1.

What is philosophy and its

Philosophy:

Philosophy derived f from Greek word (φιλοσοφία), philosophia, literally "love of wisdom".
What is Philosophy?

Philosophy is study of general and fundamental problem.

Areas of philosophy:

Philosophy is a complex field that has many different areas of thought.

Areas of philosophy:

Aesthetics

Africana Philosophy

Ethics

Existentialism

Epistemology

Feminist Philosophy

History of Philosophy

Logic

Metaphysics

Philosophy of Language

Philosophy of Mind

Philosophy of Religion

Philosophy of Science

Political Philosophy

......................expalienation of Areas of philosophy

AESTHETICS

Aesthetics is the study of art and beauty as concepts as well as how we ought to evaluate potential
instances of beauty and artistic creation.

For example, here are some questions to ask in aesthetics:

What is beauty?

Are some things objectively beautiful?

Can something be humorous even if it never makes anyone laugh?

What makes something ugly or objectionable to view?

Why should we care about art?

AFRICANA PHILOSOPHY

Africana Philosophy deals with the systematic ways in which persons of color have been oppressed,
marginalized, and otherwise forgotten throughout the history of western and contemporary society. It
also proposes solutions for ensuring that the contributions of persons of color are appropriately
valued and taken seriously.

For example, here are some questions to ask in Africana philosophy:

What is race?

How should we view interracial marriage?

What is racism? Is it possible to get rid of it?

Do we owe slave reparations?

Should there be affirmative action? If so, in what form?

Why is diversity important?

ETHICS

Ethics deals with the question of how people ought to act with regard to themselves, other people,
and the world.

For example, here are some questions to ask in ethics:

What should I do in a particular situation?

How should I decide what to do in a particular situation?

When, if ever, is it okay to tell a lie?

Do animals have rights?

Should we care about strangers?

Are we ever in a situation where there is no morally correct course of action?

Should corporations have the same rights as people?

EXISTENTIALISM

Existentialism begins with the claim that existence precedes essence. This means that humans are
radically free to choose their own life plan and, furthermore, have an obligation to do so. Any
limitations placed on this radical freedom by either the government or other persons are moral
failings, according to existentialist thinkers.

For example, here are some existential questions to ask:

Why do certain life plans seem shallow while others seem deeply meaningful?

What is it to be authentic?

What is wrong with hypocrisy?

What is the purpose of life?

What attitude should we take toward life?

Is faith (religious faith, faith in the goodness of others, faith in a rational universe, etc) a form of
delusion?

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EPISTEMOLOGY

Epistemology deals with questions about what we know, under what conditions we have knowledge,
and what counts as a reason to believe something.

For example, here are some questions to ask in epistemology:

What can we be absolutely certain about?

Is there anything that we can never know?

When should we believe something just because someone else told us it was true?

What counts as evidence for a claim? How much evidence do you need in particular cases?

How much can I learn just by thinking on my own?

How do I know that the world as I see it is real, and not just an illusion?

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FEMINIST PHILOSOPHY
Feminist philosophy critically examines the ways in which gender, sex, race, class, etc. are socially
constructed, oppressive concepts. It also provides appropriate political responses to the subordination
of various groups.

For example, here are some questions to ask in feminist philosophy:

How do you tell when a group is oppressed?

What is it to be a woman or a man?

Should oppression and subordination be dealt with by political activism?

Is there a difference between gender and sex?

Should women be primary caregivers for children?

What does racial oppression have in common with gender oppression?

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HISTORY OF PHILOSOPHY

The history of philosophy examines the arguments of great thinkers of the past, tries to read them in
the most accurate way possible, and seeks to determine whether their thinking is applicable.

For example, here are some questions to ask in history of philosophy:

What is the relationship between the historical context in which philosophy is written and its
continued applicability?

Should historical philosophers be faulted for not anticipating contemporary issues?

What did Plato mean by the “soul” and how does that relate to what earlier and later thinkers meant
by the “soul”?

Should we take Rousseau’s recommendation for small, isolated city-states seriously in today’s world?

Was Hobbes a sexist? If so, how does this affect the rest of his views?

Are Aquinas’s five proofs for the existence of God successful?

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LOGIC

Logic is the study of abstract symbolic reasoning. It resembles mathematics in that it works from
axioms and seeks to prove theorems, but it differs in that it does not involve numbers. It is also self-
reflective in a way that mathematics tends not to be. Namely, it questions the truth of its own axioms.
For example, here are some questions to ask in logic:

What is infinity?

What makes an argument a good argument?

What is truth? What is falsity?

What is the fundamental meaning of words like “and,” “or,” “but,” and “therefore.”

Can something be both true and false? Or neither?

What is nonsense?

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METAPHYSICS

Metaphysics is the study of what exists and the structure within which the objects that make up the
world operate.

For example, here are some questions to ask in metaphysics:

What is time?

What does it mean for one event to cause another event?

Could everything exist only in my mind?

Do I have a soul? Or am I just a material body?

How am I the same person today that I was yesterday, or five years ago?

What makes something alive?

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PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE

Philosophy of language deals with conceptual problems that arise from reflection on the
representational function of language and how we manage to convey thoughts to one another.

For example, here are some questions to ask in philosophy of language:

Do the words we use refer to things in the world?

Can our language give us any clues about how we should categorize things?

Can I know what something is without being able to give a definition?

Can you translate a sentence from one language to another without losing any meaning?

Does the language we use influence how we think?

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PHILOSOPHY OF MIND

Philosophy of mind is the study of how thoughts, beliefs, and attitudes cohere to form an identity, and
how this identity relates to the physical body and brain.

For example, here are some questions to ask in philosophy of mind:

How is the mind different from the brain?

Could you replace your brain with a computer while retaining your identity?

Are computers alive?

Can aliens be persons?

What is it like to be a bat?

What is the relationship between memory and identity?

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PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGION

Philosophy of religion seeks to answer religious and spiritual questions with philosophical tools.

For example, here are some questions to ask in philosophy of religion:

Is the existence of earthly evil compatible with a Judeo-Christian God?

Is there a god of any kind?

What might a god be like?

Is reincarnation possible?

Is spirituality possible without religion? What does it mean to be spiritual?

Are all forms of Buddhism the same religion?

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PHILOSOPHY OF SCIENCE
Philosophy of science examines the validity and reliability of the scientific method and the unique
characteristics of empirical investigation.

For example, here are some questions to ask in philosophy of science:

What is good science? Do the criteria change over time?

What is pseudoscience?

What counts as a scientific explanation?

Is knowing that the sun has risen every day before a good reason to think it will rise tomorrow?

What is a theory?

Should the fact that scientific theories have often turned out to be false in the past lead us to question
the truth of current theories?

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POLITICAL PHILOSOPHY

Political philosophy is the study of how communities/governments/societies should be organized and

For example, here are some questions to ask in political philosophy:

What is authority? Who has it? Why do they have it?

What is justice? How do we achieve it?

Is war ever ethically permissible?

Why should we obey the law?

Is the government responsible for promoting equality?

Is it ever okay to rebel against the government?

How should political institutions treat historically separated or differentiated groups?

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Next: Social media & outreach

Contents: Philosophy resources for educators

CHAPTER 1: PHILOSOPHY FOR EDUCATORS

Previous: Philosophy 101 for educators

1Philosophy for educators

1.1Why teach philosophy?

1.2Philosophy 101 for educators

1.3Areas of philosophy

1.4Social media & outreach

1.5Reference resources

2Materials for elementary teachers

3Materials for middle school teachers

4Materials for high school teachers

Creative Commons License

According to some learned people, the word "Education" has been derived from the Latin term
"Educatum" which means the act of teaching or training. A group of educationists say that it has come
from another Latin word "Educare" which means "to bring up" or "to raise".

Concepts of education:-

According to a few others, the word "Education" has originated from another Latin term "Educere"
which means "to lead forth" or "to come out". All these meanings indicate that education seeks to
nourish the good qualities in man and draw out the best in every individual. Education seeks to
develop the innate inner capacities of man.

By educating an individual we attempt to give him some desirable knowledge, understanding, skills,
interests, attitudes and critical 'thinking. That is, he acquires knowledge of history, geography,
arithmetic, languages and sciences.

He develops some understanding about the deeper things in life, the complex human relations, and
the cause and effect relationship and so on. He gets some skills in writing, speaking, calculating,
drawing, operating some equipment etc. He develops some interests in and attitudes towards social
work, democratic living, co-operative management and so on.
As an individual in the society, he has to think critically about various issues in life and take decisions
about them being free from bias and prejudices, superstitions and blind beliefs. Thus, he has to learn
all these qualities of head, hand and heart through the process of education.

Definitions of Education:

The Concepts of Education as given by prominent Indian educationists are as follows.

Principles of Education and School Organization;

1. Rigved: "Education is something which makes man self-reliant and selfless".

2. Upanishad: "Education is for liberation".

3. Bhagavad Gita: "Nothing is more purifying on earth than wisdom."

4. Shankaracharya: "Education is the realization of self'.

5. Gunrunner: "Education is self realization and service to people".

6. Kautilya: "Education means training of the country and love of the nation".

7. Panini: "Human education means the training which one gets from nature".

8. Vivekanand: “Education is the manifestation of the divine perfection, already existing in man."
9. Gandhi: "By education, I mean an all-round drawing out of the best in the Child and man body,
mind and spirit."

10. Tagore: "The widest road leading to the solution of all our problems is education."

11. Sri Aurobindo: "Education which will offer the tools whereby one can live for the divine, for the
country, for oneself and for others and this must be the ideal of every school which calls itself
national".

Concepts of Education as defined by Western philosophers.

1. Socrates: "Education means the bringing out of the ideas of universal validity which are latent in
the mind of every man".

2. Plato: "Education is the capacity to feel pleasure and pain at the right moment. It develops in the
body and in the soul of the pupil all the beauty and all the perfection which he is capable of."

3. Aristotle: "Education is the creation of a sound mind in a sound body. It develops man's faculty,
especially his mind so that he may be able to enjoy the contemplation of supreme truth, goodness
and beauty of which perfect happiness essentially consists.

4. Rousseau: "Education of man commences at his birth; before he can speak, before he can
understand he is already instructed. Experience is the forerunner of the perfect".

5. Herbert Spencer: "Education is complete living".

6. Heinrich Pestalozzi: "Education is natural harmonious and progressive development of man's innate
powers".
7. Friedrich Willian Froebel: "Education is unfoldment of what is already enfolded in the germ. It is the
process through which the child makes internal external".

Some of the major objectives of Education are as follows:

Education has a great social significance. Since earliest Limes philosophers have devoted to it a good
deal of attention defining its nature and objectives.In modern times too eminent educational
philosophers and outstanding teachers have accorded education a high place in their works.

Various views expressed:

The seventeenth century Czech educator Johann Amos Comenius is considered the first great
educational philosopher of modern times. He criticized the prevalent emphasis upon logic and classics
and insisted that the method of instruction should be consistent with the mental development of the
child and that the subject-matter should be adopted to his interests.

John Locke, the English philosopher, wrote that education should aim al menial discipline and that it
should be secular rather than religious. Rousseau taught that the objective of education is to direct
the child’s natural inclinations wisely in order to train him properly. He also advocated popular
education.

Forebel, who was the founder of the kinder-garten, believed that the aim of education is “complete
living”. According to Pestalozzi education should aim at the harmonious development of all the
faculties, the ultimate objective being the improvement of the lot of the masses. John Dewy, the
father of the movement of progressive education, held that education is the living of life, not a
preparation of life. Auguste Comte, the father of Sociology, contended that education should aim at
cultivating sympathy for, and understanding of our fellowmen. Herbert Spencer asserted that
education should prepare the individuals for a well rounded life in society.Lester, F. Ward regarded
education as a means to social progress. Sumner held that education should produce in the individual
a “well developed critical faculty” which will prevent him from acting on mere suggestion or impulse
and from following uncritically traditional ways but instead will enable him to act rationally by
judgment. He, however, did not regard education as a panacea for all ills. He wrote, “We apply
schooling as a remedy for every social phenomenon which we do not like………….. our faith in the
power of book learning is excessive and unfounded.
It is a superstition of the age.” Giddings felt that education should aim to develop in individuals “self-
confidence and self-control, emancipate them from superstitious beliefs and ignorance, give them
knowledge, make them think realistically, and help them become enlightened citizens.” To Durkheim
the aim of education is “socialization of the younger generation.”

Thus, we find writers defining the objectives of education variously.

Following Arnold these objectives may be briefly described as follows:

(i) To Complete the Socialization Process:

The first and the foremost objective of education is “to complete the socialization process.” Though
family is a great source of socialization, yet in modern times it leaves much undone in the socialization
process. A sociologist explains the failure of the family to develop attitudes of responsibility in
children in the following words:

“The situation has arisen partly because of our shift to urban life and to what the sociologist calls
secondary-group organisation of society, that is, society marked by the disappearance of home and
garden, the predominance of specialization of occupation, individualization of choice as to friends,
religious life and forms of recreation, and a general “touch-and-go”, impersonal kind of social contact.
Life in our cities, as compared to country and village life of a few generations ago, is superficial.”

We pointed out how modern family has failed to perform the role of a socializing agency. The school
has stepped in the vacated places. Now it is felt that it is the school’s business to instill in the child the
qualities of honesty, fair play, consideration of others and a sense of right and wrong.

The parents who have lost control of their own adolescents now expect the class room to make up for
any deficiencies in home training of manners and morals. Mounting pressure is laid on the school to
perform the task of socialization which once was the function of the family. In addition to the
socialization of the young the school also devotes much of the time and energy to the themes of co-
operation, good citizenship and doing one’s duty. The patriotic sentiments are instilled in the
students.

(ii) Transmission of Cultural Heritage:

Secondly, education should aim at the transmission of cultural heritage. By cultural heritage we mean
the knowledge of the past, its art, literature, philosophy, religion and music. Through history text
books and indirectly through celebration of patriotic holidays the child is acquainted with his cultural
heritage. However, it is only at higher levels of education that any serious attempt is made to realise
this objective.

(iii) Reformation of Attitudes:Thirdly, education should aim at the reformation of attitudes wrongly
formed by the children already. Within his family group the child often comes to absorb a host of
attitudes, beliefs, loyalties and prejudices. To reform these beliefs and prejudices is the function of
education. Though the school cannot do much in this respect as the attendance of the child in the
school is intermittent, yet it should continue its efforts for his attitude reformation.

(iv) Occupational Placement:

Education has also a utilitarian end. It should prepare the adolescent for earning a livelihood.
Education should enable him to do a productive task and earn enough for himself and his family. It
should make the young person a citizen who produces to the limit of his natural and acquired
capacities. The youth should be enabled to play a productive role in society.

(v) To Instill the Sense of Competition:

The school’s main emphasis is upon personal competition. For each subject studies, each child is
compared with his companions by percentage of marks or division. The teacher praises those who do
well and frowns upon those who do not do well. The school not only ranks all those within its walls
but also sifts its raw material, passing some and rejecting others on the basis of intelligence and
diligence. It thus acts as a social selector.
Probably the best statement of the aims of education has been given by Cardinal Newman. Speaking
of the university education he says:

But a University training is the great ordinary means to a great but ordinary end: it aims at raising the
intellectual tone of society, at cultivating the public mind, at purifying the national taste, at supplying
the true principles to popular enthusiasm and fixed aims to popular aspiration, at giving enlargement
and sobriety to the ideas of the age, at facilitating the exercise of political power, and refining the
intercourse of private life.

It is this education which gives a man a clear conscious view of his own opinion and judgement, a
truth in developing them, an eloquence in expressing them, and a force in urging them. It teaches how
to see things as they are, to go right to the point, to disentangle a skein of thought, to defeat what is
sophisticated, and to discard what is irrelevant. It shows him how to accommodate himself to others,
how to throw himself into their state of mind, how to bring before them his own, how to influence
them, how to come to an understanding with them, how to bear with them.

He is at home in any society, he has common ground with every class; he knows when to speak and
when to be silent; he is able to converse; he is able to listen; he can ask a question pertinently and
gain a lesson reasonably, when he has nothing to impart himself; he is ever ready, yet never in the
way; he is a pleasant companion, and a comrade you can depend upon; he knows when to be serious
and when to trifle, and he has a sure tact which enables him to trifle with gracefulness and to be
serious with effect.

He has the repose of a mind which lives in itself, while it lives in the world, and which has resources
for its happiness at home when it cannot go abroad. He has a gift which serves him in public, and
supports him in retirement, without which good fortune is but vulgar, and with which failure and
disappointment have a charm. The art which tends to make a man all this, is in the object which it
pursues as useful as the art of wealth or the art of health , though it is less susceptible of methods and
less tangible, less complete in its result.

The Radhakrishnan Report on University Education in India adds: “The purpose of all education, it is
admitted by thinkers of East and West, is to provide a coherent picture of the universe and integrated
way of life.” And in fact if education can achieve this objective then any product of our educational
institutions could well play his role in life and help in building a better world.
Herein, it may also be remarked that education is sometimes used as a medium of indoctrination. In
the communist countries, the students are taught lessons in communism while in Islamic countries
they are taught Islamic fundamentalism. In India, although the old forms of social stratification based
on caste are coming to an end, yet social stratification is making its appearance in a new form.

The public school system has given birth to a new class—the upper class children who do not mix or
play with the lower class children getting education in Government schools. An elite’ class of children
taught western style of living has come up.

Education has accelerated the rate of social mobility. An educated youth finds no avenues open in the
village and consequently migrates to the city where he gets employed in a lucrative jobs which
enhances his social status. The modern society is more ‘open’ than the traditional one and one of the
reasons is education explosion.

BY:QAISAR SHABBIR

GOVT.DEGREE COLLEGE MIRPUR

PH:03441515417