This document discusses intersections and intersection design. It defines an intersection as an area where two or more roads meet and drivers must make decisions about which route to take. There are different types of intersections such as T-intersections, four-leg intersections, and multi-leg intersections. The document also discusses intersection components like auxiliary lanes that help control traffic flow. The primary goals of intersection design are reducing conflicts between vehicles/people and providing for user convenience.
This document discusses intersections and intersection design. It defines an intersection as an area where two or more roads meet and drivers must make decisions about which route to take. There are different types of intersections such as T-intersections, four-leg intersections, and multi-leg intersections. The document also discusses intersection components like auxiliary lanes that help control traffic flow. The primary goals of intersection design are reducing conflicts between vehicles/people and providing for user convenience.
This document discusses intersections and intersection design. It defines an intersection as an area where two or more roads meet and drivers must make decisions about which route to take. There are different types of intersections such as T-intersections, four-leg intersections, and multi-leg intersections. The document also discusses intersection components like auxiliary lanes that help control traffic flow. The primary goals of intersection design are reducing conflicts between vehicles/people and providing for user convenience.
This document discusses intersections and intersection design. It defines an intersection as an area where two or more roads meet and drivers must make decisions about which route to take. There are different types of intersections such as T-intersections, four-leg intersections, and multi-leg intersections. The document also discusses intersection components like auxiliary lanes that help control traffic flow. The primary goals of intersection design are reducing conflicts between vehicles/people and providing for user convenience.
intersection is an area, shared by two or more roads, whose main
function is to provide for the change of route directions. Intersections vary in complexity from a simple intersection, which has only two roads crossing at a right angle to each other, to a more complex intersection, at which three or more roads cross within the same area. Drivers therefore have to make a decision at an intersection concerning which of the alternative routes they wish to take. This effort, which is not required at non-intersection areas of the highway, is part of the reason why intersections tend to have a high potential for crashes. The overall traffic flow on any highway depends to a great extent on the performance of the intersections, since intersections usually operate at a lower capacity than through sections of the road.
The intersection is an important part of the highway system. The
operational efficiency, capacity, safety and cost of the system depend largely upon its design, especially in urban areas. The primary objective of intersection design is to reduce potential conflicts between vehicles, bicycles and pedestrians while providing for the convenience, ease and comfort of those traversing the intersection.
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5.2.Intersection Types and Configurations
Intersections can be categorized into four major types, as illustrated in:
a- Intersections at grade: The main objective in design of at-grade intersections is to reduce the potential severity of conflicts between vehicles and, at the same time, assure the convenience and ease of drivers in making the necessary maneuvers. The three basic types of at-grade intersections are the T intersection (with variations in the angle of approach), the four-leg intersection, and the multi-leg intersection. In each particular case the type is determined by the number of legs, the topography, the character of the intersecting highways, the traffic patterns and speeds, and the desired type of operation. Typical intersections are shown in Figure 1. Four-leg intersections vary from a simple 90-degree intersection of two lightly traveled local roads to a complex intersection of two main highways. Multi leg intersections are found in urban areas and, where they are required, they usually will involve a complex design.
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Figure (1) Intersection type
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5.2.1.Auxiliary lanes : Under conditions of relatively high traffic volumes, traffic congestion problems can be significantly alleviated with auxiliary lanes to handle turning movements. One common practice in commercial and industrial areas is to provide a continuous left turn lane (two-way) in a paved, flush, traversable median which can be used for left turn storage by traffic in either direction. The median lane should be 12 feet (3.6m), but not less than 10 feet (3.0m) wide and should be clearly marked for the purpose. Auxiliary lanes also can be introduced to provide for both left turns and right turns at intersections. The need for such lanes is determined by capacity analysis and the acceptable level of service designated for the facility. The lanes should be at least 9 feet (2.7m) wide for reconstruction and resurfacing projects and at least 10 feet (3.0m), preferably 12 feet (3.6m) for new construction projects. Auxiliary lane shoulders can be reduced to 2’ (0.6 m) wide on rural sections and 0’ wide on sections with curb and gutter. The length of auxiliary lanes consists of five components: 1) Approach Taper 2) Deceleration Length 3) Bay Taper 4) Storage Length, and 5) Departure Taper. 1) The length of the Approach Taper varies depending on the operating speeds. Guidelines for determining lengths are: For speeds of 45 mph (70 kph) and over: L = WS, (L = 0.6 WS) For speeds under 45 mph (70 kph): L = WS2 /60, (L= WS2/100) where: L = Length of entering taper, ft., (m) W = Width to be tapered, ft., (m) 4 Civil Engineering - Third stage Traffic Wisam Abdulla Najim ALHalfi
S = Operating Speed, mph (kph)
2) The Deceleration Length is that required for a comfortable stop from a speed that is typical of the average running speed on the facility. The Bay Taper can be considered part of the deceleration length. On many facilities, it is not practical to provide full length of auxiliary lane for deceleration and, in many cases; the storage length overrides the deceleration length. In such cases, at least part of the decelerations must be accomplished before entering the auxiliary lane. Inclusion of the taper length as part of the deceleration distance for an auxiliary lane assumes that an approaching turning vehicle can decelerate comfortably up to 10 mph (15 km/h) in a through lane before entering the auxiliary lane. Shorter auxiliary lane lengths will increase the speed differential between turning vehicles and through traffic. A 10 mph (15 km/h) differential is commonly considered acceptable on arterial roadways. Higher speed differentials may be acceptable on collector highways and streets due to higher levels of driver tolerance for vehicles leaving or entering the roadway due to slow speeds or high volumes. 3) The Bay Taper should be a straight line taper with ratios of 5:1 to 10:1. Higher speed facilities should generally have longer tapers. 4) The Storage Length should be sufficiently long to store the number of vehicles likely to accumulate during the average daily peak period. At unsignalized intersections the length (exclusive of taper) should be based on the 5 Civil Engineering - Third stage Traffic Wisam Abdulla Najim ALHalfi
number of vehicles likely to arrive in an average 2-minute period within
the peak hour. At signalized intersections, the required length depends on the signal cycle length, the signal phasing arrangement and the rate of arrivals and departures of left turning vehicles. In rural areas, a typical Storage Length of 100 feet (30m) should be used. 5) The Departure Taper should normally be equal in length to that of the approach taper and should begin opposite the beginning of the Bay Taper.
Figure2 Auxiliary Lane Components
b- Roundabouts: Roundabouts are another tool for the designer to consider in intersection design. A true roundabout is characterized by the following: • A central island of sufficient diameter to accommodate vehicle tracking and to provide sufficient deflection to promote lower speeds • Entry is by gap acceptance through a yield condition at all legs • Speeds through the intersection are 25 mph or less The use of roundabouts should be determined by a detailed intersection analysis, as is also necessary for other types of intersection design.
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c- Channelization : Channelization is the separation or regulation of conflicting traffic movements into definite paths of travel by traffic islands or pavement marking to facilitate the safe and orderly movements of both vehicles and pedestrians. Proper channelization increases capacity, improves safety, provides maximum convenience, and instills driver confidence. Improper channelization has the opposite effect and may be worse than none at all. Over channelization should be avoided because it could create confusion and worsen operations. Purpose Channelization of at-grade intersections is generally warranted for one or more of the following factors. • The paths of vehicles are confined by channelization so that not more than two paths cross at any one point. • The angle and location at which vehicles merge, diverge or cross are controlled. • The amount of paved area is reduced and thereby decreases vehicle wander and narrows the area of conflict between vehicles. • Clearer indications are provided for the proper path in which movements are to be made. • The predominant movements are given priority. • Areas are provided for pedestrian refuge. • Space is provided for traffic control devices so that they can be more readily perceived. • Prohibited turns are controlled.
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Islands A principle concern in channelization is the design of the islands. An island is a defined area between traffic lanes for control of vehicle movements. It may range from an area delineated by barrier curbs to a pavement area marked by paint. Islands are grouped in three major functional areas: • Channelizing Islands - designed to control and direct traffic movement, usually turning; • Divisional Islands - designed to divide opposing or same direction traffic streams, usually through movements; and • Refuge Islands - to provide refuge for pedestrians. Most islands combine two or all of these functions. Several types and shapes of islands are shown in Figure 3 . Islands may be delineated or outlined by a variety of treatments, depending on their size location and function. Types of delineation include: (1) raised islands outlined by curbs, (2) islands delineated by pavement markings, buttons, or raised (jiggle) bars placed upon all paved areas, and (3) non- paved areas formed by the pavement edges, possible supplemented by delineators on posts or other guide posts. Typically, in an urban setting the islands will be concrete and in a rural area the islands will be delineated with pavement parking tape or paint. Islands should be sufficiently large to command attention. Curbed islands normally should be no smaller than about 50 square feet (4.6m2) for urban streets and about 75 square feet (6.9m2) for rural intersections. However, 100 square feet (9.3m2) minimum is preferable for both. Triangular islands should not be less than about 12 feet (3.6m), preferable 15 feet (4.6m), on a side after rounding the corners. Elongated or divisional islands should not be less than 4 feet (1.2m) wide and 20 to 25 feet (6m to 7.6m) long.
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. d-Interchanges: An interchange is a system of interconnecting roadways in conjunction with one or more grade separations, providing for the movement of traffic between two or more roadways on different levels. Safety and traffic capacity are increased by the provision of interchanges. Crossing conflicts are eliminated by grade separations. Turning conflicts are either eliminated or minimized, depending upon the type of interchange design. Warrants For Interchanges
1. Freeways and Interstate Highways:
Interchanges should be provided on Interstate highways and freeways at all intersections where access is to be permitted. Other intersecting roads or streets are either grade separated, terminated, or rerouted. 2. Other Highways : On highways with only partial control or no control of access, 9 Civil Engineering - Third stage Traffic Wisam Abdulla Najim ALHalfi
definite warrants cannot be specified as they may differ at each
location.
The following factors should be considered in analyzing a particular
situation:
1. Reduction of Congestion Insufficient capacity at the intersection of heavily traveled highways results in intolerable delays and congestion in one or all approaches. The inability to provide the essential capacity with an intersection at grade provides the warrant for an interchange. 2. Improvement of Safety Some intersections at grade have a high accident rate even though serving light traffic volumes. Other more heavily traveled intersections have a history of serious accidents. If the safety at such intersections cannot be improved by more inexpensive methods, construction of an interchange facility may be warranted. 3. Site Topography At some sites, the topographic conditions may be such that the provisions of an interchange facility may entail no more cost than an at-grade intersection. 4. Traffic Volume For a new intersection under design, an interchange would be warranted where a capacity analysis indicates that an at-grade design cannot satisfactorily serve, without undue delay and congestion, the traffic volumes and turning movements expected.
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Interchange Types :
The selection of an interchange type and its design are influenced
by many factors, including the following: the speed, volume and composition of traffic to be served, the number of intersecting legs, the standards and arrangement of the local street system including traffic control devices, topography, right-of-way controls, local planning, proximity of adjacent interchanges, community and environmental impact consideration and cost. Even though interchanges are, of necessity, designed to fit specific conditions and controls, it is desirable that the pattern of interchange ramps along a freeway follow some degree of consistency. It is frequently desirable to rearrange portions of the local street system in connection with freeway construction in order to effect the most desirable overall plan of traffic service and community development.
The use of isolated ramps or partial interchanges should be avoided
because wrong-way movements are more prevalent at isolated off-ramps and there is less confusion to motorists where all traffic movements are provided at an interchange. In general, interchanges with all ramps connecting with a single cross street are preferred.
Interchange types are characterized by the basic shapes of ramps: namely;
diamond, loop, directional or variations of these types. Many interchange designs are combinations of these basic types.
