospheric pressure will
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cause the aneroid capsule to expand, pushing down the piston valve; this will line up the oil
pressure inlet with the underside of the piston and the top of the piston will line up with
the top return to scavenge.

The upward movement of the servo piston will rotate the mixture control valve to allow
more air in to reduce the pressure differential and hence reduce the fuel flow. As we do not
want the servo piston to go fully up until we are at a much higher altitude, it would lean off
the mixture too much at the start of a climb, the aneroid capsule is attached to the same
linkage as the servo piston. As the piston moves up, so the aneroid capsule assembly
complete with piston valve also move up, thus blocking off both the lines to the top and
bottom of the servo piston, so preventing further movement of the servo piston. The
mixture control valve will be held in the position selected to compensate for the lower
atmospheric pressure.

I think it would be advisable to read this part on the automatic mixture control again –
unless it is crystal clear to you.

Now, as the aircraft goes higher the aneroid capsule, which is anchored firmly to the
linkage, and which is in turn held firmly by the servo piston, will expand as the outside of
the capsule is subjected to less atmospheric pressure. The piston valve will be pushed
down, allowing the pressure oil to the underside of the servo piston, and to allow the oil
from the top of the servo piston to escape to scavenge as it did before. The servo piston
then moves up, repositioning the mixture control valve to admit more atmospheric air to
the mixture discharge tube to reduce the pressure differential, and therefore reduce the
fuel flow.

As the servo piston moves up, the aneroid assembly attached to the linkage will also move
up, taking the piston valve with hit, so blocking off both the oil lines and thus preventing
further movement of the servo valve and the mixture control.

This operation is repeated again and again, as the aircraft climbs so it becomes continuous,
progressively opening the mixture control valve to allow more air to weaken the mixture as
atmospheric pressure progressively decreases.

When the aircraft descends, the reverse happens. The aneroid capsule will contract
causing the piston valve to rise; this will allow the pressure oil to the top of the servo piston
and the oil from below the servo piston can escape to scavenge past the bottom of the
piston valve.

The servo piston moves down, moving the mixture control valve to reduce t air to the
discharge tube so increasing the pressure differential, and therefore supplying more fuel to
maintain the correct air/fuel ration. As the servo piston moves down, it will also move the
aneroid capsule assembly with the piston valve down until the lands of the piston valve
block off both lines to the servo piston, stopping further movements of the mixture control
valve until there is a change in the atmospheric pressure, when the whole process starts all
over again, either up or down.
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Economy

Remember with the manual mixture control the pilot could lean off the mixture in the
cruise range to achieve a greater fuel economy; well, with an automatic mixture control, the
pilot is given a two position lever where he can select rich gear lean. If he selects lean, he
turns a sleeve which is normally situated around the piston valve with the holes line up
with the lines to the top and bottom of the servo piston. By turning the sleeve through 90°,
two alternative holes positioned higher up the sleeve are now used to line up the next page.

In this case, the piston valve will have to travel further up before the lands block the lines
to the servo piston. The piston valve will have to move further up before it is stopped, in
which case the mixture control valve will allow more air in, thus reducing the pressure
differential more than normal, so weakening the mixture still further.

On selection of lean in the cockpit, the natural position of the piston valve is reset. The
system will now work as before with changes in atmospheric pressure, but the original
pressure drop that it is subjected to is lower and therefore weaker.

This economy setting of lean will only work in the cruise range, because this linkage to the
pilot’s leer is so arranged that selection of power above the cruse range automatically puts
the rich/Lean selector to rich and the sleeve is rotated back to 90° to where we started.

It should be noted that the linkage between the aneroid, the servo piston and the mixture
control valve shown in Fig. 11 is critical, and is set by the manufacturers to ensure that:-

 the movement of the servo piston is proportional to changes of atmospheric

pressure,

 the opening of the mixture control valve is proportional to fuel flow requirements.

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APPLICATION

Now we know the component parts and the operation of a float chamber carburattor, let’s
look at the diagrammatic layout of a float carburettor in general use, shown in Fig. 12

The fuel enters the carburettor via a filter to the float chamber; this is shown at the bottom
left of the diagram. Follow the fuel as it leaves the float chamber via the left hand outlet,
along past the idle cut of to the main nozzle, the diffuser/air bleed and then the venturi

Now follow the fuel line from the float chamber right hand outlet to the accelerator pump
on the right hand bottom of the diagram; note the NRV fitted to stop the fuel being pumped
back to the float chamber and the discharge valve between the pump and the accelerator
discharge nozzle. That’s the fuel side of things sorted out!

Now for the air side; apart from the air going through the venture and past the throttle
valve, an impact air tube protrudes into the airstream as the air enters the carburettor.
Identify the impact tube, and follow the airline to the right of the diagram, up past the
accelerator pump to a sort of air reservoir. Not the airline to the float chamber, just above
the venturi, this is the pressure balance duct. Now look for the air metering valve, top
centre left of the diagram, this meters air down to the diffuser/air bleed to atomise the fuel.
Just before the pressure balance duct joint the float chamber, a tapping is taken off and
routed to supply the air bleed for slow running/idle. The idle mixture adjusting screw is
adjacent to the throttle butterfly.

Note the extra holes for the progressive change over to the main nozzle jet. Finally, on the
same spindle as the butterfly throttle valve, is the linkage to operate the accelerator pump
and a striker which will progressively closet the air metering valve to enrich the mixture
above cruise.

For mixture control at altitude, consider Fig. 13.

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In this case there is an automatic needle type mixture control incorporated in the float
chamber ‘A’. As atmospheric pressure decreases, so the aneroid, which is subjected to
impact pressure, will expand, reducing the fuel flow from the float chamber. The idle cut
off ‘B’ has been moved for convenience.

CONSTRUCTION AND OPERATING PRINCIPLES

The Throttle Body

The main components of the throttle body are the:-

 throttle valve,
 venturi
 discharge nozzle.

The pilot operated throttle valve controls the flow of air into the engine, via the venture
where there is a pressure drop; note that the metered fuel joins the airstream after the
throttle valve, as shown in Fig. 1.

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The Regulator

This consists of two main sections; one contains air, the other fuel. In the air section there
is a diagram which is connected to the stem of the fuel valve, which passes through the
dividing wall between the air and fuel sections, as shown in Fig. 1.

Atmospheric or impact air pressure is ducted from the throttle body to chamber A in the
section, and venturi pressure is ducted to chamber B. The fuel section is divided into two
chambers, with the fuel valve controlling the opening between the two chambers. Fuel
under pump delivery pressure enters the right hand chamber of the fuel section and passes
via the fuel valve to the left hand chamber of the fuel section to become regulated fuel
pressure, which then goes via the metering device to the discharge nozzle.

Operation

Operation of the regulator is as follows:

When the throttle valve is opened, there is an increase of air flow through the throttle body
causing a larger pressure drop in the venturi.

This lower pressure is felt in chamber 3, causing the air diaphragm to flex in the direction A
to 3.

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As the stem of the fuel valve is attached to the diaphragm, the fuel valve will open, allowing
more fuel to flow to the regulated fuel chamber, thus the regulated fuel flow to the
discharge nozzle will be proportional to the air flow through the throttle body.

Of course, closing the throttle valve will have the reverse effect, causing the air diaphragm
to flex 3 to A, thus closing the fuel valve.

The Metering section

This consists of the main jet and other jets and valves for metering the fuel for varying
engine conditions, which will be dealt with later, but for the moment think of it as the main
jet; eventually we will call the metering section the fuel control unit.

The Discharge Nozzle

Positioned downstream of the throttle valve in the throttle body, this is spring loaded to
ensure that the fuel pressure is about 5 psi before it will open and allow fuel to discharge
into the air stream. In some cases, air is allowed to join the fuel after the spring loaded
nozzle valve to assist atomization and vaporization.

Mass Air Flow

We now need to make the pressure injection carburettor compensate for changes in air
density. A small air bleed between chambers A and B of the air section of the regulator
would give a constant flow of air from A to B; this is because B is always at a lower pressure
than A. When air is passing through the venture, the regulator still works as before, except
that in this case the movement of the fuel valve would not be quite so much, but this could
easily be overcome by making the valve slightly larger to give the same fuel flow.

The bleed is made variable by a valve which is sensitive to air density and is operated by an
aneroid capsule, so that with less dense air the valve increases the bleed, so reducing the
pressure difference between A and B; the movement of the fuel valve is then less, giving
less fuel for less dense air, and less air bleed and consequently more fuel for more dense air
(see Fig. 2)

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As the density of the air decreases, the capsule expands and opens the bleed, thus reducing
the pressure difference between A and B. The fuel valve will now have a reduced opening,
giving less fuel. In this way we have an automatic mixture control which compensates for
the reduction in the density of air with increase in altitude.

An alternative way of achieving the same result is to have a fixed bleed between chambers
A and B, and to vary the pressure to chamber A by an automatic mixture control which
consists of an aneroid capsule which puts a needle type valve into the duct to chamber A.
As density decreases, so the needle valve will reduce the supply and the pressure to
chamber A; this will cause less flexing of the diaphragm towards the open position of the
fuel value, as shown in Fig. 3. The airflow through the fixed bleed is dissipated to the ventri
duct

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The automatic mixture control is often mounted on the throttle body so that wherever the
impact pressure is sampled it first passes through the automatic mixture control being
ducted to chamber A.

You should now have a good understanding of the operating principles of the pressure
injection carburetor, but re-read up to this point if you are not sure.

A TYPICAL PRESSURE INJECTION CARBURETOR

Now we understand the opening principles of the pressure injection carburetor, I will
describe its operation with the aid of a schematic layout. First let us consider the fuel
metering device which contains the jets and valves, and has a manual control attached to it,
the complete assembly is known as the fuel control unit.

FUEL CONTROL UNIT (FCU)

Regulated fuel from the regulator enters the FCU and is metered by the valves and jets
within the unit, and then passes through the manual mixture control as metered fuel before
passing to the discharge nozzle.

The FCU contains the following items; the:-

 auto rich jet,

 auto lean jet,

 power valve,

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 power jet,

 idle plunger.

Attached to the FCU is the manual mixture control, which may be selected auto rich or auto
lean.

MANUAL MIXTURE CONTROL

The outlet from the FCU is disc shaped and there are three holes in it, the lower one is the
largest and the other two smaller holes are about the same (see Fig. 4 (a) on the next page).
The holes are covered and uncovered by the rotating member of the manual control valve
which is trefoil shaped as shown in Fig. 4 (b) on the next page, and is connected to the
pilot’s control.

With idle cut-off selected, all holes are covered by the rotating member, and no fuel flows
(see Fig. 4(c)). With auto lean selected only half of the larger hole is uncovered, as shown
in Fig. 4 (d), and with auto rich selected, all three holes are uncovered as in Fig. 4(e).

Auto Lean

Auto lean equates to the economical cruise condition of the float chamber carburettor. The
pilot has selected auto lean and only half the large hole in the valve is uncovered. Fuel from
the regulator enters the FCU and passes to the valve, it is then metered by the auto lean jet,
and flows to the discharge nozzle, as shown in Fig. 5 on the next page.
Auto Rich

This selection equates to the rich cruise condition in the float chamber carburettor. The
pilot has selected auto rich, thus uncovering all three holes in the valve. Fuel form the
regulator still passes via the auto lean jet and the hole, but in addition the fuel passes
through the power jet and the auto rich jet to the two smaller holes in the valve. The power
jet, which is much larger than the auto rich jet, has no metering effect on fuel flow at this
stage; the fuel is metered by both the auto rich jet and the auto lean jet, as shown in Fig. 5.

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Power

As power above the auto rich cruise is selected, extra fuel is required to maintain the
correct air/fuel ratio and to enrich the fuel for cooling and thus prevent detonation. Within
the FCU is a diaphragm and spring operated power valve, which is joined to the fuel inlet by
a duct. When the regulated fuel pressure rises due to the power range being selected, the
fuel pressure in the duct rises sufficiently to overcome the spring assisted diaphragm, thus
opening the power valve. Fuel then passes through the power jet via the power valve to the
large hole in the valve which up to now has only the fuel metered by the auto lean jet
passing through it. Eventually at full power, the power valve is fully open and the fuel is
metered by the large power jet.

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Idle

The idle, extra fuel is required to ensure the smooth running of the engine. The regulator is
designed to give more than adequate fuel for idle, so this fuel is metered by the idle plunger
which is connected to this throttle linkage and is only effective for about the first 10° of
throttle opening, after which it is completely withdrawn, and so has no effect on fuel flow.

The Regulator

This consists of five chambers:-

 A - impact pressure,

 B - venturi pressure,

 C - metered fuel pressure

 D - regulated fuel pressure,

 E - pump delivery pressure.

These are shown in Fig. 6 below. As before, chamber A and B constitute the air metering
force, which will end to open the fuel value with any increase in airflow through the
throttle body; note the small air bleed between the two chambers.

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Fuel enters chamber E through a filter and then passes through the fuel valve to chamber D.
At the top of chamber E there is a float operated vapour vent valve, this is fitted to vent any
air in the fuel back to the fuel tank. Any air entering chamber E will rise to the top, causing
the float to descend, opening the valve to allow the vapour to vent to the tank, as the
chamber is refilled with fuel so the float rises and closes the valve.

Chamber D supplies regulated but as yet unmetered fuel to FCU. An idle spring is
incorporated in chamber D to ensure that the fuel valve remains open to supply more than
adequate fuel for idle, which is then metered in the FCU by the idle plunger. Under normal
conditions at idle there is not sufficient pressure drop at the venturi to generate enough air
metering force to hold the valve open, hence the spring, which becomes ineffective above
idle as the valve is moving away from it.

Chamber C samples metered fuel pressure after the FCU, this fuel should remain about the
pressure governed by the discharge nozzle (about 5 psi in most cases). This pressure is fed
to one side of the fuel diaphragm, chamber D pressure being on the other side; these two
pressures are known as the fuel metering force.

Chamber D force is always greater than that for chamber C because of the pressure drop
across the jets in the FCU, so now we have the air metering force tending open the fuel
valve and the fuel metering force tending to close it.

For a given airflow through the throttle body, the air diaphragm will move to open the fuel
valve, which will then increase the fuel pressure in Chamber D, so overcoming the lower
pressure in chamber C. This will tend to close the fuel valve until the fuel metering force
balances the air metering force. In this balanced condition, the fuel valve will be held open
the correct amount to supply regulated fuel to the FCU and the pressure drop across the
jets will supply the correct amount of fuel to the discharge nozzle for the given airflow.

The pressure drop across the air diaphragm will govern the pressure drop across the FCU,
thus the fuel flow is proportional to the airflow for a given throttle opening. Any increase
in airflow as a result of opening the throttle, for example, will result in a greater air
metering force which will open the fuel valve until the pressure drop across the FCU is
equal to the pressure drop across the air diaphragm and the balanced condition is re-
established, but in this case with a higher fuel flow rate. Any variation in pressure in the
discharge line will be compensated for by the movement of the fuel diaphragm under the
influence of chamber C to adjust the regulated fuel pressure from chamber D.
The Throttle Body

The throttle body contains the venturi and the boost venturi, as shown in Fig. 7. The drop
in pressure in the main venturi causes an acceleration of air through the boost venturi, thus
giving a greater pressure drop at the throat of the boost venturi, a greater air metering
force is obtained and ducted to chamber B of the regulator. The air throttle valve controls
the flow of air through the throttle body, and is under the direct control of the pilot’s
throttle power lever.
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An automatic mixture control is mounted on the throttle body which controls the impact
pressure ducted to chamber A of the regulator to compensate for changes in air density.
During a climb for example, when the atmospheric or impact pressure drops, an aneroid
capsule expands forcing a needle into the duct which is sampling impact pressure for
chamber A. So with a drop in air density, the pressure to chamber A is restricted and the
air metering force becomes less, which in turn reduces the opening of the fuel valve of the
regulator, thus reducing the regulated fuel pressure.

An increase in air density causes the bellows to contract, withdrawing the needle, allowing
the fuel impact pressure to chamber A at sea level.

You may have noticed that the airflow is down, whereas all previous diagrams have shown
the airflow up. This is a manufacturer’s choice often dictated by the position of the air
intake for a particular installation; and the two different applications are known simply as
up draught or down draught carburetors.

The discharge nozzle which is mounted downstream of the throttle valve will not open
until sufficient pressure is available (about 5 psi) to overcome the spring assisted
diaphragm; once open it acts as a pressure regulator to maintain approximately the same
pressure with varying degree of opening for the various throttle settings.

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Adjacent to the discharge nozzle is an automatic accelerator pump; this is a simple

diaphragm operated pump. The air pressure downstream of the throttle valve varies
according to the throttle position, being lowest at idle and increasing as the throttle is
opened, this pressure is ducted to the rear of the pump diaphragm where it is assisted by a
spring to move the pump to the bottom of its stroke.

At small throttle openings the fuel discharge pressure is sufficient to overcome the spring
and air pressure, causing the pump to move to the top of its stroke, thus filling the pump
with a charge of fuel, as the throttle is opened so that the air pressure increases. This
higher air pressure plus the spring, then forces the pump to the bottom of its stroke,
discharging the charge of fuel to the discharge nozzle. This extra fuel is sufficient with the
normal metered flow to overcome any temporary weakening of the mixture.

Fig. 8 gives a complete schematic layout of a typical pressure injection carburettor.

ALTERNATIVE METERING SYSTEMS

Fig. 9 is a schematic layout of the pressure injection carburetor of a different manufacturer

from the one already described.
Chambers A and B are impact pressure and venturi pressure, chamber E is fuel pump
pressure and chamber D is regulated fuel pressure. There is an automatic mixture control
between A and B for density compensation, and there is also a manual mixture control
between A and B to select economy cruise and cut-off. When cut-off is selected the manual
mixture control withdraws the needle, making A and B pressures equal. At the same time
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the idle spring, which is in this case is chamber A, is mechanically moved to a position
where it is ineffective, thus the fuel valve closes completely.

The fuel leaves chamber D and passes through the main jet which is a fixed size, and
becomes metered fuel pressure C; from there it passes via the idle and enrichment valve to
the discharge nozzle needle valve, which opens when the fuel pressure has reached a
predetermined level (around 5 psi), and finally to the discharge nozzle where it is mixed
with impact air to assist atomization and vaporization. An automatic accelerator pump,
diaphragm operated, is fitted adjacent to the discharge nozzle needle valve.

The idle/enrichment valve which provides both functions is manually controlled and
spring assisted diaphragm controlled. It consists of a shoulder/parallel needle valve which
is held in position by linkage from the throttle valve to meter the fuel for idle. As the
throttle is opened, the needle is withdrawn, and the valve is withdrawn, the shoulder is
clear of the orifice and the parallel portion meters fuel up to about 65% power, after which
the needle is withdrawn by the action of the diaphragm until at take off the needle is
completely clear of the orifice and the fuel is metered by the main jet.

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Some carburetors have the main jet calibrated for cruise instead of take off; and idle valve
in this case is idle, only withdrawing from the orifice which now meters fuel up to take off.
The extra fuel required above cruise is supplied by the airflow power enrichment valve,
which is located in a fuel duct which bypasses the main jet. It is a diaphragm operated
valve which opens under fuel pressure above cruise and enriches the fuel flowing to the
idle valve orifice.
All the spring assisted diaphragm operated valves except the accelerator pump are
connected to venture pressure, which decreases with increased airflow, thus reducing the
force opposing fuel pressure.

No doubt there are other variations for different carburetors to meet the needs of different
engines, but now you will be able to look for the basics, and probably work out what the
other modifications are for, and how they work.

INJECTION SYSTEM BENDIX RSA TYPE

The first injection system we will deal with is the one similar to the typical pressure
injection carburettor described in Booklet No. 2 and is based on the Bendix RSA injector
system.

The system comprises the following:-

 The air flow section,

 A metering section,

 A regulator section,

 A flow divider,

 The injection nozzles.

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Fig. 1 shows the relationship of the above section to each other.

Air Flow Section

The metering section consists of a block with a duct through it, the main jet is built into the
duct exit. A rotary plate valve is situated on each end of the block. The one at the entrance
to the duct is a manual mixture control which is operated from the cockpit, at the exit end
of the block is the idle fuel flow valve which is operated by the throttle linkage. See Fig. 2.

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Fuel pump pressure fuel enters the metering section and passes through a filter; the filter is
spring loaded to allow unfiltered fuel to flow in the event of filter blockage. The filtered
fuel which is unmetered, passes via the manual mixture control plate valve into the block
where a tapping is taken off to supply the regulator with unmetered fuel. The fuel then
passes thorough the metering jet past the idle plate valve to the regulator section and then
to the flow divider and the injector nozzles. At idle, the idle plate valve partially covers the
metering control controls fuel flow available at metering jet to compensate for altitude
when no automatic mixture control is fitted, it also gives the pilot a economy control.

The manual mixture control is also the fuel cut off, when in the cut off position the mixture
lever is usually fully back, in this case the plate valve covers the fuel inlet to the block thus
preventing metered or unmetered fuel flow. As the mixture lever is moved forward
towards fully rich the plate valve uncovers the inlet to the duct in the block allowing more
fuel to flow to the metering jet. In the fully rich selection the hole which is larger than the
metering jet is fully uncovered and flow through the metering section is then controlled
only by the metering jet.

Regulator Section

This consists of two main sub sections, the air section and the fuel section separated by a
wall, each of these sub sections contains a diaphragm which is attached to the stem of a ball
valve. See Fig. 3.

 Chamber V is connected to venturi pressure.

 Chamber I is connected to impact pressure, which is sampled from the air flow
section.
 Chamber UMF is connected to unmetered fuel pressure.
 Chamber MF is connected to metered fuel pressure, which is sampled from the
metering section.

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An increase in airflow will cause an increase in the I pressure and a decrease in the V
pressure. The diaphragm in the air section will then flex to the left to open the ball valve
allowing more fuel to the flow divider. This will cause the fuel pressure in chamber MF to
drop, the diaphragm will then flex to the right assisted by the pressure in chamber UMF
which is increased by the increase in pump delivery thus tending to close the ball valve. A
sensitive position will be reached when the opening of the ball valve is in the correct
position to give the correct proportion of fuel flow to the airflow for the new throttle
setting. The pressure in chamber MF is the result of the pressure difference across the ball
valve, the nozzles will provide the back pressure via the flow divider at all times except at
idle.

The regulator section air meeting force at the idle airflow condition is insufficient to hold
the ball of its seat and the ball valve will close and the engine will stop. To overcome this
problem a constant head idle spring is fitted between the air diaphragm and the spring
retainer on the end of the ball valve system. This spring holds the ball valve off its seat to
allow a sufficient fuel flow for idle. As the airflow increases the constant head idle spring is
compressed against the spring retainer and it then acts as a solid member. On the other
side of the air diaphragm is another spring known as the constant effort spring, which has a
lighter loading than the idle spring which assists the air diaphragm to react quickly as the
airflow increases from idle.

The Flow Divider

Fig. 4 illustrates a flow divider.

The flow divider consists of a needle type valve attached to a diaphragm which is spring
assisted to the closed position, i.e. down. The spring chamber is vented to atmosphere, and
the needle valve has a central duct, the valve branches into 4 ducts for a 4 cylinder engine
at the right angles to the central duct. See Fig. 4.

Under normal flow conditions these 4 ducts align with the 4 connections in the body of the
flow divider, it is to these connections that the pipes to the nozzles for each cylinder are
attached. The valve is moved up to align the ducts by the fuel pressure entering the flow
divider being routed to the underside of the diaphragm thus flexing the diaphragm up
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overcoming the force of the spring. The valve attached to the diaphragm moves up and fuel
can now flow through the valve to the matched set of nozzles which give equal back
pressure. The metered fuel is apportioned equally to the nozzles, by the flow divider. At
normal flow the valve is fully open and the fuel pressure is controlled by the nozzles but at
low engine speeds and nozzle discharge pressure is low. Under these conditions the valve
will partially close off the flow divider by restricting the valve opening thus providing a
back pressure to divide the fuel that is available equally between each nozzle. At idle cut
off the spring asserts itself against zero fuel pressure and closes off the valve.

A tapping is taken from one delivery line to give nozzle pressure to a cockpit gauge, as the
fuel pressure to the nozzle is directly proportional to fuel flow the gauge may be made to
show PSI or gallons per hour or lbs per hour dependent upon how the gauge face is
graduated.

Injection Nozzles

These are of the air bleed type and there is one for each cylinder. A nozzle consists of a
nozzle body in which there are two ducts separated by a gap which forms the emulsion
chamber as shown in Fig. 5.

Fuel which enters the nozzle from the flow divider passes through the first duct, at the end
of which is a calibrated orifice, it then enters the emulsion chamber where it is mixes with
air. The fuel/air mixture passes through the second duct and exists the nozzle into the
induction manifold just before the inlet valve. Filtered air from the atmosphere enters the
emulsion chamber via a single air bleed hole. A filtered screen surrounds the nozzle and
the filter screen is protected from damage by a metal shield around the nozzle.

NOTE: On installation the hold to the emulsion chamber must be mounted uppermost to
prevent fuel leaking to the hot cylinders on engine shut down.

The nozzles are calibrated to 2% and are interchangeable for a given size, the size code is
usually stamped on the nozzle opposite the air bleed hole. The range of nozzles sizes varies
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for different engines and the manufacturers manual must be checked before changing a
nozzle.

If the engine to which the nozzle is fitted is supercharged or turbo charged then the nozzle
is pressurized by air contained in a casing which surrounds the nozzle. This casing is
connected to the induction manifold which supplies the emulsifying air bleed. This is
necessary otherwise the manifold pressure which is often greater than atmospheric would
cause the fuel to be blown out of the air bleed.

Automatic Mixture Control (AMC)

An AMC may be fitted to this type of injection system. A typical AMC has a bleed between
the two chambers of the air metering force in the regulator which is controlled by an
aneroid operated needle valve. The valve increases the bleed between the impact pressure
chamber and the venturi pressure chamber as air density decreases, thus reducing the air
metering force whish is controlling the ball valve, with a resulting decrease in the fuel flow.

INJECTION SYSTEM TELEDYNE CONTINENTAL TYPE

The fuel injection system we are going to deal with is based on the Teledyne Continental
system, it is quite different from the system already discussed, in that it meters its fuel as a
function of engine speed instead of airflow. The engine driven pump is an essential part of
the system and produces the fuel metering pressure.

Consider Fig. 6, the system consists of:-

 The fuel pump assembly,

 The fuel/air control unit,

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 The fuel manifold valve

 The injection discharge nozzle.

The Fuel Pump Assembly

The fuel is perhaps the most important and complex part of the system, it is essential that it
is well understood. The pump is an engine driven, positive displacement vane type pump
which accepts the fuel under fuel tank booster pump pressure and increases the fuel flow
with a rise in engine speed. The fuel enters the pump assembly via a swirl chamber which
acts to remove any air from the fuel. Fig. 7 is a simplified diagram showing the swirl
chamber position.

As the fuel tends to follow the helical swirl pattern the air bubbles rise to the top of the
chamber and are then vented to the fuel tank. The fuel from the swirl chamber enters the
positive displacement vane type pump and is then pumped to the fuel/air control unit.

A small fuel line is taken from the pump delivery to the top of the swirl chamber where
there is a venturi in the line, one side of which is open to the swirl chamber. As the fuel
passes through the venturi the air is drawn into the venturi from the swirl chamber and is
then passed back to the fuel tank. This ensures that the pump gets neat fuel only (see Fig.
8).

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A bypass from the pump delivery is routed back to the inlet side of the swirl chamber. In
this bypass there is a fixed ‘orifice’ which now makes our pump delivery pressure
proportional to engine speed instead of just flow as was the case before the bypass was
added. See Fig. 9. The size of the orifice determines the unmetered fuel pressure for any
given speed; a smaller orifice would give a higher output pressure and vise versa.

The system that we have dealt with up to this point will work well at speeds from cruise to
full power, but at low speed and at idle the fuel flow is low and the fixed orifice will not
provide enough restriction to maintain a constant output pressure. Therefore a spring
loaded relief valve is fitted in the bypass line between the fixed orifice and the swirl
chamber. This relief valve which is adjustable thus provides the required restriction for
low idle speed and therefore the pump output pressure, the fixed restrictor shown in Fig. 9
having no effect as it is too large. As the engine speed increases the fuel pressure takes the
relief valve fully off its seat and the pressure is then determined only by the fixed orifice.

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See Fig. 10.

A simple plate type non return (NRV) is fitted in the bottom of this swirl chamber as shown
in Fig. 11 on the next page, the line from the NRV joins the fuel pump delivery line to the
fuel/air control unit. The NRV allows fuel under tank booster pump pressure to bypass the
fuel pump to provide fuel for starting or may also be used in the even of main fuel pump
failure. When the engine has started the fuel pump delivery pressure will close the NRV.
See Fig. 11.

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I suggest that now would be a good time for a break. When we start again please reread
from Fig. 6 to Fig. 11 if you are in any doubt about the operation of the fuel pump assembly.

Now study Fig. 12, you should be able to follow this more complex diagram of the fuel
pump.

The Fuel/Air Control Unit

This unit contains the air throttle valve which is controlled by the cockpit lever. The bore
of the air throttle is calibrated to the engine size, there are no other restrictions to the
airflow other than the air throttle valve. Attached to the air throttle is the fuel control unit,
these two components making the fuel/air control unit as shown in Fig. 13.

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The fuel control unit is consists of a metering block or plug which has a precision calibrated
duct passing through it, this duct limits the maximum fuel which can flow to the cylinders
under full throttle, or fully rich conditions. There is a plate valve spring loaded onto each
end of the metering block.

The plate valve at the exit from the metering block is the ‘fuel metering valve’ and
connected by direct linkage to the air throttle valve. As the air throttle valve is opened by
the cockpit lever so the fuel metering valve uncovers more of the exit of the metering block
duct.

A manual mixture control valve is positioned at the entrance to the fuel metering block and
a second duct in the metering block provides for the fuel to be diverted back to the tank.
The mixture control is effected by the valve which has a contoured block exit, the
remainder being diverted back to the tank so acting as a variable selector, which is under
the direct control of the pilot’s mixture control lever. With ‘cut off’ selected all fuel is
diverted back to the tank and none to the engine.

Manifold Fuel Valve

This valve is similar to and provides the same function as the flow divider in the Bendix
RSA system, and is shown in fig. 14.

The valve is attached to a spring loaded diaphragm, the top being vented to atmosphere.
The fuel enters the valve body just below the diaphragm, and the fuel pressure under the
diaphragm lifts the valve allowing the fuel to enter the valve through the upper side ducts
to the central ventrical duct, where the pressure overcomes a spring loaded ball valve to
pass the fuel to the outlet parts in the valve body and thence to the injection nozzles.

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The spring loaded valve ensures a positive cut off the fuel to the injector nozzles on engine
shut down. A fuel pressure gauge line is tapped off the fuel line entering the manifold fuel
valve to give a fuel pressure indication in the cockpit.

The Injection Discharge Nozzle

The nozzles are similar to those previously described for the Bendix system. A nozzle is
shown in Fig. 15.

The fuel enters the nozzle body through a duct and passes to a calibrated orifice, after
which the fuel mixes with the air which enters thorough apertures in the side of the nozzle
body through a filter screen which is protected by a metal shield. The fuel/air mixture then
passes to the injector outlet where it joins the manifold airflow immediately before the
inlet valve.

SUPERCHARGED AND TURBOCHARGED ENGINES

Super or turbo charging causes a few problems for aircraft fuel systems. Acceleration may
result in over fuelling due to turbo lag, in this case the fuel flow increases before the turbo
has built up sufficient air pressure to increase the airflow.

This is overcome by replacing the fixed orifice in the fuel pump assembly with a variable
orifice operated in an aneroid capsule as shown in Fig. 16 on the next page. The evacuated
bellows are subjected to turbo discharge pressure which will only move a needle valve in
an orifice to close the orifice, thus increasing pressure and therefore the fuel flow when
there is sufficient airflow to maintain the correct air fuel ration for a given
Throttle selection.

The other problem relates to the use of nozzles. With turbocharged engines the manifold
air pressure is often higher than atmospheric pressure and in this case the pressurized air
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would tend to blow the fuel out of the nozzle air bleed entrance. To overcome this the
nozzle is shrouded and pressurized either from turbo discharge pressure or from ram air.

Indication Cause Remedy

Engine will not No fuel in tank. Fill fuel tank.
start. Fuel valves Turn on fuel valves.
turned off.
Fuel line plugged. Starting at carburettor
check fuel line back to
tank. Clear obstruction
Defective or stuck Check carburettor for
mixture control. operation of mixture control.
Pressure discharge Replace discharge nozzle
nozzle valve. valve.
diaphragm ruptured.
Primer system Repair primer system.
Inoperative.
Engine starts, Fuel tank vent Clear the vent line.
runs briefly, clogged.
then stops. Fuel strainer Clean fuel strainer.
clogged.
Water in the fuel Drain sump and carburettor
system. float chamber.
Engine fuel pump Replace engine-driven fuel
inoperative or pump.
defective.

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Black smoke Engine mixture Correct the fuel/air

issues from setting too rich. mixture adjustment.
exhaust. Red or Primer system Replace or repair primer
orange flame at leaking. Valve.
night. At idling speed, Adjust or repair primer
idle mixture too
rich.
Float level too Reset carburettor float
high. Level.
Defective Replace pressure
diaphragm in carburettor.
pressure
carburettor.

Table 1

The wing mounted system is shown in Fig. 7; although this type may be found in a nose
mounted engine it still uses the frame method but is bolted to a major part of the airframe,
either the main spar for wings, or in the case of a fuselage mounted engine, the forward
bulkhead.

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In both cases, however, the engine is mounted to the framework by means of flexible
mountings. These are shown in both Figs. 6 and 7.

Although still providing thrust loads from the engine to the airframe, they do dampen out
any vibrations caused by the propellers or any engine running imbalances. It is most
important that these mounts are inspected regularly to ensure that they are not loose or
suffering from problems created by oil contamination. The support frame is normally
attached to the airframe without the use of these vibrations insulators.

As in any combustion engine that produces burnt gas, some method must be provided to
remove these carbon monoxide gases away from the engine and aircraft areas. Therefore
the use and design of exhaust systems is most important.

ENGINE EXHAUST SYSTEMS

Refer to FAA A and P Powerplant Handbook 3-22 to 3-3-26

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CAMSHAFTS

The location of the camshaft is shown in Fig. 2. It is found normally mounted to the
crankcase but will only be found on in-line engines. The radial engine arrangement will be
explained later.

The purpose of the camshaft is to lift the inlet and exhaust valves in the correct sequence
during engine rotation to ensure the correct firing order (Booklet No. 1 refers).

To ensure that this is the case the camshaft is driven by the crankshaft either directly
through gears or by some means of drive train, either belts or chains. A typical camshaft
arrangement is shown in Fig. 9 on the next page.

The camshaft is a straight shaft that has a series of lobes at different angles along the shaft.
As the shaft rotates, each lobe pushed its valve arm connecting rod, thus opening its
respective inlet or exhaust valve. The camshaft will rotate at only half the crankshaft
speed.

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Lubrication results from having the centre of the shaft hollow, allowing oil to lubricate each
lobe through an oil hole drilled in the lobe surface.

CYLINDER COOLING

Now let us move on to consider the types of cooling systems used in the reciprocating
engines. We have already discussed in previous booklets the importance of cooling,
especially relating to cylinder head temperature, i.e. Engines can be categorized by the
method of cooling, i.e.:

 Air cooled engines,

 Liquid cooled engines.

Excessive heat is most undesirable as it can affect the fuel/air mixture and its combustion.
Other factors are the rapid distress of the metallic parts of the engine when subjected to
high temperatures, together with the reduction in the lubricating properties of the oil.

Air Cooled Engines

For this type of engine cooling is achieved by the use of cooling fins that increase the
surface area of the cylinder head presented to the airflow. Additionally, air cooled
cylinders may have deflectors fitted to guide the oncoming air around the cylinders to
ensure that an even cooling airflow is achieved, Fig. 3 on the next page.

The radial engine cylinder arrangement, where all cylinders are exposed to the airflow, is
particularly suited to this type of cooling. Fig. 3 illustrates a two row cylinder arrangement
where the airflow impinges on the cooling fins of all the cylinders. The single row radial
system will have a series of baffles located between the cylinders to force the oncoming
cooling air into the deflectors, see Fig. 4 on eh next page, to ensure that the maximum
benefit is achieved from the cooling airflow.

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Liquid Cooled Engines

Although air cooling is the best method with respect to simplicity and cost, it may be,
however, that it is not the most efficient method, especially if the cylinders are of the in-line
arrangement. With this arrangement, although not exclusive to in-line engines, liquid
cooling may be preferred to air cooling.

Whereas air cooling relies upon the heat being transferred to the oncoming air, the liquid
method uses a liquid to transfer the heat from the cylinders.

The liquid cooled system illustrated in Fig. 5 on the next page has a fluid, usually a mixture
of water and ethylene glycol, circulating around the engine cylinder jackets, pumped by a
gearbox mounted water pump. Water passages are designed to ensure a calibrated feed to
all parts of the engine, so reducing the possibility of hot spots forming.

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Cooling of the liquid is achieved by installing a radiator that is subjected to ram air cooling.
Ethylene glycol, which has a lower freezing and higher boiling point than pure water makes
cold weather operation practicable. It also allows for a higher and therefore more efficient
engine operating temperature. This enables smaller radiators to be used, thus lowering
any drag problems. Cooling is important to the efficient operation of the engine but too
much cooling can have a detrimental effect. Liquid cooled systems may have an adjustable
radiator grill that controls the amount of incoming air to ensure that a correct temperature
is achieved and maintained.

The radial engine cylinder arrangement, which relies upon air cooling, must also have some
means of controlling the air supply. This is simply affected by restricting the air leaving the
engine cowling (Fig. 6 on the next page) through a series of adjustable cowling flaps.

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REASONS FOR LUBRICATION

When any two parts are rubbed together, there is a certain amount of resistance to their
relative movement. The resistance to this movement can cause localized overheating and
even more damaging, a large amount of wear to the moving parts. Other factors may also
have an effect on these conditions, these include:-

 Surface texture,

 Materials,

 Surface loading,

 Speed of operation.

So to summarize, some materials when rubbed together may produce more heat and wear
than others, but in all cases, if allowed to continue, will eventually create so much heat that
the moving parts will eventually cease moving and will be welded together.

The introduction of lubricating oil to an engine will maintain slippery surfaces between the
moving parts, allowing them to slide easily over each other.

However, introducing lubricating oil between the engine’s moving parts does not in fact
remove all frictional forces. The thickness or viscosity of the oil is an important feature, as
any oil that is used will produce a viscous drag. This viscous drag is created by the oil film
adhering to the surface of the moving and stationary parts, so the drag must be sheared
(overcome) to allow movement of these parts to take place.

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Viscosity of an oil is so important when considering reciprocating aero engines, but what is
viscosity and what are its effects?

CONDITION MONITORING

Finally this booklet will consider monitoring of lubricating systems.

The ability to detect impending failure of an engine before it actually happens, can save
enormous amounts of money, man hours and inconvenience.

Condition monitoring is now regarded as a major factor in an aircraft maintenance

organization. The periodic recording of engine parameters by specialized Engineers can
provide valuable information to maintenance personnel, on the health and condition of an
aircraft or an engine.

Other factors can give information on the health of an aero engine, oil sampling is a typical
example.

SPECTROGRAPHIC OIL ANALYSIS PROGRAMME

The programme is based on the fact that metals will produce a pattern of light, that is
unique to that metal when subjected to a spectrographic analyzer. Oil samples are taken
from the engine at periodic times and sent to the laboratory for spectrographic analysis.
The analyzer is designed to identify each particular type of metal that is held in suspension
within the oil.

What must be considered at this point, however, is that all moving parts within the aero
engine will produce very fine metallic dust that cannot be filtered and is held in suspension
in the oil. Under normal conditions this dust is analysed and is accepted as a product of
normal engine wear. The analyzer will detect any metal particles that are greater than the
amount normally experienced, the analyser will also measure the particles during the
analysis program.

The analysis programme is complex and must be conducted by personnel experienced in

the use of the analyser, but a brief description of how the process operates is given here.

The process is possible due to the fact that all metallic atoms and ions will emit
characteristic light spectra when vaporised by a spark. These spectra are unique to each
type of metal, so as long as all metallic materials used in the construction of an engine are
known, the source of any metal particles of a particular material found in the oil can easily
be located within the engine.
If you refer to Fig. 1 below, you can see that the oil sample is picked up on the rim of a
rotating graphite disc electrode.

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A high voltage spark is produced between the electrode and the rotating wheel. The spark,
in fact, burns a small proportion of the oil that has adhered to the rotating disc. The light
from this burning oil is projected from a lens through a slit which is positioned to the
wavelength of the particular metal that is being monitored (see Fig. 2).

Fig. 2
The analyzer is programmed to read various types of metallic material, it will analyse the
different materials that are in the sample oil, and print out a reading of size and amount in
ratio to the oil sample. By using this metal detection process, an operator can detect early
distress long before they are any visible signs.

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LUBRICANTS

If our aero-engine is to operate properly we know that a lubricant is essential. Its main
purpose is to protect the moving parts by:-

 Reducing or preventing friction between them,

 Reducing wear,

 Preventing them from generating so much heat that they seize or weld together.

How does oil lubricate these surfaces?

When a thin layer of oil separates the moving parts, the outer layers adhere to the moving
surfaces and the centre layer is continually torn apart and reformed as movement
continues – the oil is sheared. This shearing produces oil drag or fluid friction, a resistance
to movement that will always be much less than the friction of the two metal surfaces
rubbing together. As long as the oil is present, friction is reduced, contact is avoided and
thus wear and heat penetration is greatly reduced.

Now, before we can study the lubrication process, there are two important points to
consider, which have a relevance to the effectiveness of oil as a lubricant. They are:-

 Viscosity
 Temperature

LUBRICATION

This is the process of maintaining a strong film of oil between close fitting moving surfaces
to keep them apart. The film of oil may be thin but providing it has a suitable viscosity it
will continue to provide this separation. Lubrication is considered to operate in two phases
as shown in Fig. 1 on the next page:-

 Film lubrication,

 Boundary lubrication.

Film Lubrication

Consider Fig. 1 (c), this is the desirable condition and is the phase where a substantial
amount of oil is maintained on the bearing surfaces. This is achieved by using an oil pump
to ensure that there is an oil flow, and to build up a pressure to maintain a good a good film

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of oil between the working parts. The viscosity of the oil has to be such that when hot it
does not drain from the bearings faster than the pump can be replace it.

(a) Shaft stationary and possible metal to metal contact at arrow.

(b) Shaft begins to move. It tends to climb up the bearing, the point of contact
has been moved but now some oil is present and boundary lubrication conditions apply.

(c) Shaft now up to speed and film lubrication exists with an even distribution of oil around bearing.
Can you see how a high bearing load, e.g. during the power stroke, could briefly produce a boundary
lubrication condition?

Fig. 1 PHASES OF LUBRICATION

Boundary Lubrication

Consider the situation shown in Fig. 1 (b), this arises when film lubrication is breaking
down or when mating parts starts to move, for example, on engine starting. It can be
followed by lubrication failure or seizure. A number of factors can bring about this
condition, they include:-

 Excessively high bearing loads,

 Excessively high oil temperatures,

 Oil starvation,

 Loss of oil pressure,

 Oil contamination

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It is a condition which is difficult to prevent and much of the wear of moving parts is caused
before the lubricant is circulating through the oil system. Some oils can resist this
condition for a longer period of time than others. It is one of the reasons why the oils that
are specified for an engine must always be used.

PRESSSURE LUBRICATION

This was introduced when we discussed film lubrication in the previous paragraphs.

All the principal working parts of a modern piston engine are positively lubricated by oil
under pressure. By means of a pump a suitable quantity of oil is continuously forced
between the bearing surfaces of the engine. After passing through the bearings and
spraying around the engine interior it drains to a point where it is ready for re-circulation.

Before we see how that statement works in practice, let me introduce you to the other
functions that oil has to perform while circulating through the engine.

Cooling

Heat is generated within the oil from overcoming fluid friction in the bearings. The oil also
absorbs heat from the components it contacts during its circulation, especially the pistons
and cylinder walls. By using more oil than is needed for lubrication and having a high rate
of circulation, the oil is able to cool down before re-circulation, and thus keep its
temperature to an acceptable level.

Sealing

The oil which reaches the underside of the piston and coats the cylinder walls helps
prevent the leakage and blow-by of pressure from the cylinders.

Cleaning

Over a period of time the oil becomes contaminated with fine particles which are by-
products of combustion and may also be the result of wear. Some of these are held in
suspension, others are carried to where they can be removed form the oil before it
circulates again. This aspect of lubrication is very important to the understanding of
system maintenance and I will deal with it in more detail in Booklet No. 2 of this Study Plan.

Now let’s take a look at the first of the two pressurized lubrication systems which concern
us.

WET SUMP SYSTEM

The wet sump system is common to most applications of piston engines and is used in a
large number of light aero-engines. Basically it works as follows:-
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An engine driven pump draws oil from a sump at the bottom of the engine and delivers it
under pressure through a filter to the oil circuit. This circuit is the route of the oil through
the engine to the bearings and the valve operating gear. After lubricating the rest of the
engine by splash and spray as it escapes from the bearings, the oil drains down to the sump
ready for re-circulation (Fig. 2 on the next page).

To protect the system from excess pressure a relief valve is fitted on the outlet side of the
pump. In addition, a sensing device is fitted in this line to indicate that the oil pressure is
within the limits prescribed for the engine.

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Let us now consider the components of the system in some detail.

Crankcase Sump

This can be an integral part of the crankcase or, more often a metal pressing or light alloy
casting attached directly to the bottom of the crankcase. It acts as the oil reservoir for the
system. The size of the sump, and thus the quantity of oil it can hold, is a compromise
between having too much so that engine warm-up is hindered and having too little so that
the oil is contaminated quickly. The sump allows entrapped air to escape from the oil and
it is sufficient depth for water and other contaminants to settle at the bottom. If some
cooling assistance is required for the oil, the sump exterior is finned and slipstream air is
passed over it. A specified level of oil is required to be maintained in the sump and this is
most usually checked before flight by means of a dipstick. For maintenance purposes, a
drain plug is fitted at the lowest point of the sump.

Oil Pump

Driven by the engine, the pump or its inlet pipe is submerged in the oil. Usually a
protective gauze screen is fitted over the inlet to prevent foreign matter being drawn in. I
have described the pump and its operation in the dry sump system, which will follow
water.

Pressure Relief Valve

This is a simple spring loaded valve which is set to ‘relieve’ at a predetermined pressure. It
protects the pump, its drive and the rest of the system form increases in resistance to oil
flow which occur for reasons I’ll explain in a later booklet. It can be fitted in the pump
casing or in the crankcase near to the pump.

Oil Filter

Before a pump’s output can be circulated to the various parts of the engine, it must be
subjected to a much finer degree of filtration than is required for the inlet. In Booklet No. 2
we’ll discuss the different types of filter that you may meet.

Oil Circuit

After filtering, the oil is supplied via a duct (gallery) in the crankcase to the main journal
bearings. It reaches the crankpins via drillings down the crankweb then out to lubricate the
connecting rod big end bearings and from there sprays and splashes onto the underside of
the pistons, the gudgeon pins and the cylinder walls. Tappings from the journal supplies
take oil to the camshaft bearings, the rocker assemblies, hydraulic tappets if fitted and
frequently to auxiliary drives. Finally, all the oil gravitates to the sump.

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Pressure Sensing

It is normal practice to have a gauge connected to the outlet side of the oil pump. It
indicates the actual pressure in the duct or gallery taking the oil the main journals. You will
know now that the pressure relief valve ensures that a maximum pressure is not exceeded.
It is just as important for the safe operation of an engine for the operator to recognize when
the pressure is too low.

DRY SUMP SYSTEM

Before we investigate this system, let’s find out why it is the more common method of aero-
engine lubrication. Because we are usually dealing with high powered, heat generating
engines that have freedom of movement in three dimensions, the wet sump system fails us
on the following counts:

 Oil supply is limited by sump capacity,

 Provisions for oil cooling are difficult to arrange,

 Oil temperatures are usually higher because the oil is continuously subjected to
engine heat.

 Manoeuvers and inverted flying cause the oil supply to flood the engine.

These disadvantages are largely overcome by the dry sump system, a typical layout of
which is shown in Fig. 3 on the next page.

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The actual lubrication of the engine in this system is the same as the wet sump. The main
differences between the two systems are:

 The sump is smaller in volume and is continuously emptied by a second pump

which is known as the scavenge pump.

 The oil is contained in a separate tank.

 An oil cooler is in circuit between the scavenge pump and the tank.

Before we consider the components of the system and look at them in some detail, I must
point out that we are dealing with a total system which incorporates all the components
which might be found in a large installation. With experience, and contact with a variety of

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engines, you will find that the power and duties of an engine decides on how many of the
components the manufacturer considers to be necessary.

OIL TANK

This is usually fitted to the airframe behind the fireproof bulkhead in a position which will
give a gravity feed to the pressure pump inlet. This is because spur gear pumps are not
very effective in suction and therefore require the inlet line to be full of oil when the engine
is at rest.

In the design of the tank the position of the filter neck determines the amount of oil it can
hold. This is the quantity which is required for full circulation and maximum possible
consumption. An airspace is always provided above the oil to cater for the following:

 The increased return flow of the accumulated drain oil in the sump that occurs
during engine starting.

 Expansion of oil with temperature increase.

 Frothing due to aeration.

 Variable pitch propeller oil displacement – this will be dealt with in Booklet No. 4 of
this Study Plan.

OIL TANK COMPONENTS

There are design features of oil tanks with which you should be familiar and these are
shown in Fig. 4.

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Oil Contents

Different methods are employed for indicating the contents of the tank:

 A graduated dipstick attached either to the screw-on filler cap or a separate cap.

 A visual oil level indicator – sight glass.

 An electrical indicating system.

Vent

The tank must be vented to atmosphere to allow for the pressure changes which can arise
from variations in oil level and changes in altitude. Usually it is connected to the engine
crankcase thus preventing loss of oil through the vent. The crankcase has its own breather
which incorporates some sort of oil trap.

Hot Pot

After a cold engine start, bringing a tank full of oil up to operating temperature could take a
long time. By having a separate compartment, the hot-spot in the tank, which is in the
direct path of the oil circulation, only a small portion of the oil, about 10%, circulates
through the engine. This oil quickly reaches operating temperature and a rapid warm-up is
achieved. The remainder of the oil is gradually warmed as running continues.

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Stack Pipe

By having the suction pipe inlet projecting above the floor of the tank and often
surrounding it with a gauze filer, the circulation of sludge or water may be trapped in the
tank will be prevented.

De-Aerator

Because the scavenge pump has a greater capacity than the circulating pump, air is always
present in the return oil and this produces a froth. If this were to be passed on to the
engine the pump would not maintain a full flow and the bearings could be partially starved
of oil. To reduce the froth to a liquid the return oil is discharged on to a surface, the de-
aerator, where it spreads and allows the air bubbles to readily escape.

Where no de-aerator is fitted, it is usually because the oil volume and circulation rate are
such that air has time to escape from the returning oil before it is recirculated.

ENGINE DRIVEN PUMPS

Both pressure and scavenge pumps are of the spur gear type as shown in Fig. 5:

Two meshing gears of equal diameter are housed in a close fitting chamber with one of the
gears driven by the engine. When the gears are rotated, oil entering the pump through the
inlet port becomes trapped between the teeth of the gears and the wall of the chamber and
is then carried round to be discharged through the outlet port. The meshing teeth prevent
oil escaping to the inlet side of the pump. As with the wet sump system, output pressure is
indicated on a cockpit gauge.

The capacity of the pump, i.e. its output in litres/hour, depends on gear size, which is fixed,
and rotational speed, which is fixed, and rotational speed, which varies. At idling speed for

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example, the output would be much less than at cruise or take-off speeds. The scavenge
pump, which rotates at the same speed as the pressure pump, has larger gears and
therefore a larger capacity. This means that it takes oil from the sump faster than the
pressure pump can fill it, hence the name ‘dry sump’.

Quite often, both pumps are in a common housing with the scavenge gears on the same
shafts as those of the pressure pump, but with a wall between them so as to provide two
separate chambers. To get the greater capacity, the scavenge pump gears while being of
the same diameter, are longer than those pressure pump.

OIL COOLER

Provided to dissipate the excess heat absorbed by the oil in its passage through the engine
and to control its temperature. It consists of an assembly of tubes in a casing, having their
ends expanded and sealed together, thus leaving spaces between the tube walls for most of
their length. This core, or matrix as it is called, is arranged so that the hot oil passes
between the outer surfaces of the tubes. Heat is transferred from the oil to and through the
tube walls and is conducted away by air being forced through the tubes. The cooler may be
at the front or rear of the engine with apertures for ducting arranged to ensure a cooling air
flow through it.

ANTI-DRAIN VALVE

You will recall that the oil tank can be fitted in such a position that it gives a gravity feed to
the engine. To avoid oil draining from the tank and possibly flooding the engine when it is
at rest, a non-return valve (check valve) is fitted just after the pressure pump. It is a spring
loaded valve, which is strong enough to resist the head of oil in the tank.

The plate moves off its seat as the pressure pump begins to operate and allows an
unrestricted flow of oil to the engines.

OIL TEMPERATURE SENSING

Overheated oil loses both its viscosity and lubricating properties. It is important to know
when the oil is reaching the manufacturer’s temperature limitations and be ready to take
steps to correct the situation.

A temperature sensitive bulb is fitted in the oil route between tank and pump inlet. This
bulb is connected to a gauge in the cockpit and enables the engine operator to monitor the
oil temperature. Wet sump aero-engine systems are similarly fitted.

OIL COOLING

Oil cooling is a method by which the oil is cooled to maintain the oil temperature to the
limits laid down by the engine manufacturer. It ensures that the viscosity of the oil is

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maintained at the required level to produce adequate lubrication. Oil cooling can be
achieved in two ways:-

 Ram air cooling,

 Fuel cooling.

Ram air cooling is the most effective for piston engines. This is because a continual supply
of cooling air is available during flight. Fuel oil cooling, on the other hand, relies upon a
continuous supply of fuel through the cooler; such a system is not generally found on
piston engine installations.

The location of the oil cooler within the lubrication system can differ. In Fig. 1 on the next
page, the wet sump arrangement is shown with the cooler in the supply line to the engine
from the oil pump, while in Fig. 2, also on the next page, the dry sump method, the oil
cooler is arranged in the return line to the oil tank. However, in both configurations the oil
is providing the same function.

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Fig. 2 DRY SUMP COOLER SYSTEM

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The amount of ram air cooling can be regulated by one of the following methods:-

 Regulating the flow through the cooler to ensure that an even temperature is
maintained.

 Regulating the ram air supply going through the air portion of the cooler.

In practice, however, both methods are usually adopted.

Oil Cooler

A typical oil cooler assembly consists of a series of hollow tubes that make up the core of
the cooler. The tubes are supported within a double walled shell. The purpose of the
double walled arrangement will be explained shortly. Oil is allowed to flow around the
tubes, whilst ram air passes through the tubes. This allows for cooling of the oil as it passes
around the cooling air tubes.

Incorporated into the oil cooler assembly are two components that control the flow of oil
through the cooler. One component is the temperature regulating valve, and the other is a
bypass valve. An explanation of both functions can be demonstrated in Fig. 3 below.

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Fig. 3 shows three modes of operation of the oil cooler:-

 Bypass mode,

 Non-cooling flow mode,

 Cooling flow mode.

By pass Flow (Fig. 3 (a))

In this condition we have to assume that the viscosity of the oil is so high that extreme
pressure has been created in the oil system. A typical case is operation in extremely cold
conditions.

If the oil cooler becomes flocked, a large back pressure may be built up in the oil passages,
leading to the cooler damage.

With a high pressure condition, valve (1), the bypass valve, will lift off its seat and allow oil
to bypass the cooler by taking the path of least resistance. This pressure will be felt at
valve (2) and keep the valve closed. Oil then passes onto the oil system, thus protecting oil
cooler from damage.

Non-Cooling Flow (Fig. 3 (b))

Before considering this flow, a word must be said about the temperature regulator (3). The
regulator contains an expansion element within the assembly that reacts to temperature.
As the temperature increases, the bellows extend and vise versa. Therefore by considering
the non-cooling flow, the oil is at the correct operating temperature, and is again taking the
path of least resistance by going past the open regulator, allowing no oil to pass around the
cooling tubes.

Cooling Flow (Fig. 3 ( c))

As the temperature of the oil increases, the bellows will extend under the action of the
servicing element in the bellows. This movement of the bellows closes off the oil flow, and
forces the oil through the cooling elements of the oil regulating valve which in turn
regulates the flow of oil through the cooling part of the oil cooler.

In some installations a flap arrangement is used to control the incoming ram airflow
through the cooler. This flap can be controlled by the aircrew when desired.

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OIL FILTRATION AND FILTER ASSEMBLIES

A secondary function of the oil is to cleanse the engine’s internal parts to ensure that any
contaminations are removed from the oil systems. Typical examples of contaminations
are:-

 Rust particles,

 Dust,

 Carbon deposits,

 Metallic material from moving internal parts.

The simplest way to remove these contaminations is by changing the oil. However, this can
be a costly exercise, so some means of removing the particles is desired; filtration is the
best method. If left unattended, contamination of the oil could lead to failure of the
lubrication system, by causing blocked oil ways, blocking oil jets and reducing the close
tolerance clearances in such components as ball and roller bearings and shells.

Contamination of the oil is not only attributed to foreign particles, but can also be caused
during normal use. Apart from carrying particles in suspension in the oil, two important
chemical changes take place during its travel around the engine. Firstly oxidation, which
occurs due to the mixing of the oil with corrosive lead salts produced by combustion.
Secondly, the chemical reaction of water vapour condensing inside the engine and then
being mixed with the oil.

Neither of these effects can be filtered out of the system; they can only be removed by
regular oil changes.

Oil filter assemblies are designed in many shapes and forms the most suitable design being
decided by the system requirements. A typical example of a basic oil filter assembly is
shown in Fig. 4 below.

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Note that in Fig. 4 the filter is located downstream, on the pressure side of the pump, this is
to ensure that the oil is forced through the filter.

Filter elements are normally manufactured from fabric or paper and are usually reinforced
by a wire mesh type arrangement.

The oil flows through the filter element and past the open check valve assembly. During
this stage a slight pressure drop occurs across the filter element, but this is not considered
harmful to the system.

However, as contaminants build up on the outer wall of the filter element, the restriction of
flow through the element is reduced, causing a back pressure effect at the bypass valve.

At a predetermined setting the bypass valve opens and allows unfiltered fluid through to
the lubrication system. This pressure is felt on top of the check valve and closes the valve,
preventing fluid going into the interior of the filter. This action prevents an idling circuit
being created and reduces the possibility of contaminants being forced back through the
bypass valve.

At regular intervals, laid down in the servicing schedule, the oil filter element should be
removed and inspected. It is wise at this stage to replace this filter element after cleaning
out the filter bowl. In inspection should be carried out on any particles found in the bowl,

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and a fuller investigation carried out on the engine if large deposits of metal particles are
found.

There are special oil analysis programmes available that can determine the type of
contaminants held in suspension within the oil and also the material from which the
particles are made. Such a program will be covered in another booklet in this Study Plan.

Although we have discussed the screen type systems here, it is a very common and
effective method of filtration. However, in most cases, especially the wet sump
arrangement, the oil gear pump must also be protected from any contaminants that may
cause the pump to seize.

To protect the oil pump from this condition, a metal screen or strainer is fitted over the oil
pump inlet in the oil sump. This screen retains any large particles that may cause damage
to the pump (see Fig. 1).

The degree of filtration is not as great as the filter element method, as its only purpose is to
retain large particles.

OIL DILUTION SYSTEMS

The object of oil dilution is to facilitate the starting of piston engines in cold weather. Fuel
is added to the oil to reduce the viscosity; this reduces the torque necessary to turn the
engine and ensures, immediately after the start, an adequate supply of lubricant to all
moving parts at approximately normal working pressure. The reduced viscosity also
minimizes the risk of bursting flexible pipes, couplings and oil coolers when starting.

If carried out regularly irrespective of the atmospheric temperature prevailing, oil dilution
also minimizes the accumulation of sludge deposit within the engine.

If we consider the schematic diagram illustrated in Fig. 4 on the next page, we can see that
a pipe is connected from the pressure delivery side of the fuel pump and connected to an
oil dilution solenoid valve.

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A metered supply of fuel is directed from the outlet side of the solenoid valve and mixed
with the oil supply going to the engine. The solenoid valve is operated by a switch in the
cockpit.

The oil dilution valve illustrated in Fig. 5 on the next page is shown in the de-energised
condition, when the spring holds the ball against the metering orifice. When the solenoid is
energized, the spring loading is removed form the ball and fuel pressure moves the ball off
its seat, allowing a supply of fuel to pass through the metering met, to the oil system.

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PRECAUTIONS WHEN OIL DILUTING

One of the most obvious precautions when introducing fuel into the oil system during oil
dilution operations is the level of oil in the oil tank. Therefore, the oil level should be
reduced to compensate for the addition of the fuel. Maintenance Manual information will
give the necessary details.

If it has been decided that oil dilution has to be implemented, then the following general
guidelines should be observed:

 The engine should be started in the normal manner unless otherwise

recommended.

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 Before opening up, the engine must be warmed up for long enough to ensure that
some of the fuel is boiled off. If this is not done there is danger of frothing and
much of the oil may be blown out through the engine breathers.

 The partial boiling off period depends on the installation and the time for which the
oil has been diluted.

 The engine should be run at the specified rpm and for the period recommended in
the Maintenance Manual or Operations Manual.

In no case should any engine be opened up to a high power setting until the oil
temperature, as well as the coolant temperature on liquid cooled engines, reaches at lest
the minimum permitted or take off, and until the oil pressure is normal.

If the oil pressure does not start to build up immediately the engine is started, or the
pressure falls during the boil off run, the engine should be stopped. Insufficient oil pressure
may be due to cold undiluted oil having found its way into the oil pump suction line, due to
too low an oil level prior to dilution, or possibly to a leaking dilution valve. After
completion of the normal engine checks and any necessary boiling off period, the engine
should be stopped if necessary, the oil tanks topped up to the required level for flight and
the engine restarted without delay.

Improper use of the oil dilution system will result in the excess fuel flowing into the oil,
preventing effective boiling off. Excessive loss through the engine breathers may then
result.

The engine should be warmed up for the recommended boiling off period, and then, during
the normal ground checks, careful observation should be made to ensure that no loss of oil
through the engine breathers is apparent. If it is known or suspected that the oil has been
over diluted, a further check that no breather loss occurs at take off power is essential.

Engineering personnel conducting ground running operations should be familiar with the
location of the breather outlets or drains.

Period of Effectiveness

Dilution should remain effective for at least two or three days during the cold weather,
providing the engine is not run up.

If the engine is run up for ground servicing purposes only, further oil dilution, if still
required, should not be carried out until the engine has been run for the required period to
boil off any remaining dilutant. Exact times for the complete elimination of dilutant
depend, among other factors, on the oil temperatures during the run, and cannot be quoted
for all cases.

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When no time is quoted a period of 20 mins at no less than the recommended rpm should
ensure that all dilutant has been boiled off; an excessive cumulative percentage of dilution
may result if this is not done. After all dilutant has been boiled off, the appropriate full
dilution should be carried out.

PRESSURE CONTROL

The simplest form of pressure control uses a pressure relief valve, such as the illustrated in
Fig. 1 below.

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PRESSURE RELEF VALVE

The pressure relief valve shown in Fig. 1 has a spring loaded plunger that keeps the poppet
valve on it seat during normal operating conditions. The spring tension is adjusted by the
adjustment screw to a predetermined pressure. When held on its seat the flow seat and
flow of oil is directed past the poppet to the engine.

When the oil pressure is greater than the spring pressure the poppet valve is pushed off its
seat by the oil pressure. The oil then flows past the valve back to the oil pump inlet. As the
oil system pressure drops below the valve of the spring, the valve closes and normal supply
is returned.

This type of relief valve has a number of disadvantages, for example it is only designed to
relieve a maximum oil pressure and not to act as a pressure regulator. As the valve opens
to relieve oil pressure, there is normally an instant drop in system pressure; the pressure
then rises again and the oil is returned to the pump. This causes the poppet valve to slam
back on its seat, aided by the spring. If the relief is set too low, then the valve would chatter
(constantly opening and closing) and damage to the valve could result. The valve tensions
are calibrated by an overhaul agency and should never be adjusted during normal
operations.

PRESSURE REGULTOR

Some pressure control systems regulate the oil pressure in the system, irrespective of the
pump output. The pressure regulator in this case serves two purposes within the
lubricating system:-

 It off loads the system during high pressure condition (cold day – thick oil),

 It regulates the system to a maximum pressure once the oil has warmed up.

An example on an oil pressure regulator is illustrated in Fig. 2 on the next page.

In this example of a pressure regulator there are three main components:-

 A series of springs set at a tension equal to the maximum working systems pressure,

 A pressure relief valve (A),

 A spring adjuster.

Under normal operating conditions, the springs hold valve A on its seat.

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Note the sensing line going into cavity A, this senses the system pressure. When the system
pressure exceeds the value of the springs, sense oil is moves the piston B to the right.
Because valve A is attached to this piston, the oil pressure is allowed to flow past valve A
back to the inlet of the oil pump. This action causes a drop in sense pressure and when it
becomes less that the spring pressure value, it allows valve A to close, stopping the idling
circuit, and causing normal operation to resume.

In this note, the regulator controls the oil pressure in the system during the normal high
temperature operations.

The regulator will off load high oil pressures caused by thick viscosity oil during start up in
cold conditions. The high pressure is felt at valve A and pushes it off its seat allowing
excess oil pressure to again return to the inlet of the pump.
System maximum pressure can be controlled by the adjuster screw that alters the tension
of the spring acting on valve A.

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Information on adjustment procedures will be found in Chapter 79 (Oil) of the Maintenance

Manual.

Consider the cavity drain line shown in Fig. 2. Any oil leaking past the seal of the piston
will seep into the regulator body. In the absence of a cavity drain, the regulator body could
fill with oil and cause a hydraulic lock. Periodic checks of the cavity drain line will ensure
the integrity of the regulator.

LUBRICATION SUPPLY – OIL DISTRIBUTION

Oil distribution within the reciprocating engine is achieved in three ways:

 Pressure supply,

 Splash,

 A combination of both splash and pressure.

Of the three methods listed above, the third is the most commonly used.

It is essential that certain parts of the engine be supplied with high pressure oil to ensure
that adequate lubrication is achieved, crankshafts and big end bearings being typical
examples. Engine cylinder walls receive a splash supply of oil to ensure adequate
lubrication of the pistons within the cylinders. Therefore, most engines use a combination
of both splash and pressure supply.

Other distinct advantages of using pressure supply are:

 Satisfactory lubrication at all altitudes and altitudes of flight. Splash supply could
not provide adequate lubrication at varying attitudes.

 The pump output ensures more than adequate supply of oil to bearings and
crankshafts. In most cases the pump output is greater than the lubricating
requirement, so a great supply of oil is provided; hence a greater cooling ability is
achieved.

Fig. 4 on the next page is an illustration of the lubrication system of a typical reciprocating
engine. The diagram shows the lubrication flow and component location within a wet
sump lubricating system.

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The lubrication system illustrated in Fig. 4 is a combination of pressure and splash supply.
The main bearings, connecting rod bearings, camshaft bearings, valve tappets and push
rods are lubricated by positive pressure. The pistons, piston pins, cams, cylinder walls,
valve rockers, valve stems and other internal moving parts are lubricated by oil spray.

Oil under pressure from the oil pump is fed through drilled crankshaft passages which
supply oil to the crankshaft main bearings and camshaft hearings. Connecting rod bearings
are pressure lubricated through internal passages in the crankshaft. Valve mechanisms are
lubricated through the hollow push rods, which are supplied with oil from the crankcase oil
passages (see Fig. 5 below).

Issue:1, Rev.:0 Piston Engines Sept 02, 2019 155

Art Williams and Harry Wendt Aeronautical Engineering School

Cylinder walls and piston pins are spray lubricated by oil escaping from the connecting rod
bearings. A pressure relief valve is installed to maintain the correct oil pressure at higher
engine speeds. Fig. 6 below shows the splash lubricating areas.

Once the oil has lubricated its designated parts, it falls to the lower sump region. In the
case of the wet sump system, the oil is then picked up by the supply pump and then the
process starts all over again. In the dry sump arrangement a scavenge pump in the sump
pumps the used oil back to the oil tank.

Hoses and pipelines used in lubricating systems are basically the same as those used in the
aircraft hydraulic systems; information on aircraft pipelines can be found in Module No. 2,
Study Plan No. 5.

As all reciprocating engines will have internal passageways, some small and some large,
cleanliness is essential to prevent blockage by carbon or dirt particles. Remember, in most
cases the oil jet orifices and oil internal passages are of a calibrated size to ensure even
distribution of the pressurized oil. Any blockage may cause a reduction in the oil supply to
parts of the engine and cause premature failure of bearings or crankshafts. The
replacement of engine oil and filters at the engine hours recommend by the manufacturer
is essential to the long life of the engine.

Issue:1, Rev.:0 Piston Engines Sept 02, 2019 156

Art Williams and Harry Wendt Aeronautical Engineering School

Supercharging/Turbocharging
Refer to FAA a and P Powerplant handbook chapter 3-2 to 3-17

Piston engine installation

Refer to FAA a and P Powerplant handbook chapter 8-2 to 8-16

Issue:1, Rev.:0 Piston Engines Sept 02, 2019 157

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