ELECTRICS

 1  –  BASIC  DIRECT  CURRENY  THEORY  

ELECTRIC  CHARGES   ELECTRICAL  FORCE   KIRCHOFF’S  LAWS  

     
• Electron  =  -­‐-­‐  ve   • EMF  /  potential  difference   • 1   Law   =   Sum   of   the   currents   entering   a  
st

• Proton  =  +  ve   • Potential   is   always   present  even  if  circuit   junction  must  equal  sum  of  currents  exiting.  
• Neutron  =  No  charge   is  open  (eg/  waterfall  and  dam)    
  • Voltmeter  connected  in  parallel   • 2nd   Law   =   In   any   closed   circuit   the   sum   of  
• Usually  electrons   and  protons  are  equal  and   • Voltmeter  must  have  high  resistance.   the  voltage  drops  equals  the  supply  voltage.  
the  atom  is  in  equilibrium.   • Has  symbol  V  or  U.  Measured  in  volts.  
• Ionization   upsets   the   balance   of   electrons  
and  atom  ends  up  with  a  net  charge.   RESISTANCE   POWER  (WATTS)  
   
!!
• Specific   resistance  is  the  resistance  offered   • 𝑃 = 𝑉  𝑥  𝐼 = 𝐼 ! 𝑅 =    
!
CONDUCTORS  &  ISULATORS   by  a  cube  of  material  at  00C.  This  allows  for  
  comparisons  of  materials.  
• The   outer   shell   =   Valence   sheet   and   the   • Conductance  is  the  reciprocal  of  resistance.   WEATSTONE  BRIDGE  
electrons  within  are  valence  electrons.      
𝑳𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉
• Few  valence  electrons  =  conductor   𝑹𝒆𝒔𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 = 𝑪𝒓𝒐𝒔𝒔  𝑺𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒂𝒍  𝑨𝒓𝒆𝒂  𝒙  𝑺𝒑𝒆𝒄  𝑹  (p)   • When   the   circuit   is   balanced   the  
• Lots  of  valence  electrons  =  insulator     galvanometer   (very   sensitive   ammeter)  
• Approx  4  =  semi-­‐conductor   • Positive   temperature   coefficient   =   reads  zero.  
resistance   increases   with   temp   increase   • R1  x  R3  =  R2  x  RX  
(most  conductors).  
TYPES  OF  DRIFT   • Negative   temperature   coefficient   found  in  
  insulators  and  semi-­‐conductors.   FINDING  VOLTAGE  DROP  
• Random  drift      
Directed  drift  (electron  flow)   𝑅!
• • Resistors  in  series:  RT  =  R1  +  R2  +  R3   𝑉! = ×  𝑉!  
• Electron  Flow  =  -­‐-­‐  VE  to  +  VE   ! !
• In  parallel:  ! =   ! + ! + !  
! ! 𝑅!
• Conventional  Flow  =  +  VE  to  -­‐  VE   ! ! ! !
 
• More  resistors,   when  added  in  parallel,   will  
ELECTRICAL  CURRENTS   cause   total   resistance   to   decrease   and  
  current  increase  (assuming  V  is  constant).  
𝑪𝒐𝒖𝒍𝒐𝒎𝒃𝒔
• 𝑨𝒎𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒆 = 𝑺𝒆𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅𝒔  
• The  coulomb  =  6.25  x  1018  electrons.   OHM’S  LAW  
• I  =  Q  /  t    
• Ammeter  connected  in  series.   • V  (Voltage)  =  I  (Current)  x  R  (Resistance)  
 ELECTRICS  2  –  AIRCRAFT  WIRING  AND  PROTECTIONS  

CIRCUIT  LIMITER  
DIPOLE  /  TWO  –  WIRE  SYSTEM   SHORT  CIRCUITS  
 
    • Will  allow  for  a  high  transient  load.  
• Mainly   used   on   aircraft   constructed   from   • Occurs  when  the  load  is  bypassed.   • Only  breaks  with  high  continuous  overload.  
non-­‐conductive  /  non-­‐metallic  materials.   • Extremely   high   current   will   flow   due   to   • Normally  used  to  protect  heavy  duty  circuits  such  as  
negligible  resistance.   the  bus  bar.  
• Can  cause  damage  to  circuit  /  burn  cables  /   • Constructed   of   a   high   melting   point   filament   in   a  
ceramic  housing.  
UNIPOLE  SYSTEM   cause  a  fire.  
 
CIRCUIT  BREAKERS  
• A.K.A:  Single  Pole  /  Earth  Return  System    
 
• Metallic   airframe   acts   as   the   return   path  
• Can  be  reset  so  no  spare  fuses  required.  
between  load  and  the  power  source.  
• Can  be  used  as  switches  to  aid  in  diagnosis  
• Reduces  wiring  and  saves  space  
• When  popped,  a  white  band  will  show.  
• Low  resistance  –  Due  to  big  cross  section  
• Protects   system   in   event   of   overload   /  
• Saves  weight    
OPEN  CIRCUITS   overheating.  Fitted  in  series.  
• Easier  to  trace  origin  of  wiring  faults.   Can  be  used  in  both  AC  &  DC  circuits.  
  •
• Short  circuits  are  more  likely  however.  
• When  there  is  a  break  in  a  conductor.   • Can  be  thermal  (bi-­‐metallic)  or  magnetic.  
    • Load   becomes   inoperative   like   opening   a   o Magnetic   is   quicker   to   respond   as   it  
switch.   does  not  rely  on  heating.  
COMMON  REFERENCE  POINT   Thermal  CB  protects  the  system  in  the  event  
  •
  of   a   prolonged  overcurrent  (delayed  due  to  
• Earth  is  always  0  V   time  taken  to  heat  bi-­‐metallic  strip)  
• If  earth  is  at  –  ve  terminal:   • CB   should   only   be   re-­‐set   if   necessary   for  
o “Negative  Earth”   safe   flight   and   landing   and   fault   has   been  
o +  ve  battery  terminal  is  12  V   rectified.  
• If  earth  is  at  +  ve  terminal:   • Only  one  reset  should  be  attempted.  
o “Positive  Earth”   FUSES  
o -­‐  ve  battery  terminal  is  -­‐12  V    
• Spare   Fuses  -­‐  10%  with  a  minimum  of  3  for  each   NON  –  TRIP  FREE  CB  
• In  either  case,  the  PD  is   still  12  V  (not  +12  V   rating.    
or  –  12V)   • Rated  in  amperes  (A)   • The   CB   can   be   held   in   against   the   fault  
  o The   amp   capacity   of   device   to   be   protected   however  which  can  cause  damage.  
  should  be  checked  before  installing.    
• Constructed   of   a   low   melting   point   filament   in   a  
glass  or  ceramic  envelope.  
• Located  as  near  to  the  supply  as  possible.  
• Only  ever  replace  once  in  flight.  
 ELECTRICS  2  –  AIRCRAFT  WIRING  AND  PROTECTIONS  

TRIP  FREE  CB   CAUSES  OF  STATIC  ELECTRICITY   GROUNDING  

     
• Secondary  contact  prevents  early  re-­‐set.   • Friction  (Skin  &  Propellers)   • Will   equalise   the   airframe   to   0V   and  
• It  is  not  possible  to  hold  the  contacts  closed   • Lightning   remove   the   static   charge   that   has   built   up  
while  current  fault  exists.   • Electrical  circuits  &  equipment   during  flight.  

EFFECTS  OF  STATIC  ELECTRICITY   STATIC  DISCHARGE  WICKS  

   
• Materials  attract  /  repel  each  other.   • If   a   static   charge   on   the   aircraft   fails   to  
• Sparks  and  associated  fire  risk.   dissipate,   corona   discharge   occurs.   (Min  
• ‘Pitting’  of  materials  leading  to  corrosion.   radii  /  causes  glow  +  interference)  
• Interference  with  radio  equipment.   • Static  discharge  wicks  on  the  trailing  edges:  
MECHANICAL  SWITCHES  
• St  Elmo’s  Fire   o Safely  dissipate  static  charges  
o Minimise  radio  interference  
o Limit   risk   of   transfer   of   electrical  
BONDING   charges  between  aircraft  and  electrified  
  clouds.  
• Bonding  is  the  connection  of  two  or   more  
metallic  objects  by  means  of  a  conductor.  
LANDING  PROTECTION  
• Achieved  using  bonding  strips.    
• Creates  a  faraday  cage.   • Earthing   strips   or  semi-­‐conductive  tyres  are  
• A  electrical  path   of  negligible  resistance   is   used  to  eqaulise  to  earth  potential.  
created  throughout  the  structure.  
LIGHTNING  STRIKES  
STATIC  ELECTRICITY   PURPOSE  OF  BONDING    
    • Some  components  may  become  magnetised  
• “A   build   up   of   electrical   charge   on   the   • Equalising  of  static  charges  /  potential   if  struck  and  compass  becomes  inaccurate.  
surface  objects.”   • Provide  a  single  earth  for  unipole  system   • Some  electrical  systems  may  also  fail.  
• Occurs   when   electrons   are   transferred   • Safe  transmission  of  lightning  discharges  
between  
      materials.   A.K.A   Tribolectric   • Reduce  interference  (sign  of  poor  bonding)  
SCREENING  
effect.   • Prevention  of  electric  shocks  
 
• Most   likely  in  dry   /  low   humidity   air  or  in   • Prevention  of  static  discharges  (fire  haz)  
• Enclosing   of   cables   in   a   continuous   metal  
extreme  turbulence.   • Provides   safe   distribution   of   electrical  
sheath  to  reduce  radio  interference.  
charges  and  currents  
 ELECTRICS  3  –  BATTERIES  

HOW  A  CELL  WORKS   ALKALINE  CELL  /  NiCad   BATTERY  CAPACITY  

     
• Reduction  –  Loss  of  electrons  at  cathode  (+)   • Deposits  =  Cadmium  &  Nickel  Hydroxide   • Measure  of  the  total  energy  it  contains  
• Oxidation  –  Gain  of  electrons  at  anode  (-­‐)   • Spillage  =  Boric  Acid   • Depends  on  size  and  number  of  plates  
• Reduction  /  oxidation  caused  by  electrolyte   • Charging  =  Pulse  Charging  (Faster  than  LA)   • Measured  in  ampere  hours  (Ah)  
• PD  exists  as  electrolyte  is  a  conductor   •  Risk  of  thermal  runaway   • Ah  =  A  x  h  
• EMF  reduced  as  deposits  build  up.     • Actual  capacity  checked  every  3  months.  
o Tendency  for  voltage  to  decrease  under   o Must  be  80%  +  of  rated  capacity  
load  when  almost  fully  discharged.       • Typical  capacity  in  aviation  12-­‐  18  Ah  
• Recharged  =  DC  of  slightly  higher  voltage  

CELL  TYPES   BATTERY  VENTING  

   
• Primary  Cell  –  Not  rechargeable  (10  mins)   • Used   to   remove   /   contain   volatile  
o Used  for  emergency  lighting   hydrogen  gas  given  off  during  charging  due  
• Secondary  Cell  –  Rechargeable  (30  mins)   to  temperature  increase.  
o Used  for  aircraft  batteries   ALKALINE  VS  LEAD-­‐ACID   • Water   lost   by   evaporation   must   be   topped  
  up  from  time  to  time  with  distilled  water.  
LEAD-­‐ACID   • Lead-­‐acid   have   insufficient   capacity   and   • Lead-­‐Acid  Venting:  
  are  volume  and  weight  inefficient.   o Non-­‐Spill   Vent   (Prevents   electrolyte  
• Deposits  =  Lead  Sulphate   • Alkaline  has  a  more  stable   voltage   output   spillage  during  maneuvers)  
before  a  rapid  discharge.     o Cell   Cross-­‐Flow   System   (passes   cabin  
• Spillage  =  Bicarbonate  of  Soda  
• Alkaline  suffer  from  the  memory  effect.   pressurisation  air  over  top  of  cells)  
• Charging  =  Constant  Voltage  Method  
• Alkaline   weighs   less   than   lead   –acid   =>   o Sealed  Batteries  (aerobatic  /  military)  
most  commonly  used.   • Alkaline  Venting:  
• Wider  permissible  temperature  range   o Semi-­‐Open  (uses  Cross-­‐Flow  System)  
• Good  storage  capability   o Sealed  Batteries  
• Sturdiness  owing  to  metal  casing  
THERMAL  RUNAWAY  (DURING  CHARGING)  
 
          • Temp  Inc  -­‐-­‐-­‐>   Internal  Resistance  Decreases  
-­‐-­‐-­‐>  Current  Increases  -­‐-­‐-­‐>  Temp  Inc  
• Indicated   by   a  significant  increase   in   battery  
temperature.  
 ELECTRICS  3  –  BATTERIES  

         
COLD  TEMPERATURES   BATTERY  PURPOSE  
   
• Reduces  the  capacity  of  the  battery.   • One   of   the   main   functions   of   the   battery   in  
• Constant  charge  /  thermal  blanket   large   transport   aircraft   is   to   be   an  
• A   fully   charged   lead-­‐acid   battery   is   less   emergency  source  of  electrical  power.  
likely  to  freeze  in  cold  temperatures.  

SERIES  VS  PARALLEL  

 
• In   Series   -­‐   Add  voltages,  capacity  the   same  
as  one.  
• In   parallel   -­‐   Add   capacities,   voltage   the  
same  as  one.  

• Charge   state   is   ascertained   by   comparing  

on-­‐load  and  off-­‐load  battery  voltages.  
• In   a  lead-­‐acid  battery,  this  can  also  be  done  
by  measuring  the  SG  of  the  electrolyte.  

BROKEN  CELLS  
 
• If  one   of  the  cells  within   a   Lead-­‐acid  battery  
has   a   broken   connection,   it   is   rendered  
unserviceable.  
o Since  cells  are  connected  in  series.  

BATTERY  CONTROL  UNIT  

 
• Isolates  battery  from  bus  when:  
o Battery  charge  has  been  completed  
o Battery  overheat  condition  occurs  
o Internal  short  circuit  occurs  
 ELECTRICS  4  –  MAGNETISM  &  ELECTROMAGNETISM  

THEORY  OF  MAGNETISM   DOMAIN  THEORY   HYSTERISIS  (LAG)  LOOP  

     
• A   static   electron   will   be   surrounded   by   an   • In   an   unmagnetised   metal,   domains   are   • When   a   magnet   can   no   longer   accept  
electrostatic  field.   randomly  arranged  and  the  overall  field  is   magnetism,  it  is  said  to  be  saturated.  
• A   moving   electron   (spins   round   its   own   zero.   • Once   a   material   has   been   driven   to  
axis)  produces  a  magnetic  field.   • When   subjected   to   a   strong   magnetic   field,   saturation   (max   flux   density),   the  
• The   electrostatic   field   is   at   right   angles   to   the   domains   line  up  and   the   metal   becomes   magnetizing   force   can   be   removed   but   the  
the  magnetic  field.   a  magnet.   material   will   retain   most   of   its   flux  
• This   combination   forms   an   (remanent  flux).  
electromagnetic  field.   • A   coercive   force   (reversing   the  
FERROMAGNETISM   magnetizing   force)   must   be   applied   to  
  remove  the  flux.  
LOADSTONE   • The   property   of   a   material   enabling   it   to   • Flux   density   lags   behind   the   changing  
  become   a   magnet   when   placed   in   a   values  of  magnetizing  forces.  
• Other   than   earth,   loadstone   is   the   only   magnetic  field.  
natural  magnet.   • EG/  Iron,  Cobalt  &  Nickel                
• All  other  magnets  are  produced  artificially.   • Soft  Iron  (Temporary  Magnet)   MAGNETISM  &  CURRENT  FLOW  
o Easily  magnetized    
o Easily  looses  magnetism   • When   current   flows   through   a   conductor,   a  
MAGNETIC  FLUX  LINES   • Hard  Iron  (Permanent  Magnet)   magnetic   field   is   produced   around   the  
  o Hard  to  magnetise   conductor.  
• Originate  from  NP  and  go  to  SP.   o Retains  magnetism  very  well   • Magnitude  ∞  Current  Flow  
o This  property  of  direction  =  polarity  
• Right  hand  grasp  rule:  
• Within  the  magnet  flux  lines  run  from  SP   o Thumb  =  Direction  of  current  flow  
to  NP.  
o Fingers  =  Direction  of  magnetic  field  
o This  provides  for  a  complete  loop.  
• Flux  lines  never  cross  each  other.  
• Flux  density  is  greatest  inside  the  magnet.  

CUTTING  A  MAGNET  
 
• Each   individual   piece   forms   a   complete  
magnet  although  strength  is  decreased.  
 ELECTRICS  4  –  MAGNETISM  &  ELECTROMAGNETISM  

               
DIRECTION  OF  CURRENT  FLOW   RELAY  
   
  • A  relay  is  an  electrically  operated  switch  
• An   electromagnet   is   used   to   operate   a  
hinged  switching  mechanism.  

SOLENOID  
 
• A  relay  that  can  handle  high  power  
• Differs   from   relay   by  using   a   plunger   type  
COIL   switch  
  o Contains   a   moving   soft   iron   bar   and  
• When   a   wire   loop   is   created,   there   is   a   mechanical  linkage.  
greater  flux  density  in  the  centre  of  loop.   • Allows   control   switches   to   be   smaller   and  
• Multiple  loops  can  be  used  to  form  a  coil.   situated  remotely  from  switched  element:  
• A   coil   takes   on   the   same   properties   as   a  
permanent  magnet  with  polarity.  
• Unlike  a  normal  magnet,  this  can  be  turned  
on  and  off  easily.  
• Options  for  making  the  magnet  stronger:  
o More  current  
o More  loops  
o Soft  iron  core  
• Determining  polarity  of  coil:  
o RH  Fingers  =  Direction  of  current  flow  
o RH  Thumb  =  Direction  of  NP  
 ELECTRICS  5  –  DC  GENERATORS  

FARADAY’S  LAW   BASIC  OPERATION   MULTI  SEGMENT  ARMATURE  

     
• The  amount  of  EMF  induced  depends  on:   • Stator  –  Casing  that  normally  remains   static   • More   armatures   can   be   used   to   provide   a  
o Strength  of  magnetic  field.   and  contains  field  windings.   more  stable  output  voltage.  
o Angle  at  which  conductor  cuts  the  field.   • Rotor  –  Contains  armature  and  commutator    
o Length  on  conductor  in  field.   and  normally  rotates  within  stator.  
o Speed  of  conductor  with  respect  to  field    
o A     • Battery   used   to   pass   current   through   the  
• Strength  is  the  most  important  factor.   field  winding,  inducing  an  magnetic  field.  
• The   rotor   is   turned   by   the   engine   and   a  
FLEMING’S  RIGHT  HAND  RULE   current  is  induced  within  the  armature.  
  • Part   of   the   induced   EMF   now   provides   the  
• First  Finger  =  Field   current   for   field   windings   so   battery   no   SERIES  WOUND  GENERATOR  
longer  required.    
• Centre  Finger  =  Current  
• The   same   effect   occurs   if   the   stator   is   • Different   arrangements   exist   for   feeding  
• Thumb  =  Motion  
rotated   and  the   rotor   held   constant.   It  is  the   current  back  to  the  field  windings.  
relative  movement  that  matters.   • In   series   wound,   the   field   windings   are  
• Conditions  required  to  start  are:   connected  in  series  with  armature.  
o Presence  of  a  permanent  field   • Not  normally  used   as   voltage  is  difficult  to  
o Minimum  rotation  speed   regulate.  
o As   loads   connected   in   parallel,  
resistance   drops   when   more   are  
COMMUTATOR  
added.  
 
o Current  will  increase  and  this  will  be  
• The  generator  will  output  AC  naturally.  
fed  straight  back  into  field  wirings.  
• A  commutator  is  used  to  rectify  to  DC.   o Voltage  output  increases.  
• Contains  carbon  brushes.  
• Ensures   that   only   positive   current   flows   to  
positive  terminal  and  vice  versa.   SHUNT  WOUND  GENERATOR  
 
EMF  /  LORENTZ  FORCE   • Field   windings   are   connected   in   parallel  
                  QUILL  DRIVE  
  with  armature.  
• When   a   conductor   cuts   the   field   lines   of   a    
• Increased   loads   will   cause   a   slight   fall   in  
magnetic   field,   an   EMF   (Lorentz   force)   is   • Weak   point   designed   to   shear   and   protect   voltage  output  but  this  is  predictable.  
induced  in  the  conductor.   the  engine  if  the  generator  seizes.  
 ELECTRICS  5  –  DC  GENERATORS  

                   
REVERSE  CURRENT  CIRCUIT  BREAKER  
 
• In   the  event  of  a  short   circuit,   protects   the  
LC  +  DCO  +  GEN  from  reverse  current.  
• Activates   when   reverse   current   of   300   –  
500  amps  is  sensed.  
• Electromagnetic   type   CB   (faster   reaction  
COMPOUND  WOUND   than  thermal)  
  • Can  only  be  manually  reset  once  tripped.  
• Some   field   winding   in   series   and   some   in  
parallel.   SINGLE  ENGINE  DC  SYSTEM  
• Not  widely  used  except  on  larger  aircraft.   GEN  OVERHEAT  
 
• GEN  cooling  fan  exhaust  >  1600C  
VOLTAGE  REGULATOR  
  • Overheat  lamp  illuminates  
• As  engine  RPM  increases,   the   output   voltage   • GEN   should   be   manually   turned   on   and   off  
will  vary  unless  it  is  corrected  for.   again  after  allowing  it  to  cool.  
• Voltmeter   senses   circuit   (output)   voltage  
and   then   controls   the   generator   output   by   OVERVOLTAGE  
varying  the  field  strength.    
• Uses   carbon   pile   which   is   a   mechanical   • When  voltage  regulator  u/s  
variable  resistor.   • Can   be   isolated   automatically   with   DCO   or  
o Resistance   decreases   when   manually  with  GEN  switch.  
compressed   and   increases   when   DIFFERENTIAL  CUT  OUT  (DCO)  
expanded.     AMMETER  
• Engine  RPM  increased...   • Commands   the   line   contactor   (relay   type    
o Higher  DC  voltage  output  from  gen   switch)  to  join  generator  to  bus  bar  once  it’s   • Zero   Left   –   Reads   only   when   generator   is  
o Solenoid  receives  more  voltage   producing  enough  electricity.   providing  current.  
o Carbon  pile  extended   • Protects  the  generator  from  battery  voltage   • Centre   Zero   –   Reads   –   ve   when   battery  
o Resistance   increased   and   current   when  the  engine  is  shut  down.   providing   and   +   ve   when   generator  
into  field  wirings  is  reduced   • Isolates   the   generator   when   a   reverse   providing.  
o Generator  output  reduced   current   of   20   –   30   amps   is   sensed.   (Will   o High   charge   rate   after   start   is   to   be  
• Carbon  pile  and  field   wirings  are  connected   allow  11.5  V  at  GEN  and  12  V  at  battery)   expected   (battery   recharging)   but  
in   series   with   each   other   but   in   a   shunt   • A   generator   warning   light   will   illuminate   should   return   to   normal   within   a   short  
wound  arrangement.   when  GEN  V  <  BATT  V  and  switch  is  open.   time.  
 ELECTRICS  5  –  DC  GENERATORS  

BUSBARS   TWIN  ENGINE  DC  SYSTEM   GROUND  POWER  

   
• Busbars   are   low   resistance   conductors   that  
SPLIT  VS  PARALLEL   • Short   auxiliary   pin   in   the   ground   power  
serve   as   current   distribution   points.   They   socket  operates  a  hold  off  relay.  
provide   a   convenient   means   of   connecting    
• Split   Busbar   –   Each   engine   feeds   o Disconnects   GEN  &   BATT   when   ground  
positive  supplies  to  the  various  loads.   power  is  in  use.  
• Loads  on  the  busbar  are  connected  in  parallel.   independent  busbars.  
o Prevents   thermal   runway   from  
• They   can   be   used   to   group   loads   according   to   • Parallel   Busbar   –   Busbars  share  load  from  
overcharging  battery.  
their  importance.   each  generator.  This  is  the  most  common.  
• In   the   event   of   generator   failure,   non-­‐essential   o This  provides  max  power.  
loads  can  be  q uickly  turned  off.  
  FEEDER  FAULTS  
• ESS  BUSBAR  (Essential)    
LOAD  SHARING  
o Flight  Instruments   • On   a   DC   circuit,   results   from   a   flux  
 
o Compass   unbalance   between  the   voltage   coil  and   the  
• Load   sharing   is   required   to   ensure   the   same  
o Radio   lifespan  of  each  generator.   series  winding  turn.  
o Cockpit  Lighting   • Also  provides  greater  redundancy.  
• NON-­‐ESS  BUSBAR  (Non-­‐Essential)   • Equalising   coils   are   installed   to   the   voltage   VOLTAGE  REGULATOR  CONT.  
o Galley  services  etc   regulators   in   order   to   adjust   their   output   as    
• HOT  BAT    BUSBAR   required  by  varying  current  in  field  coil.  
o Connected  directly  to  battery   • If   electrical   load   is   increased,   the   VR   will  
• A   differential   relay   is   used   to   ensure   the   increase   the   intensity   of   the   excitation  
o There  is  no  switch   for  this  bus  bar  due  to  
generator  voltages  are  almost  equal  before  they   current.  
the  importance  of  the  loads  
are  paralleled.  
o Emergency  Lights  
o Fire  Extinguishers   GENERATOR  BREAKER  
o Landing  Gear    
• BAT  BUSBAR  
• Closes   when   voltage  of   generator   is   greater  
o Enough  for  initial  check  and  start  
than  the  battery  voltage.  
• Opens   when   battery   voltage   is   greater   than  
INSTRUMENTS   generator  voltage.  
 
• Ammeter   and  voltmeter   used   to   monitor   electrical  
power.  
LOAD  SHEDDING  
• When  multiple  generators  are  installed:    
o          Ammeter  
            for  each  channel   GENERATOR  COOLING   • Results  in  a  current  decrease.  
o Single  multi-­‐channel  voltmeter  fitted    
• Achieved  using  ram  air.  
 ELECTRICS  6  –  DC  MOTORS  

BASIC  PRINCIPLE   SELF-­‐REGULATION   STARTER  MOTOR  

     
• When   a   current   carrying   conductor   is   • DC  motors  are  self-­‐regulating.   • Frictional   clutch   will  slip   when  force  from  
placed  in  a  magnetic  field,  the  field   around   • On  Load  =  Stabilises  at  lower  speed   motor  becomes  too  great.  
the   conductor   reacts   with   the   magnetic   • Off  Load  =  Stabilises  at  higher  speed   o Protects  the  engine  gearbox  
field  causing  the  conductor  to  move.  
 
• In   the   example   below,   flux   density   is  
greatest   at   A   (both   conductor   field   and  
magnetic   field   in   same   direction)   so   the  
conductor  moves  down.  
• Flemings   left   hand   rule   (motors)   used   to  
determine  direction  of  motion.   COMBINED  STARTER  /  GENERATOR  SYS  
• Reversing   the   current   would   cause   the    
conductor  to  move  in  the  opposite  direction.   • Since   a   motor   is   essentially   a   generator  
provided   with   current,   they   can   be  
combined  into  one  unit.  
TYPES  OF  DC  MOTOR   • When   both   batteries   are  in   parallel,   24V   is  
  delivered   to   the   ESS   BUS   and   24V   to   the  
• Series  Motor   STARTER  BUS.  
o When  off-­‐loaded,  rpm  is  very  high.   • When   batteries   in   series,   24V   is   delivered  
o Must  be  started  on  load.   to  ESS  BUS  and  48V  to  the  STARTER  BUS.  
o Ideal   as   a   starter  motor   due   high   torque   o Starter   initially   starts   with   24V   to  
BACK  EMF  
at  low  rpm.   reduce   initial   torque   thereby  
 
• Shunt  Motor   increasing  it’s  life.  
• Induced  motion  causes  a  back  EMF.  
o Fairly  constant  rom  across  loads   • The  switching  of  series  to  parallel  is  done  by  
• Direction   determined   using   Flemings   Right   o Used  for  fuel  pumps,  fans  etc  
Hand  Rule  (Generators)   the  speed  switch.  
• Compound  (Not  normally  used  due  cost)   o Connects  in   series  when  RPM   between  
• More   current   through   conductor   results   in   a    
stronger  back  EMF.   10  –  60%.  
• The  control  and  protection   unit  is  located  
                        in  parallel  with  the  generator.  
o Contains   DCO   +   LC   +   RCCB   +   Voltage  
Regulator  
 ELECTRICS  6  –  DC  MOTORS  

                         
  • Limit   switches   stop   the   motor   when   they  
read  the  desired  setting.  
o They   are   normally   closed   to   allow  
current   flow   to   power   the   motor   in  
the  correct  sense.  
o They  open  when  the  actuator  reaches  
it’s  limit   of   travel  in  order   to   stop   the  
motor.    
• Electromagnetic   brakes   prevent   over  
travel  /  undesired  movement  when  motor  is  
switches  off.  
ACTUATORS  
 
• High-­‐speed,   reversible,   series-­‐wound  
motors.  
• Convert   high   motor   speed   into   a   high  
driving  torque.  
• They   are   essentially   motors   specifically  
designed  for  mechanical  movement.  
 
• Reversibility  is  achieved  by:  
o Reversing  the  current  through  armature  
or  field  coil  
o Reversing   the   polarity   of   either   the  
stator  or  the  rotor.  
o Cannot  do  both  at  same  time  however.  
• Series-­‐wound   in   order   to   achieve   high  
torque  initially  to  overcome  inertia.  
• Friction   plates   (single   /   multi   plate)   must  
be  installed  to  prevent  damage.  
 
• Rotary  Actuator  –   Used  to  operate  valves  in  
air  con  and  fuel  system  etc.  
• Linear  Actuator  –  Used  to  operate  flaps  etc    
 ELECTRICS  7  –  SINGLE  ENGINE  AIRCRAFT  ELECTRICAL  SYSTEM  

RECTIFIER     3  PHASE  AC  GENERATOR  (RECTIFIER)  

• In   the   second   phase,   current   now   enters   from    
the  lower  supply  terminal  since  AC  has  changed  
PURPOSE   direction.  
  • Current  can  only  travel  through  diode  B  and  will  
• Converts  AC  to  DC   flow   through   the   load   in   the   same   direction  
as  before.  
• It  can  only  exit  through  D.  
HALF  WAVE  RECTIFIER  
 
• A   diode   is  used  which   only  allows  current  flow                              
in  one  direction.  
OUTPUT  SMOOTHING  
• A  pulse   DC   current  is  produced  however  which  
 
is  inefficient.  
• The  DC   output  using   a   full  wave  rectifier  varies  
between  max  voltage  a  0  V  however.  
• A   capacitor   is   used   to   fill   the   voltage   gaps   and  
LIGHT  AIRCRAFT  DC  SYSTEM  
give  a  constant  DC  output.  
 
• Known  as  a  frequency  wild  DC  system  
o Alternator  speed  is  dictated  by  engine  RPM  
ALTERNATOR   so   the   frequency   is   not   regulated   at   a  
FULL  WAVE  RECTIFIER  
  constant  value.  
• 4   diodes   are   used   in   a   diode   bridge   • Voltage   regulator   will   maintain   an   output   of  
3  PHASE  AC  GENERATOR  (ALTERNATOR)   13.6   V   –   14.3   V   by   altering   the   current   into   the  
configuration.    
  rotor  field  windings.  
• A   more   efficient   way   of   generating   electricity   • Overvoltage   relay   protects   loads   from  
• In   the   first   phase,   current   can   only   travel   compared   with   a   DC   generator,   is   by   using   a   3  
through  diode  A  then  through  the  load.   overcurrents.  
phase  AC  generator.   • A  diode  is  used  instead  of  an  RCCB  
• The  return  path  can  only  travel  through  diode  C.   • Here,   the   roles   of   the   rotor   and   stator   are  
o It   will   avoid   D   and   B   since   there   is   already   • Low   Voltage   Lamp   –   Flashes   when   the   output  
reversed.   voltage  drops  below  13.6  V  
current  flowing  the  other  side  of  it  (path  of   o Magnetic  field  rotates  on  rotor  
least  resistance).   • ALT   Light   –   Illuminates   when   alternator   is  
o Conductors  (armuature)  are  on  stator   offline.  
• 3  phase  rectifier  is  required   • The   rotor   is   driven   by   a   drive   belt   so   in   the  
o Consists  of  6  diodes   event   of   alternator   seizure   the   engine   is  
o Only  4  diodes  in  use  at  any  one  time   protected.  
• Capacitor  is  used  for  output  smoothing  
 ELECTRICS  7  –  SINGLE  ENGINE  AIRCRAFT  ELECTRICAL  SYSTEM  

                             
LIGHT  AIRCRAFT  DC  SYSTEM  
 

AMMETER  
 
• Zero-­‐Left  /  Loadmeter  
o Measures   the   output   current   from   the  
alternator.  
 

• Centre  Reading  Ammeter  

o Measures   the   flow   of   current   to   /   from   a  
battery.  
o Shows  the  battery  charge  /  discharge  rate  
 

• Both  types  are  sometimes  fitted  to  provide  a  full  

picture  of  system  behavior.  
 ELECTRICS  8  –  INDUCTANCE  AND  CAPACITANCE  

INDUCTANCE   INDUCTORS  IN  SERIES  &  PARALLEL   CHARGING  /  DISCHARGING  

   
• In  series:  Inductances  are  directly  added.   • Initially,   both   plates   have   the   same   number   of  
DEFINITION   • In  parallel:  Reciprocals  are  added.   free  electrons.  
  • When   the   supply   is   connected,   a   surplus   of  
• Considering   the   current   flow   being   reversed   electrons   occurs   on   one   plate   and   a   deficiency  
through   a   conductor   (as   with   AC   current),   the   CAPACITANCE   on  the  other.  
flux   lines   will   change   when   the   current   is   • A   potential   difference   equal   but   opposite   to  
reversed.   the  supply  is  now  created  across  the  plates.  
• The  effect  of  this  is  that  a  back  EMF  is   induced   DEFINITION  
with  opposes  the  change  in  current  flow.    
  • The   property   of   an   electrical   component  
  which   enables   it   to   store   energy   in   an  
  electrostatic  field.  
     
  • Unit  of  measurement  is  the  Farad  (C)   • When   it   is   removed   from   the   supply   and  
  o C  =  Capacitance  in  Farads   connected   across   a   resistor,   the   capacitor   will  
  o Q  =  Charge  in  coulombs   discharge.  
  o V  =  Voltage  in  volts      
   
  𝑸
  𝑪 =  
𝑽
• Inductance   is   a   measure   of   the   ability   for   a  
device  /  circuit  to  produce  a  back  EMF.  
o High  Inductance  =  Greater  back  EMF  
CONSTRUCTION  
 
 
• The   unit   of   measurement   for   inductance   is   the  
• Two  metal  plates  separated  by  a  non-­‐conductive   CAPACITORS  IN  SERIES  &  PARALLEL  
Henry  (H)    
material  called  a  dielectric.    
• Capacitance  depends  on:   • In  series:  Add  reciprocals  
INDUCTORS   o Area  of  the  plates  used  (A)   o Thickness  decreased  =>  Capacitance  Decr.    
  o Type  of  dielectric  (k)   • In  series:  Add  directly  
• A   device   designed   to   have   a   specific   value   of   o Distance  between  plates  (d)   o Area  increased  =>  Capacitance  Incr.    
inductance  is  known  as  an  inductor.    
𝒌𝑨
• The  inductance  of   an   inductor  can   be   increased   𝑪  ∞                                  
by:   𝒅
 
o Increasing  the  number  of  coil  turns  
o Inserting  a  soft  iron  coil   • Can  be  fixed  or  variable  
 ELECTRICS  9  –  BASIC  AC  THEORY  

WHY  AC   ROOT  MEAN  SQUARED  (RMS)  VALUE   IN  PHASE  

     
• Easy  to  transform  from  one  voltage  to  another   • In  reality,  it  is  useful  to  compare  the  efficiency  of   • If  the  peaks   and   troughs   of   two   waves   at   the  
• Easier  to  construct  AC  generators   an  AC  supply  with  that  of  a  DC  supply.   same  frequency  coincide,  they  are  said  to  be  in  
• Easy  to  rectify  to  DC     phase.  
• Information  can  be  sent  on  AC   • Since   AC   follows   a   sine   pattern,   electrons   are  
effectively  ‘lost’  in  comparison  to  DC.  
• If  a  bulb  is  connected  to  firstly  a  10V  AC  supply  
TERMINOLOGY   then  a   10V  DC   supply,  it  will   shine  less  brightly  
  in  the  AC  circuit.  
• Instantaneous   Voltage   –   Voltage   at   a   specific   • If   it   is   connected   to   a   10V   AC   supply   then   a   7V  
instant  in  time.   DC   supply,   the   brightness   will   be   the   same   in  
• Peak   Value   –   One   positive   peak   value   and   one   both  cases.  
negative  peak  value  occurs  during  each  cycle.                                      
• Peak  To  Peak  Value  =  Peak  Value  x  2   • The   DC   voltage   /   current   that   produces   an  
equivalent  heating  effect  is  calculated  by:   IN  PHASE  
   
RMS  Value  =  0.707  x  Peak  Value   • In  the  example  below,  the  peaks  and  troughs  do  
  not  coincide.  
• The  RMS  measure  is  used  when  stating  voltages   • The   peak   voltage   occurs   900   before   the   peak  
and  current  of  AC  systems.   current.  
• So,  a  240V  AC  supply  from  the  mains  has  a  peak   • It  can  be  said  that  voltage  leads  current  by  900  
value   of   339V   and   provides   the   same   heating   OR  current  lags  voltage  by  900  
effect  as  a  240V  DC  supply.  
 

AVERAGE  VALUE  
 
• The  average  value   of  either  voltage   /   current  is  
the   average   of   the   instantaneous   values   in   a  
cycle:  
 
Average  Value  =  0.637  x  Peak  Value  
 ELECTRICS  9  –  BASIC  AC  THEORY  

                                   
PURELY  RESISTIVE  AC  CIRCUIT   NET  EFFECT  (CIVIL)  
   
• Voltage  and  current  will  be  in  phase.   • In   reality,   circuits   will   contain   all   3   types   of  
• The  power  is  always  positive  and  all  of  it  can  be   resistance.  
used  to  do  useful  work.   • The  CIVIL  rule  helps  to  determine  the  net  effect.  
• True  power  is  produced  that  does  useful  work.    
• If   XC   >   XL   the   circuit   is   said   to   be   mainly  
capacitive  and  current  leads  voltage  (CIV…)  
 
• If   XL   >   XC   the   circuit   is   said   to   be   mainly  
inductive  and  voltage  leads  current  (…  VIL)  
PURELY  INDUCTIVE  AC  CIRCUIT  
 
 
• The   resultant   phase   difference   will   be  
• Voltage  leads  current  by  90  degrees.  
somewhere  between  0  and  90  degrees.  
• The  current  is  essentially  pushed  b ack  due.  
• Ideally,   we   would   like   to   achieve   zero   phase  
 
different  to  all  power  is   true  power  that  can  do  
• The  useful  power  is  cancelled  out  by  the  reactive  
useful  work.  
power  required  to  overcome  the  opposition.  
PURELY  CAPACITIVE  AC  CIRCUIT   • There  is  no  true  power  available.  
   
• Current  leads  voltage  by  90  degrees.   IMPEDENCE  (Z)  
• The   opposition   to   the   current   which   is    
• The   voltage   across   the   capacitor   is   always   in   generated  is  called  the  inductive  reactance.  
constant  opposition  to  the  supply  voltage.   • Impedance  is  the   total   opposition  present  in  a  
 
• The  voltage  is  essentially  pushed  back.   circuit.  It  is  the  resultant  vector  of  R,  XC  &  XL  
𝑿𝑳 =  𝟐𝝅𝒇𝑳    
   
• The  useful  power  is  cancelled  out  by  the  reactive   XC  =  Inductive  resistance  in  ohms   𝑍 =   !𝑅 ! +   (𝑋! − 𝑋! )!  
power  required  to  overcome  the  opposition.   f  =  Frequency  in  hertz  
• There  is  no  true  power  available.   L  =  Inductance  in  Henry’s  
  RESONATE  FREQUENCY  
• The   opposition   to   the   current   which   is    
generated  is  called  the  capacitive  reactance.   • The  frequency  at  which  XC  =  XL  
  • At   the   resonate   frequency,   the   total   impedance  
  will  just  be  the  resistance.  
𝟏 • Since   a   purely   resistive   circuit   is   in   phase,   the  
𝑿𝑪 =    
𝟐𝝅𝒇𝑪 current   flow   is   maximum   and   all   power   is   true  
  power.  
XC  =  Capacitive  resistance  in  ohms   • This  is  the  ideal  situation.  
f  =  Frequency  in  hertz  
 ELECTRICS  9  –  BASIC  AC  THEORY  

                                     
TYPES  OF  P OWER  
 
• True  /  Effective  /  Real  Power  (W)  
o Power   consumed   by   resistive   components  
within  the  circuit.  
o Measured  in  Watts  
 
• Reactive  Power  (VAR)  
o Power   consumed   by   reactive   components  
(capacitors  +  inductors).  
o Measured  in  Volt-­‐Ampere  Reactive  
 
• Apparent  Power  (VA)  
o Total   power   required   meet   circuit   demand  
(true   power)   and   overcome   reactance  
(reactive  power)  
o Measured  in  Volt-­‐Ampere  

POWER  FACTOR  
 
𝑻𝒓𝒖𝒆  𝑷𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓
𝑷𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓  𝑭𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒐𝒓 =    
𝑨𝒑𝒑𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕  𝑷𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓
 
• Typically  70  –  90%  
 ELECTRICS  10  -­‐  TRANSFORMERS  

TRANSFORMER  USES     CONSTANT  P OWER   CURRENT  TRANSFORMER  

     
• Convert  one  voltage  to  another  voltage   • Assuming   a   100%   efficient   transformed,   power   • Feeder   cable   is   passed   through   a   soft   iron   ring  
• Isolate   sections   of   circuits   (primary   from   remains  constant.   with  windings  wrapped  around  it.  
secondary)   • Given  P  =  I  x  V   • Alternating   magnetic   field   produced   by   feeder  
• Allow  passage  of  AC  whilst  blocking  DC   • Step-­‐up  =  Voltage  Increases  =>  Current  Decr.   induces  an  EMF  in  the  windings.  
• Step-­‐Down  =  Voltage  Decr  =>  Current  Incr.   • Ammeter   connected   to  
the   windings   will  
ISOLATION  TRANSFORMER   measure  the  current.  
  EFFICIENCY   • This   set-­‐up   is   usually  
• AC  voltage  applied  to  primary  winding     used   to   measure   output  
• Flux   changes   produced   which   induce   an   EMF   • Transformers  are  very  efficient   of   an   AC   generator   for  
within  the  secondary  winding   • Typically  80  –  95%  efficient   example.      
 
• Voltage  increased  if  there  are  more  turns  of  the   TRANFORMER  RECTIFIER  UNIT  
secondary  coil  than  primary  coil.   AUTO  TRANSFORMER    
• Voltage   decreases   if   there   are   less   turns   of   the    
• Contains   a   transformer   and   a   rectifier   for   use  
secondary  coil  than  the  primary  coil   • No  isolation  between  primary  and  secondary   when  a  DC  output  is  required.  
  • A  continuous  winding  is  used   • The   secondary   winding   is   connected   to   a   3  
• Lighter  and  cheaper  than  the  isolation  type  b ut   phase  full  wave  bridge  diode  rectifier.  
do  not  isolate.  

INVERTERS  

ROTARY  INVERTER  
 
• DC  is  used  to  power  a   motor   which   drives   an  
AC  motor  on  a  common  shaft.  
TURNS  RATIO   • Around   50%   efficient   as   energy   is   lost   to  
  mechanical  energy.  
𝑉! 𝑁! VARIAC  TRANSFORMER  
𝑇𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑠  𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 =   =  
𝑉! 𝑁!   STATIC  /  TRANSISTORISED  INVERTER  
• Variable  Autotransformer    
                                        • Can  be  used  to  control  lighting  intensity   • More  reliable  and  requires  less  servicing.  
• Much   more   efficient   (75%)   as   there   is   no  
mechanical   loss   but   it   is   power   limited  
compared  to  the  rotary  inverter.  
 ELECTRICS  11  –  3  PHASE  MACHINES  

ADVANTAGES  OF  AC  GENERATION   STAR  CONFIGURATION   DELTA  VS  STAR  

     
• Higher  efficiency  possible  in  AC  generation   • Here,   the   line   voltage   between   Red   and   Blue   • Star  method  uses  4  conductors:  
• Fewer  conductors  required   phases  is  the  vector  sum  of  the  phase  voltages.   o 1  conductor  for  each  phase    
• Same   source   can   be   used   for   single   /   three     o 1  conductor  used  as  the  neutral  point  
phase  AC  supplies   𝐿𝑖𝑛𝑒  𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 =   √3  ×  𝑃ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒  𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒   • Delta  method  uses  3  conductors:  
• 3   phase   motors   have   better   characteristics     o There  is  no  neutral  point  
than  single-­‐phase  ones.   • There   is   only   one   path   however   for   current   to    
flow  through  between  phases  so:   • Efficiency  
  o Both   produce   the   same   power   although  
PHASOR  DIAGRAM   𝐿𝑖𝑛𝑒  𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 =  𝑃ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒  𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡   the  delta  connection  is  lighter  with  only  3  
  conductors.  
• As   the   rotor   rotates,   it   can   be   seen   the   peak                                              
voltages  are  induced  1200  apart.   • Aviation  
• Line   voltage   is   the   PD   between   a   line   and   the   DELTA  CONFIGURATION   o Star   method   required   since   there   is   no  
neutral  point.     earth   connection   available.   The   neutral   is  
• Phase  V oltage  is  the  PD  between  two  phases.   • Here,   the   line   voltage   between   Red   and   Blue   needed  to  absorb  excessive  current.  
  phases  is  the  same  as  the  phase  voltage.  
 
𝐿𝑖𝑛𝑒  𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 =   √3  ×  𝑃ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒  𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒  
𝐿𝑖𝑛𝑒  𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 =  𝑃ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒  𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒   TYPICAL  AIRCRAFT  AC  FIGURES  
   
• There   are   two   paths   for   current   to   flow   in   • Frequency  =  400  Hz  
however  so:   • Phase  V oltage  =  115  V  
  • Line  Voltage  =  200  V  
𝐿𝑖𝑛𝑒  𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 =   √3  ×  𝑃ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒  𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡  

VOLTAGE  AND  FREQUENCY  CONTROL  

 
• Voltage   controlled   by   adjusting   field   excitation  
ARRANGEMENT  METHODS   via  a  voltage  regulator.  
  • Frequency   adjusted   via   rotational   speed   of  
• The   outputs   of   an   AC   generator   can   be   rotor  and  number  o f  magnetic  field  poles.  
connected   in   either   a   star   or   delta    
configuration.   𝑵  ×  𝑷
𝒇 =    
𝟔𝟎
 
• Therefore,   increasing   the   number   of   poles  
allows   same   frequency   to   be   generated   at   a  
lower  rpm.  
 ELECTRICS  11  –  3  PHASE  MACHINES  

BRUSH  TYPE  GENERATORS   CONSTANT  SPEED  DRIVE  UNIT  (CSDU)   VSCF  GENERATOR  
     
• An   example   of   a   brush   type   connector   is   the   • Constant  speed  and  hence  constant  frequency  is   • Variable  Speed  Constant  Frequency  
salient  pole  generator.   important   in   order   to   achieve   the   correct   and   • Recent  development  
• Electromagnets   on   rotor   are   excited   with   DC   constant  resonant  frequency  within  a  circuit.   • No  mechanical  gears  /  hydraulics  
current  via  carbon  brushes  and  slip  rings.     • Cannot  match  power  output  of  IDG  however  
• The   intermittent   contacts   produce   sparks   • Governor   senses   the   CSDU   output   RPM   and   if  
however   which   increase   in   intensity   with   required,   adjusts   the   pressure   within   the  
increasing   altitude   (lower   insulation   from   air   hydraulic  pump.  
which  is  less  dense)   • This  alters  the  RPM  of  the  motor,  thus  ensuring  
a  constant  rpm  is  obtained  (usually  8,000  rpm)  
 
BRUSHLESS  TYPE  GENERATOR      
     
• Constant   Speed  Drive   Unit   (CSDU)  rotates   shaft       AC  MOTOR  
giving  a  constant  output  frequency.        
• Permanent   magnet   generator   (PMG)   is   turned   • A   rotating   magnetic   field   is   set-­‐up   within   the  
which  induces  an  AC  voltage  in  the  pilot  exciter.   stator  field  coils.  
• This   is   rectified   to   DC   via   the   voltage   regulator   • A   soft   iron   bar   mounted   on   the   rotor   shaft   will  
and  fed  to  the  m ain  exciter.   follow  this  magnetic  field  and  cause  the  shaft  to  
• In   the   main   exciter,   a   3   phase   AC   voltage   is   • Hydraulic   fluid   sight   glass  is  to  be  checked  on   rotate.  
induced   which   is   rectified   to   DC   and   passed   to   the  pre-­‐flight.    
the  main  generator.   • CSDU   can   be   disconnected   in   the   event   of   • A   slight   lag   will   exist   due   to   mechanical  
• Main   generator   produces   a   bigger   3   phase   AC   abnormal  functioning.   loading  which  results  in  the  shafting  lagging  the  
which   is   fed   back   to   the   voltage   regulator   as   o Once  disconnected,  can  only  be  reset  on  the   magnetic  field  (synchronous  speed).  
required  in  order  to  increase  the  magnetic  field   ground.   • Increasing   voltage   will   strengthen   the  
within   the   main   exciter,   thus   achieving   the   magnetic  field  and  reduce  the  slip  speed.  
required  output  voltage  of  115V/200V.    
IDG  (INTEGRATED  DRIVE  GENERATOR)   Slip  Speed  =  Synchronous  Speed  –  Rotor  Speed  
   
• CSDU  +  Generator  in  the  same  unit  

                                           
 ELECTRICS  11  –  3  PHASE  MACHINES  

SQUIRELL  CAGE  MOTOR   TWO  PHASE  INDUCTION  MOTOR   SINGLE  PHASE  INDUCTION  MOTOR  
     
• AKA  Induction  Motor  /  Asynchronous  Motor   • One  phase  is  the  reference  phase   • Will   rotate   continuously   in   one   direction   and  
• By   mounting   conductors   on   a   cage,   an   EMF   is   • Other  phase  is  the  control  phase   change  direction  when  the  field  is  reversed.  
induced   within   the   conductors   as   the   magnetic     • Generally  not  used  on  aircraft  
field  from  the  stators  rotates.   • Changing  the  phase  will  change   the  direction  of  
• This   creates   a   magnetic   field   within   the   the  magnetic  field.  
conductors  on  the  cage.   • Rotor  will  then  re-­‐align  itself  with  the  field.   SYNCHRONOUS  MOTOR  
• The   interaction   of   the   fields   (like   with   a   DC      
motor)  causes  the  cage  to  rotate.   • Used  on  auto-­‐pilot  servo  motors   • Used   when   a   constant   speed   is   required   to   be  
output  at  high  RPMs  
• Ideal  for  gyro’s  
 
• Rotor   carries   field   windings   as   well   which  
create   a   magnetic   field   that   will   try   and   align  
itself  with  the  one  created  by  the  stators.  
• On  start-­‐up,  there  is  an  initial  period  where  they  
are  asynchronous  as  inertia  is  overcome  

                                             
LOSS  OF  P HASE  
  SPLIT  PHASE  INDUCTION  MOTOR  
• Motor   will   continue   to   run   at   a   reduced   torque    
but  it  may  overheat  as  remaining  phases  carry  a   • Behaves  like  a  two  phase  induction  motor  
greater  current.   • One   of   the   windings   is   capacitive   and   the   other  
  resistive.  
• If  not  already   running,   motor   cannot   be   started   • Used  to  drive  actuators  
since   fuses   /   CBs   will   blow   in   the   other   two  
phases.  
o Greater   current   required   in   order   to   start  
motor.  
 ELECTRICS  12  –  AC  SUPPLY  AND  DISTRIBUTION  

SYSTEM  TYPES   AC  EXTERNAL  POWER   LOAD  SHARING  

     
• Frequency  Wild   • Before   connecting   external   power,   the   • Real  Load  Sharing  –  Adjusting  magnetic  trim  in  
o Used  in  light  aircraft  for  heaters  etc   following  conditions  must  be  m et:   the  CSDUs  
• Constant  Frequency   o Correct  Voltage    
o Split  Busbar   o Correct  Frequency   • Reactive  Load  Sharing   –  Adjusting  excitation  of  
o Parallel  Busbar   o Correct  Phase  Order   the  generator  fields.  
o Dead   AC   Busbar   (no   other   sources  
providing  power  to  it)  
SPLIT  BUSBAR  
TROUBLESHOOTING  
 
 
• Parallel   loads   are   only   allowed   with   DC   and  
PARALLEL  BUSBAR   • Separate  the  generators  by  opening  the  BTBs  
must  be  kept  separate  in  AC.  
  • They  may  settle  down  once  this  is  done.  
• When   both   GENs   are   running,   only   one   BTB  
(Bus   Tie   Breaker)   will   be   open   to   allow   • AC   generator   must   have   the   following   • If  one  of   the   generators  is  a  persistent   problem  
powering  of  the  AC  ESS  BUS.   conditions   in   common   before   they   can   be   then  trip  the  GB  and  GFR.  
• In  the  event  a  GEN  fails,  both  BTBs  are  closed  to   paralleled:  
allow  one   GEN  to  feed  AC  BUS  1,  AC  ESS   BUS  &   o Voltage  
o Frequency   EASA  TROUBLESHOOTING  ANSWERS  
AC  BUS  2.  
o Phase  Difference    
 
o Phase  Order   • Trip  Exciter  Breaker  &  Generator  Breaker  for:    
• GCU  (Generator  Control  Unit)  
  o Persistent  Under-­‐Excitation  
o Controls  the  opening  /  closing  of  GCB  
• Advantages  of  the  parallel  busbar  design:   o Persistent  Over-­‐Excitation  
• GCB  (Generator  Circuit  Breaker)  
o Redundancy   o Persistent  Over-­‐Voltage  
o Switch   rather   than   CB   which   connects  
o Load  Sharing   o “AC  Generator  Fault”  
generator  to  the  system.  
o Prolonged  Generator  Life    
• DPC  (Differential  P rotection  Circuit)  
  • For  an  underspeed  fault:  
o Monitors   generator   output   vs   return  
• Disadvantages  of  the  parallel  busbar  design:   o  Open  GB  only  to  allow  stabilisation  
current  to  detect  a  current  leaks.  
o Fault  Propogation    
o Opens   the   GCB   via   the   GCU   if   a   fault   is  
o Does   not   meet   independent   system   • For  a  persistent  phase  imbalance:  
detected  
requirements   o  Open   the   BTB   to   allow   independent  
operation  
                                                     
• Pulling  of  the  fire  handle  opens:  
o Exciter  Control  Relay  &  Generator  Breaker  
o BTB  operation  depends  on  the  system