Introduction

This book is designed to revise and consolidate grammar points at the level of
Council of Europe Framework (CEFR) B2, reflecting contemporary international
business for people already working and for students who have not yet worked
in business. It assumes that the basic points have been covered.

The practise material includes a wide range of business topics to reflect both
everyday language use and work language use. Many learners are likely to use
English to learn other subjects during their education and the vocabulary and
topics try to reflect this fact. Some texts contain information which learners
should find interesting or challenging. The intention in general is that language
should have a familiar context and that learners should use it for business
purposes.

The final section at the back of the book offers some extra information for those
students who feel that they need more support. It can be used as a means of
improving their study at home.

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Contents

Unit 1

PRESENT SIMPLE ........................................................................................................................... 4

PRESENT CONTINUOUS ................................................................................................................. 8
PRESENT PERFECT CONTINUOUS ................................................................................................ 12
PAST SIMPLE ................................................................................................................................ 15
PAST CONTINUOUS ..................................................................................................................... 18
PAST PERFECT SIMPLE ................................................................................................................. 20
FUTURE SIMPLE: WILL ................................................................................................................. 23
FUTURE SIMPLE: BE GOING TO ................................................................................................... 24
ADVERBS...................................................................................................................................... 32
CONNECTORS .............................................................................................................................. 37
COMPARATIVES & SUPERLATIVES ............................................................................................... 40
PREPOSITIONS ............................................................................................................................. 44
PHRASAL VERBS........................................................................................................................... 51
CONDITIONALS ............................................................................................................................ 55
MIXED CONDITIONALS ................................................................................................................ 60
MODAL VERBS ............................................................................................................................. 62
REPORTED SPEECH ...................................................................................................................... 67
RELATIVE CLAUSES ...................................................................................................................... 74
PASSIVES...................................................................................................................................... 77
INTENSIFIERS: So, such, too, enough .......................................................................................... 81
QUESTION TAGS .......................................................................................................................... 85
IRREGULAR VERBS ....................................................................................................................... 87
PRONUNCIATION......................................................................................................................... 92
PRONOUNS.................................................................................................................................. 95
SPELLING RULES OF VERBS ENDING IN -ing ................................................................................ 96
BIBLIOGRAPHY............................................................................................................................. 98

3
PRESENT SIMPLE

STRUCTURE: base form of verb + -s in 3rd person singular

• Use present simple for things that are always true or happen regularly.

• Remember the spelling rules.

• Use ASI (Auxiliary + Subject + Infinitive) or QUASI (Question word +

Auxiliary + Subject + Infinitive) to help you with word order in questions.

• Put the adverbs of frequency before the main verb and after be: We

always meet at 9 o’clock.

• Frequency expressions like every day usually go at the end of the

sentence: We speak on the phone every day.

In the 3rd person singular (he, she, it) we add an -s at the end of the verb, e.g.

eats, lives, sings.

We use the auxiliary do/does in negative and interrogative statements.

• Affirmative: Subject + infinitive verb

• Negative: Subject + do not/does not + infinitive verb

4
 • Interrogative: Do/Does + subject + infinitive verb

SPELLING RULES

Normally, in present simple tense we add -s at the end of the verb in the 3rd

person singular (he, she, it), but there are some special cases:

• If the verb ends in -ss, -x, -ch, -sh or the letter o, we add -es, e.g.

o Kiss → kisses

o Watch → watches

o Crash → crashes

o Go → goes

• If the verb ends in a consonant + -y, we remove the “y” and add -ies, e.g.

o Carry → carries

o Study → studies

AFFIRMATIVE NEGATIVE INTERROGATIVE

I work don’t work Do I work?
You work don’t work Do you work?
He/She/It works doesn’t work Does he/she/it work?
We work don’t work Do we work?
You work don’t work Do you work?
They work don’t work Do they work?

EXERCISES

1- Complete the sentences with the present simple form of the verbs in
brackets.

a) She _______________ (go) to the gym four times a week.

b) _______________ you usually _______________ (get up) late?

5
 c) They _______________ usually _______________ (not have) a big meal in

the evening.

d) I _______________ (love) going out to restaurants.

e) She _______________ (not buy) low fat products very often.

f) I _______________ (feel) guilty when I don’t do my report.

g) He _______________ (read) every night before going to bed.

2- Correct the mistakes in the highlighted phrases. Tick ✓ the correct sentences.

a) He doesn’t have the car for this weekend.

_________________________________________________

b) I am loving eating out but it’s very expensive.

_________________________________________________

c) Do you recognize the man in that photo? It’s our old maths teacher.
_________________________________________________

d) Nowadays people don’t mind paying more for healthy food.

_________________________________________________

e) I’m sorry, I don’t understand. What does this word meaning?

_________________________________________________

f) I’m not sure if we’re going skiing this weekend. It’s depending on the
weather.
_________________________________________________

g) I think that people today eat too much unhealthy food.

_________________________________________________

6
ATTENTION!
Verb “to be”:

AFFIRMATIVE NEGATIVE INTERROGATIVE

I am am not Am I….?
You are aren’t Are you…?
He/She/It is isn’t Is he/she/it…?
We are aren’t Are we…?
You are aren’t Are you…?
They are aren’t Are they…?

Verb “to have”:

AFFIRMATIVE NEGATIVE INTERROGATIVE

I have haven’t Have I…?
You have haven’t Have you…?
He/She/It has hasn’t Has he/she/it…?
We have haven’t Have we…?
You have haven’t Have you…?
They have haven’t Have they…?

7
PRESENT CONTINUOUS

STRUCTURE: to be + verb -ing

• Use the present continuous for actions in progress at the time of speaking

or for future arrangements (near future): I’m waiting for a friend.

• Remember the spelling rules: living, studying, getting…

AFFIRMATIVE NEGATIVE INTERROGATIVE

I am working am not working Am I working?
You are working aren’t working Are you working?
He/She/It is working isn’t working Is he/she/it working?
We are working aren’t working Are we working?
You are working aren’t working Are you working?
They are working aren’t working Are they working?

EXERCISES

1- Complete the sentences with the present continuous form of the verbs in
brackets.

a) Emma _______________ (play) the guitar at this moment, try to call her

later, please.

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 b) I _______________ (think) about going out tonight. What do you think?

c) She _______________ (read) a really good book.

d) Lots of students _______________ (try) to postpone the exam date.

e) Our boss _______________ (have) a meeting right now.

f) I _______________ (write) my report. Please, don’t be noisy.

g) He _______________ (sing) my favourite song.

2- Chose the correct alternative (present simple or present continuous) in

these sentences:

a) Today she’s spending/spends time with her granny.

b) They usually are going/go to the gym on Sundays.

c) We’re having/have a barbecue later on. Do you want to come?

d) They sometimes fly/are flying to Sweden, but usually they are going/go

by boat.

e) He always brings/is bringing a monolingual dictionary to his English class.

Present simple or continuous?

Sometimes, the choice between simple and continuous is part of the attitude of

the writer or speaker, especially in explanations and descriptions of situations.

• Julie lives in London. → Permanent situation

• Julie is living in London for a few months. → Temporary situation

STATE AND ACTION VERBS

Some verbs have meaning which refer to states or conditions, and others have

meaning which refer to actions. State verbs are either only used in simple form

or have a different meaning when used in continuous form.

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STATE VERBS NORMALLY IN PRESENT SIMPLE

• Belong, consist of, contain, cost1, depend on, deserve, matter, own,

possess, resemble.

• Believe, imagine, know, prefer, realize2, understand**, mean.

• Seem.

VERBS WITH STATE AND ACTION MEANINGS

STATE ACTION
Do What do you do? What are you doing?
Be, have This house is over 5 years He is being very silly.
old.
Imagine, I imagine you feel the same. You’re imagining things!
Suppose, think,
expect
Hope, wonder I hope you haven’t been We’re hoping to continue the
waiting long. talks next week.
Enjoy, like, love I love going out for long I’m loving every minute of my
walks. new job!
Appear Your visa appears to be out Sarah is appearing in Hamlet
of date. at the Grand Theatre.
Look Jim looks ill. Helen is looking well.
See, hear I see you’ve had your hair Jane is seeing Harry.
cut.
Feel, see, smell, The room smells awful! I’m smelling the flowers!
taste
Ache, feel, hurt My foot hurts. My foot is hurting.
Weight, This bag weights more than I’m weighing the parcel
measure 20 kilos. before I post it.

1
Cost is sometimes used in continuous to describe a process that is still going on.
2
**Realize, regret and understand are normally used with state meaning in present simple, but
can be used in continuous to show a changing situation, usually with an adverbial which shows
that change is happening.

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PRESENT PERFECT SIMPLE

STRUCTURE: subject + have / has + past participle

• Use the present perfect simple when there is a connection between the

past and the present.

• Something that started in the past and continues to the present:

They’ve worked in the same company for nearly fifty years.

• An experience up to the present (especially when we are talking about

our lives): It’s the best present I’ve ever received.

AFFIRMATIVE NEGATIVE INTERROGATIVE

I have worked haven’t worked Have I worked…?
You have worked haven’t worked Have you worked…?
He/She/It has worked hasn’t worked Has he/she/it worked…?
We have worked haven’t worked Have we worked…?
You have worked haven’t worked Have you worked…?
They have worked haven’t worked Have they worked…?

11
PRESENT PERFECT CONTINUOUS

STRUCTURE: subject + have / has been + verb -ing

• Use the present perfect continuous with for and since with action verbs.

• Use the present perfect continuous for actions which have been doing

on very recently. They have usually just stopped.

We use present perfect continuous for:

• Showing that something started in the past and has continued up until

now. We can use time expressions as “for five minutes”, “since

Tuesday”, etc. They have been talking for the last hour.

• Showing actions which have just stopped (though the whole action can

be unfinished) and have a result, which we can often see, hear, or feel,

in the present (focus on action). I've been running, so I'm really hot.

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ATTENTION!
Difference between present perfect and past simple:

• Use the present perfect simple when there is a connection between the

past and the present.

• Use the past simple to ask or talk about finished actions in the past,

when the time is mentioned or understood. We often use a part time

expression (January, last week…).

AFFIRMATIVE NEGATIVE INTERROGATIVE

I have been haven’t been Have I been working…?
working working
You have been haven’t been Have you been
working working working…?
He/She/It has been working hasn’t been Has he/she/it been
working working…?
We have been haven’t been Have we been
working working working…?
You have been haven’t been Have you been
working working working…?
They have been haven’t been Have they been
working working working…?

EXERCISE

1- Complete with the correct form of present perfect continuous.

a) Our friends __________________________ (not exercise) much lately.

b) She __________________________ (not study) this last month.

c) My cut __________________________ (bleed) on and off all afternoon.

d) My brother and I have the flu. We __________________________ (not work)

all week.

e) Since the doctor told me to take lots of fluids, I

__________________________ (drink) tea every hour.

f) Sam and James __________________________ (not watch) TV all day.

13
g) For three years, Charles __________________________ (suffer) from

allergies.

h) My sister and I __________________________ (practice) alternative

medicine for a few years.

14
PAST SIMPLE

STRUCTURE: REGULAR VERBS: verb + ed

IRREGULAR VERBS: verbs from the list

• Use the past simple for finished past actions: They worked in a bank.

• For past habits and routines, usually with a time expression: Few people

in Victorian times took a bath every day.

• Use Auxiliary + Subject + Infinitive or Question word + Auxiliary + Subject

+ Infinitive to help you with word order in questions: Where did you live?

We use the auxiliary verb did in negative and interrogative statements.

• Negative: Subject + didn’t (did not) + verb inf.

• Interrogative: Did + subject + verb inf.

AFFIRMATIVE NEGATIVE INTERROGATIVE

I worked didn’t work Did I work?
You worked didn’t work Did you work?
He/She/It worked didn’t work Did he/she/it work?
We worked didn’t work Did we work?
You worked didn’t work Did you work?
They worked didn’t work Did they work?

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 1) Regular verbs are those ones only need to add -ed after the verb to form

the past simple and the past participle form: He listened to music

yesterday.

2) Irregular verbs are those one that has a different form, totally different

for past simple and past participle. We must study them. He went to the

doctor.

ATTENTION!!
Verb “to be”:

AFFIRMATIVE NEGATIVE INTERROGATIVE

I was wasn’t Was I…?
You were weren’t Were you…?
He/She/It was wasn’t Was he/she/it…?
We were weren’t Were we…?
You were weren’t Were you…?
They were weren’t Were they…?

EXERCISES

1- Complete the sentences with the past simple form of the verbs in
brackets.

a) My brother _______________ (go) to a different school than me.

b) I _______________ (do) the best report of the company.

c) Melissa _______________ (walk) 10 miles yesterday!

d) My teacher _______________ (ask) John the most difficult question.

e) The exam _______________ (to be) very easy!

f) She _______________ (not play) the match.

g) _______________ you _______________ (go) to Paris last summer?

h) My parents _______________ (not allow) me to go out when I was 16.

i) We _______________ (to be) very little when we went to Dublin.

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Present perfect simple or past simple?

• Use present perfect simple for unfinished time and past simple for

finished time.

• Use to show speaker attitude.

• Use with different time expressions. Present perfect refers to an action

over a period of time and for describes how long the period is.

EXERCISE

1- Complete the dialogues with the past simple or present perfect.

a) A: How long _______________ at university? (you / be)

B: I _______________ two years ago. I’m in my third year now. (start)

A: Do you live with your parents?

B: I _______________ with them for the first two years but then I

_______________ into a student hostel last September and I

_______________ there since then. (live, move, live)

b) A: _______________ a job yet? (your brother / find)

B: Yes, he _______________ work in a hotel.

c) A: _______________ to Nobu – that new Japanese restaurant? (you / ever

/ be)

B: Yes, we _______________ there for my birthday. (go)

A: What was it like?

B: The food _______________ fantastic but it _______________ a fortune!

17
PAST CONTINUOUS

STRUCTURE: subject + was/were + verb -ing

• Use the past continuous to describe an action in progress at specific

time in the past: You were reading a magazine.

• For a continuing unfinished action interrupted by a sudden past action: I

was getting ready while the doorbell rang.

• Two actions in the past at the same time: They were looking at the

actors and listening to the dialogue.

AFFIRMATIVE NEGATIVE INTERROGATIVE

I was working wasn’t working Was I working?

You were working weren’t working Were you working?

He/She/It was working wasn’t working Was he/she/it working?

We were working weren’t working Were we working?

You were working weren’t working Were you working?

They were working weren’t working Were they working?

18
OTHER USES OF PAST CONTINUOUS

Past continuous can also be used:

• To emphasize that an action was still continuing.

• To describe a changing situation.

• With forever, continually, always, etc. to criticize actions we feel are

annoying, or which we wish to exaggerate.

• We do not generally use past continuous to describe habitual actions in

the past.

EXERCISES

1- Complete the sentences with the past continuous form of the verbs in
brackets.

a) Emma _______________ (cook) when her sister called.

b) While I _______________ (paint) the outside of the house, my sister

_______________ (read) a book.

c) Last night at 8 pm I _______________ (have) dinner.

d) They _______________ (drink) coffee when I arrived.

e) We _______________ (go) to the cinema yesterday at this time.

f) Mary _______________ (not go) to the school when the rain started.

g) _______________ they _______________ (talk) when the teacher arrived?

19
PAST PERFECT SIMPLE

STRUCTURE: subject + had + past participle

• Use the past perfect simple when you are talking about the past and

you want to talk about an earlier past action: When they turned on the

TV, the match had finished.

AFFIRMATIVE NEGATIVE INTERROGATIVE

I had worked hadn’t worked Had I worked…?
You had worked hadn’t worked Had you worked…?
He/She/It had worked hadn’t worked Had he/she/it worked…?
We had worked hadn’t worked Had we worked…?
You had worked hadn’t worked Had you worked…?
They had worked hadn’t worked Had they worked…?

EXERCISE

1- Complete the following sentences in the past perfect simple tense.

a) She _______________(write) six letters before she got a response.

20
 b) It _______________ always _______________ (snow) here before 1978.

c) Dan _______________ (to be) sick for 3 days before he got better.

d) James and Lia _______________ (try) four times before they gave up.

e) My father’s old car _______________ (run) very well before he sold it.

f) We _______________ (not take) this test before.

g) My aunt _______________ (visit) Portugal several times in the past.

h) Our father _______________ never _______________ (drive) to Florida.

i) I _______________ (speak) to the president twice before, so I was not

that nervous.

j) The old man _______________ occasionally _______________ (need)

help crossing the street.

PAST PERFECT CONTINUOUS

STRUCTURE: subject + had been + verb -ing

• Use past perfect continuous to indicate a continuous action that was

completed at some point in the past: I had been working in the garden

all morning.

AFFIRMATIVE NEGATIVE INTERROGATIVE

I had been hadn’t been Had I been working…?
working working
You had been hadn’t been Had you been working…?
working working
He/She/It had been hadn’t been Had he/she/it been
working working working…?
We had been hadn’t been Had we been working…?
working working
You had been hadn’t been Had you been working…?
working working
They had been hadn’t been Had they been working…?
working working

21
TIME EXPRESSIONS WITH:

• Past simple: ago, yesterday, the day before yesterday, last

week/night/year, etc.

• Past continuous: as, at 7am yesterday, last week/month…when, while.

• Past perfect: after, already, before, by the time.

22
FUTURE SIMPLE: WILL

STRUCTURE: subject + will + infinitive

• Use will/won’t for factual predictions: Inflation will increase by 5% over

the next months.

• For predictions not based on the facts or opinions about the future: I

think hundreds of people will run in the marathon next month.

• For an immediate decision: I will phone you.

• Promises and offers: Don’t worry, I will lend you my jacket.

AFFIRMATIVE NEGATIVE INTERROGATIVE

I will work won’t work Will I work?
You will work won’t work Will you work?
He/She/It will work won’t work Will he/she/it work?
We will work won’t work Will we work?
You will work won’t work Will you work?
They will work won’t work Will they work?

23
Contractions are used, so: I’ll, you’ll, he’ll, etc.

FUTURE SIMPLE: BE GOING TO

STRUCTURE: subject + to be + going to + infinitive

• Use going to for personal plans and intentions: I’m going to stay in bed

all night.

• When the cause of a possible event is present: Look at the colour of the

sky! It’s going to snow.

• For decisions about the future: I’ve decided I’m going to phone the

police.

AFFIRMATIVE NEGATIVE INTERROGATIVE

I am going to am not going to Am I going to work…?
work work
You are going to aren’t going to Are you going to work…?
work work
He/She/It is going to isn’t going to Is he/she/it going to
work work work…?
We are going to aren’t going to Are we going to work…?
work work
You are going to aren’t going to Are you going to work…?
work work
They are going to aren’t going to Are they going to work…?
work work

Will or going to?

• In many cases, will as a prediction can be replaced by going to,

especially in everyday speech.

• Normally, going to cannot be replaced by will without changing the

meaning.

• It depends on the context.

24
EXERCISE

1- Complete the sentences with the future simple form will or going to.

a) A: There’s no milk left!

B: Oh! I _______________ some from the shop. (get)

b) The population of Valencia _______________ 2 million by the year

2050. (reach)

c) Mum: I told you to tidy up your room.

Son: Sorry, Mum, I forgot. I _______________ after lunch. (do)

d) A: Why don’t we meet for coffee on Friday morning?

B: Sorry. I can’t. I _______________ the doctor then.

e) “Tomorrow _______________ bright and sunny day everywhere in

Spain, except in La Coruña”, said the weatherwoman. (be)

f) Look at that big black cloud. I think it _______________. (rain)

g) In the future, people _______________ bigger heads. (have)

h) Next month I _______________ a DVD player. (buy)

i) When _______________ you _______________ another party? (have)

j) Oh no! I think I _______________. (sneeze)

2- Fill the spaces with the correct form of the verb in parentheses in

simple future tense: will.

a) The house is dirty. I _______________ (clean) it on Monday.

b) (Cook) _______________ you _______________ on Tuesday, please?

c) It looks like the washer is broken. I _______________ (ask) a repair

man to come Wednesday.

d) Okay then, our group _______________ (meet) on Thursday.

e) _______________ you _______________ (come) with us on Friday?

f) If necessary, we _______________ (carry) the supplies in our car on

Saturday.

25
g) John and Kanye, _______________ you _______________ (read) to

the children on Sunday?

26
FUTURE CONTINUOUS
STRUCTURE: subject + will be + verb -ing

• Use the future continuous to focus on the process during a future action.

• Events that have already been arranged for a future date: The Rolling

Stones will be performing in Madrid in July.

AFFIRMATIVE NEGATIVE INTERROGATIVE

I will be won’t be working Will I be working?
working
You will be won’t be working Will you be working?
working
He/She/It will be won’t be working Will he/she/it be working?
working
We will be won’t be working Will we be working?
working
You will be won’t be working Will you be working?
working
They will be won’t be working Will they be working?
working

EXERCISE

1- Write the correct form of the future continuous tense using will.

a) I _______________ (to do) my homework tomorrow.

27
 b) Well, I guess we _______________ (to ride) the bus to work next week.

c) He _______________ (to eat) roast beef for dinner.

d) At 7:30 tonight, I _______________ (to watch) a movie.

e) I hope it _______________ (to rain) at this time tomorrow.

f) Jane _______________ not _______________ (to quit) her job on

Monday.

g) My sister _______________ probably _______________ (to go) to camp

this summer.

FUTURE PERFECT SIMPLE

STRUCTURE: subject + will have + participle

• Use future perfect to focus on the result, after a future action is

completed. It refers to a completed action in the future.

• It is most often used with a time expression: She will have been in Toledo

for 7 months on July 21st.

AFFIRMATIVE NEGATIVE INTERROGATIVE

I will have won’t have Will I have worked…?
worked worked
You will have won’t have Will you have worked…?
worked worked
He/She/It will have won’t have Will he/she/it have
worked worked worked…?
We will have won’t have Will we have worked…?
worked worked
You will have won’t have Will you have worked…?
worked worked
They will have won’t have Will they have worked…?
worked worked

28
EXERCISE

1- Fill in the spaces with the correct form of the verb in parentheses in future

perfect simple.

a) Before the store opens, the employees _______________ (prepare) for

the sale.

b) By the time the treasure hunt begins, Susan _______________ (hide) all

the clues.

c) The housekeeper _______________ (clean) the house when the guests

arrive.

d) You can touch the walls tomorrow. The paint _______________ (dry) by

then.

e) By Tuesday, the roofers _______________ (finish) laying the tiles.

f) Jason and Sam _______________ (buy) a house before they move to

London in July.

g) Let’s watch TV at 8:00 pm. By then, the news _______________ (end).

FUTURE PERFECT CONTINUOUS

STRUCTURE: subject + will have been + verb -ing

• Use the future perf. continuous to describe actions that will continue up

until a point in the future: At two o’clock, she’ll have been waiting for five

hours.

• It is most often used with a time expression.

AFFIRMATIVE NEGATIVE INTERROGATIVE

I Will have Won’t have been Will I have been working…?
been working working
You Will have Won’t have been Will you have been
been working working working…?
He/She/It Will have Won’t have been Will he/she/it have been
been working working working…?

29
 AFFIRMATIVE NEGATIVE INTERROGATIVE
We Will have Won’t have been Will we have been
been working working working…?
You Will have Won’t have been Will you have been
been working working working…?
They Will have Won’t have been Will they have been
been working working working…?

ATTENTION!!

There are some other ways to talk about the future without using future verb

tenses.

• Present continuous: it is the most common way to talk about

arrangements: I’m seeing Sarah tomorrow.

• Present simple: we can also use the present simple to talk about future

events which are part of a timetable or a regular schedule: The train

leaves in five minutes.

Other ways of expressing future arrangements:

• Be due to + infinitive can be used to say that something is arranged or

expected.

o My sister is due to arrive at 7.30 at the station.

• Be about to + infinitive to say that something is going to happen very

soon.

o My sister is about to have a baby.

• Be + to + infinitive in a formal style to talk about official plans and

arrangements.

o It has been announced that the chancellor is to visit France next

month.

30
EXERCISE

1- Fill in the spaces with the correct form of the verb in parentheses in future

perfect continuous.

a) This spring, the twins _______________ (attend) culinary school for two

years.

b) By 2021, our city _______________ (recover) from the hurricane for ten

years.

c) When it closes next week, the furniture store _______________ (do)

business since 1980.

d) By tomorrow morning, it _______________ (snow) for four days without

stopping!

e) Aunt Jane _______________ (cook) breakfast for about an hour when

we get up.

f) Friends of the bride _______________ (decorate) the banquet hall

before the reception begins.

g) Mankind _______________ (print) books by machine for around 600

years by the year 2034.

31
ADVERBS

STRUCTURE: Adjective + -ly

E.g. Careful → Carefully

An adverb is a word or set of words that modifies verbs, adjectives, or other

adverbs. Adverbs answer: how, when, where, why, or to what extent – how often

or how much.

• Many adverbs end in -ly, but many do not. Generally, if a word can have -

ly added to its adjective form, place it there to form an adverb.

• Not all words ending in -ly are adverbs: friendly, ugly, apply, supply, and

so on.

TYPES OF ADVERBS

• Adverbs of manner ➜ quickly, kindly…

• Adverbs of degree ➜ very, rather…

• Adverbs of frequency ➜ often, sometimes…

32
 • Adverbs of time ➜ now, today…

• Adverbs of place ➜ here, nowhere…

EXERCISE

1- Find the adjective in the first sentence and fill the gap with the adverb.

a) Mary is very quiet. She often sneaks out of the house ___quietly___.

b) Our mum was angry. She spoke to us _______________.

c) Jim is a wonderful guitar player. He plays the guitar _______________.

d) Her English is fluent. She speaks English _______________.

e) The exam is simple. You _______________ have to put one word in

each space.

f) Joanne is happy. She smiles _______________.

ADJECTIVES
Adjectives are words that describe people, places, and things. They give us extra

information about “something”, and they modify nouns.

• They do not change their form depending on the gender or number of

the noun: This is a big house. / These are big houses.

• They normally go in front of a noun or after a linking verb: to be, become,

seem...

• When we have more than one adjective, the usual order is:

33
EXERCISE

1- Choose the correct option, adverb or adjective.

a) It was a dangerously / dangerous lake to swim.

b) Her voice sounds beautifully / beautiful.

c) She is a very shyly / shy person.

d) Anna knows the material very good / well.

e) You must send payments regularly / regular.

f) She worked carefully / careful with the sick child.

g) The exam wasn’t easily / easy.

YET & STILL & ALREADY

• Yet, still and already are adverbs we use to add time references to our
sentences.

• Already means that something happened before now or sooner than

expected (affirmative sentences): I have already been in Paris.

• Still means that something did not happen before now, and for situations
that continue to the present time (affirmative and negative sentences): I

still haven’t visited Paris.

• Yet means that something expected hasn’t happened (negative

sentences): I haven’t visited Paris yet.

EXERCISE

1- Complete with: yet, still or already.

a) She _______________ doesn’t understand the rules!

b) I’m _______________ married.

c) I don’t want children _______________.

d) I _______________ don’t have a mortgage.

34
 e) I’ve _______________ read that book.

f) I _______________ live with my parents.

FOR

• We use for to talk about the duration – how long something has been
happening. For is always used in the present perfect simple or the

present perfect continuous: I have been living in London for two years.

• We use for with a period of time, such as: seconds, minutes, hours, weeks,
years, and so on.

• We also use for with expressions of time, such as: ages, a long time, too
long, and so on.

SINCE

• We use since to talk about the starting point or the beginning. Since is

always used in the present perfect simple or the present perfect

continuous (like for): I have been living in London since 2015.

• We always use since with a specific point in time, such as: yesterday, last

week, this morning, 09:45 am, September, and so on.

SUMMARY:

• FOR + a length of time

• SINCE + a point in time in the past

EXERCISE

1- Complete with for or since.

a) We’ve been waiting for the bus _______________ over an hour.

b) I’ve been living in Spain _______________ 1995.

c) Our boss hasn’t come to the office _______________ three days now.

35
d) My brother has been stronger than me _______________ 3 years.

e) American soldiers have been in Korea _______________ 1950.

f) They’ve played Minecraft _______________ 3 hours today.

36
CONNECTORS

Connectors or linkers are words or expressions which we use to establish

different types of relationships between words or sentences. They link

different ideas and give coherence to the text or speech.

TYPE OF CONNECTOR
CONNECTOR

CONTRAST • But • However • Nevertheless / Nonetheless • (Al)though /

Even though • On the one hand/On the other hand • In spite
of/Despite + noun or-ing / Despite the fact that… • In
contrast to/with • As opposed to • On the contrary • Instead
of • The former…the latter… • Whereas

ADDITION • Furthermore • As well as • Apart from this • Also • Besides

• Additionally • On top of that • Moreover • Too

CAUSE & • Therefore • As a result • Consequently • As a consequence

EFFECT • Hence • Thus • Because

COMPARISON • Likewise, • Similarly • In the same way • In comparison

37
 TYPE OF CONNECTOR
CONNECTOR

EMPHASIS • In fact, • Indeed • As a matter of fact • That is • Essentially •

Fortunately • Inevitably

EXAMPLE • For example, • For instance • As shown • Such as • Like

ORDERING • First, second… • Then • Next • Now • Further • Continuing

• Finally • After • Before

SUMMARISING • In conclusion • In general • To sum up • To conclude • In

short
OPINION • In my opinion/view • From my point of view • As / The way
I see it • As far as I’m concerned • I think / believe / guess
/consider + (that) + sentence

• That is (to say) • In other words,

PURPOSE or • To + infinitive • In order (not) to + infinitive • So as (not) to

AIM + infinitive • So that + sentence • For + gerund

FACTS • As a matter of fact, • In fact • actually

EXERCISE

1- Choose the right connector.

a) I never eat vegetables because of / even though / for I know they’re

healthy.

b) I’m really hungry because / though / so that I had a big breakfast.

c) There are few hotels. However, / Though, / Besides, we were lucky,

and we found a room.

d) We were disappointed because the art gallery was closed and the

museum as well / also / although.

e) She was quite nervous, so / despite / however she didn’t do very well.

38
f) He got the job despite / however / because not having much

experience.

39
COMPARATIVES & SUPERLATIVES

We change adjectives and adverbs to say that a person, a thing or an action has

more or less of a quality than another. We put more or less before long

adjectives/adverbs and add -er to short forms.

• LONG FORMS: intelligent, interesting, beautiful, independent, etc.

o She’s more intelligent than him.

o London is more expensive than Edinburgh.

o This test is less difficult than the last one.

o Flying is more comfortable than going by train.

• SHORT FORMS: small, big, slow, ugly, etc.

o He’s slower than a snail.

o Trains are faster than cars.

o My sister is taller than me.

o I should practice more often.

40
SUPERLATIVES
We can use adjectives and adverbs to say that people or things and actions
have the most or least of a quality. We put the most or the least before long
forms and add -est to short forms.

• LONG FORMS: intelligent, interesting, beautiful, independent, etc.

o She’s the most intelligent person.

o New York is the most expensive city in the world.

o It’s the least dangerous animal.

o This book is the least difficult to understand.

• SHORT FORMS: small, big, slow, ugly, etc.

o He’s tallest person in our family.

o Plains are the fastest.

o This bag is the smallest in the shop.

o That’s the simplest question of all.

ATTENTION!!
• There are some irregular comparative adjectives / adverbs:

ADJECTIVE / ADVERB COMPARATIVE SUPERLATIVE

Good Better (The) best

Bad Worse (The) worst

Far Further / farther (The) furthest / farthest

Little Less (The) least

Much More (The) most

o Yesterday was the worst day of my life.

o You play the guitar better than me.

o How much further do we have to walk?

41
 o Anna is my best friend.

• If the word ends: consonant-vowel-consonant, the last consonant is

usually doubled in the comparative.

o Big→ Bigger

o Hot→ Hotter

• Change the -y to -ier.

o Easy→ Easier

o Happy → Happier

EQUATIVES
Equatives are marked by as…as or not as…as. We use adjectives and adverbs
in equatives to say that a person, thing, or action is similar (or not) to another
in some way.

o She’s as tall as her father.

o I’m as hungry as a horse.
o The van was as big as a house.
o He’s not as young as he looks.

We sometimes use not so…as for the negative:

o He’s not so arrogant as he used to be.

EXERCISES

1- Write the comparative of the following sentences.

a) I can’t carry my suitcase. It’s much _______________ (heavy) than yours.

b) Mountains are _______________ (high) than hills.

c) He got a very good mark on his exam. The exam was _______________

(easy) than he had expected.

d) I think that good health is _______________ (important) than money.

e) In Canada, January is _______________ (cold) than March.

f) Our apartment is _______________ (good) than yours.

42
 g) I don’t understand this lesson. It is _______________ (difficult) than the

last one we did.

2- Write the superlative of the following sentences.

a) Yesterday was _______________ (cold) day of the year.

b) The Nile is _______________ (large) river in the world.

c) I’ve bought _______________ (expensive) car.

d) Marie is _______________ (lucky) person I know. She has won the

lottery four times!

e) My dinner only cost $10. That must be _______________ (cheap)

restaurant in town.

f) Sarah is _______________ (bad) basketball player of the team.

g) Mount Everest is _______________ (high) mountain in the world.

3- Write the equative of the following sentences.

a) Lemon is _______________ (sweet) orange.

b) Tigers are _______________ (dangerous) lions.

c) My house is _______________ (tall) a skyscraper.

d) France is _______________ (beautiful) Switzerland.

e) Train is _______________ (not fast) airplane.

f) Bicycle is _______________ (expensive) motorcycle.

g) Algebra is _______________ (difficult) geometry.

43
PREPOSITIONS

Prepositions are words that usually stand in front of a noun, noun phrase or

pronoun connecting it to another word or element in the clause. Prepositions

are single words such as at, from, in, of and on or phrases such as in front of,

next to and out of. We can use prepositions with noun phrases when we

describe people and things or when we provide additional information about

an action or situation such as the time or place.

The most frequently used prepositions are:

44
 • PREPOSITIONS OF TIME

English Usage Example

On ▪ Days of the week ▪ On Monday

▪ Dates ▪ On November22nd
▪ On my birthday, on New
▪ Special days
Year’s Eve
In ▪ Months / seasons ▪ In August / in winter
▪ Time of day ▪ In the morning
▪ In 2006
▪ Year
▪ In the 20th century
▪ Centuries
▪ In an hour
▪ After a certain period of time (when?)
At ▪ For night ▪ At night
▪ For weekend ▪ At the weekend
▪ At half past nine
▪ A certain point of time (when?)
▪ At 7:30 am
▪ Clock times
▪ At Christmas, at Easter
▪ Festivals
Since ▪ From a certain point of time (past till now) ▪ Since 1980
For ▪ Over a certain period of time (past till now) ▪ For 2 years
Ago ▪ A certain time in the past ▪ Two years ago
Before ▪ Earlier than a certain point of time ▪ Before 2004
To ▪ Telling the time ▪ Ten to six (5:50)
Past ▪ Telling the time ▪ Ten past six (6:10)
To / till / ▪ Marking the beginning and end of a period ▪ From Monday to/till
until of time Friday
Till / until ▪ In the sense of how long something is going ▪ He is on holiday until
to last Friday.
By ▪ In the sense of at the latest ▪ I will be back by 6
▪ Up to a certain time o’clock.
▪ By 11 o'clock, I had read
five pages.

45
 • PREPOSITIONS OF PLACE (position and direction)

English Usage Example

In ▪ Room, building, street, town, country ▪ In the kitchen,

▪ Book, paper etc. in London
▪ In the book
▪ Car, taxi
▪ In the car, in a
▪ Picture, world
taxi
▪ In the picture,
in the world
At ▪ Meaning next to, by an object ▪ At the door, at
▪ For table the station
▪ At the table
▪ For events
▪ At a concert,
▪ Place where you are to do something typical (watch a film,
at the party
study, work)
▪ At the cinema,
at school, at
work
On ▪ Attached ▪ The picture on
▪ For a place with a river the wall
▪ London lies on
▪ Being on a surface
the Thames.
▪ For a certain side (left, right)
▪ On the table
▪ For a floor in a house ▪ On the left
▪ For public transport ▪ On the first
▪ For television, radio floor
▪ On the bus, on
a plane
▪ On TV, on the
radio
by, next ▪ Left or right of somebody or something ▪ Jane is
to, standing by /
beside next to /
beside the car.
under ▪ On the ground, lower than (or covered by) something else ▪ The bag is
under the
table

46
English Usage Example

Below ▪ Lower than something else but above ground ▪ The fish is
below the
surface
Over ▪ Covered by something else ▪ Put a jacket
▪ Meaning more than over your shirt
▪ Over 16 years
▪ Getting to the other side (also across)
of age
▪ Overcoming an obstacle
▪ Walk over the
bridge
▪ Climb over the
wall
Above ▪ Higher than something else, but not directly over it ▪ A path above
the lake
Across ▪ Getting to the other side (also over) ▪ Walk across
▪ Getting to the other side the bridge
▪ Swim across
the lake
Through ▪ Something with limits on top, bottom and the sides ▪ Drive through
the tunnel
To ▪ Movement to person or building ▪ Go to the
▪ Movement to a place or country cinema
▪ Go to
▪ For bed
London /
Ireland
▪ Go to bed
Into ▪ Enter a room / a building ▪ Go into the
kitchen / the
house
Towards ▪ Movement in the direction of something (but not directly ▪ Go 5 steps
to it) towards the
house
Onto ▪ Movement to the top of something ▪ Jump onto the
table
From ▪ In the sense of where from ▪ A flower from
the garden

47
 • OTHER IMPORTANT PREPOSITIONS

English Usage Example

From ▪ Who gave it ▪ A present from Jane

Of ▪ Who/what does it belong to ▪ A page of the book
▪ What does it show ▪ The picture of a palace

By ▪ Who made it ▪ A book by Mark Twain

On ▪ Walking or riding on horseback ▪ On foot, on horseback
▪ Entering a public transport vehicle ▪ Get on the bus

In ▪ Entering a car / Taxi ▪ Get in the car

Off ▪ Leaving a public transport vehicle ▪ Get off the train
Out of ▪ Leaving a car / Taxi ▪ Get out of the taxi
By ▪ Rise or fall of something ▪ Prices have risen by 10
▪ Travelling (other than walking or horse- percent
riding) ▪ By car, by bus

At ▪ For age ▪ She learned Russian at 45

About ▪ For topics, meaning what about ▪ We were talking about you

EXERCISES

1- Complete the following sentences using at, by, for or in.

a) He sent a copy of his document to his bank ____ safe keeping.

b) The house is to be sold ____ auction.

c) There has been a sharp increase ____ house prices in recent months.

d) She takes great pride ____ her work.

e) Do you know of a cure ____ baldness?

f) I’m sorry, but I’m not ____ liberty to tell you anymore.

g) Did she give you any reason ____ her behaviour?

48
2- Complete the following sentences using at, about or against.

a) I don’t know his exact age; I can only guess _________ how old he really

is.

b) Tall people are definitely _________ an advantage at a football match.

c) After the war, several people were tried for crimes _________ humanity.

d) It is possible to insure yourself _________ nuclear attack?

e) Today I feel really miserable, because I cannot find anything to

complain _________.

f) At school today, we had a long discussion _________ the best way to

learn a foreign language.

g) Raise the gun to your shoulder, aim _________ the target, and try not

to kill anyone.

3- Complete the following sentences using in, into, on or over.

a) Do you take pride _________ your appearance, or are you just vain?

b) Father must be _________ a bad temper.

c) All forms of travel are expensive nowadays, but, _________ balance, air

travel offers the best value for money.

d) There’s no point in getting upset _________ things that are beyond

your control.

e) I am a bit weak _________ science subjects, but I am trying to improve.

f) I’ve been _________ your essay, and I wore out three red pens making

corrections.

g) Make yourself a drink while I go and slip _________ something more

comfortable.

49
ANSWERS:

Exercise 1

a) For

b) By/at

c) In

d) In

e) For

f) At

g) For

Exercise 2

a) At

b) At

c) Against

d) Against

e) About

f) About

g) At

Exercise 3

a) In

b) In

c) On

d) Over

e) In

f) Over

g) Into

50
PHRASAL VERBS

A phrasal verb it’s a phrase that’s made up of a verb and another word, usually

a preposition or an adverb. Phrasal verbs change completely the meaning of the

verb, based on the preposition that follows them, and they are very important

in everyday conversation.

This is a list of some phrasal verbs and the translation into Spanish, but there

are many more:

• Add up: calcular una suma.

• Back up: apoyar.

• Break down: estropear (vehículo, máquina…) / molestarse, ponerse

triste.

• Break in: interrumpir.

• Break up: terminar una relación / reírse.

• Break out: escapar (de la cárcel).

• Bring about: hacer que suceda algo.

• Bring it on: aceptar un reto.

51
• Bring on: ser la causa de algo, normalmente negativo.

• Bring up: cuidar de un niño hasta que crece / mencionar algo.

• Call off: cancelar algo.

• Call on: visitar a alguien / usar el conocimiento de alguien.

• Carry out: llevar a cabo.

• Catch up (with): encontrar a alguien.

• Check in: registrarse.

• Cheer on: animar a alguien con palabras de ánimo.

• Come across: encontrarse a alguien por casualidad.

• Come down (with a disease): contraer una enfermedad en concreto.

• Come up (with something): tener una idea.

• Come up against: encontrarse con algo inesperadamente difícil.

• Come up with: ocurrirse (una idea, solución...).

• Come up: cuando algo pasa inesperadamente.

• Cool off: bajar la temperatura.

• Cope with: manejar una situación.

• Cover up: esconder la verdad.

• Cut down: reducir.

• Do up: decorar o mejorar el aspecto de algo.

• Drop off: dejar a alguien en un sitio.

• Dry out: evaporar agua.

• Face up to: enfrentarse a una dificultad.

• Fall in (love): enamorarse.

• Fall out of (love): dejar de sentir enamoramiento.

• Find out: averiguar.

• Get along: llevarse bien.

• Get away with: evitar el castigo por algo que se ha hecho.

• Get back: volver.

52
• Get back to: responder más tarde.

• Get better: mejorar de una enfermedad.

• Get by (on): afrontar vivir en una situación de pocos recursos económicos.

• Get lost: perder el camino, perderse.

• Get on: subir al transporte público.

• Get on with: llevarse bien con alguien.

• Get over: superar.

• Get to: llegar.

• Get up: levantarse (de la cama).

• Give up: dejar un hábito.

• Go in for: hacer algo con entusiasmo.

• Grow up: crecer, convertirse en adulto.

• Hurry up: darse prisa.

• Join in: participar.

• Let (someone) off: declarar inocente a alguien.

• Look after: cuidar de alguien.

• Look up to: respetar.

• Make up: inventor.

• Pass away: morir.

• Pass out: perder la conciencia / distribuir.

• Pick up (someone): recoger a alguien.

• Plug in: conectar, normalmente, hablando de electricidad.

• Point out: señalar.

• Run out (of): no tener más existencias de algo.

• Set off / set out: empezar una jornada o actividad.

• Set up: fundar, establecer.

• Split up: terminar una relación.

• Stay up: permanecer despierto hasta tarde.

53
• Take away: llevar una cosa de un punto a otro.

• Take back: devolver una cosa a su lugar.

• Take off: despegar un avión.

• Think (it) over: reflexionar.

• Turn into: transformar.

• Turn on/off: encender/apagar.

• Turn out: ocurrir de manera diferente a lo esperado.

• Turn up: llegar o aparecer.

• Turn sth over: considerer.

• Turn sth down: rechazar.

• Wake up: despertarse.

• Warm up: calentar (ejercicio de calentamiento).

• Work out: hacer ejercicio / tener éxito.

54
CONDITIONALS

ZERO CONDITIONAL

If + subject + present simple, … subject + present simple

• Use zero conditional when you want to express general truths / facts:

o If you heat ice, it melts.

o If it rains, the grass gets wet.

ATTENTION!!
• If and when have the same meaning in the zero conditional:

o If/When I look after plants, they die.

FIRST CONDITIONAL

If + subject + present simple, … subject + will/won’t + infinitive

• Use first conditional to talk about possible or likely future result.

55
 • To talk about things that are possible, but not certain. The main clause
says what we think the result will be in this situation.

o If you come early, you will get a parking space.

o If I see her, I will tell her.

ATTENTION!!
• Unless = if...not

o I won’t go unless she invites me. = I won’t go if she doesn’t invite

me.

• We can use might instead of will in the main clause to mean “will
perhaps”.

SECOND CONDITIONAL

If + subject + past simple, … subject + would/wouldn’t + infinitive

• Use second conditional to talk about hypothetical/imaginary situation in

the present or future and its consequence.
• We often use it to talk about the opposite of what is true or real.

o If I had more money, I would buy a bigger house.

o I wouldn’t do that job unless they paid me a really good salary.
o If he won the lottery, he would buy a car.

• To talk about something in the present which is impossible, because it is

not true.

o If I had her number, I would call him. (But it is not possible because
I don’t have her number).

ATTENTION!!

56
 • We can use could instead of would in the main clause to talk about ability
or possibility.
• We can use might instead of would in the main clause to mean “would
perhaps”.

THIRD CONDITIONAL

If + subject + had + past participle, … subject + would/wouldn’t + have + past

participle

• Use third conditional to talk about hypothetical/imaginary situation in the

past (which didn’t happen) and its consequence.

o If I had gone to the party, I would have met your friend.

o If the ship hadn’t hit an iceberg, it wouldn’t have sunk.

ATTENTION!!
• We can also use could, should, might and may in the main clause to mean
“would perhaps”.

o If Shakespeare had lived longer, he might have written poesy.

SUMMARY:

CONDITIONAL FORM
Zero Conditional If + present simple, … present simple

First Conditional If + present simple, …will/won’t + infinitive

Second If + past simple, … would/wouldn’t + infinitive

Conditional

57
 Third Conditional If + had + past participle, … would/wouldn’t + have +
past participle

EXERCISES

1- Complete the sentences with zero conditional:

a) If you ___________ (pour) oil on water, it ___________ (float).

b) If you ___________ (freeze) water, it ___________ (turn) into ice.

c) If you (mix) flour and water, you ___________ (get) dough.

d) If you ___________ (smoke), your skin ___________ (age) more quickly.

e) If I ___________ (eat) too much chocolate, I ___________ (feel) sick.

f) If she ___________ (come) home very late, her parents ___________ (get)

very angry.

2- Complete the sentences with first conditional:

a) If I ___________ (to be) hungry, I ___________ (make) a sandwich.

b) She ___________ (marry) him if he ___________ (ask) her.

c) If she ___________ (go) to the party, she ___________ (take) a present.

d) If Sarah ___________ (lonely), she ___________ (call) some friends.

e) If I ___________ (miss) the bus, I ___________ (to be) late for work.

f) If you ___________ (not move), the bee ___________ (not sting) you.

3- Complete the sentences with second conditional:

a) If she ___________________ healthier food, she ___________________ (lose)

weight.

b) If he ___________________ (drive) more carefully, he ___________________

(have) fewer accidents.

58
c) If I ___________________ (study) harder, I ___________________ (pass) the

exam.

d) If she ___________________ (do) her homework every day, she

___________________ (get) better marks.

e) I ___________________ (buy) a new car if I ___________________ (have)

more money.

f) If she ___________________ (lose) her ring, she ___________________ (to be)

upset.

4- Complete the sentences with third conditional:

a) If you ___________________ (go) to the party, I ___________________ (go)

too.

b) I ___________________ (not stay) at that hotel if you ___________________

(recommend) it to me.

c) If I ___________________ (not take) my umbrella, I ___________________

(get) very wet.

d) If I ___________________ (plan) a trip to France, I ___________________

(try) to learn some French.

e) I ___________________ (not go) to the movie if I ___________________

(know) it was scary.

f) If they ___________________ (to be) more organised, they

___________________ (not to be) so stressed at the last minute.

59
MIXED CONDITIONALS

When a conditional clause combines two different types of conditional

structures, we talk about mixed conditionals. We use them when the two parts

of a conditional sentence refer to different times and they show only unreal

situations. There are a lot of combinations, but we are going to focus on the

most common ones:

STRUCTURE: If + past perfect / would + infinitive

- THIRD / SECOND CONDITIONAL → To contrast an imagined or real event in

the past with the present result (past + present): If he had taken the medicine,

he wouldn’t be ill.

STRUCTURE: If + past simple / would have + past participle

60
- SECOND / THIRD CONDITIONAL → To describe ongoing circumstances in

relation to a previous past event (present + past): If I went to the mountain, I

wouldn’t have had an accident.

61
MODAL VERBS

• Modal verbs are those verbs that goes with another verb and they

express ability, obligation, possibility, deduction, and so on.

• Modal verbs are auxiliary verbs, so we do not need any auxiliary verb in

negatives or questions.

• There is no “to” infinitive form. So, we cannot say “to can”.

• They do not change; there is no “cans” or “canning”.

MODAL USE EXAMPLE

VERB

Can • Ability ➢ I can speak English

• Permission ➢ Can I go to the park?

• Request ➢ Can you wait for a minute,

• Offer please?

• Suggestion ➢ I can lend you my car

• Possibility ➢ Can we visit you at the

weekend?

62
 ➢ It can get very cold in Alaska

Could • Ability ➢ I could speak English

• Permission ➢ I could go to the cinema

• Polite question ➢ Could I go to the cinema,

• Polite request please?

• Polite offer ➢ Could you wait for a minute,

• Polite please?

suggestion ➢ I could lend you my car

• Possibility ➢ Could we visit Grandma at the

weekend?

➢ It could get very cold in

Alaska

May • Possibility ➢ It may rain today

• Permission ➢ May I go to the cinema?

• Polite ➢ May I help you?

suggestion

Might • Possibility ➢ It might rain today

• Hesitant offer ➢ Might I help you?

Must • Force, necessity ➢ I must go to the supermarket

• Possibility today

• Advice, ➢ You must be tired

recommendation ➢ You must see the new film

Need • Something ➢ I need to go to the doctor

necessary

Ought to • Advice ➢ You ought to drive carefully

• Obligation ➢ You ought to switch off the

light

Shall • Suggestion ➢ Shall I carry your bag?

63
Should • Advice ➢ You should drive carefully

• Obligation ➢ You should switch off the light

Will • Wish, request, ➢ Will you please shut the door?

demand, order

• Prediction, ➢ I think it will rain today

assumption
➢ I will stop smoking
• Promise

• Spontaneous
➢ I will drive you to the station
decision

• Habits ➢ She will sit for hours without

talking

Would • Wish, request ➢ Would you shut the door,

• Habits in the please?

past ➢ Sometimes he would bring

me some flowers

“Be able • Ability ➢ I am able to drive

to”

EXERCISES

1- Complete the sentences with must, might / may or can’t.

a) They ___________ be very happy – they’ve just won the lottery!

b) She ___________ be the new boss – she’s too young!

c) It ___________ be a Roman plate, but I’m not sure.

d) That ___________ be the same man – he looks completely different!

e) Look. He ___________ be the doctor. Open the door.

f) I don’t know where Jim is. He ___________ be at the gym. He sometimes

goes there after work.

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2- Correct the mistakes in the highlighted phrases. Tick ✓ the correct

sentences.

a) My mother is a nurse and she often should work weekends.

_________________________________________________________________

______________________

b) You should to have a rest. You look exhausted.

_________________________________________________________________

______________________

c) In the future everyone will must speak English and Chinese.

_________________________________________________________________

______________________

d) Do you have to wear a suit and tie at work?

_________________________________________________________________

______________________

e) I must stay in bed yesterday as I didn’t feel well.

_________________________________________________________________

______________________

f) You don’t have to park here. It’s “no parking”.

_________________________________________________________________

______________________

g) I didn’t have to get a taxi. Lina took me to the airport.

_________________________________________________________________

______________________

h) People mustn’t answer their mobiles when they are talking to someone.

_________________________________________________________________

______________________

65
ANSWERS

Exercise 1:

a) Must

b) Can’t

c) Might / may

d) Can’t

e) Must

f) Might / may

Exercise 2:

a) She often has to work

b) You should have a rest

c) Everyone will have to speak

d) ✓
e) I had to stay in bed

f) You mustn’t park

g) ✓
h) People shouldn’t answer

66
REPORTED SPEECH

• In direct speech we can report what someone says by using the same

words of the speaker: He said, “I’m reading”.

• In reported speech we don’t repeat the same words of the speaker: He

said that he was reading.

When we change from direct speech to reported speech:

• Commas disappear:

o “I’m going out with Mariah”. She said.

o She said that she was going out with Mariah.

• Personal and possessive pronouns change:

o “I’ll give you my number”, he said.

o He said that he would give me his number.

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 • Pronouns, demonstrative adjectives and adverbs of place change:

DIRECT SPEECH REPORTED SPEECH

This That

These Those

Here There

• Time expressions change:

DIRECT SPEECH REPORTED SPEECH

Now Then

Today / tonight That day / that night

Yesterday The day before

The day before yesterday Two days before

Tomorrow The next / following day

The day after tomorrow Two days latter

Next week / month The following week / month

Last week / month The week / year before the previous week /

year

Three hours ago Three hours before

REPORTING VERBS

• To introduce indirect speech, we use verbs like: say, tell, admit,

advise, agree, announce, apologize, beg, declare, explain, insist,

invite, mention, offer, order, recommend, state and warn followed

by that (but it is not necessary).

o “I like motorbikes”.

o Clara says (that) she likes motorbikes.

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 • Verbs such as: ask, beg, invite, offer, order, remind and tell go with

an indirect complement and they have this structure:

o “Don’t forget my meeting tonight”.

o Clara reminded them about her meeting that night.

o “Would you like some presentation?”

o Clara offered them some presentation.

REPORTED STATEMENTS

Reporting verb + (that) + subject + verb

• In reported speech there is a backshift of tenses:

DIRECT SPEECH REPORTED SPEECH

Present simple Past simple

Present continuous Past continuous

Past simple Past perfect simple

Present perfect simple Past perfect simple

Future simple (will) Would

Can Could

May Might

Have to / must Had to

ATTENTION!!

• Some verbs do not change:

o Past perfect

o Might

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 o Could

o Should

o Mustn’t

REPORTED QUESTIONS

• In Reported Speech the question becomes a statement and the word

order is:

o SUBJECT + VERB

• We do not need auxiliary “do” or question tags.

• As with reported statements, the verb changes into a more past tense

o “Is he a friend of yours?” → Stela asked whether / if he was a friend

of mine.

o “Who are you going out with?” → My mother asked me who I was

going out with.

REPORTED COMMANDS, REQUESTS AND SUGGESTIONS

• There is no backshift of tenses with commands, requests and

suggestions.

• Commands and requests are expressed by verbs: tell or ask + indirect

complement + (not) to + infinitive:

o “Don’t judge him too quickly.” → She asked me not to judge him

too quickly.

• Suggestions are expressed with the verb: suggest and one of these

structures:

▪ Reporting verb + (that) + subject + infinitive (without “to”)

▪ Reporting verb + (not) verb + -ing

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 o “Why don’t we all go out together?”

➢ I suggested (that) we all go out together.

➢ I suggested going out together.

EXERCISES

1- Complete the sentences using reported speech.

a) “The hotel is full”. The receptionist told me the hotel

__________________.

b) ‘I’ll call the manager”. The waiter said __________________.

c) “I’ve passed all my exams”. Jack said __________________.

d) “You should get to the airport early”. They said that we

__________________.

e) “I may be late”. Jack said __________________.

f) “I didn’t tell anybody!” Mary said __________________.

g) “Can you help me?” She asked us __________________.

h) “Do you want to dance?” He asked me __________________.

i) “Have you been here before?” I asked her __________________.

j) “What music do you like?”. She asked me __________________.

2- Choose the correct answer.

a) Jane said that she will / would come shopping with us.

b) He said me / told me that he was at the shopping centre.

c) I asked Cindy where she buys / does she buy her clothes.

d) We asked the shop assistant how much it was / was it.

e) He told me that he hasn’t bought / hadn’t bought anything.

f) I asked the manager whether / that the shoes were in the sale.

g) She said that she had to go / must go to the market.

71
 h) They asked me where I worked / did work.

i) I told / told them that I may / might be late.

j) My boss asked me if I can / if I could work late last night.

ANSWERS

Exercise 1

a) was full

b) he would call the manager

c) he had passed all his exams

d) should get to the airport

e) he might be late

f) she hadn’t told anybody

g) if we could help her

h) if I wanted to dance

i) if she had been there before

j) what music I liked

Exercise 2

a) would

b) told me

c) she buys

d) it was

72
e) hadn’t bought

f) whether

g) had to go

h) worked

i) told them / might

j) if I could

73
RELATIVE CLAUSES

Relative clauses are sentences starting in a relative pronoun: who, whose, whom,

which or that. They give us information about something (people, places,

things…) and they join two sentences. There are two types of relative clauses:

defining relative clauses and non-defining relative clauses.

RELATIVE PRONOUN USE SPANISH

WHO People Que / Quien

WHOSE People / Cuyo

things

WHOM People Que / A quien

WHICH Things Que / Cual

THAT People / Que

things

74
DEFINING RELATIVE CLAUSES

A defining relative clause (or restrictive relative clause) add essential

information about a person, thing, etc. It comes immediately after the thing it

defines and is not separated by a comma. It is essential for the understanding

of the sentence, and it cannot be removed without changing the meaning: She

was the woman who taught me to play the guitar.

NON - DEFINING RELATIVE CLAUSES

A non-defining relative clause (or non-restrictive relative clause) gives extra

information which is not relevant for the understanding of the sentence. They

are set off by commas and do not begin with the pronoun that: London, which

is the capital of England, is one of the largest cities of the world.

EXERCISES

1-Are these sentences defining or non-defining relative clauses?

a) This is the boy whose parents work in the same company. →

______________________

b) Madonna, who was born in the USA, is a popular singer. →

______________________

c) “Guernica”, which was painted by Picasso, is permanently exhibited in

Madrid. → ______________________

d) I know a woman who eats paper. → ______________________

e) The book that I’m reading is very interesting. → ______________________

f) Mont Blanc, which is between France and Italy, is the highest mountain in

the Alps. → ______________________

75
g) Sarah’s father, who is 64, goes swimming every day. →

______________________

h) The letter which Sam has sent to you is in the drawer. →

______________________

i) The driver who took you to school is from Belfast. →

______________________

76
PASSIVES
Object + to be + past participle (+ subject)

Sentences can be in active or passive. We use active verb to say what the subject

does and a passive to say what happens to the subject.

However, in a passive sentence, the main important component in the sentence

is the object, that’s why the object goes in the first place followed by the verb

and sometimes the subject.

We use passive:

• To focus the attention on the object of an action and establish the topic

of a sentence.

• To be impersonal in a scientific or technical process.

• When the agent of the action is not known, generic or obvious for the

context, or unimportant, or is intentionally not named.

• To refer back to the previous sentence in a text.

77
 TENSE ACTIVE PASSIVE

Present simple I see your friend Your friend is seen (by me)

Present continuous I am seeing your friend Your friend is being seen

(by me)

Past simple I saw your friend Your friend was seen (by

me)

Past continuous I was seeing your friend Your friend was being seen

(by me)

Present perfect I have seen your friend Your friend has been seen

simple (by me)

Present perfect I have been seeing your Your friend has been being

continuous friend seen (by me)

Past perfect simple I had seen your friend Your friend had been seen

(by me)

Future simple (will) I will see your friend Your friend will be seen

(by me)

Future perfect simple I will have been seen your Your friend will have been

friend seen (by me)

Future (going to) I’m going to see your Your friend is going to be

friend seen (by me)

ATTENTION!!

• Only transitive verbs (verbs with an object) can be made passive. Some

transitive verbs cannot be made passive: become, fit, get, have, lack, let,

like, resemble, suit.

78
 • Verbs with two objects: There are sentences which contain two objects,

in these cases, we can make the passive using both objects, so we are

able to make two different passive sentences:

Most common verbs with more than one object:

Ask, bring, give, lend, offer, pass, pay, promise, sell, send, show, teach, tell…

EXERCISE

1-Write the passive sentences using the verb tense in brackets.

a) The film / direct / Steven Spielberg (present simple).

______________________________________________________________________

___________

b) It / show / in cinemas next year (future, will).

______________________________________________________________________

___________

c) It rained all the time the film / make / on location (past continuous).

______________________________________________________________________

___________

d) The extras / send to / the wrong place (present perfect).

______________________________________________________________________

___________

e) Auditions / hold / all day (present continuous).

79
______________________________________________________________________

___________

f) The film / dub / into other languages (future, going to).

______________________________________________________________________

___________

g) The film / make / in France (past simple).

______________________________________________________________________

___________

h) It / base / on a book (present simple).

______________________________________________________________________

___________

ANSWER

Exercise 1

a) is directed

b) will be shown

c) was being made

d) have been sent to

e) are being held

f) is going to be dubbed

g) was made

h) is based

80
INTENSIFIERS: So, such, too, enough

An intensifier is an adverb or adverbial phrases that strengthen the meaning of

other expressions and show emphasis. There are a lot of different intensifiers,

such as: completely, absolutely, highly, really, utterly, and so on. We are going

to focus on: so, such, too and enough.

SO

• Meaning: very.

• So + adjective ➜ She is so sweet.

• So + adverb ➜ He finished the exam so quickly.

• So + noun ➜ I was so angry this morning.

• With a “that” clause ➜ He was so tired that he felt asleep.

SUCH (a/an)

• Meaning: very.

• Such a + adjective ➜ She is such a good person.

81
 • With a “that” clause ➜ It was such a warm night that we decided to go

out.

TOO

• Meaning: a lot of something (negative meaning)

• Too much + uncountable noun ➜ There are too much people.

• Too many + countable noun ➜ I’ve eaten too many cookies.

• Too + adjective ➜ It is too small.

• Too + adverb ➜ The teacher speaks too fast.

• After a verb ➜ I exercise too much.

ENOUGH

• Means: sufficient (positive meaning).

• Enough + noun ➜ We have enough food.

• Adjective + enough ➜ I can’t cry hard enough.

• Verb + enough ➜ I’ve worked enough for today.

• Enough + to + verb infinitive ➜ Lisa is not clever enough to pass the

exam.

EXERCISE

1- Rewrite the sentences as one sentence, using the word in brackets.

a) The film was very sad. Everyone cried. (so)

________________________________________________________________

_______________________

b) How much money have we got? Can we pay for tickets? (enough)

________________________________________________________________

_______________________

c) It was a very good meal. We ate far too much. (such)

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 ________________________________________________________________

_______________________

d) The teacher was very stupid. He believed the children. (enough)

________________________________________________________________

_______________________

e) The trousers were very cheap. I bought six pairs. (such)

________________________________________________________________

_______________________

f) How much food is there? Can we feed everyone? (enough)

________________________________________________________________

_______________________

g) The film was very bad. Most people walked out.

________________________________________________________________

_______________________

h) He can’t walk far. He’s old. (too)

________________________________________________________________

_______________________

i) My boss was kind. He paid for the meal. (enough)

________________________________________________________________

_______________________

2- Rewrite each sentence in such a way that it means exactly the same as

the sentence printer before it. Use: so, such, too or enough.

a) She is such a good tennis player that she wins all her matches.

She plays tennis…

b) English is too complicated for me to understand.

Algebra isn’t…

c) The package is too heavy for you to lift by yourself.

83
 The package isn’t…

d) The book is so good that I can’t put it down.

It is…

e) The view from the top was so magnificent that we couldn’t move.

It was…

f) This bag is too heavy for me to carry. Can you help me?

This bag isn’t…

g) Sammy isn’t tall enough to be a basketball player.

Sammy is…

h) The teacher spoke too fast for everyone to understand.

The teacher didn’t speak…

i) Alan is too old to change careers now.

Alan isn’t…

j) She ran too slowly to win the race.

She didn’t…

84
QUESTION TAGS

STRUCTURE: auxiliary or modal verb from the statement + subject

Question tags are short questions at the end of statements. They are mainly

used in speech when we want to:

• Confirm that something is true or not ➜ Mike is from London, isn’t he?

• To encourage a reply from the person we are speaking to ➜ Steven can

speak English, can’t he?

• A positive statement is followed by a negative question tag.

• A negative statement is followed by a positive question tag.

• When the verb in the main sentence is in the present simple, we form the

question tag with do/does.

• When the verb is in the past simple, we use did.

EXERCISE

1- Add a question tag to these sentences:

a) She cooks well, _______________?

85
b) Peter is on holiday, _______________?

c) The students see it every day, _______________?

d) You can come with us, _______________?

e) They visited Scotland, _______________?

f) You are not reading that book, _______________?

g) Emma is studying Maths, _______________?

h) You didn’t have any lessons this morning, _______________?

i) The car is broken, _______________?

j) You talked too much, _______________?

86
IRREGULAR VERBS
Infinitive Simple Past Past Participle Spanish
arise arose arisen surgir
be was / were been ser
beat beat beaten golpear
become became become convertirse
begin began begun comenzar
bet bet/betted bet/betted apostar
bite bit bitten morder
bleed bled bled sangrar
blow blew blown soplar
break broke broken romper
bring brought brought traer
build built built construir
buy bought bought comprar
catch caught caught atrapar
choose chose chosen elegir
come came come venir

87
cost cost cost costar
creep crept crept arrastrarse
cut cut cut cortar
deal dealt dealt dar,
repartir
do did done hacer
draw drew drawn dibujar
dream dreamt/dreamed dreamt/dreamed soñar
drink drank drunk beber
drive drove driven conducir
eat ate eaten comer
fall fell fallen caer
feed fed fed alimentar
feel felt felt sentir
fight fought fought pelear
find found found encontrar
flee fled fled huir
fly flew flown volar
forget forgot forgotten olvidar
forgive forgave forgiven perdonar
forsake forsook forsaken abandonar
freeze froze frozen congelar
get got got tener,
obtener
give gave given dar
go went gone ir
grind ground ground moler
grow grew grown crecer
hang hung hung colgar
have had had tener

88
hear heard heard oír
hide hid hidden esconderse
hit hit hit golpear
hold held held tener,
mantener
hurt hurt hurt herir, doler
keep kept kept guardar
kneel knelt knelt arrodillarse
know knew known saber
lead led led encabezar
learn learnt/learned learnt/learned aprender
leave left left dejar
lend lent lent prestar
let let let dejar
lie lay lain yacer
lose lost lost perder
make made made hacer
mean meant meant significar
meet met met conocer,
encontrar
pay paid paid pagar
put put put poner
quit quit/quitted quit/quitted abandonar
read read read leer
ride rode ridden montar, ir
ring rang rung llamar por
teléfono
rise rose risen elevar
run ran run correr
say said said decir
see saw seen ver

89
sell sold sold vender
send sent sent enviar
set set set fijar
sew sewed sewn/sewed coser
shake shook shaken sacudir
shine shone shone brillar
shoot shot shot disparar
show showed shown/showed mostrar
shrink shrank/shrunk shrunk encoger
shut shut shut cerrar
sing sang sung cantar
sink sank sunk hundir
sit sat sat sentarse
sleep slept slept dormir
slide slid slid deslizar
sow sowed sown/sowed sembrar
speak spoke spoken hablar
spell spelt/spelled spelt/spelled deletrear
spend spent spent gastar
spill spilt/spilled spilt/spilled derramar
split split split partir
spoil spoilt/spoiled spoilt/spoiled estropear
spread spread spread extenderse
stand stood stood estar de
pie
steal stole stolen robar
sting stung stung picar
stink stank/stunk stunk apestar
strike struck struck golpear
swear swore sworn jurar

90
sweep swept swept barrer
swim swam swum nadar
take took taken tomar
teach taught taught enseñar
tear tore torn romper
tell told told decir
think thought thought pensar
throw threw thrown lanzar
tread trod trodden pisar
understand understood understood entender
wake woke woken despertarse
wear wore worn llevar
puesto
weave wove woven tejer
weep wept wept llorar
win won won ganar
wring wrung wrung retorcer
write wrote written escribir

91
PRONUNCIATION

92
93
Webpage for pronunciation: https://howjsay.com/

94
PRONOUNS

SUBJECT OBJECT POSSESSIVE POSSESSIVE REFLEXIVE

PRONOUNS PRONOUNS ADJECTIVES PRONOUNS PRONOUNS

I ME MY MINE MYSELF

YOU YOU YOUR YOURS YOURSELF

HE HIM HIS HIS HIMSELF

SHE HER HER HERS HERSELF

IT IT ITS ITSELF

WE US OUR OURS OURSERLVES

YOU YOU YOUR YOURS YOURSELVES

THEY THEM THEIR THEIRS THEMSELVES

95
SPELLING RULES OF VERBS ENDING IN -ing

The general rule is to add -ing at the end of the verb, but there are some
exceptions:

• If the verb ends in an -e, we remove -e and add -ing. For example:

- live: living
- have: having
- take: taking

• If the verb ends in "consonant + vowel + consonant", we double the

final consonant and add -ing. For example:

- stop: stopping
- sit: sitting
- get: getting

• If a two-syllable verb ends in a "consonant + vowel + consonant", we

do not double the final consonant when the stress is on the first
syllable. For example:

- happen: happening

96
 - enter: entering
- offer: offering

• We do not double the final consonant when the verb ends in w, x or y

or when the final syllable is not emphasized. For example:

- fix: fixing
- enjoy: enjoying
- snow: snowing

• If the verb ends in -ie we change it to -ying. For example:

- lie: lying
- die: dying
- tie: tying

• If the verb ends in consonant + vowel + l, we normally double the

final l and add -ing. For example:

- travel: travelling
- marvel: marvelling

• If the verb ends in a stressed vowel + r, we double the final r and add
-ing. For example:

- refer: referring
- defer: deferring

• If the verb ends in an unstressed vowel + r, we do not double the final

r and add -ing. For example:

- offer: offering
- suffer: suffering
- whisper: whispering

97
BIBLIOGRAPHY

Powell, M., Big Tree, & Macmillan Publishers. (2014). In Company 3.0:
Intermediate: Student's Book: B1+. London, England: Macmillan Education.

Vince, M., & McNicholas, K. (2008). Macmillan English grammar in context:

advanced: with key. Oxford, England: Macmillan Education.

Whitby, N. (2014). Business benchmark. Cambridge: Cambridge University

Press.

Yule, G. (2009). Oxford Practice Grammar Advanced: With Key Practice-boost

Cd-rom Pack. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press.

Zabala Peña, M. (2012). English for communications. [Madrid]: Macmillan

Profesional.

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