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UNIT 20: Case Study
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Fundamentals of Petroleum Refining
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Course Design
Advisory Council
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Chairman
Dr Parag Diwan
Members
Dr Shrihari Dr Anirban Sengupta Dr Ashish Bhardwaj
Dean Dean CIO
Dr Satya Sheel Prof I M Mishra Mr M K Goel

VP – Academic Affairs Dean – IIT Roorkee Management Consultant
SLM Development Team

Wg Cdr P K Gupta
Dr Joji Rao
Dr Neeraj Anand
Dr K K Pandey
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Print Production
Mr Kapil Mehra Mr A N Sinha

Manager – Material Sr Manager – Printing
Author
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Gurpreet Kaur
All rights reserved. No parts of this work may be reproduced in any form, by mimeograph or any other means,
without permission in writing from Hydrocarbon Education Research & Society.
Course Code: MDSO-804D

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Course Name: Fundamentals of Petroleum Refining
Version: July 2013
© MPower Applied Learning Enterprise

UNIT 20: Case Study
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Contents
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Block-I
Unit 1 Introduction to Oil Refinery ................................ ................................ ......................... 3

Unit 2 Growth and Development of Refinery Industry in India................................ ........... 13
Unit 3 Chemistry of Petroleum................................ ................................ .............................. 21
Unit 4 Characteristics of Crude Oil ................................ ................................ ....................... 27
Unit 5 Case Study ................................ ................................ ................................ .................. 39
Unit 6
Unit 7
Unit 8
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Important Test on Petroleum Products................................ ................................ ...... 43

Bureau of Mines Correlation Index................................ ................................ ............ 53
Properties of Petroleum Products................................ ................................ ............... 63
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Unit 9 Crude Distillation ................................ ................................ ................................ ....... 79
Unit 10 Case Study ................................ ................................ ................................ .................. 89
Block-III
Unit 11 Hydrogen Production and Management................................ ................................ ..... 95

Unit 12 Fluidised Catalytic Cracking................................ ................................ .................... 107
Unit 13 Offsite Facilities and its Management ................................ ................................ ..... 117
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Unit 14 Future Refining Scenario................................ ................................ .......................... 125

Unit 15 Case Study ................................ ................................ ................................ ................ 129
Block-IV
Unit 16 Advances in Petroleum Refining ................................ ................................ .............. 135

Unit 17 Hydrocarbon Loss Minimisation and Energy Conversation................................ .... 141
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Unit 18 Gross Refining Margin................................ ................................ .............................. 147

Unit 19 Oil Accounting Excise and Custom on Petroleum Products ................................ .... 153
Unit 20 Case Study ................................ ................................ ................................ ................ 159
Block-V
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Unit 21 Environment, Health and Safety Guidelines ................................ ........................... 163
Unit 22 Fundamentals of ULSF Production................................ ................................ .......... 175
Unit 23 IT Applications in Hydrocarbon Industry ................................ ................................ 187
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Unit 24 Petroleum Refining: Terminology................................ ................................ ............. 211
Unit 25 Case Study ................................ ................................ ................................ ................ 225
Glossary ................................ ................................ ................................ ................................ .......... 231
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UNIT 1: Introduction to Oil Refinery
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Notes
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Detailed Contents
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Notes
UNIT 1: INTRODUCTION TO OIL REFINERY
___________________ UNIT 3: CHEMISTRY OF PETROLEUM
 Introduction  Introduction
___________________
 Operation  Chemistry of Petroleum
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 Flow Diagram of Typical Refinery  Crude Assay
___________________
UNIT 2: GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT
___________________ OF UNIT 4: CHARACTERISTICS OF CRUDE OIL
REFINERY INDUSTRY IN INDIA
 Introduction
___________________
 Introduction
 Crude Oil Characteristics and their Significance
 ___________________
Indian Refining Industry
___________________ UNIT 5: CASE STUDY
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Notes
Activity
Activity
List___________________
D down various products
Introduction to Oil Refinery produced by oil refineries.
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___________________
Objectives
___________________
After completion of this unit, the students will be aware of the following
topics: ___________________
 Operation ___________________
 Major products ___________________
 Flow diagram of typical refinery
___________________
___________________
Introduction
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An oil refinery or petroleum refinery is an industrial process plant
where crude oil is processed and refined into more useful products
such as petroleum naphtha, gasoline, diesel fuel, asphalt base,
heating oil, kerosene, and liquefied petroleum gas. Oil refineries
are typically large, sprawling industrial complexes with extensive
___________________
piping running throughout, carrying streams of fluids between

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large chemical processing units. In many ways, oil refineries use
much of the technology of, and can be thought of, as types of
chemical plants. The crude oil feedstock has typically been
processed by an oil production plant. There is usually an oil depot
(tank farm) at or near an oil refinery for the storage of incoming
crude oil feedstock as well as bulk liquid products.
Operation
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Raw or unprocessed crude oil is not generally useful in industrial

applications, although "light, sweet" (low viscosity, low sulfur)
crude oil has been used directly as a burner fuel to produce steam
for the propulsion of sea-going vessels. The lighter elements,
however, form explosive vapours in the fuel tanks and are
therefore hazardous, especially in warships. Instead, the hundreds
of different hydrocarbon molecules in crude oil are separated in a
refinery into components which can be used as fuels, lubricants,
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and as feedstocks in petrochemical processes that manufacture

such products as plastics, detergents, solvents, elastomers and
fibres such as nylon and polyesters.
Petroleum fossil fuels are burned in internal combustion engines to
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Notes provide power for ships, automobiles, aircraft engines, lawn
___________________ mowers, chainsaws, and other machines. Different boiling points
allow the hydrocarbons to be separated by distillation. Since the
___________________
lighter liquid products are in great demand for use in internal
___________________
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combustion engines, a modern refinery will convert heavy
___________________ hydrocarbons and lighter gaseous elements into these higher value
___________________ products.
___________________ Oil can be used in a variety of ways because it contains

hydrocarbons of varying molecular masses, forms and lengths such
___________________
as paraffins, aromatics, naphthenes (or cycloalkanes), alkenes,
___________________
dienes, and alkynes. While the molecules in crude oil include
___________________ different atoms such as sulfur and nitrogen, the hydrocarbons are
___________________
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the most common form of molecules, which are molecules of
varying lengths and complexity made of hydrogen and carbon
atoms, and a small number of oxygen atoms. The differences in the
structure of these molecules account for their varying physical and
chemical properties, and it is this variety that makes crude oil
useful in a broad range of applications.
Once separated and purified of any contaminants and impurities,
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the fuel or lubricant can be sold without further processing.
Smaller molecules such as isobutane and propylene or butylenes
can be recombined to meet specific octane requirements by
processes such as alkylation, or less commonly, dimerization.
Octane grade of gasoline can also be improved by catalytic
reforming, which involves removing hydrogen from hydrocarbons
producing compounds with higher octane ratings such as
aromatics. Intermediate products such as gasoils can even be
reprocessed to break heavy, long-chained oil into a lighter short-
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chained one, by various forms of cracking such as fluid catalytic

cracking, thermal cracking, and hydrocracking. The final step in
gasoline production is the blending of fuels with different octane
ratings, vapour pressures, and other properties to meet product
specifications.
Oil refineries are large scale plants, processing about a hundred
thousand to several hundred thousand barrels of crude oil a day.
Because of the high capacity, many of the units operate
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continuously, as opposed to processing in batches, at steady state

or nearly steady state for months to years. The high capacity also
makes process optimization and advanced process control very
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desirable. Notes
___________________
Major Products
___________________
Petroleum products are usually grouped into three categories: light
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distillates (LPG, gasoline, and naphtha), middle distillates ___________________
(kerosene, diesel), heavy distillates and residuum (heavy fuel oil, ___________________
lubricating oils, wax, and asphalt). This classification is based on
___________________
the way crude oil is distilled and separated into fractions (called
___________________
distillates and residuum) as in the above drawing.
___________________
 Liquefied petroleum gas (LPG)
___________________
 Gasoline (also known as petrol)
___________________
Naphtha


Kerosene and related jet aircraft fuels
Diesel fuel
Fuel oils
Lubricating oils
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 Paraffin wax
 Asphalt and tar
 Petroleum coke
 Sulfur
Oil refineries also produce various intermediate products such as
hydrogen, light hydrocarbons, reformate and pyrolysis gasoline.
These are not usually transported but instead are blended or
processed further on-site. Chemical plants are thus often adjacent
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to oil refineries. For example, light hydrocarbons are steam-

cracked in an ethylene plant, and the produced ethylene is
polymerized to produce polyethene.
Common Process Units Found in a Refinery

 Desalter unit washes out salt from the crude oil before it
enters the atmospheric distillation unit.
 Atmospheric distillation unit distills crude oil into fractions.
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See Continuous distillation.

 Vacuum distillation unit further distills residual bottoms after
atmospheric distillation.
 Naphtha hydrotreater unit uses hydrogen to desulfurize
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Notes
naphtha from atmospheric distillation. Must hydrotreat the
___________________
naphtha before sending to a Catalytic Reformer unit.
___________________
 Catalytic reformer unit is used to convert the naphtha-boiling
___________________ range molecules into higher octane reformate (reformer
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___________________ product). The reformate has higher content of aromatics and
cyclic hydrocarbons). An important by-product of a reformer is
___________________
hydrogen released during the catalyst reaction. The hydrogen
___________________ is used either in the hydrotreaters or the hydrocracker.
___________________
 Distillate hydrotreater unit desulfurizes distillates (such as
___________________ diesel) after atmospheric distillation.
___________________  Fluid catalytic cracker (FCC) unit upgrades heavier fractions
___________________
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into lighter, more valuable products.
Hydrocracker unit uses hydrogen to upgrade heavier fractions
into lighter, more valuable products.
Visbreaking unit upgrades heavy residual oils by thermally
cracking them into lighter, more valuable reduced viscosity
products.
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 Merox unit treats LPG, kerosene or jet fuel by oxidizing
mercaptans to organic disulfides.
 Alternative processes for removing mercaptans are known, e.g.
doctor sweetening process and caustic washing.
 Coking units (delayed coking, fluid coker, and flexicoker)
process very heavy residual oils into gasoline and diesel fuel,
leaving petroleum coke as a residual product.
Alkylation unit produces high-octane component for gasoline
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
blending.
 Dimerization unit converts olefins into higher-octane gasoline
blending components. For example, butenes can be dimerised
into isooctene which may subsequently be hydrogenated to
form isooctane. There are also other uses for dimerization.
 Isomerization unit converts linear molecules to higher-octane
branched molecules for blending into gasoline or feed to
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alkylation units.
 Steam reforming unit produces hydrogen for the hydrotreaters
or hydrocracker.
 Liquefied gas storage vessels store propane and similar
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Notes
Activity
gaseous fuels at pressure sufficient to maintain them in liquid
form. These are usually spherical vessels or "bullets" (i.e., Prepare a chart to show the
___________________
Schematic flow diagram of a
horizontal vessels with rounded ends). typical
___________________
oil refinery with proper
labelling.
Storage tanks store crude oil and finished products, usually
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 ___________________
cylindrical, with some sort of vapour emission control and
___________________
surrounded by an earthen berm to contain spills.
___________________
 Amine gas treater, Claus unit, and tail gas treatment convert
___________________
hydrogen sulfide from hydrodesulfurization into elemental
sulfur. ___________________
 Utility units such as cooling towers circulate cooling water, ___________________
boiler plants generates steam, and instrument air systems ___________________

electrical substation.
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include pneumatically operated control valves and an
Wastewater collection and treating systems consist of API

separators, dissolved air flotation (DAF) units and further
treatment units such as an activated sludge biotreater to make
water suitable for reuse or for disposal.
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 Solvent refining units use solvent such as cresol or furfural to
remove unwanted, mainly aromatics from lubricating oil stock
or diesel stock.
 Solvent dewaxing units remove the heavy waxy constituents of
petrolatum from vacuum distillation products.
Check Your Progress

Fill in the blanks:
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1. Different boiling points allow the hydrocarbons to be

separated by ……………………..
2. …………………… are large scale plants, processing
about a hundred thousand to several hundred thousand
barrels of crude oil a day.
Flow Diagram of Typical Refinery

The image below is a schematic flow diagram of a typical oil
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refinery that depicts the various unit processes and the flow of
intermediate product streams that occurs between the inlet crude
oil feedstock and the final end products. The diagram depicts only
one of the literally hundreds of different oil refinery configurations.
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Notes The diagram also does not include any of the usual refinery
___________________ facilities providing utilities such as steam, cooling water, and
electric power as well as storage tanks for crude oil feedstock and
___________________
for intermediate products and end products.
___________________
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___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
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Figure 1.1: Schematic Flow Diagram of a Typical Oil Refinery
There are many process configurations other than that depicted

above. For example, the vacuum distillation unit may also produce
fractions that can be refined into end products such as: spindle oil
used in the textile industry, light machinery oil, motor oil, and
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various waxes.
The Crude Oil Distillation Unit
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Notes
The crude oil distillation unit (CDU) is the first processing unit in
virtually all petroleum refineries. The CDU distills the incoming ___________________
crude oil into various fractions of different boiling ranges, each of ___________________
which are then processed further in the other refinery processing
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___________________
units. The CDU is often referred to as the atmospheric distillation
unit because it operates at slightly above atmospheric pressure. ___________________
Below is a schematic flow diagram of a typical crude oil distillation ___________________
unit. The incoming crude oil is preheated by exchanging heat with ___________________
some of the hot, distilled fractions and other streams. It is then ___________________
desalted to remove inorganic salts (primarily sodium chloride).
___________________
Following the desalter, the crude oil is further heated by
___________________
exchanging heat with some of the hot, distilled fractions and other
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streams. It is then heated in a fuel-fired furnace (fired heater) to a
temperature of about 398°C and routed into the bottom of the
distillation unit.
___________________
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Figure 1.2: Schematic Flow Diagram of a Typical Crude Oil Distillation

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unit as used in Petroleum Crude Oil Refineries
The cooling and condensing of the distillation tower overhead is

provided partially by exchanging heat with the incoming crude oil
and partially by either an air-cooled or water-cooled condenser.
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Notes Additional heat is removed from the distillation column by a pump
___________________ around system as shown in the diagram below.
___________________ As shown in the flow diagram, the overhead distillate fraction from
___________________ the distillation column is naphtha. The fractions removed from the
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side of the distillation column at various points between the
___________________
column top and bottom are called side cuts. Each of the sidecuts
___________________ (i.e., the kerosene, light gas oil and heavy gas oil) is cooled by
___________________ exchanging heat with the incoming crude oil. All of the fractions
(i.e., the overhead naphtha, the sidecuts and the bottom residue)
___________________
are sent to intermediate storage tanks before being processed
___________________
further.
___________________
Specialty End Products
___________________
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These require blending various feedstocks, mixing appropriate
additives, providing short term storage, and preparation for bulk
loading to trucks, barges, product ships, and railcars:
 Gaseous fuels such as propane, stored and shipped in liquid
form under pressure in specialized railcars to distributors.
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 Lubricants (produces light machine oils, motor oils, and
greases, adding viscosity stabilizers as required), usually
shipped in bulk to an offsite packaging plant.
 Wax (paraffin), used in the packaging of frozen foods, among
others. May be shipped in bulk to a site to prepare as packaged
blocks.
 Sulfur (or sulfuric acid), by-products of sulfur removal from
petroleum which may have up to a couple percent sulfur as
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organic sulfur-containing compounds. Sulfur and sulfuric acid

are useful industrial materials. Sulfuric acid is usually
prepared and shipped as the acid precursor oleum.
 Bulk tar shipping for offsite unit packaging for use in tar-and-
gravel roofing.
 Asphalt unit. Prepares bulk asphalt for shipment.
 Petroleum coke, used in specialty carbon products or as solid
fuel.
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 Petrochemicals or petrochemical feedstocks, which are often

sent to petrochemical plants for further processing in a variety
of ways. The petrochemicals may be olefins or their precursors,
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or various types of aromatic petrochemicals. Notes
___________________
Check Your Progress
___________________
Fill in the blanks:
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___________________
1. The …………………………. crude oil is preheated by
___________________
exchanging heat with some of the hot, distilled fractions
and other streams. ___________________
2. The ……………………………… is the first processing ___________________

unit in virtually all petroleum refineries. ___________________
___________________
Summary ___________________
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An oil refinery or petroleum refinery is an industrial process plant
where crude oil is processed and refined into more useful products
such as petroleum naphtha, gasoline, diesel fuel, asphalt base,
heating oil, kerosene, and liquefied petroleum gas. There is usually
an oil depot (tank farm) at or near an oil refinery for the storage of
incoming crude oil feedstock as well as bulk liquid products.
___________________
Raw or unprocessed crude oil is not generally useful in industrial

CE
applications, although "light, sweet" (low viscosity, low sulfur)
crude oil has been used directly as a burner fuel to produce steam
for the propulsion of sea-going vessels. Oil can be used in a variety
of ways because it contains hydrocarbons of varying molecular
masses, forms and lengths such as paraffins, aromatics,
naphthenes (or cycloalkanes), alkenes, dienes, and alkynes.
Lesson End Activity

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What are the expected refining capacities of upcoming refineries in

India?
Keywords
Catalytic Reformer Unit: Catalytic reformer unit is used to
convert the naphtha-boiling range molecules into higher octane
reformate
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Crude oil Distillation Unit (CDU): Crude oil distillation unit is

the first processing unit in virtually all petroleum refineries.
Petroleum Refinery: Petroleum refinery is an industrial process
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Notes
plant where crude oil is processed and refined into more useful
___________________
products such as petroleum naphtha, gasoline, diesel fuel, asphalt
___________________ base, heating oil, kerosene, and liquefied petroleum gas.
___________________
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___________________ Questions for Discussion
___________________ 1. Discuss the various categories of petroleum products
___________________ 2. Describe the common process units found in a refinery
___________________ 3. Write a brief note on the crude oil distillation unit
___________________ 4. Draw a schematic flow diagram of a typical crude oil
___________________ distillation unit as used in petroleum crude oil refineries.
___________________
Books
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Further Readings
Fahim, Mohamed A., Al-Sahhaf, Taher A. and Elkilani, Amal,

Fundamentals of Petroleum Refining, 1st Edition, Elsevier Science,
2009
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Parkash, Surinder, Refining Processes Handbook, Gulf
Professional Publishing
Web Readings
http://www.bharatbook.com/market-research-reports/Oil-Refining-
Industry-in-India.html
http://www.dsir.gov.in/reports/techreps/tsr054.pdf
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http://www.cci.gov.in/images/media/completed/Indicus_2009042015
2009.pdf
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UNIT 2: Growth and Development of Refinery Industry in India
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Notes
Activity
Reader may like to draw a
___________________
Growth and Development of Geneological Chart of the
current refineries operative in
___________________
India. Please classify by
Refinery Industry in India company, technology and
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___________________
year of establishment and
expanded capacity wherever
___________________
applicable by the end of 2011
Objectives ___________________
___________________
topics:
___________________
 Indian Refining Industry
 Indian Refining Industry – Emerging Scenario ___________________
 Future Technological Challenges ___________________
Introduction
With the growth of industry and improvement in the living
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standard of people, demand for petroleum products is increasing
rapidly. Consequently, there is a thrust on increasing their supply
___________________
by enhancing refining capacity.

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Indian Refining Industry
First refinery in India started soon after oil production started in
Digboi, Assam. Thereafter addition of refineries and capacity
augmentation continued unabated. At present, we have 21
refineries in India (17 public + 3 private + 1 joint venture of BPCL
& Oman Oil Co.) with a refining capacity of 193.386 MMTPA.
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The Important Milestones

1866 - Oil discovery at Nahorpung, Assam.
1889 - Oil Production started at Digboi, Assam.
1893 - First Refinery started at Margharita, Assam.
1899 - Assam Oil Company was formed.
1901 - Digboi Refinery was commissioned supplanting the
earlier refinery at Margarita.
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1947- 1957 Setting up of three coastal refineries by Multi

National Oil Companies (MNCs)
 2 at Mumbai (Esso & Burmah Shell)
 1 at Vizag (Caltex)
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Notes
___________________
The MNCs were already marketing petroleum
products in India by then.
___________________
1954 - Indian Oil exploration with the help of Russian
___________________
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Geologists.
___________________
1956 - Formation of Oil and Natural Gas Commission for
___________________
exploration and production of crude oil and gas.
___________________
1958 - Discovery of Cambay oil field.
___________________
1958 - Indian Refineries Ltd (IRL) was formed in the public
___________________ sector to install refineries and pipelines in India.
___________________
- Oil India Ltd (OIL) was formed as a joint venture
___________________
1959
1962
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company between Government of India and Burmah
Oil Co.
Indian Oil Company formed for marketing of
petroleum products.
The first refinery in the public sector commissioned
at Guwahati (0.75 MMTPA) under IRL.
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1963 - Indian Oil Blending Ltd – A JV between Indian Oil
Co. and Mobil Petroleum Co. Inc. was formed for
manufacture of lube oils and greases.
1964 - IRL was dissolved and merged with Indian Oil Co.
Ltd, to form Indian Oil Corporation Ltd (IOCL).
1974 - IOBL became part of IOCL.
1981 - Assets of erstwhile Assam Oil Co. were taken over
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and vested in IOC as Assam Oil Division (AOD).

1998 - Panipat Refinery of IOC commissioned.
1999 - Reliance Petroleum Refinery at Jamnagar,
commissioned.
2000 - Numaligarh refinery commissioned.
2001 - In view of the CPCL become subsidiary of IOCL in
2001.
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As a part of the restructuring steps taken up by

Govt. of India, Indian Oil Corporation Limited
acquired Govt's equity in 2000–01. In view of this
BRPL became subsidiary of IOCL in 2001.
2002 - In a major decision towards deregulation of oil sector
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Notes
and to attract investment in the petroleum product
pipelines, in November, 2002, Government had laid ___________________
down a new Petroleum Product Pipeline Policy for ___________________
laying pipelines in the country on common carrier
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___________________
principle.
___________________
2003 - A new Solvent Dewaxing Unit for maximizing
___________________
production of micro-crystalline wax was installed
and commissioned in 2003. ___________________
The Guwahati refinery has also installed in 2003 ___________________
Indmax Unit, a novel technology developed by its ___________________

R&D Centre for upgrading heavy ends LPG, motor
___________________
spirit and diesel oil.
2004
2005
-
-
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Guidelines for laying petroleum product pipelines
were notified on 20.11.2002. Supplementary
guidelines in this regard have also been notified on
26-10-2004.
BS-II Petrol throughout the country has been
___________________
introduced w.e.f. 1-4-2005 in line with Auto Fuel

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Policy.
2006 - In order to meet Motor Spirit quality requirement,
CCRU plant was commissioned in Oct' 2006.
Essar Oil Limited The private sector refinery was
commissioned in November 2006 with an installed
capacity of 10.50 MMTPA at Vadinar, Gujarat.
2009 - Bongaigaon Refinery & Petrochemicals Limited has
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been amalgamated with the holding company,

Indian Oil Corporation Limited effective from March
25, 2009.
As on April 1, 2009, India has a total refining
capacity of 178MMTPA (including the newly
commissioned RIL refinery at Jamnagar)
2010 - In 2010 a new Fluidized Catalytic Cracking Unit
(FCCU-II) of capacity 1.45 MMTPA was
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commissioned in Mumbai Refinery.

2011 - In 2011 the Mumbai refinery has set up Lube Oil
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Notes
Base Stock (LOBS) project in an effort to upgrade
___________________
and enhance the existing grade of Lubes oils.
___________________
Upcoming Projects
___________________
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___________________
Indian Oil Corporation Limited, Paradip, Orissa – Expected date of
commissioning – 1st quarter of 2013
___________________
Hindustan Mittal Energy Limited, Bathinda, Punjab, Ongoing
___________________
project
___________________
Nagarjuna Oil Corporation Limited, Cuddalore, Tamil Nadu,
___________________
Expected date of commissioning – Early 2012
___________________
Table 2.1: Refining Capacity in India as in the Year 2011
___________________
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1.
2.
3.
4.
Name of the Company
Indian Oil Corporation

Limited (IOCL)
Limited (IOCL)
Limited (IOCL)

Location of
the Refinery
Guwahati,
Assam
Barauni, Bihar
Koyali,
Vadodara,
Gujarat
Haldia, West
Company
MMTPA*
1.00
6.00
13.70
7.50
Limited (IOCL) Bengal
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5. Indian Oil Corporation Mathura, Uttar 8.00
Limited (IOCL) Pradesh
6. Indian Oil Corporation Digboi, Assam 0.65
Limited (IOCL)
7. Indian Oil Corporation Panipat, 15.00
Limited (IOCL) Haryana
8. Indian Oil Corporation Bongaigaon, 2.35
Limited (IOCL) Assam
9. Hindustan Petroleum Mumbai, 6.50
Corporation Limited (HPCL) Maharashtra
10. Hindustan Petroleum Vishakapatnam, 8.30
Corporation Limited (HPCL) Andhra Pradesh
11. Bharat Petroleum Mumbai, 12.00
Corporation Limited (BPCL) Maharashtra
12. Bharat Petroleum Kochi, Kerala 9.50
Corporation Limited (BPCL)
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13. Chennai Petroleum Manali, Tamil 10.50

Corporation Limited (CPCL) Nadu
14. Chennai Petroleum Nagapattnam, 1.00
Corporation Limited (CPCL) Tamil Nadu
15. Numaligarh Refinery Ltd. Numaligarh, 3.00
(NRL) Assam
16. Mangalore Refinery & Mangalore 11.82
Petrochemicals Ltd. (MRPL) Karnataka
17. Tatipaka Refinery (ONGC) Tatipaka, 0.066
Andhra Pradesh
18. Bharat Petroleum Bina, Madhya 6.00
Corporation Limited & Oman Pradesh
Oil Company, Joint Venture,
Bina
19. Reliance Industries Ltd. Jamnagar, 33.00
(RIL); Private Sector Gujarat
20. Reliance Petroleum Limited Jamnagar, 27.00
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(SEZ); Private Sector Gujarat

21. Essar Oil Limited (EOL); Jamnagar, 10.50
Private Sector Gujarat
Total 193.386
Source: http://petroleum.nic.in/refinery.pdf
Indian Refining Industry – Emerging Scenario
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Notes
Emerging scenario of Indian refining industry has been described
below: ___________________
 Shifting product demand ___________________
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 Stringent product specifications ___________________
___________________
 Stringent environmental regulations
___________________
 Feedstock quality deterioration
___________________
 Globalisation
___________________
 Deregulation of oil and gas sector
___________________
Indian Refining Industry – Special Features ___________________

Prevalence of old as well as modern technologies
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Special features of Indian refining industry are given below:
Larger requirement of middle distillates (diesel, kerosene)
A few refineries with size far lower than world standards.

___________________
Strategies for Indian Refineries

CE
Following are the strategies for Indian refineries:
 Residue upgradation technologies for heavy crudes
 Technologies for producing lighter fuels
 Process technologies to improve quality with respect to:
 performance parameters
 eco-friendly products
)C
 Value addition to refinery streams

 Increased emphasis on Process Control/Automation
 Evolutionary/innovative technological changes expected rather
than revolutionary ones
 Refineries to be integrated, compact and flexible with respect to
crude/ product mix.
 Indian refiners have also operated at higher operating
(c
rates/capacity utilisation compared to their regional/global

peers implying efficiency in operations.
Future Technological Challenges
S
Notes
These challenges are mentioned below:
___________________
 Meeting higher demand of petroleum products (viz. distillates)
___________________
 Meeting higher standards of product qualities
___________________
PE
 More emphasis on environment
___________________
___________________
 Value addition to refineries
___________________  Technologies to improve margins
___________________  Zero emission refinery
___________________
Capacity Increase – To Meet Demand of Petroleum Products
___________________
India has certainly arrived in the global refining space as some of
___________________
-U
the largest and most complex refineries with matching allied
infrastructure like pipelines, terminal and ports, to name a few,
operate out of here.


Low cost revamps/ addition of units
Run length improvement of units
CE
 Infrastructure development for crude receipt/storage/
distribution
 Installation of matching secondary processing plants.
Value Addition
Let’s discuss as follows:
 Production of value added products from refinery streams
 Propylene, butene – 1, butene – 2, N – Paraffin, Lab, Benzene,
)C
Toluene, Hexane, P – Xylene etc.

 Generation of power from heavy ends
Distillation Range Improvement

Let’s discuss as follows:
 New residue conversion technologies like FCC, Hydrocracker,
RDS-RFCC
(c
 Advanced controls and optimisation

 Advanced catalysts
 Continuous simulation of plants/product mix through computer
S
Notes
models
___________________
 Prudent selection of technologies and proper integration of
secondary units/plants. ___________________
PE
___________________
Check Your Progress
___________________
Fill in the blanks:
___________________
1. First refinery in India started soon after oil production
___________________
started in ………………, Assam.
___________________
2. At present we have ………………… refineries in India
___________________
with a refining capacity of 193.386 MMTPA
___________________
Summary
-U
In this unit, you were introduced to the Indian refinery industry.
You got to know the achievements of Indian refinery industry and
the capacities of various refineries in India. Both, Reliance’s
refineries at Jamnagar have maximum refining capacity. You also
___________________
learnt about the emerging scenario in the industry that focused

CE
specifically on increasing demand and efforts to meet that. Apart
from that, characteristics of the refining industry, future
technological challenges facing them and ways to increase capacity
were also discussed. You also learnt how the refineries add value
and how they have improved their distillation range.
Lesson End Activity

Research on the strategies the Indian refining companies use?
)C
Keywords
Hydrocracking: A process by which the hydrocarbon molecules of
petroleum are broken into simpler molecules, as of gasoline or
kerosene, by the addition of hydrogen under high pressure and in
the presence of a catalyst.
Oil Refinery: It is an industrial process plant where crude oil is
processed and refined into more useful petroleum products.
(c
Questions for Discussions
S
Notes
1. Write a note on the developments in Indian refinery industry
___________________
post 2000.
___________________
2. What are special features of refinery industry in India?
___________________
PE
3. Identify the technological challenges that refineries are likely
___________________
to face in future.
___________________
4. How can Indian refineries meet the increasing demand for
___________________
petroleum products?
___________________
___________________ Further Readings

___________________
Books
___________________
-U
Nelson, W.L., Petroleum Refining Engineering, McGraw Hill
Dr. Sarkar, G.N.,
Publishers, Delhi
Web Readings
Advanced Petroleum Refining, Khanna
http://www.iea.org/work/2009/India_oil/bankapur.pdf
CE
http://www.mapsofindia.com/maps/oilandgasmaps/refineries.htm
http://petroleum.nic.in/refinery.pdf
)C
(c
UNIT 3: Chemistry of Petroleum
S
Notes
Activity
List ___________________
different families of
Chemistry of Petroleum hydrocarbons that comprise
the ___________________
crude oil.
PE
___________________
Objectives
___________________
topics: ___________________
 Chemistry of Petroleum ___________________

 Crude Assay ___________________
 Types of Evaluations
___________________
___________________
Introduction
remains of ancient marine life.

-U
Crude oils are formed by the action of geological processes on the
It is a complex mixture of hydrocarbons and over 16,000

compounds have been identified in one sample.
___________________
Composition varies widely by geographical location, mix of

CE
individual wells and variance of wells with time
Chemistry of Petroleum
Crude oil contains almost all known hydrocarbons and non-
hydrocarbons. As it is drawn from the earth, it also contains
impurities like water, mud and salts which get associated during
its production and transportation.
Crude oil, the basic raw material of refining industry, is a mixture
)C
of eight different hydrocarbon families:

 Paraffins
 Cyclopentanes
 Cyclohexanes
 Cycloheptanes
 Dicycloparaffins
(c
 Benzenes
 Aromatic cycloparaffins
 Dinuclear and polynuclear
Aromatics are present in smaller amounts in compounds
S
Notes
containing metallic constituents such as Vanadium, Nickel, Iron,
___________________
Copper, Magnesium, Calcium, Zinc, Titanium etc. Besides
___________________ impurities such as Sulphur, Nitrogen and Oxygen compounds
___________________ mostly present in high boiling point fractions are also present in
PE
crude oil. Based on boiling point, the fractions are separated and
___________________
given secondary treatment to utilise it as finished products. Based
___________________ on proportion of types of hydrocarbon, it can be divided into
___________________ Paraffin, Naphthenic and Aromatic categories. The purely
hydrocarbon content may be as high as 97% and as low as 50% for
___________________
heavy crude oils. The non-hydrocarbon portion retains hydrocarbon
___________________
characteristics as the molecules contain one or two atoms of
___________________ elements other than carbon and hydrogen. The carbon content is
___________________
-U
between 83 to 87% and hydrogen content between 11 to 14%. The
ratio of carbon to hydrogen increases from the low to high
molecular weight fraction due to increase in polynuclear aromatic
and multi ring cycloparaffins in these higher boiling fractions.
Atmospheric distillation is adopted for separating the compounds
present into various fractions up to 366ºC:
 Overhead gases containing mainly methane, ethane, propane
CE
and butane.
 C5–90ºC light naptha
 90ºC–140ºC heavy naptha

 140ºC–204ºC Mineral Turpentine Oil (MTO)
 140ºC–240ºC Aviation Turbine Fuel (ATF)
 140ºC–270º Kerosene
)C
 270ºC–340ºC Gas oil

 340ºC–366ºC Jute Batching Oil (JBO)
366ºC plus fraction i.e. Reduced Crude Oil (RCO) is subjected to
vacuum distillation for obtaining vacuum gas oils, raw Lube
Distillate and short residue. Various fractions obtained from
atmospheric and vacuum distillation are given further treatment
to meet required specifications for use.
(c
Crude Assay
S
Notes
Crude Assay is the determination of properties of various fractions
___________________
of crude oil. This is done to assess the utility of the crude for
processing for production of various products and their yields. ___________________
Crude Assay Data are utilised for the following:
PE
___________________
 Crude oil selection ___________________
 Crude oil grading ___________________
 Crude valorization ___________________
 Crude swapping ___________________
___________________
 Crude imports
___________________
 Creation of new infrastructure at the existing refineries


Grassroot refineries
Production planning management
Inventory problems
Demand/supply gaps
-U ___________________
CE
Types of Evaluations
These types are discussed below:
1. Preliminary Assay
 Crude characteristics – Consistency of crude supply

2. Short Evaluation
 Crude characteristics  Absorption of new

crude in fuel refinery
)C
 TBP assay  To study the change in

quality of crude over a
period of time
 Yield data and key  Detailed characterisation

characteristics of straight of crude oil
run cuts in fuel range and including all micro
long residue constituents.
3. Detailed Evaluation
(c
 Design data for grass  TBP assay in

root refinery atmospheric and
vacuum range
S
Notes  Product optimisation  Selection and design of
secondary conversion units.
___________________
 Yield and characteristics of sets of distillates in atmospheric
___________________
and vacuum range with variation in IBP, FBP characterisation
___________________
PE
of several long and short residues.
___________________
Information Required
___________________
___________________  Base and general properties of crude oil
___________________  Presence of impurities

___________________  Operating and design data
___________________  Fractionating or TBP distillation curves
___________________


 -U
Equilibrium of flash vaporization curves
API or specific gravity curves of each fraction distilled.
Property curves of fractions vs. % distilled

 Mid% curves
 Yield% curves
CE
 ISO% curves
 Properties and yield of straight run fractions and residues
 Detailed composition of light distillates
 Hydrocarbon Type Distribution of Middle and Heavy

Distillates
Check Your Progress

)C
Fill in the blanks:

1. ………………………. contains almost all known
hydrocarbons and non-hydrocarbons.
2. Crude oil, the basic raw material of refining industry, is
a mixture of ………………. different hydrocarbon
families.
Summary
(c
This unit discusses the basic properties of crude oil. It also touches
upon the topic of crude assay and the types of evaluations.
Lesson End Activity
S
Notes
Research on the use of crude assay data and prepare an
___________________
assignment based on your research.
___________________
PE
Keywords ___________________
___________________
Crude Assay: It is essentially the chemical evaluation of crude oil
feedstocks by petroleum testing laboratories. ___________________
Reid Vapour Pressure: It is a common measure of the volatility ___________________

of gasoline. ___________________
___________________
Questions for Discussion ___________________
1.
2.
3.
What is Crude Assay?
How are crude assays utilized?
Discuss the types of evaluations?
Further Readings
-U ___________________
CE
Books
2009
Web Readings
)C
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crude_oil_assay
http://petrofed.winwinhosting.net/upload/25-28Aug10/2.pdf
(c
S
Notes
___________________
___________________
___________________
PE
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
-U
CE
)C
(c
UNIT 4: Characteristics of Crude Oil
S
Notes
Activity
Do ___________________
a comparative analysis of
Characteristics of Crude Oil Indian crudes and typical
___________________
Middle-east crude mix for
yield.
PE
___________________
Objectives
___________________
topics: ___________________
 Crude Oil Characteristics and their Significance ___________________

 Selection of Crude Oil ___________________
___________________
Introduction ___________________
-U
Many types of crude oil are produced around the world. The
market value of an individual crude stream reflects its quality
characteristics. Two of the most important quality characteristics
are density and sulfur content. Density ranges from light to heavy,
while sulfur content is characterized as sweet or sour. The crude
oils represented in the chart are a selection of some of the crude
___________________
oils marketed in various parts of the world. There are some crude
CE
oils both below and above the API gravity range shown in the
chart.
Crude Oil Characteristics and their Significance
Basic Properties Impurities
Density & API Water Content

)C
Reid Vapour Pressure (RVP) Salt Content
Light End Analysis BS & W
Pour Point Sulphur Content
Viscosity Nitrogen Content
Wax Content Inorganic and
Asphaltenes Total Acid
Carbon Residue Trace Metals
Ash Content
(c
Distillation Characteristic (D86 or D285)
Base of Crude Oil

Density
S
Notes
Density is used for:
___________________
 Weight to volume or vice versa calculations
___________________
 Checking the consistency of crude supply
___________________
PE
 Control of refinery operations
___________________
 Used in various correlations
___________________
___________________
 Also gives a rough indication of type of crude oil
___________________ MASS (M)

Density =
VOLUME (V)
___________________
___________________ M/V
Specific GRAVITY =
M/V (WATER)
___________________
Examples:
-U
API GRAVITY =
CRUDE
141.5
SP.GR AT 60/60°F
Density
–131.5
API TYPE
TOTAL
DISTILLATE
UPTO 370ºC
CE
Narimanam 0.7920 47.08 I 79.6
Ankleshwar 0.7930 46.85 I 78.2
Jotana 0.8161 41.80 P 52.0
Bombay High 0.8278 39.35 I 65.4
Heera 0.8412 36.62 I 60.6
Kalol 0.8414 36.55 P 47.0
Rumaila 0.8448 35.90 I 55.7
Ratna 0.8484 35.20 I 51.0
Rostam 0.8495 35.00 I 59.7
Jhalora 0.8496 35.16 I 42.1
Basrah 0.8527 34.40 I 52.5
Sobashan 0.8549 33.99 P 43.0
)C
N. Gujarat 0.8553 33.85 I 44.0

Geliki 0.8675 31.50 I 54.5
Nahorkatiya 0.8688 31.30 I 60.9
Kuwait IF IR. 0.8698 31.10 I 47.0
Oman
Elmorgan 0.8727 30.55 I 48.1
Jorajan 0.8821 28.84 N 60.7
Kharsang 0.8910 27.22 N 61.7
Lakwa 0.8952 26.50 N 53.7
Jhalora 0.8986 25.87 I 31.8
Kothana 0.9000 25.64 I 28.2
(c
Rudrasagar 0.9210 22.10 N 60.3

Sanand 0.9242 21.45 I 24.4
N- Kadi Mix 0.9340 19.91 I 27.6
Badarpur 0.9430 18.39 N 60.6
Santhol 0.9507 17.29 I 22.9
Water = 10 API
S
Notes
Kerosene = 45 API
___________________
Motor Gasoline = 58 API
___________________
Natural Gasoline = 75 API
PE
___________________
Crude oils are categorised based on gravity
___________________
Light grades : Above 33 degree API ___________________
Medium grades : 23–33 degree API ___________________
Heavy grades : up to 22 degree API ___________________
___________________
Sulphur
___________________
Crude oils are also categorised based on sulphur.


Sweet grades<0.5% of Sulphur
Sour grades >0.5% of Sulphur
-U
Sulfur is a measure of “sourness” and “sweetness” of crude
Sulphur is passed on to products as much as regulations or market

___________________
accepts. It is removed in hydrotreater by reacting with H2 and

CE
recovered as elemental sulfur in SRU.
Reid Vapour Pressure (RVP) and Light End Analysis

RVP indicates relative Percentage of gaseous and lighter
hydrocarbons in crude oil.
Component RVP, Kg/cm2

Propane 14.1 Kg/cm2
Butane 6.6 Kg/cm2
)C
Crude Oil 0.01-0.05
Light end analysis carried out by GLC actually gives the

percentage of hydrocarbons up to C5 and is the basis of assessing
the LPG potential of crude.
Typical Hydrocarbon Analysis
Components % WT on Crude
C1 ND
C2 TRACES
(c
C3 0.1
ISO-C4 0.1
Contd...
N-C4 0.3
S
Notes ISO-CS 0.3
___________________ N-C5 0.5
___________________ TOTAL 1.3
___________________
PE
Flow Characteristics of Crude Oils
___________________
Characteristics BH Crude Basrah Crude
___________________ WAX, % WT 10.9 3.5
Pour Point°C +30 -24
___________________
Viscosity Kinematic cst
___________________
AT 37.8 °C, 50°C Geological 4.30, 3.32 6.18, 4.84
___________________ Characteristics Yield Value
Dynes/ cm2 AT
___________________ 32°C 45.0 2.0
___________________ 24°C
18°C
16°C -U
Plastic Viscosity, C.P. AT
32°C
24°C
18°C
85.0
222.0
330.0
7.9
30.7
43.7
5.0
10.0
12.5
9.6
14.7
16.0
CE
16°C 45.0 17.3
Pour Point
 Indicates relative amount of wax present in crude oil
 Is the temperature below which pumping and transportation
problems may be encountered
 Along with viscosity, is used in pumping and design
calculations.
)C
Wax Content
Normal paraffins above C16 are solid at somewhat ambient
temperatures. These hydrocarbons
 Affect the flow behaviour of crude
 Affect the product quality of gas oil, VGO and asphalt
 Lube manufacture is also dependent on wax content of the
(c
crude.
Salt Content
S
Notes
It is measure of contamination in crude that will cause overhead
corrosion or foul up exchangers by settling and sealing. It is ___________________
removed in desalter by washing and settling mainly chlorides and ___________________
sulphates of Na, K, Ca, and Mg.
PE
___________________
Resins ___________________
Waxy Agglomerates
Particulates
___________________
Brine Droplet
___________________
Asphaltenes Na+ Na+ ___________________

COO- COO- Alkyl Benzene
___________________
___________________

Carboxylates
Figure 2.1: Postulated Structure of Stabilized Emulsion
Problems Encountered due to Salts
These problems are as follows:

-U
Naphthenates
___________________
1. Irregular behaviour in distillation

CE
2. Equipment corrosion in the atmospheric distillation caused by
HCL liberated due to hydrolysis of chlorides
 Increased Consumption of Ammonia
It is described below:
1. Salt is a major cause of blocking and fouling of heat exchangers
2. Residual product contamination
)C
100
 4
Total Chloride evolved Ashci %
0
75  0 4
0
 4 0
50
0 4
0 0
0
25
(c
 4  4
0 0 0
0 100 0 200 300 0 400
Salt Content of Crude PTO AS NACL
3. Salts may vary widely in ratio of metal ions, though common
S
Notes
averages are – Na: 70–75%, Mg: 15–20%, Ca: 10%.
___________________
4. Mg is most prolific producer of HCL with Ca and Na in
___________________ descending order
___________________
PE
5. Small quantities of HCL may substantially enhance corrosion
___________________ of sulphur compounds
___________________
Methods for Determination of Salt Content
___________________
1. IP 77/72 Extraction with water KCNS/Ag No3 titration
___________________
___________________
2. ASTM D3230 Conductivity measurement based on
calibration with Na, Ca, Mg chlorides
___________________ standard solutions in mixed alcohol.
___________________
-U
Sediment and Water
Sediment has no relationship with salt but both might increase
with connate water
 Sediment: Fine particles of sand clay, volcanic ash, drilling

mud, rust, iron sulphide, metals and scale.
CE
 Damaging Effects: Plugging Abrasion and residual product
contamination.
 Water causes irregular behaviour in distillation.
Sediment in crude oil is measured by the following methods:
BS & W ASTM D 96
Sediment by extraction ASTM D 4007
Water content DEAN & STARK

)C
ASTM D 4006
 Sediment in crude is determined for custody transfer

purposes.
 Lower the sediments and water, higher the reliability of the

unit. It is also a major pointer for corrosive materials in crude.
Asphaltenes, Carbon Residue and Ash Content

(c
Asphaltenes
 These are polynuclear condensed aromatic hydrocarbons
having high molecular weight
 These are insoluble in heptane and soluble in Benzene/Toluene
S
Notes
 Asphaltenes and carbon residue indicate the extent to which
___________________
heavy hydrocarbons are present in crude oil.
___________________
Ash Content
PE
___________________
 Metallic constituents concentrate in the ash of the crude oil ___________________
Carbon Residue ___________________
It’s a carbonaceous residue formed after evaporation and pyrolysis ___________________
of the sample. The residue is coke and determined by ___________________
 Conradson residue method ASTM D 189 ___________________
 Ramsbottom carbon residue ASTM D 624 ___________________
 Micro-carbon residue method ASTM D 4630
Viscosity -U
It is a measure of resistance to flow and is an important parameter
for effective desalting. It is also highly dependent on temperature.
___________________
High viscosity crudes need high temperatures for effective

CE
desalting. There is a limit for temperature in desalters operation.
KUOP
It is a measure of paraffinity vis-à-vis aromaticity of crude.
High KUOP is desired for high conversion in FCC, aromatic
molecules cannot be cracked in FCC. They will simply take a ride
through the plant.
TAN
)C
TAN is actually Total Acid Number.

It is a measure of Naphthenic Acid (NA) contents in crude. This
leads to corrosion in various sections of the unit. Over 1,500 known
NA species are present in crude.
All Naphthenic acids are not corrosive. Latest research indicates
that TAN is not a complete Corrosion Index.
TAN with 2.5 may corrode at higher rate than TAN with
(c
say 6 !
Detailed metallurgical reviews and monitoring mechanisms must
be put in place.
Selection of Crude Oil
S
Notes
Technology trends in petroleum refining are driven by the external
___________________ forces of product demand, product specifications (including
___________________ environmental consideration), feed stock quality and availability.
Crude oil will gradually become heavier and higher in sulphur
___________________
PE
content. Refineries, of late, have been sincerely attempting to
___________________
produce fuels to comply with stricter environmental regulations
___________________ particularly gasoline and diesel and are in the process of reducing
___________________ the sulphur levels in distillates and fuel oil. Attention is now also
being paid to reduce lead and benzene levels in gasoline.
___________________
Crude processed in India are:
___________________
___________________
1. Indigenous crude oil sources
___________________
-U
(a) Bombay high and satellite fields
(b) North Gujarat and Ankaleshwar crude
(c) Assam crudes
(d) KG Basin-Rava crude
(e) Cauvery Basin crude
CE
All the above crudes are low sulphur =<0.5% wt, low metal
content, poor potential to yield LOBS and bitumen, and some
are waxy in character.
2. Imported crudes are sourced mostly from:
(a) Gulf Region
(b) Nigeria
(c) Malaysia
)C
(d) Australia
The above crudes are specially selected for production of
Bitumen/LOBS/ATF, beside fuel products.
These crudes are having varying range of sulphur from low of high.
Comparison of Crudes
Comparison of Indian crudes and typical Middle-east crude mix for
yield and key properties of straight run cuts:
(c
1. Gases up to 20ºC
2. Naphtha I.B.P. – 140ºC
3. KEROSENE 140–250ºC
S
Notes
4. GAS OIL 250–370ºC
___________________
5. Vacuum GAS OIL 370–530ºC
___________________
6. Short Residue 530º, C+.
PE
___________________
___________________
1 1-2 AROW 5.8% VOL. 0.4 3.8
AROM. 16% Vol NAPH 40.6%
NAPH. 52% VOL 4.4 AROM: 6.6%
V.O.N.O.
2 COTANE NO. 15.0
SMOKE PT. 23
VOL
24.9 ___________________
73.7 10-1 OCTANE No.
mm AROM. 1:1 %
67.5
VOL F.P.T.-54ºC
SMOKE POINT SMOKE POINT ___________________
14mm 27mm
3 Arom. 36% 17.6 DIESEL INDEX 57 19.2 AROM. 15% VOL. 22.3
VOL. POUR POINT +3 F.P.T.–48ºC
E.P.T.<–60ºC ___________________
DIESEL INDEX
DIESEL INDEX KUOP 12.10 67
POUR +POINT 23.9
33
4 POUR POINT 27.1
KIN VISC. AT
100º C
31.2
+6ºC ___________________
–9ºC 8.120 SI
KUOP 12-70
KIN. VISC. AT
KUOP II-61 ºAPI 13.58 100ºC
18.8
___________________
KIN. VISC. AT POUR POINT 34.7
5
6
96.9ºC
7 0St
ºAPI 3.8
ASSAM CRUDE
MIX ºAPI 29.85
SULPHUR 0.24%
Wr. POUR POINT
+30ºC WAX
CONTENT 10.8%
Wt.
KUOP 11.30
27.2
N.9
+48
KIN. VISC. AT
100ºC 150(27 0SI
CCR 14.77% Wt.
NORTH GUJARAT
CRUDE MIX
ºAPI 26.83
SULPHUR 0.17%Wt.
POUR POINT+21
WAX CONTENT
6.8% Wt
KUOP 12.0
-U
405 0St
API 16.5
CCR 9.92% WI.
POUR POINT +
68ºC
GANDHAR+ANKLE-
SWAR (60. 40 VOLT
CRUDE MIX
ºAPI 46.9
SULPHUR 0.041 % Wt.
POUR POINT+27ºC
WAX CONTENT 8.9%
Wt.
KUOP 12.15
6.3
___________________
CE
1.9 2.7 2.1
ARON 21.3% ARON 4% VOL. AROM 7.3% VOL

VOL. NAPH. 25% OCTANE 10.7
18.6 30.4
OCTANE No. 53.8
VOL OCTANE NO.61.9
NO. 69-6 SMOKE POINT
26mm
SMOKE POINT AROM. 18.6%
17mm VOL. F.P.T.–56ºC
AROM. 26.9% 20.9 SMOKE POINT 24.7 16.1
VOL. F. PT. -49ºC 27mm Arom. 16% DIESEL INDEX
Vol,. F. PT–57ºC 58
DIESEL INDEX POUR +POINT
56 DIESEL INDEX –9ºC
18.1
POUR POINT 24.0 58 21.8 KUOP 11-94
+3ºC POUR POINT KIN. VISC. AT
–12ºC 100ºC
KUOP 12.37 KIN 5.98 0St 22.5
VISC. AT 98.9ºC KUOP 12.31 KIN
28.4 15.7
API 7.43
5.36 0St VISC. AT 100ºC
CCR 19.85% Wt.
4.83 0St
POUR POINT +
)C
ºAPI 9.51 54ºC

CCR 19.2% Wt. API 16.35, CCR KIN. VISC. AT 30.5
6.2 4.7 100ºC
POUR POINT 10.4 % Wt POUR
+72ºC POINT+ 60ºC 903.650St
BOMBAY HIGH ºAPI NARIMANAM Kuwait+Lt. IRANIAN

39.35 SULPHER CRUDE FOMAN (56: 36: 6 VOL. )
0.17% Wt. POUR ºAPI 47.08 ºAPI 31.1
POINT+ 30ºC WAX SULPHUR 0.085% SULPHUR 2.28% Wt.
CONTENT 10.6% Wt. POUR POINT 0 POUR POIN T(–30ºC
Wt. KUOP 11.70 WAX CONTENT WAX CONTENT 1.1%
2.8% Wt. KUOP Wt. KUOP II.98
11.98
Selection of Crude(s) for a Refinery

Based on product demand, type of products, processing schemes of
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refineries, metallurgy of existing plant and equipment, crudes are

selected after evaluating detailed crude Assay Data. Mostly, a
mixture of crudes is selected for a refinery to optimise the cost and
S
Notes meeting products quality specifications.
___________________
Check Your Progress
___________________
Fill in the blanks:
___________________
PE
1. RVP indicates relative Percentage of gaseous and lighter
___________________
hydrocarbons in crude oil.
___________________
2. It is measure of contamination in crude that will cause
___________________
overhead corrosion or foul up exchangers by settling and
___________________ sealing.
___________________
___________________ Summary
___________________
-U
This unit discusses the characteristics of crude oil like intensity
and salt content in detail. Concepts like Reid Vapour Pressure,
light end analysis, methods of determining salt content, KUOP and
TAN. This unit also describes the method of selection of crude oil.
Lesson End Activity

CE
Draw a comparison of indigenous crudes with Typical Middle East
Crude(s) vis-à-vis important specifications of Petroleum Products.
Keywords
Total Acid Number: It is the amount of potassium hydroxide in
milligrams that is needed to neutralize the acids in one gram of oil.
It is an important quality measurement of crude oil.
Viscosity: The state of being thick, sticky, and semifluid in
)C
consistency, due to internal friction.
Questions for Discussion

1. Describe the different characteristics of crudes dealt with in
this unit, their significance and typical values/units of
measurement.
2. What are the types of hydrocarbons present in the crude?
(c
3. How do you classify crudes based on proportion of type of

hydrocarbon present in them.
4. From which Indian crudes, can you produce
S
Notes
(a) ATF
___________________
(b) Bitumen
___________________
(c) Lubes
PE
___________________
(d) Microcrystalline wax ___________________
(e) Good Quality Calcined Petroleum Coke ___________________
5. Describe the Reid Vapour Analysis. ___________________
6. Define: ___________________
(a) Viscosity ___________________
(b) KUOP ___________________
(c) TAN
Further Readings
Books
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CE
2009

Web Readings
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crude_oil_assay
http://petrofed.winwinhosting.net/upload/25-28Aug10/2.pdf
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Notes
___________________
___________________
___________________
PE
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
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CE
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UNIT 5: Case Study
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Notes
___________________
Case Study ___________________
PE
___________________
Objectives
___________________
After analysing this case, the student will have an appreciation of the
concept of topics studied in this Block. ___________________
___________________
Case Study: Reliance Refinery
___________________
The Background
___________________
Jewel of India’s Business Community- Reliance Industries
Limited operates one of India’s most ambitious and complicated ___________________
-U
engineering endeavours, its refinery complex in Jamnagar.
Situated on the northwest coast of India, the integrated refinery
complex is located at Motikhavdi, Lalpur Taluka, Jamnagar
District, in the state of Gujarat. The expanded facility is the
world’s largest grassroots refinery, equipped to refine various
types of crude oil and manufactures various grades of fuel from
motor gasoline to Aviation Turbine Fuel (ATF).
The Challenge
___________________
CE
In 2008, Motorola was tasked by Reliance Industries to
recommend a comprehensive state-of-the-art radio
communications network for its newly expanded site at the JERP
refinery complex, for its every day mission critical use.
Over the next year, careful steps were taken to scope and detail
the requirements of the TETRA network architecture and
coverage so as to sufficiently address the various business and
operational needs of a digital trunking communications within
the refinery.
Heart of the Network
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At the heart of the network, a scalable Mobile Switching Office

(MSO), otherwise known as Scalable DimetraTM IP, was
responsible for supporting dispatch and call processing, packet
data, network and alarm management, and remote access. The
control contains all the hardware tools and software applications
necessary to carry out all these functions in a single unit, with
minimal footprint.
Coupled with three MTS 4 base stations, the MSO manages all
the communications requirements of various handheld devices,
which include 1,200 units of Motorola’s ATEX-certified
MTP750FM, MTP850Ex and MTM800E radios. The MSO and
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additional base stations ensured in-building coverage for JERP’s

control room, the nerve centre of the refinery’s daily operations
Contd…
The Benefits
S
Notes
Above and Beyond
___________________
Beyond the network equipment, the local Motorola team provided
___________________ further onsite support and services, which included the
interconnection of the PABX systems, Conventional Patching and
___________________ Short Data Services. The value added services ensured the
PE
integrated communications network operated smoothly and
___________________ seamlessly across all the users who relied on it to operate the
___________________ refinery to the highest standards of efficiency, productivity and
most importantly, safety.
___________________
“Motorola has successfully provided a comprehensive, end-to-end
___________________ TETRA solution for our refinery complex and were able to supply
a compelling solution and offered an attractive value proposition
___________________ for our communications needs.”
___________________ Rajbushan Manoharan, Vice President, Reliance Industries

As JERP continues to enjoy the robust communications network
___________________
-U
and higher level of efficiency at his plants since the TETRA
installation, plans are already underway to further expand the
system to other sites and the older sections of the mega Jamnagar
refinery complex in the future.
Question:
Critically analyse the case?
Source: http://www.motorola.com/web/Business/_Documents/Brochure/_Static%20files/
CE
TETRA_Oil_26Gas_India_Reliance_Refinery_Final.pdf
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UNIT 6: Important Test on Petroleum Products
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Notes
___________________
___________________
PE
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
-U ___________________
BLOCK-II
CE
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Detailed Contents
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Notes
UNIT 6: IMPORTANT TEST ON PETROLEUM
___________________ UNIT 8: PROPERTIES OF PETROLEUM
PRODUCTS PRODUCTS
 ___________________
Introduction  Introduction
___________________
PE
 Significance of Tests  Properties of Petroleum Products and their
Significance–Gasoline
___________________
UNIT 7: BUREAU OF MINES CORRELATION  Diesel Fuels
INDEX
___________________
 Introduction
___________________ UNIT 9: CRUDE DISTILLATION
 Bromine Number  Introduction
___________________
___________________  Crude Distillation
___________________ UNIT 10: CASE STUDY

___________________
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CE
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Notes
___________________
Important Test on Petroleum ___________________
Products
PE
___________________
___________________
Objectives ___________________
___________________
topics:
___________________
 Significance of test
 Types of test –Flash, pour point, etc. ___________________
___________________
Introduction
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Any material which is intended for use in a particular application
should have certain characteristics so that it is suitable for use in
that application. These characteristics are quantified to make
them absolute and also to remove any ambiguity in the
___________________
interpretation. These quantified characteristics are called

CE
“specifications”.
Following are the some important tests conducted on petroleum
products and included in specifications:
Flash Point RON Colour
Pour Point MON BMCI
Distillation AKI Bromine Number
Copper Corrosion Cetane Number Benzene Content
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Silver Corrosion Cetane Index Density

Sulphur Smoke Point Sediment
Viscosity Aniline Point Water
Potential Gum Carbon Residue Weathering Test
Existent Gum Vapour Pressure
(c
Significance of Tests
S
Notes
Activity
___________________
Prepare a list of some Flash Point
important tests conducted on
___________________
petroleum products
It is the minimum temperature at which the sample gives
___________________
sufficient vapour which forms an explosive mixture with air giving
PE
a flash when a flame is applied to it under conditions of the test
___________________
method.
___________________
Flash point is associated with safety during storage and
___________________ application in some respects. When a product like kerosene is
___________________ stored either at home or at a commercial location, it forms vapour
above it depending upon the ambient temperature. If the vapour so
___________________
formed is sufficient to form an explosive mixture with air, there
___________________
would be explosions when a small naked flame is exposed to it.
___________________
-U
Each country has its own legislation with respect to flash point
depending upon the climatic conditions of the country.
Pour Point
When heavy petroleum oils containing wax are allowed to settle
(like in storage tanks), wax separates out from them making the oil
immobile. If the oil does not move, it cannot be pumped. The
CE
temperature at which the oil becomes immobile (does not move) is
termed as pour point when tested under the conditions of the test
methods.
Distillation
The volatility of oil is indicated by its distillation characteristics.
Unlike pure compounds, petroleum oils are mixtures of several
hydrocarbons and so will have a boiling range instead of boiling
point. The oil should have suitable boiling range (volatility) so that
)C
it can be used in a particular application. For example, Motor

Gasoline which is used in spark ignition internal combustion
engines has the following specifications for distillation:
 Recovery up to 70oC : 10 to 45% Min
 Recovery up to 100oC : 40 to 70% Min
 Recovery up to 180oC : 90% Min
Since the application is in a spark ignition engine, the fuel should
(c
easily vapourise to a sufficient degree so that when a spark is

applied it can ignite. The specification for recovery at 70oC is laid
to meet this requirement. The maximum limit of 45% is laid to
prevent some other undesirable effects such as vapour lock. This
S
quality is called “easy start”. Notes
The specification for recovery at 100oC is set to give power to ___________________

engine and take load. ___________________
The specification for recovery at 180oC and final boiling point are
PE
___________________
set to prevent crank case oil dilution and unburnt hydrocarbon in
___________________
tail gases (air pollution).
___________________
Copper Corrosion ___________________

The fuel product comes on contact with metal parts such as ___________________
transfer pipe from storage tank, storage tank itself, the burner in a
___________________
kerosene stove, stove body itself, storage and transportation
equipment like pumps, storage vessels etc. If the product is ___________________
-U
corrosive, it will corrode these parts and reduces their life. Copper
corrosion test indicates whether the product is corrosive to copper
containing alloys or not. This test is applicable to all fuels.
Silver Corrosion
This test is done for Aviation Turbine Fuel (ATF)–Jet A1 Type
___________________
CE
Some aircrafts of civil aviation and defence use a silver lining in
the fuel transfer lines. In order to protect this lining, the fuel
should not be corrosive to silver. Hence this test is done for ATF.
This is a requirement for Indian region only. Western countries
and USA do not use this test any more.
Sulphur
Sulphur, besides being corrosive to the fuel systems, is a pollutant
to the air and affects life. Global efforts are being made to
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minimise the sulphur content in motor gasoline, high speed diesel

and fuel oils.
Viscosity
Viscosity is the resistance to flow. The unit of absolute or dynamic
viscosity is Poise and that of kinematic viscosity is Stoke. Viscosity
is an important property for lube oils because it gives the
lubricating property to the oil. This is required to prevent wear and
(c
tear in the moving parts of a machine on account of metal to metal

contact. For fuel oils, it gives flow properties which are needed for
pump selection for transporting.
Viscosity is measured in several ways. The most common are
S
Notes
Kinematic Viscosity measured in centistokes and Saybolt
___________________
Universal Viscosity measured in seconds.
___________________
Potential Gum
___________________
PE
This test is applicable to motor gasoline which may contain
___________________
unsaturated hydrocarbons (olefins). Olefins are oxidised by
___________________ atmospheric oxygen to a gummy material which sticks to the
___________________ carburetor jet of the vehicle or inlet valve leading to valve sticking
which in turn results in the malfunction of the engine. This type of
___________________
gum is characterised by Potential Gum test. It does not show the
___________________
exact amount of gum that would form on storage but gives a
___________________ directional indication. The unit of measurement is mg per litre.
___________________
-U
Existent Gum
This test is applicable to motor gasoline.
If motor gasoline contains any soluble solid residue, the residue
gets deposited in the carburetor and other parts after the gasoline
is vapourised. Such deposit may clog the jet and prevent fuel flow
due to which the engine stops. That is why this test is done on MS.
CE
The specification is 40 mg per litre max.
One point should be noted. Some solid material is added to MS
deliberately for some purposes. Example: Dye to identify the MS
from others. These types of residues are excluded from the
specification.
Octane Number
It is defined as the per cent volume of isooctane in a mixture of iso-
)C
octane and normal heptane that gives the same knocking as that of
the fuel when tested under defined conditions.
Isooctane is assigned a value of 100 and normal heptane 0 octane
number.
Normal paraffins have the lowest octane number. Next comes
naphthenes followed by isoparaffins, olefins and aromatics for the
same carbon number. However, this is only a general rule and may
differ in the case of isoparaffins. Some of them have lower octane
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numbers than corresponding naphthenes and some other higher

octane number depending upon the branching of the isoparaffin.
Similarly Octane numbers of olefins may also differ slightly as
S
given below: Notes
 n-Hexane 24.8 ___________________
 Cyclohexane 83 ___________________
PE
___________________
 2,2 Dimethyl Butane 91.8
___________________
 2-Methyl Pentane 73.4
___________________
 Hexene-2 90
___________________
 Benzene >100
___________________
 N-Heptane 0
___________________
 Methyl Cyclohexane 75
___________________


2,3 Dimethyl Pentane
2 Methyl Hexene-1
Toluene
88
92
107
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Octane numbers are not truly additive. When used singly, the
hydrocarbons behave in some way and when used in a mixture,
___________________
they behave in another way. For example, Toluene has a RON 107
CE
when it is a single component system. But when it is mixed with
other hydrocarbons, it behaves as if its octane number is > 120.
Some schools of thought say that in multi-component systems, like
naptha, octane number is additive on weight percent basis. Some
others believe that it is additive on mol. per cent basis. In effect,
there are always some exceptions and some deviations.
Research Octane Number and Motor Octane Number

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These are determined under different conditions of the test.

Test Condition RON MON
Engine speed 600 RPM 900 RPM
Spark advance 13o Variable
Mixture Temp -- 300o F
In Take Air Temp 125o F 100o F

(c
AKI (Anti Knock Index)

It is defined as the average of RON and MON.
AKI = (RON + MON)/2
Anti Knock Index is regarded as more critical for engine
S
Notes
performance than RON alone.
___________________
___________________ Cetane Number

___________________ This test is applicable to diesel fuels which use ignition by
PE
compression.
___________________
Cetane number is defined as the per cent volume of n-cetane in a
___________________
mixture of n-Cetane and alpha methyl naphthalene that would
___________________
give the same knocking as that of the fuel under test.
___________________
n-Cetane is assigned a value of 100 and alpha methyl naphthalene
___________________ a value of 0.
___________________ Alpha methyl naphthalene has some storage stability problem. It
___________________
-U
turns red when exposed to air. So, although it is a primary fuel, a
secondary fuel for routine use is also stated in the test method.
This is Hepta Methyl Nonane (HMN). Another consideration for
using HMN is its easier availability.
This test has reverse characteristics of octane number.
Here, normal paraffins have highest cetane number followed by
CE
naphthenes, isoparaffins, olefins and aromatics in general but the
order may vary depending upon the chain length of isoparaffins.
Cetane Index
It is an alternative to cetane number. It is nearly equal to cetane
number but not an actually determined value required cetane
engine. Cetane index is not applicable to fuels containing cetane
improves.
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Smoke Point
Smoke point is defined as the maximum length of the flame which
does not give smoke when tested under prescribed conditions using
the prescribed apparatus.
Smoke point shows the hydrocarbon nature of the fuel. Paraffins
have high smoke points followed by naphthenes and then by
aromatics.
(c
The test is applicable primarily to kerosene. The main purpose of

kerosene is for use in lantern. If the kerosene gives smoke when it
burns, it gives less light. As the flame size increases the light given
out would also be more. But if the kerosene starts giving smoke,
the height of the flame has no meaning. So the higher the flame
S
without smoke, the better. Notes
Smoke point is related to hydrogen content of the fuel. The higher ___________________
the hydrogen content, the higher will be the smoke point. Paraffins ___________________
contain highest hydrogen content for the same carbon number. So
PE
___________________
the smoke point of paraffins is highest.
___________________
The specification of smoke point for kerosene in our country is 18
___________________
mm minimum.
___________________
Aniline Point
___________________
Aniline point is the minimum temperature at which equal volumes
___________________
of sample and aniline are miscible.
___________________
Aniline point gives the hydrocarbon nature of the oil. Aromatic
-U
hydrocarbons have lower aniline points and paraffinic
hydrocarbons have higher aniline points. Naphthenic hydrocarbons
have intermediate aniline points.
Aniline point in combination with density /specific gravity/ API
gravity gives a quick idea of some important properties like Diesel
___________________
Index, Aniline-Gravity Product which are important properties for

CE
diesel and ATF. Aniline gravity product is an alternative to
calorific value.
Carbon Residue
Every oil, when it burns, forms a carbon deposit which is very
difficult to burn. This carbon deposits on burner tips chocking the
orifices due to which the flow of oil stops and burner tip needs to be
cleaned. If this carbon deposit is more, the burner tips have to be
cleaned more frequently.
)C
Carbon residue test gives an indication of the amount of carbon

that would form when the oil is pyrolysed and burned.
There are two methods to determine carbon residue:
1. Ramsbottom Carbon Residue (RCR)
2. Conradson Carbon Residue (CCR)
Vapour Pressure
(c
This is an indirect method of estimating most extreme low

temperatures under which initial vapourisation can be expected to
take place. It can be considered as a semi quantitative measure of
the amount of most volatile material present in the product. It can
S
Notes also be used as a means of predicting the maximum pressures
___________________ which may be experienced at fuel tank temperatures.
___________________
Colour
___________________
PE
Two types of tests are applicable to petroleum products (1) Saybolt
___________________ colour and (2) ASTM Colour. The former is applicable to white oils
___________________ like kerosene, naphtha, MTO, etc. and the other is applicable to
diesel, vacuum distillates etc. The colour gives an indication of the
___________________
degree of refining or contamination with foreign bodies.
___________________
___________________ Check Your Progress

___________________ Fill in the blanks:
___________________
-U
1. The volatility of oil is indicated by its distillation
characteristics.
2. This test is done for Aviation Turbine Fuel (ATF)–Jet A1
Summary
Type.
CE
In this unit, some important tests conducted on petroleum
products were listed. The unit stressed on the significance of tests
and the parameters on which the petroleum products are tested.
The unit also lists the specifications of petroleum products like
LPG, motor gasoline, PC Naphtha, Superior Kerosene, Aviation
Turbine Fuel, High Speed Diesel, Light Diesel and Petroleum
Coke.
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Lesson End Activity

Prepare a project on the various types of test on petroleum
products
Keywords
Flash Point: It is the minimum temperature at which the sample
gives sufficient vapour which forms an explosive mixture with air
(c
giving a flash when a flame is applied to it under conditions of the

test method.
Pour Point: A point is the lowest temperature at which a liquid
becomes semi solid and loses its flow characteristics.
Viscosity: The state of being thick, sticky, and semifluid in
S
Notes
consistency, due to internal friction.
___________________
1. What is the significance of following tests and to what
PE
___________________
petroleum product these are related:
___________________
(a) Flash point (g) Distillation
___________________
(b) Smoke point (h) Octane number
___________________
(c) Cetane number (i) Viscosity
___________________
(d) Silver corrosion (j) BMCI ___________________
(e) Weathering test (k) Copper corrosion ___________________
(f) Vapour pressure
Further Readings
Books
-U
___________________
CE
2009
Web Readings
http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/library/policy/army/fm/10-
67/Appe.htm
http://nepis.epa.gov/Adobe/PDF../P1000AE6.pdf
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Notes
___________________
___________________
___________________
PE
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
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CE
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UNIT 7: Bureau of Mines Correlation Index
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Notes
___________________
Bureau of Mines Correlation ___________________
Index
PE
___________________
___________________
Objectives ___________________
___________________
topics:
___________________
 Bromine Number
 Weathering Test ___________________
___________________
Introduction
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BMCI is an indication of predominant nature of Hydrocarbons in a
product.
Normal paraffin has BMCI zero or less than zero. A high BMCI
indicates predominantly Aromatic nature and a low BMCI
___________________
indicates predominantly paraffinic nature. Intermediate BMCI

CE
indicates mixtures of both and also naphthenic nature. BMCI more
than 100 indicates presence of condensed rings.
BMCI of some hydrocarbons
Hydrocarbon BMCI
N Paraffins 0 or < 0
Iso Paraffins < 15
Cyclohexane 50
)C
Benzene 99
BMCI is a calculated value form density and 50% boiling point. It
is defined as,
BMCI – (48640/K) + (473.7 * G) – 456.8
Where,
K = 50% Boiling Point in oK
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G = Specific Gravity @ 200/4oC

There are graphical correlations between BMCI and Viscosity and
Density also which are nearly equal to the calculated value.
Bromine Number
S
Notes
Activity
Bromine number is defined as the grams of bromine that react
___________________
Prepare a presentation to
show the calculation of BMCI.
with 100 grams of the sample.
___________________
Bromine number gives the olefinity of the sample.
___________________
PE
Olefins react with bromine giving additional products. Each double
___________________
bond absorbs two atoms of bromine.
___________________
Example:
___________________
CH3CH2CH2CH2CH = CH2+Br2 CH3CH2CH2CH2CHBRCH2Br
___________________
___________________ Benzene Content

___________________ This test is applicable to motor gasoline.
___________________
-U
Benzene is carcinogenic (causes cancer). Its limit in MS is
recognised by all countries. The specification for benzene in India
is 5%v for general supplies and 1% v max for supplies to NCR.
Density
Petroleum products are liquids. They are sold on a volume basis
but the custody transfers are affected on weight basis. Density is
CE
required for mass balance calculation and is also useful for several
correlations which indicate the hydrocarbon nature and other
properties.
Some of such correlations are, BMCI, Kuop and VGC.
Weathering Test
This test is applicable to LPG. It indicates the amount of non-
vaporisable matter in LPG.
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Table 7.1: Specifications of Petroleum Products: LPG (IS 4796)
Test Unit Specification

Density kg / M3 Report
Volatility (95% Ev Temp) o C +2 Max
Vapor Pressure @ 38 o C kg / cm2 7 Max
Copper Corrosion @ 38 o C 1 Max
Sulphur %w 0.05 Max
(c
Odor -- Identifiable
Table 7.2: Motor Gasoline (IS 2796 – 2008 with Amendment
S
1 March, 2010)
Notes
___________________
___________________
PE
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
-U ___________________
CE
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Table 7.3: PC Naphtha
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Notes Test Unit Method Requirement
___________________ Appearance Visual Clear and Bright

Colour Visual Colourless
___________________
Density @ 15 C kg/M3 P:16 To Report
___________________ Distillation IBP C P:18 28 min
PE
FBP C 160
___________________
Total Paraffins %w ASTM D 5443 74 min
___________________ Normal Paraffins %w ASTMD 5443 36 min
Iso/Nor Paraffin Ratio 1.05 max
___________________
n C6 %w To Report
___________________ nC7 %w To Report
Aromatics %w 10 max
___________________
Olefins %w P:23 1 max
___________________ Total Sulphur ppm w P:34 B 100 – 250
___________________ Mercaptan Sulphur
Chlorides
Lead
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Reid Vapour Pressure
@ 38ºC
Arsenic and Mercury

ppm w
Kpa
ppm w
ppb w
P:109
P:39
ASTMD 4929
P:82
ICP
Table 7.4: Superior Kerosene (IS 1459 – 1974)

150 max
To Report
5 max
100 max
To Report
CE
Test Unit Method Requirement
Acidity mgKOH/gm P:2 Nil
(Inorganic)
Burning Quality
Char value mg/kg Oil P:5 20 max
Bloom on chimney not darker than
grey
Colour (Saybolt) Units P:14 +10
Undyed
Blue
Dyed
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Copper Corrosion
@ 50 o C for 3 Hrs P:15 Not worse than 1
Density @ 15 o C kg/M3 P:16 To Report
Distillation
Recovery @ 200 o
%v P:18 20 min
C
Final Boiling o
C 300 max
Point
Flash Point Abel o
C P:20 35 min
Smoke Point mm P:31 18 min
(c
Total Sulphur %w P:34 0.25 max

Table 7.5: Aviation Turbine Fuel (IS 1571 – 2008)
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Notes
___________________
___________________
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___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
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Table 7.6: High Speed Diesel (IS 1460–2005 5th Revision)
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Notes
Sl. Requirements Method of
___________________ Characteristics
No. BS II BS II Test
___________________ (i) Acidity, inorganic Nil Nil P:2
___________________ (ii) Acidity, total mg of To To P:2
PE
KOH/g, Max Report Report
___________________ (iii) Ash, percent by mass, 0.01 0.01 P:4 / ISO 6245
Max
___________________
(iv) Carbon residue 0.30 0.30 P:8 / ISO
___________________ (Ramsbottom) on 10 10370
percent residue(1)
___________________ percent by mass,Max
(v) Cetane number(2), Min 48(3) 51(3) P:9 / ISO 5165
___________________
(vi) Cetane index(2), Min 46(3) 46(3) D 4737 / ISO
4264
___________________
(vii) Pour points (4) Max 3°C 3°C P:10 / D 5949
___________________
(viii)
(ix)
-Ua) Winter
b) Summer
Copper strip corrosion
for 3hr at 100°C
Distillation, percent
(v/v) recovered
15°C
Not
worse
than
No. 1
15°C
Not
worse
than
No. 1
or D 5950 or D
5985
P:15 / ISO
2160
P:18 / ISO
3405
a) at 350°C 85 -
CE
b) at 360°C - 95
c) at 370°C 95 -
(x) Flash point
a) Abel °C, Min 35 35 P:20
b) Pensky Martens 66 66 P:21
closed cup (5)°C, Min
(xi) Kinematic viscosity, 2.0 to 2.0 to P:25 / ISO
cSt, at 40°C 5.0 5.0 3104
(xii) Sediments, percent by 0.05 - P:30
mass, Max
)C
Notes:
1. This limit is applicable prior to addition of ignition improvers,
if used. In case a value exceeding the limit is obtained on
finished fuels in the market, ASTM D 4046 / ISO 13759 shall
be used to establish the presence of nitrate containing
compound. In such case the present limit for carbon residue
cannot be applied. However, the use of ignition improver does
not exempt the manufacturer from meeting this requirement
(c
prior to the addition of additives.

2. Fuel meant for vehicles meeting Bharat Stage II emission
norms is required to meet either of these two parameters.
3. For fuel processed from Assam crude, cetane number and
S
Notes
cetane index is relaxed by 3 units.
___________________
4. Winter shall be the period from November to February in
central and northern plains of India (both months inclusive) ___________________
and rest of the months of the year shall be called as summer.
PE
___________________
5. Applicable for Naval applications and fishing vessels requiring ___________________

high flash HSD. ___________________
6. For fuel processed from Assam crude, the density range is ___________________
relaxed to 820-870 and 820-850 for Bharat Stage II and Bharat
___________________
Stage III grades respectively.
___________________
7. In case of dispute P: 32 shall be the referee test method.
___________________
8.
9. -U
For HSD supplied to Indian Navy, the limit of sulphur shall be
in agreement between the buyer and the supplier.
In case of dispute, ASTM D 4294 shall be the referee test
method.
10. This test shall be carried out only at the refinery or
manufacturer's end. As an alternative, the test method given
___________________
CE
in Annex A can also be used with a limit of 1.6 mg/100 ml. In
case of dispute, ASTM D 2274 shall be referee method.
11. Shall be applicable only for HSD blended with 5 percent (v/v)
Bio-diesel and the limit shall proportionately vary as and
when the different blending percent of bio-diesel is permitted.
Table 7.7: Light Diesel Oil (IS 1460 – 2000)

Test Unit Method Requirement PSS
Acidity Inorganic mg KOH/Gm P:2 Nil ---
)C
Ash %w P:4 0.02 max 0.005 max

RCR on whole sample %w P:8 1.5 max 0.3 max
Pour Point deg C P:10 12 Summer 0 max
21 Winter 0 max
Copper Corrosion
@ 100 deg C for 3 Hrs --- P:15 2 max 1b
Flash Point (PMCC) deg C P:21 66 min 66 min
Kin Vis @ 40 deg C cST P:25 2.5 to 15.7 2.5 to 5.0
Sediments %w P:30 0.1 Max 0.05 max
Density @ 15 deg C kg / M3 P:16 Report 910 max
(c
Total Sulphur %w P:33 1.8 max 0.35 max

Water content %v P:40 0.25 max 0.05 max
Table 7.8: Petroleum Coke (IS 8502 – 1994)
S
Notes
Tertiary
___________________ Isopropyl
Property Methanol Ethanol Butyl MTBE Gasline
Alcohol
Alcohol
___________________ Chem. CH30H C2H5OH C3H70H C4H90H C4H9OCH3 C8H15
Formulae (Av.)
___________________
PE
Mol. Wt. 32 46 60 74 88 111
___________________ Oxygen 50 35 27 22 18 0
Cont. %
___________________ mass
B.P.ºC 65 78.3 82.2 82.8 55 30-20
___________________
Stoichio- 6.4 9.0 10.3 11.1 11.7 14.6
___________________ Meteric
A/F
___________________ Lat. Heat 3300 2600 2100 1700 900 800
of Vap. (11.8) (9.3) (7.5) (6.1) (3.2) (2.9)
___________________ Btu/Gal
(J/lit)
___________________ Net Heat
comb.
MJ/Kg
Solubi-
Solubility
in water,
g/100g
water
RON
-U
21
107
28
108
32
112
35
113
35
4.8
116
43
Trace
87-93
MON
CE
- - - - 101 82-87
Check Your Progress

Fill in the blanks:
1. …………………… is defined as the grams of bromine
that react with 100 grams of the sample.
2. ……………………… is required for mass balance
calculation and is also useful for several correlations
)C
which indicate the hydrocarbon nature and other

properties.
Summary
In this unit, BMCI is discussed. It is an indication of predominant
nature of Hydrocarbons in a product. All normal paraffins have
BMCI zero or less than zero. A high BMCI indicates predominantly
Aromatic nature and a low BMCI indicates predominantly
(c
paraffinic nature.
Lesson End Activity
S
Notes
Prepare an assignment on the weathering test.
___________________
___________________
Keywords
PE
___________________
Bromine Number: Bromine number is defined as the grams of
___________________
bromine that react with 100 grams of the sample.
___________________
Bureau of Mines Correlation Index: Bureau of mines
correlation index is an indication of predominant nature of ___________________
Hydrocarbons in a product. ___________________
___________________
-U
1. What are the key specifications of Motor Spirit, LPG, HSD,
Petrochemical Naphtha and ATF? How do these affect
performance?
2. How is gum formed in motor spirit, what is its impact and how
is it overcome?
___________________
Further Readings
CE
Books

2009
Weblinks
)C
67/Appe.htm
(c
S
Notes
___________________
___________________
___________________
PE
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
-U
CE
)C
(c
UNIT 8: Properties of Petroleum Products
S
Notes
___________________
Properties of Petroleum Products ___________________
PE
___________________
Objectives
___________________
topics: ___________________
 Properties of Petroleum Products and their Significance ___________________

 Effect of Diesel Fuel Hydrocarbon Type Composition on its Quality ___________________
___________________
Introduction ___________________
-U
Petroleum (L. petroleum, from Greek: πέτρα (rock) + Latin: oleum
(oil) is a naturally occurring flammable liquid consisting of a
complex mixture of hydrocarbons of various molecular weights and
other liquid organic compounds, that are found in geologic
formations beneath the Earth's surface. The name Petroleum
covers both naturally occurring unprocessed crude oils and
___________________
petroleum products that are made up of refined crude oil. A fossil

CE
fuel, it is formed when large quantities of dead organisms, usually
zooplankton and algae, are buried underneath sedimentary rock
and undergo intense heat and pressure.
Petroleum is recovered mostly through oil drilling. This comes
after the studies of structural geology (at the reservoir scale),
sedimentary basin analysis, and reservoir characterization (mainly
in terms of porosity and permeable structures). It is refined and
separated, most easily by boiling point, into a large number of
)C
consumer products, from petrol (or gasoline) and kerosene to

asphalt and chemical reagents used to make plastics and
pharmaceuticals. Petroleum is used in manufacturing a wide
variety of materials, and it is estimated that the world consumes
about 88 million barrels each day.
(c
Properties of Petroleum Products and their
S
Notes
Activity Significance–Gasoline
___________________
Prepare a chart to show the
Summary of Fireside Following is the description of gasoline:
___________________
Problems Related to Fuel
Quality.
___________________ Effect of Chemical Composition on Gasoline Quality
PE
___________________ Octane number is the most important property of motor gasoline.
___________________ Composition of motor gasoline profoundly affects its performance
in the engine and equally controls its behaviour under storage and
___________________
handling. These are described below:
___________________
___________________
Paraffins (Cn H2n+2)
___________________  Thermally and chemically most stable compounds.
___________________ 

-U
Have poor octane number
Increasing the chain length reduces the octane number
Knock resistance increases with branching
Adding methyl groups (CH3) to the side chain in the central
position increases the knock resistance
CE
Olefins (Cn H2n)
 Oxidation and thermal stability is poor in general

 More knock resistance than their corresponding saturated
compounds.
Cycloparaffins (CnH2n)
 Poorer knock resistance than corresponding aromatics

)C
 Lengthening of side chain decreases knock resistance

 Branching of side chain is beneficial.
Aromatics (CnH2n-6CnH2n-12 , etc.)
 Aromatics have excellent knock resistance qualities.

(c
Properties of Gasoline and Oxygenated Compounds
S
Notes
Tertiary
Isopropyl ___________________
Property Methanol Ethanol Butyl MTBE Gasline
Alcohol
Alcohol
Chem. CH30H C2H5OH C3H70H C4H90H C4H9OCH3 C8H15
___________________
Formulae (Av.)
PE
___________________
Mol. Wt. 32 46 60 74 88 111
Oxygen 50 35 27 22 18 0 ___________________
Cont. %
mass ___________________
B.P.ºC 65 78.3 82.2 82.8 55 30-20 ___________________
Stoichio- 6.4 9.0 10.3 11.1 11.7 14.6
Meteric ___________________
A/F
Lat. Heat 3300 2600 2100 1700 900 800
___________________
of Vap. (11.8) (9.3) (7.5) (6.1) (3.2) (2.9)
Btu/Gal ___________________
(J/lit)
Net Heat
comb.
MJ/Kg
Solubi-
Solubility
in water,
g/100g
water
RON
21
107
28
108
32
112
35
113
-U 35
4.8
116
43
Trace
87-93
___________________
CE
MON
- - - - 101 82-87
Gasoline Properties Needed for Acceptable Performance
Property Controlled for

Fuel Performance Required
Automotive Gasoline
Handling and Storage Volatility Vapour Pressure
Contamination
(Water/Sediments/Gum)
)C
Copper Corrosion
Combustion Octane Number
Volatility/Distillation Range Gravity
Engine Cleanliness Hydrocarbon Compostion

Sulphur
Existent Gum
Oxidation Stability
Combustion and Knock

(c
Before combustion, air and fuel is heated up in combustion

chamber, there is an induction period before normal hot flame
occurs. During this induction period, oxidation of fuel takes place
with the formation of intermediate products such as peroxides,
S
Notes aldehydes and peracids. Formation of peroxides, aldehydes and
___________________ peracids prevents knock due to their ability to dissociate and
promote such type of intermediate reactions.
___________________
___________________ Knocking Tendency
PE
___________________
High Anti-knock Value: Aromatics, Isoparaffins (highly
___________________ branched)
___________________ Intermediate Anti-knock Value: Mixed paraffins e.g.
___________________ isoparaffins with little branching, Naphthenes.
___________________ Low Anti-knock Value: Paraffins

___________________
Combustion Chamber Deposits
___________________

-U
Deposits are formed by
Incomplete Combustion
Partial Oxidation
Cracking
 Condensation and Polymerisation of fuel and lubricants
CE
 May contain non-volatile reaction products of additives
Deposits can lead to:
 Pre-ignition: Peak pressure and temperature will increase
due to apparent increase in compression ratio and poor heat
transfer due to heat insulation effect.
 Loss of power due to reduction in volumetric efficiency
 Exhaust valve corrosion
)C
 Spark plug fouling
Volatility
Volatility of gasoline is its tendency to pass from liquid to vapour
phase. Volatility influences:
 Ease of starting
 Rate of warm up and acceleration
(c
 Tendency to vapour lock

 Carburettor icing
 Crankcase dilution
S
Notes
 Fuel economy
___________________
Ease of Starting ___________________
PE
For a cold engine start, enough gasoline in the intake air must be ___________________
evaporated. Ease of starting depends on: ___________________
 Fuel volatility ___________________
 Engine design ___________________
 Cranking speed ___________________
 Engine oil viscosity ___________________
___________________
Warm up and Acceleration
It depends on:
1. Fuel volatility and ambient temperature -U
2. Provision for thermostatical controlled hot spots. Warm up is
mainly a cold weather problem.
___________________
Vapour Lock and Percolation

CE
Vapour lock is a function of:
1. Volatility characteristics of fuel
2. Fuel requirement of engine at the moment
3. Ability of fuel pump to handle the vapour
4. The temperature and pressure in the fuel system
5. The temperature of ambient air, underbonet temperature and
)C
barometric pressure.
Measurement of Volatility
1. ASTM D-86 Distillation
Significant temperatures are:
 Initial boiling point
 Temperature corresponding to 10% Vol.
(c

 FBP
S
Notes
___________________
 Non-volatile residue left in the flask.
___________________ 2. Reid vapour pressure (RVP)
___________________ Controls the volatility due to lighter ends.
PE
___________________ Typical Values of Vapour Pressures (RVP)
___________________
Kg/cm2 PSI KPa
___________________ Propane 14.1 200 1382.8
Butane 5.6 80 549.2
___________________ Motor Gasoline 0.7 10 68.6
___________________
___________________ 3. Vapour lock index (VLI)
___________________
-U
10 RVP+ E 70
Gives better indication of vapour locking.
Carburetor Icing
It occurs due to following:
 Stoppage of the fuel flow due to clogging of the jetice

CE
 Formation of ice on the walls of carburetor ventenary which
causes the engine to stall due to over-rich fuel/air mixture
 High volatility of fuel
 Cold and humid climate are favourable for icing.
Remedial Measures
These include the following:
 Control of fuel volatility
)C
 Providing heating of carburetor body or the intake air,

particularly during warm up period
 Providing greater throttle opening during starting
 By incorporation of anti-icing agents
 Anti-freeze type
 Surface active agents
Oxidation Stability
(c
Gum formation takes place in storage due to oxidation/

polymerisation reaction undergone by the unsaturated
hydrocarbons and it accelerates at higher temperatures.
Gum is a rubber like resinous material and is insoluble in later
S
stage of formation. Sulphur and nitrogen compounds also take part Notes
in these reactions ___________________
Gum formation is influenced by storage conditions, temperature, ___________________
access of air and light, and catalysts particularly traces of copper.
PE
___________________
Impact of Gum Formation ___________________
Gum Formation has the following impacts: ___________________
___________________
 May cause intake valve sticking due to deposition of Gum, and
may lead to valve burning ___________________
 May cause malfunctioning of carburetor float or impair the ___________________

functioning of throttle ___________________

-U
Deposits formed in the intake may restrict engine breathing
and reduce the efficiency of hot spots resulting in increased
warm up period
It can lead to increased sludge and varnish deposits in the
engine.
___________________
Sulphur Compounds and Corrosiveness

CE
Most of the sulphur compounds are removed in the manufacturing
processes; if these H2S and COS are mainly corrosive and RSH is
distinctively unpleasant.
Sulphur, on oxidation, forms oxides of sulphur which react with
water to form sulphuric acid.
A direct result of leakage of unburnt fuel can be corrosion of engine
parts.
)C
Stringent specifications are required to be followed due to

environmental considerations.
Automotive industries requirement for meeting Euro III/IV
emission standards for Motor Gasoline.
RON MON
89 79 to continue for old cars
91 81 to be widely available
93 83 to continue for high CR cars
(c
Benzene content 1% Max

Aromatics 40% Max
Contd...
Olefins 25% Max
S
Notes Lead Content 0.005% Max
___________________ Sulphur Content 0.05% Max
Oxygen Content 2.70 Max
___________________
___________________
PE
Diesel Fuels
___________________
It consists of the following:
___________________
___________________ BIS Grades of Diesel Fuels

___________________ There are three grades of diesel:
___________________  High Speed Diesel (HSD)
___________________  Light Diesel Oil (LDO)
___________________ 
-U
Marine Diesel (MD)
HSD Blending Components (Typical)
Heavy SR Naphtha
Boiling Range °C
148-204
Cetane Number
28-42
Kerosene 204-260 45-50
CE
LT. SR Gas Oil 250-315 45-50
Heavy Gas Oil 315-350 50-55
LT. Cycle Oil 204-343 15-20
Hydro Cracker Go 204-343 50-60
Coker Kerosene 204-340 15-20
Fuel Performance Requirements
Performance Property Control characteristics

)C
Handling &  Volatility  Flash Points

Storage  Flow  Viscosity
 Corrosive  Water & sediments
constituents  Copper corrosion
 Contaminants  Cloud/Pour pt.
 CFPP
Combustion  Ignition Delay  Cetane Number
 Volatility  Distillation Range
 Heat content  Gravity
 Cloud & Pour Point
Cleanliness  Heavier  Carbon Residue on 10%
(c
During Use constituents  Bottom Ash Content

 Metals  Sulphur Content,
 Corrosive Stability Exhaust
constituents Emission Standards
Effect of Diesel Fuel Hydrocarbon Type Composition on its
S
Quality Notes
___________________
Paraffins
___________________
 Have the best combustion characteristics and highest cetane
PE
numbers ___________________
___________________
 With molecular weight of n-paraffins, cetane number increases
___________________
 Isoparaffins have lower cetane numbers than the paraffins of
same carbon numbers. With branching, cetane number is ___________________
lowered. ___________________
___________________
Olefins
___________________
 Olefins have lower cetane numbers than paraffins of
Naphthenes

-U
corresponding structures and follow similar rules of branching
Presence of olefins gives rise to poor oxidation stability.
Naphthenes follow olefins in cetane quality but are a good deal

___________________
higher than aromatics.

CE
Aromatics
 Impart lowest cetane number and most important factor
controlling the cetane number of cracked gas oil
 Aromatics ring condensation and the side chain branching on
rings that cause molecular configuration of lowest cetane
numbers.
Ignition Quality
)C
This is the most important property that controls combustion

process. It is measured as a cetane number which is a measure of
ignition delay and is controlled by
 Fuel composition and characteristics
 Engine design
 Fuel and air inlet temperature
(c
 Degree of atomisation.
As a result of abnormal ignition delay, large quantities of oil are
gathered in the combustion chamber. Spontaneous burning and
detonation of this surplus fuel in combustion chamber causes
S
Notes rough ignition which is termed as diesel knock or cetane knocking.
___________________
Cetane Improver Additives
___________________
Base Diesel Cetane No. 44
___________________
PE
Additive dozes 1.5% Increase in CN
___________________
Isopropyle Nitrate 17
___________________
___________________
n – Amyl Nitrate 23
___________________ Cyclohexyl Nitrate 22
___________________ Octyl Nitrate 19
___________________
Flow Properties
___________________
Viscosity


-U
Viscosity of diesel fuel has an effect on handling of the fuel by
pump and injector system.
High viscosities can cause
 Poor atomisation
CE
 Large droplets
 High spray jet penetration
 Low viscosity results in a spray which is too soft and thus does
not penetrate sufficiently. As a result combustion is impaired
and power economy is decreased.
 Lubricating oil properties of such fuels are usually poor
 HSD viscosity range is generally 2.0 to 5.0 cst.
)C
 Heavy distillates, when used as diesel fuel, are generally

preheated.
Cloud Point
 Congealing wax settles out and blocks fuel system line and
filters.
 The temperature at which precipitation occurs depends on the
(c
composition and boiling range of the fuel.

 Cloud point indicates the temperature at which waxes start
precipitating.
Cold Filter Plugging Point (CFPP)
S
Notes
 Cloud point being a static test does not truly represent actual
running conditions. ___________________
___________________
 CFPP is defined as highest temperature expressed as a
PE
multiple of 1oC at which the fuel when cooled under prescribed ___________________
conditions will not flow through a filter or requires more than ___________________
60 sec for 20 ml to pass through.
___________________
Pour Point ___________________
 Pour point gives a useful guide to the lowest temperature at ___________________

which the fuel can be cooled with setting. ___________________
___________________
Cleanliness in Use
Carbon Residue


tendencies in the engine.
-U
Gives some indication of coke forming / deposit forming
Deposits are mainly carbonaceous matter, ash, resins etc.

___________________
 Type of deposits is also an important factor. Hard abrasive

CE
deposits can do more harm than soft fluffy deposits.
 The test can also be used to detect contamination by heavy
residues.
 Maintenance life and period of overhaul mainly depends on
deposit control.
Ash Content
 Indicates the presence of small quantities of metallic soap or
)C
volatile porphyrins.
 Unburned metallic constituents have abrasive action and
cause wear by adversely affecting the nature of deposits.
Water and Sediments

 These may come into the fuel through contamination during
storage and handling.
(c
 They can cause clogging of filters.

 Sediments cause wear and create deposits both in the
injection system and engine itself.
Sediment and Gum Forming Reactions (Diesel Fuel Stability)
S
Notes
1. Oxidative Gum Reactions
___________________
Alkene + Oxygen ….. Gum
___________________
Reaction time ….. Weeks to months
___________________
PE
2. Acid – Base Reactions
___________________
Organic acid + Basic Nitrogen …… Sediments
___________________
___________________
Reaction Time …… Hours to weeks
___________________ 3. Esterification reactions
___________________ Aromatic Hydrocarbons + Heterocycle Nitrogen + Benzothiols
___________________ Multi-step Process …… Sediments

___________________
-U
Reaction Time ….. Weeks to months
These are more predominant in diesel fuel instability.
Corrosive Constituents
Sulphur Content
 Strict emission regulations require stringent sulphur
CE
specifications
 Due to high sulphur, combustion products corrode and also
contribute to deposit formation.
 Low speed diesel engines can tolerate more sulphur, because
 They are large in size and are stationary
 They are high power output type
 They run under relatively constant speed and load
)C
conditions
 Their operating temperatures, cooling water and
combustion zone temperatures tend to remain at
equilibrium rather than to fluctuate between high and
low.
Tests carried out
 Estimation of sulphur content
(c
 Copper strip corrosion test.

Acid value
S
Notes
 Total and Inorganic
___________________
 Potentiometric Acid/Base titration
___________________
Residual Fuels Oils
PE
___________________
Changes in quality of fuel oils in Indian refineries are due to: ___________________
 Frequent changes in crude quality and blend ratios ___________________
 Intake of more of heavy crudes ___________________
 Introduction of various secondary conversion processes for ___________________

maximisation of middle distillates. ___________________
___________________
Components of Residual Fuel Oils


Long residue
Short residue
Heavy cycle oil, clarified oil from FCC
Hydrocracker bottoms
-U ___________________
 Visbroken products
CE
 TAR from thermal conversion process
 Slop
Uses
 Steam boilers
 Industrial applications requiring heat
 Gas turbines
)C
 Diesel engines
Summary of Fireside Problems Related to Fuel Quality
Problems Causes Solutions

Plugging of fuel lines Oxidation of the fuel Addition of inhibitors
strainer and burner to produce acid and and sludge
tips sludge dispersants
Fuel system corrosion Acidic, sulphur Application of
compounds, water, corrosion inhibitors
sludge
(c
High temperature Na, V in fuel form  Magnesium

fouling & corrosion low melting point additives
sulphated ash  Reduce excess air
 Combination of
both
Effect of Sulphur
S
Notes
 Raises dew point of fuel gases
___________________
 Increases formation of sulphur deposits in boiler passages,
___________________
economiser, air–preheater and chimney
___________________
PE
 Reduces efficiency by reducing permissible temperature
___________________
 Accelerates formation of gum and sediments during storage
___________________
 Corrosion of process and plant equipment
___________________
 Sulphur pick by product.
___________________
___________________ Effect of Metals

___________________  Vanadium is a major metallic impurity in residual fuel oil. It
causes corrosion in high temperature zone.
___________________


-U
Sodium is recognised as a potential corrosion problem.
In combustion,
Na converts to Na2O + Na2SO4
V converts to V2O5 + V2O4

CE
 Na2 V2O5, Na2 V2O4 5V2O5
(Low melting ash deposits)

 Other ash deposits are SiO2, AI2O3, Fe2O3
NaAIO2 has high melting point (3272oF). It causes metal spilling or

breaking off of pieces of refractory due to its high thermal
expansion.
Check Your Progress

)C
Fill in the blanks:

1. ……………….. number is the most important property of
motor gasoline.
2. ………………………. is a rubber like resinous material
and is insoluble in later stage of formation.
Summary
(c
The unit describes the properties of petroleum products and the

significance of the properties.
The unit also specifies the automotive industry requirements for
S
Notes
meeting Euro III/Euro IV emission standards for motor gasoline.
___________________
Lesson End Activity ___________________
PE
___________________
Research on the Effect of Diesel Fuel Hydrocarbon Type
Composition on its Quality ___________________
___________________
Keywords ___________________
Cetane Number: This number indicates the length of time ___________________

(ignition lag) between injection of the fuel and combustion. ___________________
Existent Gum: As the name implies, gum is the sticky, tacky, ___________________
-U
varnish-like material that is objectionable in fuel systems.
Knock Values: They indicate whether a fuel will burn uniformly
and evenly in a cylinder without preignition or detonation.

___________________
1. What streams of Process Plants in a Refinery are utilised to

CE
produce HSD, MS, LPG and PC Naphtha?
2. What specifications for Motor Spirit and HSD are related to
environmental pollution? What are the limits for these
specifications for Euro III / IV standards?
3. What strategies are being adopted to improve these
specifications to desired ones from the present values? What
would be the impact on cost of production?
)C
Further Readings
Books

2009
Web readings
(c
67/Appe.htm
S
Notes
___________________
___________________
___________________
PE
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
-U
CE
)C
(c
UNIT 9: Crude Distillation
S
Notes
___________________
Crude Distillation ___________________
PE
___________________
Objectives
___________________
topics: ___________________
 Crude Distillation ___________________

 Saturated Gas Concentration (SGU) ___________________
 Diesel Hydro-Treatment
___________________
___________________
Introduction
distribution, emphasis is laid on the following:

1.
-U
Nowadays, to minimise processing cost and optimise product
Economies of scale – Minimum 9–12 MMTPA refining

capacity.
___________________
2. Refining and petrochemical plants are integrated.

CE
3. Feedstock flexibility – To utilise low cost crudes.
4. Supply chain optimisation from crude to products, provides
faster delivery and at lower cost.
A typical integrated refinery and petrochemical plant set up is
shown in attached block flow diagram. (Figure 9.1)
)C
(c
Figure 9.1: Integrated Refinery and Petrochemical Block Diagram
Crude is normally received by tankers or pipelines into crude tanks

and allowed to settle for separation of water and sludge. Then it is
taken to Crude Distillation Unit (CDU) which operates at
S
Notes atmospheric pressure for fractionation into Gas, LPG, Naphtha,
Activity
___________________
Prepare a chart to show the
ATF, Kerosene, MTO, Diesel, Jute Batching Oil (JBO) and
Block Flow Diagram of Reduced Crude Oil (RCO). RCO is fractionated in Vacuum
___________________
CDU/VDU/SGU
Distillation Unit (VDU) to get VGO and raw lube cuts. The raw
___________________
PE
streams from CDU are treated in Merox, Hydrotreatment,
___________________ Reforming, Isomerisation and Fluid Catalytic Cracking plants to
___________________ obtain components of finished saleable products. VGO is treated in
FCCU to get LPG, Propylene, Petrochemical feedstock and
___________________
components for motor spirit and diesel. Raw lube cuts are treated
___________________ for removal of aromatics and wax and are hydro treated to get lube
___________________ oil base stock. The short residue obtained from VDU fractionator
___________________
bottom is partly treated in coker unit to get lighter value added
products along with raw petroleum coke. Vacuum residue can also
___________________
-U
be treated to extract out DE asphalted Oil (DAO) and the residue
left is asphalt. DAO is treated in aromatic extraction unit,
dewaxing unit and hydro finishing unit to obtain bright stock
which is used for Lube oils and grease manufacture. Asphalt and
vacuum residue can also be utilised for production of bitumen or as
fuel for furnaces and boilers. From FCCU, olefins, propylene,
CE
various aromatics and naphthas are obtained which are used as
raw materials for polypropylene and aromatic petrochemical plant.
The Raw Petroleum Coke (RPC) is used for generation of power
and calcined petroleum coke. Sulphur present in crude and various
streams is converted to H2S during processing. In Sulphur plant, it
is converted to elemental sulphur which is sold as by-product. This
also helps in environmental protection. Hydrogen plant is installed
to produce hydrogen for meeting the requirement of various
hydrotreatment processes.
)C
Crude Distillation
Brief process descriptions have been provided (please refer block
flow diagram of CDU, VDU and SGU) depicted in Figure 9.2. This
part has three main sections.
1. Desalting
2. Distillation–Atmospheric and Vacuum (A unit in a refinery
(c
has been shown in Figure 9.3)

3. Saturated Gas Concentration Unit (SGU)
S
Notes
___________________
___________________
PE
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
Figure 9.2: Block Flow Diagram of CDU/VDU/SGU ___________________
-U ___________________
CE
)C
Figure 9.3: Crude and Vacuum Distillation Unit in a Refinery
Desalting
The crude oil is contaminated with various impurities–mainly salts
of Ca, Mg, Na, CI, SO4, etc. These salts, however, in small
proportions in crude, can cause severe corrosion in crude units,
particularly in the overhead section. Several refineries worldwide
have faced emergency shutdowns or have had to release
(c
hydrocarbons due to corrosion and material failures. Hence, it is

important to remove the salts from crude prior to distillation. The
desalters are designed for 99% salt removal and reach less than 1
ptb (part per thousand barrels) in desalted crude.
Crude oil received from tank farm is heated from 30 to 140–150ºC
S
Notes in cold preheat trains. This is done by recovering heat from
___________________ outgoing products streams from the unit. This prepares crude for
efficient desalting. Then it is passed through a desalter after being
___________________
mixed with de-emulsifier and water through a mixer valve. In the
___________________ desalter, crude passes through high electric field. The salt
PE
dissolved in water settles at the bottom as brine and desalted
___________________
crude with less than one part per thousand barrel comes out from
___________________ the top of the vessel. Separation of water containing salt is
___________________ enhanced by de-emulsifier. Desalters remove salts, sludge and mud
from crude to avoid corrosion and fouling in exchanger’s columns
___________________
and downstream equipment.
___________________
Distillation – Atmospheric and Vacuum
___________________
The desalted crude is then heated from 140º to 190ºC at 25 Kg/a2
___________________
-U
pressure by heating with a heavier hot stream. Then it is taken to
the flash drum. From the top we get lighter components which
directly go to the crude column. The flashed crude is passed
through hot preheat exchangers and further heated from 190°C to
250–260°C. The purpose of hot preheat train is to recover heat
from pump-arounds to reduce furnace duty. Furnace provides
CE
required heat for fractionation in atmospheric column and crude is
heated up to 385°C.
The heated crude is fractionated in atmospheric distillation column
of CDU. The fractions below 165°C are withdrawn as column
overheads and sent to SGU. Here mainly gases, LPG and FRN are
separated. Heavies boiling at more than 386º C are reheated under
vacuum condition (to avoid cracking) and fractionated in vacuum
column of VDU.
Besides the straight run products such as LPG, Naphtha, LK, HK
)C
and Diesel, the other distillation products are intermediates viz.

(1) Gas Oil (HAGO+LVGO+HVGO) which become feedstock for
FCC after treatment in VGOHT and (2) VR which becomes
feedstock for delayed coker. The LPG is sent to LPG Merox unit for
treatment before sending to RTF. The FRN is directly sent to the
HNUU in the aromatics complex. The Light Kero (LK) fraction is
routed as SKO to RTF directly or via Kero Merox unit as ATF. The
Heavy Kero (HK) fraction is blended with diesel fraction. The
(c
diesel fractions can be routed to DHT or RTF as required.

Saturated Gas Concentration (SGU)
S
Notes
The overhead liquid and gases from CDU, reformer and
hydrotreaters of petrochemical complex are passed through this ___________________
plant to separate into following fractions: ___________________
1. Gases (C1+C2) for burning into furnaces or as petrochemical
PE
___________________
feedstock after H2S is removed in Amine Treating Unit. ___________________
2. LPG (C3+C4) for domestic and industrial use after removal of ___________________
Mercaptans in Merox Unit. ___________________
3. Naptha (C5 to 165ºC) for sending to fertilizer or petrochemicals ___________________

plants as feedstock. ___________________
The typical streams obtained from crude oil by Atmospheric and ___________________
Fuel Gas
LPG
0.01 to 0.03%
1.0 to 1.5%
-U
Vacuum distillation are given in the following table 9.1:
Table 9.1: Streams Obtained from Crude Oil by Atmospheric
Vacuum Distillation
% of crude input Cut range deg C

< C2s
C3–C4s
___________________
CE
FRN 11 to 14% C5s to 16s
LK / ATF 10 to 11% 165 – 227
HK 6 to 7% 227 – 270
Diesel 16 to 17% 270 – 370
HAGO 2.5 to 3.0% 370 – 392
RCO (Atm. Residue) <392
LVGO 2.5 to 3.5%
HVGO 21 to 22%
VR 23 to 26%
)C
Operating issues which need attention are:

1. Crude mix and product yield pattern
2. Corrosion impact on various equipments should be known.
3. Health of equipment and run length of unit is vital.
4. Operating parameters such as pressure, temperature, flows.
5. Quality control of crude and products.
(c
6. Health, safety and environment (HSE) aspects.

7. Energy conservation.
8. Knowledge and skills of operating crews.
Diesel Hydro-Treatment
S
Notes
The purpose of diesel hydro-treating unit is to:
___________________
 Remove sulphur and nitrogen
___________________
 Convert olefins/aromatics to saturated compounds.
___________________
PE
 Remove contaminants like oxygenates and organometallic
___________________
compounds.
___________________
The catalysts used in this plant are oxides of Ni and Mo/Co and Mo
___________________
impregnated on alumina base.
___________________
___________________
Salient Features
___________________ Following are the salient features of diesel hydro-treatment
___________________ 

-U
98% desulphurisation
hydrotreater)
and 70%
Produce low sulphur, colour stable diesel
Reduce aromatics and nitrogen in diesel
Improve Diesel cetane no.

denitrification (VGO
CE
The feed to the unit consists of a mixture of SR diesel and heavy
kerosene from the Crude Unit, light coker gas oil, HCO from the
Delayed Coking Unit and LCO from FCCU.
Diesel Hydrotreater
)C
Figure 9.4: Hydrotreater Block-flow Diagram
Brief Description of the diesel hydrotreater (shown in figure 9.4

(c
above) follows.
The feed is pumped through cold and hot feed-reactor effluent
exchangers and then with recycled gas streams through the
combined feed heater. The combined feed heater heats the feed up
S
to the reactor inlet temperature. The reactor consists of one vessel Notes
with two beds of catalysts, consisting of one inert and three ___________________
different types of catalysts. Recycled gas is added as a quench
___________________
between the beds to quench the top bed heat of reaction. The
PE
reactor effluent is cooled through a series of heat exchangers where ___________________
it, in turn, heats up the fresh feed, the stripper feed, the recycled ___________________
gas and then provides heat for generation of HP, MP and LP
___________________
steam.
___________________
A wash water stream is then injected into the reactor effluent
___________________
before final cooling in the air-product condenser. From the product
condenser, the reactor effluent enters the separator. The separator ___________________
is a horizontal vessel with a water boot that separates the recycled ___________________
-U
gas from the stripper feed and the wash water from the stripper
feed. The recycle gas goes through a recycled gas water cooler and
knockout drum to remove heavier hydrocarbon components before
entering the recycled gas scrubber. This scrubber is used to remove
H2S from the recycled gas by bringing it in contact with a liquid
stream of lean amine. The top of the vessel contains a water wash
___________________
section to pick up any entrained amine. The recycled gas exits from
CE
the top of the recycle gas scrubber, and is then mixed with makeup
gas hydrogen before entering the recycle gas compressor. The
stripper feed is heated in a series of exchangers where it in turn
cools the stripper bottoms, reactor effluent, before entering the
stripper column.
The stripper is used to remove H2S from the diesel product, and
also to separate unstabilised naphtha from the diesel product. Both
the net off gas and the unstabilised naphtha liquid that are
)C
produced are routed to the Saturated Gas Concentration Unit. The

stripper bottom is cooled through a series of exchangers, and then
further cooled by air and water before entering the diesel product
coalescer and the salt drier which removes water prior to routing
to the diesel product blending system.
VGO Hydro-treatment
This is similar to diesel hydrotreater and is used for preparing feed
for FCC. Figure 9.5 depicts a picture of a hydrotreater in a refinery
(c
S
Notes
___________________
___________________
___________________
PE
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
-U
Figure 9.5: Hydrotreater/ Hydrocracker in a Refinery
Fill in the blanks:

Check Your Progress
1. ………………… is similar to diesel hydrotreater and is

CE
used for preparing feed for FCC.
2. The …………………… is used to remove H2S from the
diesel product, and also to separate unstabilised
naphtha from the diesel product.
Summary
This unit introduced you to functioning of various process plants in
)C
a refinery and their integration with one another. A brief process of

crude distillation was given to give you an overview of the process.
Then the unit also covers the Merox Treatment process. You also
got to know what happens in a Sulphur plant, Amine Treating unit
and petrochemical processing plants.
Lesson End Activity

Prepare an assignment on the brief process of crude distillation.
(c
Keywords
S
Notes
Claus Reaction: It is the most significant gas desulfurising
___________________
process, recovering elemental sulfur from gaseous hydrogen
sulfide. ___________________
PE
Desalting: Removal of salt from crude oil ___________________
Merox: It is a proprietary catalytic chemical process developed by ___________________
UOP used in oil refineries and natural gas processing plants to ___________________
remove mercaptans from LPG, propane, butanes, light naphthas, ___________________
kerosene and jet fuel by converting them to liquid hydrocarbon
___________________
disulfides.
___________________
Polypropylene: It is a plastic polymer used in everything from
carpets to car parts. ___________________
the fluid is at its boiling point temperature.
Questions for Discussions

-U
Saturated Gas: The state of saturation of a fluid indicates that
1. How do the facilities affect the proper functioning of the

___________________
refinery? Explain each facility wise, specially their impact

CE
whenever there is a failure.
2. Explain briefly in your own words.
(a) The function of each process plant
(b) Feed composition
(c) Yield pattern.
(d) Critical parameters for optimal operation
)C
3. Which components of various process streams in different

process plants (% wise) are utilized for the production of LPG,
MS, HSD, ATF, Furnace Oil, PC Naphtha and Fertilizer
Naphtha.
Further Readings
Books
(c
Dr. Sarkar, G.N., Advanced Petroleum Refining, Khanna

Publishers, Delhi
Web readings
S
Notes
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Merox
___________________
http://www.cbi.com/technologies-services/fluid-catalytic-cracking/
___________________
___________________
PE
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
-U
CE
)C
(c
UNIT 10: Case Study
S
Notes
___________________
Case Study ___________________
PE
___________________
Objectives
___________________
___________________
Case Study: Seam Weld Failure in Petroleum Pipeline
___________________
There are more than 2.5 million miles of oil and gas pipelines in
the United States. These pipelines typically contain longitudinal ___________________
seam welds in each pipe joint and girth welds that connect the
___________________
individual joints to form the pipeline. Both types of welds are
failure mechanisms.
-U
prone to failure from time independent and/or time dependent ___________________
CE
Many failure investigations focus on the immediate failure cause;

i.e., for metals, the metallurgical or technical aspects of the
failure.
)C
While some smaller diameter pipelines are seamless, most

pipelines are manufactured by forming flat plate or skelp into a
tubular form and completing a longitudinal seam weld. Both
submerged arc welding and autogenous welding processes are
used for weld completion.
Submerged arc welded line pipe is manufactured by first forming
a flat plate or skelp into a tubular shape (can) in a set of presses,
followed by weld completion. Prior to forming the can, the edges
are typically beveled. Historically, single submerged arc welding
(SSAW) and double submerged arc welded (DSAW) processes
(c
have been used but, currently, the DSAW process is the only
submerged arc welding process that is approved in API 5L. In
SSAW line pipe, the edges are joined by a single pass submerged
arc weld made from the outside surface onto a backing shoe
Contd…
located at the ID surface. DSAW line pipe is formed in a similar
S
Notes manner except one pass is made from the OD surface followed by
___________________
a pass from the ID surface, or vice versa. Filler weld material is
used in both processes. One variation of this process is used to
___________________ produced spiral welded DSAW line pipe; in which skelp is
helically wound and welded to produce a spiral weld.
___________________
PE
Historically, there have been several different autogenous
___________________ welding processes for longitudinal seam welds including furnace
lap welding, furnace butt welding, electric flash welding (EFW)
___________________ and electric resistance welding (ERW). ERW currently is the
dominant autogenous welding process for pipe manufacturing.
___________________
ERW line pipe is manufactured by forming plate or skelp into a
___________________ tubular shape and heating the two adjoining edges with electric
current and forcing them together mechanically. An autogenous
___________________ bond is formed between the molten edges. Upset material at the
weld is trimmed on the OD and ID surfaces.
___________________
Various types of defects can be produced in these welds and the
___________________
-U
defects typically are unique to the specific welding procedure.
Some of these defects are too small to be detected in the mill and
are never an integrity problem for the pipelines. Other defects
that are not detected at the mill can fail during the initial
hydrostatic test of a pipeline, or grow in service by fatigue, stress
corrosion cracking, or other mechanisms, resulting in a service
leak or failure. Because of differences in the metallurgy at the
weld and the base metal of the pipe, the welds can also be prone
to environmentally induced failure mechanisms such as
CE
preferential corrosion.
This case study describes a rupture of seam weld during a
hydrostatic pressure test. The pipeline that failed was comprised
of 16-inch diameter by 0.312-inch wall thickness, API 5L X52 line
pipe that contained an ERW longitudinal seam. The pipeline
transported refined petroleum products. The maximum operating
pressure (MOP) on this line segment was 1,408 psig, which
corresponds to 69.4% of the specified minimum yield strength
(SMYS). The failure occurred during initial pressurization at a
test pressure of 1,390 psig, which corresponds to 98.7% of the
MOP and 68.5% of the SMYS. The normal operating pressure at
)C
the failure location ranged from 1,000 to 1,100 psig (71.0 to 78.1%
of MOP).
The pipeline was installed in 1965 and was externally coated with
coal tar. The coating was not intact near the failure. The pipeline
had an impressed current cathodic protection system that was
commissioned around 1965. This pipeline segment was previously
hydrostatically tested in the fall of 1965. The hydrostatic test
lasted 24 hours and the maximum pressure was 1,760 psig (125%
of MOP and 86.8% of SMYS).
The pipe section was visually examined and photographed in the
(c
as-received condition. Transverse base metal and cross weld

samples were removed from the pipe section for mechanical
testing. Samples for chemical analysis of the steel were removed
from the base metal. Magnetic particle inspection (MPI) was
Contd…
UNIT 10: Case Study
performed where the coating was removed to identify defects at or
S
near the seam weld. Transverse metallographic samples were Notes
removed from the seam, at and away from the failure origin. T he
samples were mounted, polished, and light photomicrographs ___________________
were taken to examine the morphology and steel microstructure. ___________________
Samples were removed from the failure origin to analyse the
PE
morphology of the fracture surface in the scanning electron ___________________
microscope.
___________________
The results of the analysis indicated that the rupture initiated at
an ID connected pre-existing hook crack. This and all hook cracks ___________________
are slightly offset from the bond line of the ERW seam. No
evidence of in-service growth by fatigue was found, although the ___________________
quality of the fractography was poor as a result of corrosion of the ___________________
fracture surfaces that occurred after the rupture. The tensile
properties of the line pipe steel and the steel chemistry were ___________________
typical of the vintage and grade and met the API 5L specifications
in place at the time of manufacture. The microstructure and ___________________
vintage and grade.

Question:
-U
Charpy toughness properties of the steel also were typical for the
Source:http://www.dnv.com/industry/oil_gas/publications/updates/pipeline_update/2012/
1_2012/case_study_seam_weld_failure_in_a_petroleum_pipeline.asp
___________________
CE
)C
(c
S
Notes
___________________
___________________
___________________
PE
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
-U
CE
)C
(c
UNIT 11: Hydrogen Production and Management
S
Notes
___________________
___________________
PE
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
-U ___________________
BLOCK-III
CE
)C
(c
Detailed Contents
S
Notes
UNIT 11: HYDROGEN PRODUCTION AND
___________________ UNIT 13: OFFSITE FACILITIES AND ITS
MANAGEMENT MANAGEMENT
 ___________________
___________________
PE
 Hydrogen Production Plant  Offsite Facilities and its Management
 ___________________
Sulphur Recovery Plant
UNIT 14: FUTURE REFINING SCENARIO
 What is Claus Reaction?
___________________
 Introduction
 Process Variables
___________________
 Requirements for Future
 Amine Treating Unit (ATU)
___________________
 Delayed Coking UNIT 15: CASE STUDY
___________________
___________________
UNIT 12: FLUIDISED CATALYTIC CRACKING


Introduction
___________________
Fluidised Catalytic Cracking (FCC)
Petrochemical Process Plants
Polypropylene
-U
CE
)C
(c
S
Notes
Activity
Activity
Prepare
D a chart to show the
___________________
Hydrogen Production and Hydrogen Plant Block Flow
Diagram
___________________
and Merox
Management Treatment Process Block Flow
PE
___________________
Diagram.
___________________
Objectives ___________________
___________________
topics:
___________________
 Hydrogen Production Plant
 Hydrogen Management ___________________
 Sulphur Recovery Plant ___________________
Introduction -U
Hydrogen management has become a priority in current refinery
operations and when planning to produce lower sulphur gasoline
and diesel fuels. Along with increased H2 consumption for deeper
___________________
hydrotreating, additional H2 is needed for processing heavier and

CE
higher sulphur crude slates. In many refineries, hydroprocessing
capacity and the associated H2 network is limiting refinery
throughput and operating margins. Furthermore, higher H2
purities within the refinery network are becoming more important
to boost hydrotreater capacity, achieve product value
improvements and lengthen catalyst life cycles.
Hydrogen Production Plant

)C
Hydrogen is produced commercially using following technologies:

 Partial oxidisation
 Coal gasification
 Electrolysis of water
 Steam hydrocarbon reforming
 Platforming – as a by-product.
(c
Refer hydrogen plant block flow diagram depicted in figure 11.1.

S
Notes
___________________
___________________
___________________
PE
___________________
___________________
Figure 11.1: Hydrogen Plant Block Flow Diagram
___________________
___________________ Hydrogen Feed

___________________ Feed for hydrogen production plant — (i) Refinery fuel gas, (ii)
___________________ saturated LPG, (iii) Natural gas, (iv) Light Naphtha.
___________________
-U
Process Description
Feed (Refinery Fuel Gas, or Natural Gas or LPG or Hydrotreated
Light Naphtha) is first mixed with recycle hydrogen and passed
through pre-treatment section. The function of pre-treatment
section is to remove sulphur in feed by hydrogenation, in the form
of H2S, and removal of chloride by sodium aluminate, the catalyst
CE
used is CoMo or NaMo. H2S is absorbed in ZnO bed.
If sulphur is <200 ppm, then single stage pre-treatment is adopted.

For sulphur >200 ppm, double stage pre-treatment is used.
The Desulphurised feed is preheated with steam and passed
through Nickel Catalyst packed in Vertical narrow tubes mounted
in the reformer furnace. This process is endothermic and heat is
supplied by fuel firing. Following reactions take place:
)C
Steam Reforming
CH4 + H2O  3H2 + CO
CO + H2O  H2 + CO2
Water Gas Shift
CO + H2O  H2 + CO2
Steam is added in excess to promote above reactions. Hydrogen gas
(c
produced is purified by pressure swing adsorption (PSA) method.

PSA Cycle
S
Notes
One PSA cycle is built up of two basic phases: Adsorption and
Regeneration ___________________
___________________
Regeneration of PSA Bed
PE
___________________
The regeneration phase is a chain of sub-phases consisting of:
___________________
 High to low pressure transition: Expansion ___________________
 Provide purge and dump ___________________
 Purging at low pressure ___________________
 Low to high pressure transition back to adsorption pressure: ___________________

Repressurisation. ___________________
Hydrogen Management
Hydrogen gas in the refinery comes from
(i)
-U
Hydrogen production plant – as described above
(ii) Catalytic reformers

___________________
 in the refinery
CE
 in the integrated petrochemical plant
The hydrogen from both the sources is supplied to various
consumers like hydro-treatment plants etc. through high pressure
compressors and the excess gas is led to refinery fuel gas system.
Need of hydrogen is increasing day after day for treating the
products like motor spirit, HSD, fuel oils and feeds for FCC and
other plants for bringing down sulphur.
)C
Merox (Mercaptan Oxidation) Treatment

Merox is the abbreviation of Mercaptan Oxidation. In this process,
mercaptan is separated from hydrocarbon by washing with caustic
solution. The separated mercaptan is oxidised into disulfide form
which can be disposed of in slop stream. Organic sulphur from
LPG, ATF/Kerosene and Gasoline are removed by this process.
Hydrogen Sulfide (H2S) from LPG is removed by extraction with
(c
regenerated lean Amine in Amine Treating Unit (A TU). Treated

LPG is passed through reactor and mixed with caustic solution
containing merox catalyst. Then it passes through extractor to
remove mercaptan. Then, it is washed with water to remove
caustic. Treated sweet LPG free of H2S and Mercaptan is sent to
S
Notes storage.
___________________
In case of ATF/Kerosene and Gasoline treatment, first it is mixed
___________________ with caustic, wair and catalyst and then passed to reactor to
___________________ convert mercaptans to Disulfides, which is separated from caustic
PE
and product in caustic sulphur. Caustic in recycled. Sweetened
___________________
product is stored in intermediate tanks before blending into
___________________ finished product.
___________________
Following reactions take place
___________________
Mercaptan gets converted into disulfides.
___________________
4RSH + O2 2RSSR + 2H2O
___________________
___________________
RSH +
(oil phase)
4NaSR+02+2H2O
-U
Caustic Regeneration
NaOH 
(Aqueous)
NaSR+ H2O
(Sodium Mercaptide soluble in
Aqueous phase)
Catalyst
2RSSR+4NaOH
(Aqueous Phase) 45ºC (oil Phase)
CE
The purpose of caustic in Merox process (depicted in fig 4.7) is:
 To transfer the mercaptan, or the thiol portion of the
mercaptan to the aqueous phase.
 To supply the alkaline environment needed for the reaction to
proceed in the desired direction.
)C
(c
Figure 4.7: Merox Treatment Process Block Flow Diagram
This process is used for treating LPG, Gasoline and ATF.

Sulphur Recovery Plant
S
Notes
The objective of sulphur recovery plant is to convert H2S to
___________________
elemental sulphur.
___________________
Sulphur recovery is required because of:
PE
___________________
 Increasing demand for environmental friendly fuels.
___________________
 Increased used of high sulphur and heavier crudes in future.
___________________
 Tightening of emission standards by government/ Regulatory
___________________
bodies.
___________________
Salient features of sulphur plant are:
___________________
 Minimum sulphur recovery level of 98.7%
___________________


Ammonia destruction capability
Turndown capability 25%
Process Description
-U
A sulphur plant block flow diagram has been depicted in Figure
4.8.
___________________
CE
Acid gasses from Amin Recovery Unit (ARU) and sour gasses from
sour water stripper are heated in pretreater and burnt in presence
of regulated quantity of air from CLAUS Air Blower in CLAUS
Reaction Furnace. The product from claus reaction furnace is
passed through 1st and 2nd pass condensers.
)C
(c
Figure 4.8: Sulphur Plant Block Flow Diagram
The sulphur condensed is routed to Liquid Sulphur Degassing Pit.

The unreacted vapour is passed through claus reactor. The vapour
from the claus reactor outlet is passed through 1st and 2nd pass
S
Notes condensers. The condensed sulphur is taken to Liquid Sulphur
___________________ Degassing Pit. The uncondensed vapour is passed through Cold
Bed Adsorption (CBA) Reactors 1st and 2nd passes. The outlet
___________________
vapour is passed through 1st and 2nd pass of CBA condenser. The
___________________
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condensed sulphur is routed to liquid sulphur degassing pit and
___________________ the remaining gases are taken to tail gas incinerator for burning
___________________ and releasing through high stack. Sulphur after Degassing is
taken to granulation unit from where it goes for despatch to
___________________
market. The off-gases from sulphur degassing pit is recycled to
___________________ CBA section for recovery of sulphur.
___________________
___________________ What is Claus Reaction?

___________________
-U
“When two molecules of Hydrogen Sulphide (H2S) react with one
molecule of Sulphur Dioxide (SO2) to give elemental sulphur in the
presence of Alumina Catalyst, the reaction is called Claus
Reaction”
2H2S + SO2  3/nSn + 2H2O

CE
n=No. of atoms in Sulphur molecule.
 1/3rd of total H2S in feed gas is burned to SO2, this SO2 reacts
with remaining H2S to give elemental Sulphur in Claus
Reactor
H2S+3/202SO2+H2O
2H2S + SO23/n Sn+2H2O
Overall Reaction 3H2S + 3/2 O23/nSn + 3H2O

)C
Process Variables
 Air to Acid Gas Ratio : H2S/SO2 Ratio = 2:1
 Claus Reactor Outlet Temp : 344ºC

 Incinerator Temperature : 650+ –50ºC
Amine Treating Unit (ATU)

(c
The purpose of this process unit is to remove H2S from fuel gases to
meet environmental requirements.
Process Description
S
Notes
The fuel gas containing H2S is introduced in Middle section of
Amine Absorber Column where Lean Methyl Diethanol is ___________________
introduced near top section. By counter current flow H2S is ___________________

absorbed in Ami Cne and sweet fuel gas (FG) free of H2S comes out
PE
___________________
from column top. The rich Amine from bottom of the absorber
___________________
column is taken to Flash Drum where any fuel gas carried over is
___________________
separated out. The rich Amine is then pumped through heater
where it is heated by the hot lean amine stream coming from ___________________
bottom of Amine stripper. In the stripper, Amine Acid Gas from top ___________________
of the column is routed to sulphur recovery plant along with sour
___________________
gases from other process units. The lean Amine from bottom of the
stripper exchanges heat with Rich Amine and then pumped to ___________________
-U
storage tank through cooler for recycling to Amine Absorber.
Figure 4.9 depicts a simplified block flow diagram.
___________________
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Figure 4.9: Simplified Block Diagram – ATU

)C
Process Chemistry
The circulating amine is 35% MDEA solution,
Hydrogen sulfide H2S OR HSH is a weak acid and ionizes in water
to form hydrogen ions and sulfide ions.
HSH H+ + SH–
Ethanol amines or weak bases ionize in water to form amine as
(c
hydroxyl ions
(CH2OHCH2)2NCH3+H20 CH2OHCH2)2NHCH3+OH
When H2S dissolves into the solution containing the amine ions, it
S
Notes
will react to form a weakly bonded salt of the acid and the base.
___________________
(CH2OHCH2)2 NCH3+SH (CH2OHCH2)2NSCH3
___________________
___________________ The sulfide ion is absorbed by the amine solution. Overall
PE
___________________ (CH2OHCH2)2NCH3+H2S (CH2OHCH2)2NSCH3
___________________
___________________ Delayed Coking

___________________ Its description is given below:
___________________
Coker Unit
___________________
The purpose of coking unit is to produce valuable distillates and
___________________
-U
Petroleum coke (by-product) by upgrading heavy residual stocks
from vacuum distillation and other process units generating heavy
stock. This unit is also known as delayed coker. Slops from various
other process units which do not find proper home can also be
processed in coker to get valuable products. The feed to this unit is
subjected to severe thermal cracking thereby producing refinery
fuel gas, coker gasoline, coker kerosene, coker gas oil, coker
CE
furnace oil, residual furnace oil and coke.
Process Description
Feed is preheated by exchanging heat with hot streams.
Thereafter, it is heated to 250ºC in convection section of the
furnace before it enters the bottom section of fractionator column.
The hot cracked hydrocarbon vapours from coke chambers top via
a separator enters the zone of above-mentioned fractionator
)C
column. The heavy hydrocarbon fractions in these vapours

condense in lower section of the column and are withdrawn from
bottom along with primary feed by secondary feed pump.
Figure 4.10 depicts a block flow diagram of cocker.
The secondary feed is heated in the remaining part of the
convection section and full radiation section of the furnace to
around 500ºC and enters the coke chambers where final cracking
takes place. The vapours from top of the coke chambers are
(c
quenched with cold vacuum distillates before it enters the

separator. The liquid product accumulated at separator bottom is
pumped out as Residual Fuel Oil (RFO).
S
Notes
___________________
___________________
PE
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
-U
Figure 4.10: Coker Block Flow Diagram
The vapour is routed to bottom of fractionator as mentioned

earlier. From the fractionator, products withdrawn are Light
Kerosene (LK), Heavy Kerosene (HK), gas oil and coking fuel oil
(CFO). Fractionator vapour top is condensed in overhead
condenser to produce gas and coker gasoline and coker naphtha
___________________
(light coker naphtha and heavy coker naphtha). The petroleum

CE
coke is accumulated in coke-chamber, is cooled by steam and water
and thereafter removed by hydraulic decoking method which cuts
the hard coke with high pressure water jets. The coke is removed
by grab crane. After crushing and sizing, it is transported to store
yard or sent to coke calcination plant.
Facilities are also provided in the plant to produce LPG and
release fuel gases to fuel gas system.
)C
Advantages of Delayed Coker

Following are the advantages of delayed coker:
 Minimum investment for given value addition
 Zero fuel oil generation
 Coke can be used as fuel for power plant.
 No catalyst cost.
Capability to process refinery slops and sludge
(c

Mechanism of Coking
S
Notes
Cracking is a phenomenon by which large oil molecules are
___________________ thermally decomposed into smaller lower-boiling molecules: at the
___________________ same time some of these molecules, which are reactive, combine
with one another to give even larger molecules than those in the
___________________
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original stock. The more stable molecules leave the system as
___________________
cracked Naphtha, Kero, Diesel (LCGO), Gas oil (HCGO) etc. and
___________________ the reactive once polymerise, forming cracked fuel oil and coke.
___________________
Check Your Progress
___________________
Fill in the blanks:
___________________
1. In ………………………. process mercaptan is separated
___________________
from hydrocarbon by washing with caustic solution.
___________________
-U
2. …………………. from LPG is removed by extraction with
regenerated lean Amine in Amine Treating Unit (A TU).
Summary
In the clean fuels environment, hydroprocessing capacity limits
refinery throughput and operating margins. Optimised H2
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infrastructure must be a high priority and depends on a proactive
H2 management programme. At first, the programme establishes
maximum H2 utilisation by implementing cost-effective recovery
and reconfiguring networks to take advantage of higher quality H2
benefits
Lesson End Activity

Prepare an assignment on the following techniques used to
)C
produce hydrogen:
(i) Partial oxidisation
(ii) Coal gasification
(iii) Electrolysis of water
Keywords
(c
Amine Treating Unit (ATU): The purpose of this process unit is

to remove H2S from fuel gases to meet environmental
requirements.
Claus Reaction: “When two molecules of Hydrogen Sulphide
S
Notes
(H2S) react with one molecule of Sulphur Dioxide (SO2) to give
elemental sulphur in the presence of Alumina Catalyst, the ___________________
reaction is called Claus Reaction”. ___________________
Cracking: Cracking is a phenomenon by which large oil molecules
PE
___________________
are thermally decomposed into smaller lower-boiling molecules.
___________________
Merox: Merox is the abbreviation of Mercaptan Oxidation. In this ___________________
process mercaptan is separated from hydrocarbon by washing with
___________________
caustic solution.
___________________
___________________
1. What do you mean by Delayed Coking
2.
3.
4.
5.
What is Claus Reaction? -U
Write a process description for amine treating unit (ATU)
What are the objective of sulphur recovery plant

Write a short note on Merox (Mercaptan Oxidation) Treatment
___________________
CE
Further Readings
Books

Publishers, Delhi
Web readings
)C
(c
S
Notes
___________________
___________________
___________________
PE
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
-U
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(c
UNIT 12: Fluidised Catalytic Cracking
S
Notes
Activity
___________________
Draw and label the following:
Fluidised Catalytic Cracking  Aromatics Complex Block
___________________
Flow Diagram
PE
 ___________________
Polypropylene Block Flow
Objectives Diagram
___________________
topics: ___________________
 Fluidised Catalytic Cracking (FCC) ___________________

 Heavy Naphtha Unionfining Unit (HNUU) ___________________
 Typical Refinery and Petrochemicals Complex – Product Pattern
___________________
___________________
Introduction
-U
Fluid catalytic cracking (FCC) is one of the most important
conversion processes used in petroleum refineries. It is widely used
to convert the high-boiling, high-molecular weight hydrocarbon
fractions of petroleum crude oils to more valuable gasoline, olefinic
gases, and other products. Cracking of petroleum hydrocarbons
___________________
was originally done by thermal cracking, which has been almost

CE
completely replaced by catalytic cracking because it produces more
gasoline with a higher octane rating.
Fluidised Catalytic Cracking (FCC)

Fluid Catalytic Cracking has developed into a major upgrading
process in the oil refining industry for conversion of heavy fuel oil
into more valuable products ranging from light olefins to LPG,
naphtha and middle distillates. The attractiveness of FCC process
)C
is to its flexibility to process wide range of feedstocks from a

variety of crudes and its favourable economics of operation. The
objective is to maximise Olefins, LPG, C7 – C9 aromatics, high
throughput and minimise LCO and bottoms.
Hot regenerated catalyst is mixed at the bottom of reactor with
raw feed and steam. After pre-acceleration, it is brought in to
contact with the staged feeds supplied as finely atomised droplets.
Feed instantaneously vaporises and travels up the riser with the
(c
catalyst where conversion reaction takes place. At the top of

reactor, the vapour is disengaged from catalyst. The vapour is sent
to main fractionating column. In this column, mainly LPG,
Gasoline, middle distillates and decanted oil are obtained. The
spent catalyst is steam stripped to remove hydrocarbon vapour and
S
Notes then sent to two stage regenerators for burning coke before it is
___________________ recycled to reactor along with makeup catalyst to reactor. Air is
injected in catalyst regenerator for burning coke. Water generated
___________________
in the system leaves with flue gas from Power Recovery Train.
___________________
PE
Flue gases are sent to CO boiler and thereafter to a clean-up
___________________ system to remove particulates, SOx and NOx. ZSM additive is
___________________ added to catalyst to increase LPG yield.
___________________ Residues are also used as feedstock in RFCC.
___________________ A FCC unit block flow diagram has been depicted in fig 12.1
___________________
___________________
___________________
-U
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Figure 12.1: FCC Unit Block Flow Diagram
Petrochemical Process Plants

It comprises the following:
)C
Aromatics Plant
The aromatics complex is a fully integrated facility for the
production of paraxylene and orthoxylene, comprising of
platformer primarily to produce feed for main plants.
Aromatics complex processes special cut naptha to produce
paraxylene and orthoxylene as the major products and some other
by-products which include Benzene, Light Reformate, LPG, H2,
Fuel Gas and heavies.
(c
The Paraxylene plant consists of the following units. (Figure 12.2

depicts Aromatics Complex Block Diagram Flow).
S
Notes
___________________
___________________
PE
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
Heavy Naphtha Unionfining Unit (HNUU)

-U
Figure 12.2: Aromatics Complex Block Flow Diagram
The function of this hydrotreating unit is to treat the feed naphtha

and remove impurities like heavy metals, sulfur, nitrogen and
___________________
olefins, which are poison for Platformer catalyst.

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Platformer Unit
The platformer unit processes hydrotreated naphtha from the
Heavy Naptha Unionfining unit, stripper column bottoms, for the
production of aromatics for downstream unit processing and
separation. Major reactions taking place in platforming unit are as
follows:
1. Dehydrogenation of naphthenes
)C
2. Hydrocracking of paraffins
3. Isomerisation
4. Dehydrocyclisation of paraffins
The spent catalyst is regenerated continuously in situ, which takes
place in Cyclemax CCR.
Xylene Fractionation Unit

(c
Xylene fractionation unit includes a xylene column and associated

equipments to fractionate “Isomar” Deheptaniser bottoms and
“Tatoray” Toluene column bottoms into an overhead product that is
suitable as feedstock to the Parex process unit. The column is
designed to both recover Orthoxylene into the bottom product or to
S
Notes minimise the loss of Orthoxylene into the bottom products. Xylene
___________________ rich overhead vapours are used as heating medium in Raffinate
and Extract Column Reboilers and also to generate MP Steam.
___________________
___________________ Orthoxylene Fractionation Unit
PE
___________________ This unit includes an orthoxylene column and associated
___________________ equipments for the production of a high purity orthoxylene product
and a heavy aromatic column and associated equipments for the
___________________
production of a C9-C1O aromatic overhead stream to be used as
___________________ feed to the “Tatoray unit”, a sidecut stream with a 215°C endpoint
___________________ for use as a gasoline blending component and a heavy aromatic
___________________
bottom stream to be used as fuel oil.
___________________
-U
Parex Process Unit
The process is selective adsorption of Paraxylene (PX) on molecular
sieve and subsequent desorption of PX by a suitable desorbent. The
molecular sieve is basically Y type zeolite (alumina silica) which
preferentially adsorbs PX.
Toluene column bottoms and C8 isomerates from Isomar section
CE
are fed to the xylene fractionation column. The overhead product of
the xylene columns are feed to the parex unit.
Feed and desorbent goes to the Parex adsorbent chambers via
rotary valve. PX gets adsorbed on the molecular sieve and
subsequently desorbed. Two streams come out of the chambers
known as raffinate stream and extract stream.
Raffinate stream is fed to the raffinate column. Its side cut product
which is mixed xylenes lean in paraxylene, is fed to isomer unit
)C
while the bottom product desorbent is recycled back to Parex

adsorbent chambers.
The extract stream consists of PX, Toluene and Desorbent. PX and
Toluene are separated as overhead products in extract column
(feed to finishing column) while the bottom product Desorbent is
recycled to Parex absorbent chambers.
PX and Toluene are separated in a finishing column. Paraxylene is
withdrawn from bottom and overhead product Toluene is recycled
(c
back to Tatoray unit.

Isomer is a catalytic isomerisation process to efficiently convert a
S
Notes
mixture of C8 aromatics to a near equilibrium mix that favours PX
and OX production from metaxylene and ethyl benzene. ___________________
The Tatoray unit includes reformer splitter column, two parallel ___________________
reactor trans, stripper and benzene. Objective of the units is to
PE
___________________
maximise xylene production by transalkylation of C7 and C9
___________________
aromatics.
___________________
___________________
Polypropylene
___________________
It is designed to produce homo, random and impact copolymer. The
___________________
main raw materials are propylene and hydrogen. (Figure 12.3
depicts Propylene Block Flow Diagram) ___________________
The plant consists of:
1. -U
Purification Section: For propylene “to remove impurities
like Sulphur, CO, CO2, O2” purification section for hydrogen
and nitrogen gas before supplying them to reaction area.
Impurities like CO, CO2 from H2 and O2 from N2 are removed.
___________________
CE
)C
Figure 12.3: Polypropylene Block Flow Diagram
2. Reaction Section: Here polymerisation reaction of purified

propylene takes place in fluidised bed reactor in the presence
(c
of slurry catalyst (TiC14, supported on MgCl2 in slurry form in

mineral oil); co-catalyst Triethyl Aluminium, purified
hydrogen and selectivity control agent Pera ethoxy Ethyl
S
Notes
Benzoate or N-Propyl Trimethoxy Silane in the reactor.
___________________
3. Pelleting Section: Polypropylene (PP) resin is transferred
___________________ from reactor to product receiver using dense phase conveying
___________________ system. The conveying gas which is a mix of hydrocarbon and
PE
nitrogen is separated from the resin in disengaging section of
___________________
product receiver. The unreacted monomers are purged with
___________________ light recycles and sent for recovery to vent recovery system.
___________________ PP requires the incorporation of a variety of additives to aid
its processing and achieve the end use properties. The
___________________
polymer is fed into the melt pump to develop necessary
___________________ pressure for extrusion through the die plate. The Polymer
___________________ strands are palletised in underwater pelletiser and the pellets
are carried by pellet water system to agglomerate remover
___________________
4.
-U
where chunks and clusters are removed. The pellets are then
dried, classified and conveyed to the blending silos from where
they are bagged.
Vent Recovery Section: This system is designed to recover

monomer, polymer and nitrogen. All waste flammable gases
are vented to the HP or LP flare header, which are passed
CE
through knockout pot and burnt at flare stack burning tip.
Typical Refinery and Petrochemicals Complex – Product

Pattern
Propylene 2.0%
LPG 7.0%
Gasoline 8.0%
Naphtha 8.5%
Reformate (Petrochemicals feed) 9.5%
)C
HSD/SK/ATF 48.0%
Coke 8.0%
Sulphur 1.5%
Fuel and Loss 7.5%
Typical Refinery Product Pattern

Input % of Crude
Crude Oil 100.0
Products
(c
LPG 2.1
Net Naphtha 5.0
MS 11.2
Others --
Light Distillates 18.3
S
ATF 2.6 Notes
SKO 9.0 ___________________
HSD 35.1
___________________
LDO 16.0
PE
Others 1.1 ___________________
Middle Distillates 63.7 ___________________
LSHS for sale 3.3
___________________
Others 7.9
Heavy Ends 11.6 ___________________
Total Prods 93.6
___________________
Gross F&L 6.8
___________________
Total 100.0
___________________
Typical Yield Pattern of FCC
Feed
Low ‘S’ VGO
CGO
DWO
-U
100%
53.7
20.3
9.0
___________________
VR 17.0
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Output
Gas 3.9
H2S 0.5
LPG 12.7
Gasoline 12.5
TCO 53.4
CLO 8.6
Coke 7.9
)C
Loss 0.5
Total 100.0
Typical Yield Pattern of Delayed Coking Unit
Input = RCO 100%
Output
LPG 2.5
(c
Cok. Gasoline 4.5
Cok. Kero-I (LK) 22.5
Cok. Kero-II (HK) --

Cok. Gas Oil (CGO) 24.5
S
Notes
CFO 14.5
___________________
RFO 6.5
___________________
RPC 16.3
___________________
PE
GAS 6.3
___________________ Loss 2.4
___________________ Total 100.0
___________________ Typical Yield Pattern of Hydrotreater

___________________
Input
___________________ VGO 100.0
___________________ H2 2.0
___________________ Total
Output
H2S
GAS
LPG
-U
LT. Naphtha
102.0
1.2
1.3
3.0
11.5
Hydra Naphtha 4.0
CE
SKO/ATF 27.0
HSD 43.8
Bottoms 10.0
Loss 0.2
Total 102.0
Check Your Progress

Fill in the blanks:
)C
1. ………………… is one of the most important conversion

processes used in petroleum refineries. It is widely used
to convert the high-boiling,
2. …………………… is a catalytic isomerisation process to
efficiently convert a mixture of C8 aromatics to a near
equilibrium mix that favours PX and OX production
from metaxylene and ethyl benzene.
(c
Summary
In this unit we have discussed the entire process of delayed coking
fluidized catalytic cracking has also been explained.
Lesson End Activity
S
Notes
Prepare a presentation on Fluidised Catalytic Cracking.
___________________
___________________
Keywords
PE
___________________
Aromatics Complex: Aromatics complex is a fully integrated
___________________
facility for the production of paraxylene and orthoxylene,
comprising of platformer primarily to produce feed for main plants. ___________________
Fluid Catalytic Cracking (FCC): Fluid catalytic cracking is one ___________________

of the most important conversion processes used in petroleum ___________________
refineries. It is widely used to convert the high-boiling,
___________________
Isomer: Isomer is a catalytic isomerisation process to efficiently
___________________
convert a mixture of C8 aromatics to a near equilibrium mix that
-U
favours PX and OX production from metaxylene and ethyl benzene.
Platformer unit: Platformer unit processes hydrotreated naphtha
from the Heavy Naptha Unionfining unit, stripper column
bottoms, for the production of aromatics for downstream unit
processing and separation.
___________________
CE
1. Describe heavy naphtha unionfining unit (HNUU).
2. Discuss fluidised catalytic cracking (FCC).
3. Discuss the typical refinery and petrochemicals complex –
product pattern.
4. Explain parex process unit.
)C
Further Readings
Books

Publishers, Delhi
Web readings
(c
S
Notes
___________________
___________________
___________________
PE
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
-U
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)C
(c
UNIT 13: Offsite Facilities and its Management
S
Notes
___________________
Offsite Facilities and its ___________________
Management
PE
___________________
___________________
Objectives ___________________
___________________
topics:
___________________
 Offsite Facilities and its Management
 Refinery water supply ___________________
___________________
Introduction
-U
In a Refinery, a large part of the hotel area is covered by offsite
facilities. Traditionally, more attention used to be given to process
units. However, with Refinery margin shrinking, stringent safety,
Health and Environmental stipulations, and increased customer
___________________
expectations, now more and more emphasis is given for improved

CE
profitability through: improved operations, advanced process
control system, good inventory management and optimisation of
storage facilities & other off-sites.
Offsite Facilities and its Management

Major offsite functions in a Refinery are:
Crude oil receipt: Normally crude oil is received in land locked
refineries through crude pipelines from the production source.
)C
Before bringing the crude from oil fields, gas, water and sludge are
removed by settling and processing through desalters. In coastal
refineries, crude oil is received through tankers. Depending on the
capacity of the refinery, crude tankage available, draft available at
receiving oil jetty, size of crude oil tanker varies from small to very
large. Quantity of crude received in the refinery is monitored by
measuring dip of receiving tank and flow metre readings installed
on crude pipeline. India imports almost 80% of its crude oil
(c
requirement. Due to strategic reasons, crude oil storage is being

increased from 15 days to 45 days of the refinery capacity.
Crude preparation for feeding to distillation units: Though in
the oil field, major quantity of sludge, water and associated salts
are removed before bringing crude to refineries, yet some
S
Notes quantities of sludge and water still are received in the refinery
___________________ tanks. This is removed by allowing the crude to settle in the tanks
and draining from bottom to the effluent treatment system. The
___________________
final removal of water associated with salts and sludge takes place
___________________
PE
in desalter in the crude distillation unit. Unless crude preparation
___________________ is done properly, the unit performance will be affected adversely
___________________ due to fouling of pipes, exchangers, furnace tube corrosion,
corrosion of various equipments and upsets in plant operation.
___________________
This will also lead to increased fuel consumption and loss in the
___________________ units.
___________________
Receiving rundown streams from various units: From crude
___________________ distillation unit and other secondary units, we get various
___________________
-U
products streams, most of which are to be treated in secondary
processing units and blended in required proportion to produce
finished products which are then dispatched to the market. Except
LPG and Naptha, all other products are blends of various streams
from different units. Depending on the capacity of refinery,
number of products marketed, types of crude oil processed,
complexity of the refinery, the tankages provided for receipt of
CE
rundown streams varies. Facilities for water draining and
reprocessing of offspec. streams are provided. Flexibility is also
provided for alternative routing of streams in case there is change
in demand in product pattern. Light and heavy slop tanks are also
provided to receive offspec. streams during start-up, shutdown,
emergencies and upsets in the plants. The same are reprocessed in
the units in a regulated manner during normal run. By online
blending and utilising advanced process control, the tankage for
receiving rundown streams can be minimised. Pump stations are
)C
provided for transfer of products.

Blending the rundown streams: Various straight run streams
and secondary processing units streams are mixed in suitable
proportion for the production of finished marketable petroleum
products. The mixture is circulated in the tank to make it of
uniform quality. After settling in tank for draining any water and
testing the sample in the laboratory to ensure that it meets quality
specifications, it is dispatched to market. Storage facility at various
(c
locations particularly for MS, SKO and HSD is being augmented.

It is proposed to provide 35 days storage capacity based on 75%
utilisation factor.
Coordination with laboratory: After blending of various
S
streams and circulation in tank, samples of products are sent to Notes
the laboratory for testing. Once the product meets the quality ___________________
specification as per BIS or customers requirement, then the
___________________
certificate of quality is issued by the laboratory. Thereafter,
PE
product is despatched to market. ___________________
Despatch of finished products: The certified products are stored ___________________
in finished product tanks before dispatch. ___________________
Petroleum products are evacuated from the refinery by following ___________________

modes: ___________________
1. Pipelines: Out of the above dispatch modes of petroleum ___________________

products, maximum dispatch (in terms of volume) takes place
___________________
through pipelines (45%). Pipeline systems have following in-
for petroleum products: -U

built advantages over other means of transportation available
(a) It is the second cheapest mode of transport next to large

capacity tankers.
(b) With advanced control system and proper operation, it is
___________________
possible that the products reach their destination in a

CE
"refinery-good" condition. This is so even in respect of
sensitive quality control products such as ATF, Naptha,
etc.
(c) Minimum transit loss
(d) Planned product movement
(e) Flexibility in operation independent of other
transportation systems. During floods and natural
)C
calamities, it is not affected.

2. Rail: Tank wagons are the second bulk carrier specially
constructed for this purpose and can take products to far off
places. The wagons for transporting heavy products such as
FO, LSHS, etc. are provided with steam coils for heating the
product before unloading at the destination.
3. Road: The third mode of transportation is tank lorries or tank
trucks, which are used to supply product to nearby locations by
(c
road. Steam coils are provided to heat the product before

unloading in case of tank trucks for Bitumen, LSHS, FO, etc.
4. Coastal: Tankers of various capacities are used for dispatch of
S
Notes
product from coastal refineries. For short distance and small
___________________
quantity of coastal product movement, barges are used. The
___________________ large capacity tankers are the cheapest mode of transport.
___________________ The products movement of the refinery gets adversely affected
PE
___________________ due to failure/breakdown of transport system. Flexibility to a
small extent exists to switch over from one mode to other mode.
___________________
However, refinery builds up stock in its tanks during such
___________________ emergencies, to an extent beyond which throughput of process
___________________ units is cut thus affecting the production.
___________________ Flare management: To take care of emergency release of gaseous
___________________ hydrocarbon, flare headers are provided for collecting off gases
from process units and offsite areas. After separating the entrained
___________________
2.
3.
-U
liquid, the gas is burnt at high point to avoid hazard and pollution.
Three categories of flare systems are provided:
1. High pressure flare
Low pressure flare
H2S flare
CE
Refinery water supply: The following important water supply
systems exist in the refinery.
1. Fresh water supply system: This provides utility water
supply, make up to the circulating water system, make-up to
fire water supply system and make up to drinking water
treatment system.
2. Fire water supply system: Throughout the process units and
offsites areas, the fire water supply pipeline network is laid in
)C
the form of ring. Firewater tanks are provided in offsites area

to have an immediate supply source for fighting any major fire.
In critical areas, long distance throw nozzles are provided.
3. Recirculating hot and cold water system: For cooling of
hot products, this system is provided. It is having chemical
treatment system to avoid scaling and corrosion in related
pipelines and equipment. Cooling Towers are also provided in
the system where water is cooled by evaporation before
(c
recirculation. Blow-down in the form of leakage and manual

draining is provided to avoid build-up of salt concentration.
Make up water is taken from fresh water system. In some of
the coastal refineries, once through cooling water system is
S
used and sea water is utilised for the cooling of products. Notes
4. Captive power plant: To provide uninterrupted power and ___________________

steam supply for running the pumps, compressors and other ___________________
equipment, captive power plant is provided in the refinery. For
PE
___________________
meeting any emergency, alternative source of power supply
from outside is also lined up. Superheated and saturated ___________________
steam at various pressures is also supplied for process units ___________________

and offsites area from this system. Steam is used for heating, ___________________
stripping in columns, and atomisation of fuel oil before
___________________
burning in furnace, fire-fighting, driving steam turbines and
power generation. Fresh water is used in DM plant before ___________________
utilising in boilers for steam generation. To ensure supply of ___________________
5.
load shedding scheme exists.
-U
steam and power to critical plants/equipment in emergencies,
Fuel oil and fuel gas system: For providing fuel supply to
process units furnaces, and boilers in captive power plant, this
system is provided. In fuel gas, mostly methane, ethane and
purged gases from hydrogen units are used. The supply system
___________________
is maintained at constant pressure. For fuel oil, varying

CE
ranges of fuels from LDO to Asphalts are used. Storage tanks,
blending facilities and pumping system are provided for supply
of fuel oil to furnaces and boilers.
6. Hydrogen, Nitrogen and air supply systems: Hydrogen is
generated in Hydrogen plant or catalytic reformer unit. It is
utilised in hydro-treatment units. It is a very hazardous gas to
handle as the flame cannot be seen.
Nitrogen is used for catalyst regeneration, blanketing tanks
)C
from atmospheric oxygen in the case of lubes and other

products which form explosive mixture when coming in contact
with air, and maintaining inert atmosphere in the process unit
equipment. Nitrogen is produced in generators installed in the
refinery or is purchased from outside. Air is used for utility
purposes, catalyst regeneration, decoking of furnace tubes and
instrumentation etc. It is taken from atmosphere and
compressed before using.
(c
Check Your Progress
S
Notes
Fill in the blanks:
___________________
___________________
1. ………………… is used for catalyst regeneration,
blanketing tanks from atmospheric oxygen in the case of
___________________
PE
lubes and other products which form explosive mixture
___________________ when coming in contact with air
___________________ 2. …………………….. is a very hazardous gas to handle as
___________________ the flame cannot be seen.
___________________
___________________
Summary
___________________ In modern refineries, a large portion of the total area is covered by
the offsite facilities. This unit describes the major offsite functions
___________________
-U
in a refinery.
Lesson End Activity

Do an online research on the Hydrogen, Nitrogen and air supply
systems in refineries.
CE
Keywords
Captive Power Plant: Captive power plant to provide
uninterrupted power and steam supply for running the pumps,
compressors and other equipment, captive power plant is provided
in the refinery.
Firewater Tanks: Firewater tanks are provided in offsites area to
have an immediate supply source for fighting any major fire.
)C
Fresh Water Supply System: Fresh water supply system this

provides utility water supply, make up to the circulating water
system, make-up to fire water supply system and make up to
drinking water treatment system.

1. Discuss crude preparation for feeding to distillation units:
(c
2. Write a brief note on blending the rundown streams:

3. Discuss the mode by which petroleum products are evacuated
from the refinery.
4. Write a short note on the important water supply systems that
S
Notes
exist in the refinery.
___________________
Further Readings ___________________
PE
___________________
Books
___________________
___________________
___________________
Publishers, Delhi
___________________
___________________
Web Readings ___________________
-U
___________________
CE
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(c
S
Notes
___________________
___________________
___________________
PE
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
-U
CE
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(c
UNIT 14: Future Refining Scenario
S
Notes
Activity
___________________
Research on the scenario of
Future Refining Scenario availability of sweet and sour
___________________
crudes in the next two
decades.
PE
___________________
Objectives
___________________
topics: ___________________
 Requirements for Future ___________________

 Future of Refineries ___________________
___________________
Introduction ___________________
-U
Keeping in view environmental considerations, cost optimisation,
energy conservation and product quality requirement, it is
envisaged that future refineries will have to face many challenges
– they will be highly complex, integrated, diversified and fully
automated.
___________________
Requirements for Future

CE
Worldwide availability of sweet and light crude is decreasing,
therefore, future refineries will have to be ready to process heavy
and sour crudes. This will call for superior metallurgy in the plants
and pre and post treatment of oil products leading to higher capital
and operating costs. To improve profitability and meet statutory
requirements, following actions need to be taken:
 Distillates yield improvement
)C
 Production of high value products

 Energy optimisation
 Hydrocarbon loss minimisation
 Effective environmental management
 Product quality upgradation
 Product inventory reduction
(c
Future of Refineries
Besides conventional process units, future refineries will also have:
 Quality related units:
 Facilities for benzene management
S
Notes
___________________
 DHDS (Diesel Hydro-desulphurisation)
___________________  Fuel oil HDS (Hydro-desulphurisation)
___________________  Hydrotreatment
PE
___________________  Environment management related units:
___________________  Tail gas treatment
___________________  High efficiency SRUs (Sulphur Recovery Units)
___________________  Bottom of the barrel upgradation related unit
___________________
 Computerised integrated refinery
___________________
 Energy efficient processes
___________________


-U
Diversified and integrated refinery with power plant,
petrochemicals and fertilizers
Synergy in power with fertilizer co-production
 Efficient utilisation of low value refinery residue for
production of power. Power plant supplies power and
steam required in refinery.
CE
 Co-production of value added fertilizer.
 No additional raw material handling and common fire
fighting facilities.
 Overall economics considerably enhanced.
 Already under way in the USA, the Netherlands and Italy.
 Refinery of 21st century:
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 Operate with fewer and highly educated people

 Few operators grouped in a central blast proof control
room like the cockpit of modern aeroplanes.
 Possible employment of robots
 Computerised system supervising operations
automatically
 On-line analysers and blending
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 Computerised performance monitoring

 Automated dispatch and offsites operations
 Flexible work hours
UNIT 14: Future Refining Scenario
In the new refineries, following technology gaps have to be covered:
S
Notes
 Reduction of ‘S’ (sulphur) from MS, HSD and FO.
___________________
 Reduction of FO production and increase in distillate
___________________
production to 85%+.
PE
___________________
 Plant/ equipment should require less space.
___________________
Check Your Progress ___________________
Fill in the blanks: ___________________
1. Worldwide availability of sweet and light crude is ___________________

…………….., ___________________
2. ……………….. will call for superior metallurgy in the ___________________
Summary
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plants and pre and post treatment of oil products
leading to higher capital and operating costs.
In this unit, we discussed about the future refining scenario. We

identified the actions that need to be taken to improve profitability
___________________
CE
and meet the statutory requirements. In addition to this, we also
learnt about the strategies that should be followed to overcome
challenges in future.
Lesson End Activity

Prepare a project on the Integration of Refinery with
petrochemicals/ fertilizers, power plants. How does it improve the
Bottom Lines?
)C
Keywords
Hydro-desulphurisation: It is a catalytic chemical process widely
used to remove sulfur (S) from natural gas and from refined
petroleum products such as gasoline or petrol, jet fuel, kerosene,
diesel fuel, and fuel oils.
Metallurgy: The science that deals with procedures used in

extracting metals from their ores, purifying and alloying metals,
(c
and creating useful objects from metals.

S
Notes
1. What modifications would be needed in refinery process plants
___________________
for:
___________________
(a) Changing over from sweet crude to sour crude
___________________
PE
___________________
(b) Technological improvements/additions for meeting future
more stringent specifications of HSD and MS so as to
___________________
conform to Emission norms.
___________________
(c) To increase/improve profitability.
___________________
2. What do you understand from flexibility of refinery operations
___________________ in the competitive environment?
___________________
___________________
Books -U
Further Readings

2009
CE
Web Readings
http://petrofed.winwinhosting.net/upload/22march10/3_Susobhan_
Sarkar.pdf
http://www.epa.gov/sectors/pdf/energy/ch3-11.pdf
)C
(c
UNIT 15: Case Study
S
Notes
___________________
Case Study ___________________
PE
___________________
Objectives
___________________
___________________
Case Study: Portland Pipeline at Centre of Fierce Fight in
Maine ___________________
___________________
South Portland, Maine — Over seven decades, the Portland
pipeline has propelled some 5 billion gallons of crude oil across ___________________
the mountains and beneath the pristine waters of northern New
England to refineries in Quebec.
-U
Aside from a few small spills years ago, the 236-mile-long colossus
of steel pipes and powerful pumping stations boasts a sterling
record. In the upcountry towns through which it passes, the
underground pipeline has drawn little notice since it was
constructed in 1941.
Until now
___________________
CE
Environmentalists are bitterly fighting a plan to reverse the flow
of the pipeline and send Canadian crude surging to offloading
piers on Casco Bay. This would provide Canada — whose Alberta-
centred oil industry is suffering from too much supply and too
little access to overseas markets — its first direct pipeline to a
year-round, deep-water port.
The hullabaloo has pushed the low-key pipeline operator into a
broader, angrier North American controversy over several
proposed pipelines to transport oil extracted from western
Canada’s tar sands. Perhaps best known is the battle over the
Keystone XL Pipeline, which would stretch nearly 1,200 miles
from Alberta across the American Heartland to the Gulf of
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Mexico.
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Contd…
Fred Field for the Globe
S
Notes Portland Pipe Line Corp. has a tank farm (right) in South
___________________
Portland. Its pipeline disappears underground here and stretches
to Montreal.
___________________ From an engineering vantage, the Portland project would be
___________________ small potatoes. No big construction is envisioned. New pumps
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would be installed at company facilities in Montreal, a couple
___________________ burn-off vents hoisted in South Portland.
___________________ “All that would happen is that molecules would be flowing in a

different direction within the same safe design criteria,’’ said
___________________ Larry D. Wilson, president and chief executive of Portland Pipe
Line Corp.
___________________
But opponents see a ploy to make northern New England the first
___________________ express conduit for what is viewed as the most polluting form of
crude, opening the door to increased use and environmentally
___________________ damaging production of the fuel. Detractors say carbon dioxide
___________________
-U
and other gases emitted during extraction and processing of
Alberta’s ultra-heavy crude known as bitumen contribute to
global warming. Moreover, they say, tar sands oil is inherently
more toxic than other crudes — and spills would do greater harm.
“This is about whether we should allow pumping of the dirtiest
crude oil on earth through some of the most beautiful places in
the region,’’ said Dylan Voorhees, clean energy director with the
Natural Resources Council of Maine. “From Vermont’s Northeast
Kingdom to the clamming muds of Casco Bay.’’
CE
Crude oil comes in a variety of compositions. There’s light, heavy,
sour, and sweet, referring to such variables as thickness and
levels of sulfur. Then there’s bitumen crude, with a tacky texture
like cold molasses. Bitumen saturates the sands spread beneath
50,000 square miles of forest and muskeg bog in northern Alberta.
These oil sands comprise one of the richest lodes on earth, a prize
that might transform Canada into a true energy superpower if
only it could export more easily to Europe and Asia, as well as to
the United States. In 2005, the country shot past the Persian Gulf
region as America’s number one source of imported oil, with some
2.9 billion barrels of crude and other petroleum products crossing
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the border daily, according to US figures.

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Contd…
UNIT 15: Case Study
Fred Field for the Globe
S
The 236-mile-long pipeline, which was built in 1941, has a good Notes
safety track record.
___________________
Most of this is bitumen crude. The strip-mine-like removal of
bitumen releases some 16 percent more greenhouse gases than ___________________
the drilling of conventional crude, according to a recent study by
PE
___________________
the US State Department.
“The Portland pipeline isn’t some obscure local issue — it’s a fuse ___________________
leading straight to one of the most dangerous carbon bombs on
___________________
the planet,’’ said Bill McKibben, a professor of environmental
studies at Middlebury College in Vermont. ___________________
The company, startled by the onslaught, bristles at attempts to ___________________
cast it as a villainous would-be sower of environmental havoc.
“We’re dedicated to safety, respectful of the environment, and ___________________
have earned our reputation for being a good neighbour the hard ___________________
way — by being one,’’ said Thomas A. Hardison, director of
operations.
-U
The Portland pipeline was built just before the start of World War
II as a desperate hedge against marauding German submarines.
Canada joined the war against Hitler two years before the United
States, and tankers carrying crude to Montreal made easy targets
for U-boats at the approaches to the St. Lawrence River. The
pipeline meant oil carriers no longer had to make the exposed
___________________
passage to keep Quebec refineries chugging.

CE
The present 24-inch and 18-inch diameter pipes were laid in 1965,
replacing the original equipment. Newer, state-of-the-art safety
systems monitor operations from South Portland to East
Montreal.
The pipeline has a pumping capacity of 600,000 barrels a day. Its
twin-berth pier on South Portland harbour can offload a tanker
containing 1 million barrels of crude in 30 hours — and deliver
that batch to Montreal in2½ days.
But the company has struggled in recent years as Canada’s
appetite for imported oil diminished while domestic production
boomed. Wilson, the pipeline president, declined to discuss
)C
specifics, but acknowledged that business has fallen significantly

and that the company closed the 18-inch pipe and filled it with
anticorrosive nitrogen, awaiting better days.
Reversing the flow to tap Canada’s growing hunger for foreign oil
markets could be the only way to save the company and the jobs
of its 43 employees, some of whom have held good-paying jobs
there for decades. The pipeline also has made Portland one of the
busiest oil ports on the Eastern Seaboard; even today — despite
Canada’s diminishing demand — some 70 tankers a year offload
from the far corners of oildom.
(c
“It’s a very vital asset for Maine’s port economy,’’ said John H.
Henshaw, executive director of the Maine Port Authority. “It’s
important in terms of ships coming in, services provided [to ships
and crew], local employment, taxes — all these things.’’
Contd…
But what seemed, at first, a far-fetched crusade against the
S
Notes pipeline has gained surprising traction not only among ardent
___________________
greens but also mainstream politicians and some ordinary
citizens. The issue has been inflamed by last month’s pipeline
___________________ spill in Mayflower, Ark. — involving Alberta crude — and a much
larger 2010 pipeline rupture that released more than 800,000
___________________
PE
gallons of tar sands crude into Michigan’s Kalamazoo River.
___________________ Eighteen members of Congress, including Massachusetts Senator
Elizabeth Warren, have signed a stinging letter demanding
___________________ stringent federal environmental review of the pipeline proposal.
In recent months, protestors staged a sizeable antipipeline street
___________________
demonstration in Portland, while 29 Vermont communities —
___________________ none located on the pipeline’s track — passed Town Meeting
resolutions banning “tar oil’’ from the state.
___________________
Last week, a Vermont regulator said the Portland pipeline will
___________________ have to undergo scrutiny under the state’s rigorous Act 250
environmental law if the company seeks to reverse the flow. The
___________________
-U
logic is that crude passing in a different direction amounts
“substantial change of use.’’
Seventy-five percent of imported Canadian oil, much of it
bitumen, already reaches the United States via an intricate web
of pipelines. What Canada sorely lacks is a dedicated pipeline to
carry huge volumes of crude from landlocked Alberta to ice-free
ports, such as Portland.
to a
A plan to build a pipeline across the Canadian Rockies to British

CE
Columbia has stalled in the face of furious opposition. The Obama
administration so far has blocked Keystone. There’s a vague
proposal to construct an all-Canadian pipeline to New Brunswick
on the Bay of Fundy, but that’s years away.
Question:
Source: http://www.bostonglobe.com/business/2013/04/20/after-quiet-years-portland-
pipeline-thrust-into-fierce-energy-environmental-
debate/iRgZIWT5lW9EVbCIQ9FvvJ/story.html
)C
(c
UNIT 16: Advances in Petroleum Refining
S
Notes
___________________
___________________
PE
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
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BLOCK-IV
CE
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(c
Detailed Contents
S
Notes
UNIT 16: ADVANCES IN PETROLEUM REFINING
___________________ UNIT 18: GROSS REFINING MARGIN
 Introduction  Introduction
___________________
 Categories of Advances in Refining  Operating Cost of the Refinery
___________________
PE
 Net Margin
UNIT 17: HYDROCARBON LOSS MINIMISATION
___________________
AND ENERGY CONVERSATION
___________________ UNIT 19: OIL ACCOUNTING EXCISE AND
 Introduction CUSTOM ON PETROLEUM PRODUCTS
___________________
 Areas of Hydrocarbon Loss Minimisation  Introduction
___________________  Functions of Oil Accounting System
___________________
UNIT 20: CASE STUDY
___________________
___________________
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CE
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S
Notes
Activity
___________________
Prepare a report on how is IT
Advances in Petroleum Refining utilised for improved/on-line
___________________
performance monitoring of
refineries?
PE
___________________
Objectives
___________________
topics: ___________________
 Categories of Advances in Refining ___________________

 Improvements in Refining ___________________
___________________
Introduction ___________________
-U
Various issues faced by the refining industry have led to many
major developments in this area. The challenges are: Crude oil is
becoming heavier and higher in sulphur and metal content,
reduced growth in fuel oil demand, rapid growth in light/middle
distillates, stringent environmental regulation for cleaner
products/processes and demand for quality products, declining
___________________
refining margins and Improved engine design/automobiles need

CE
better quality fuel and lubricating oils.
Categories of Advances in Refining

Advances in refining technology can be broadly divided into the
following categories.
1. Improved and integrated refining
 Production of better quality products
)C
 Residuation in residues/heavier ends

 Management of power and utilities.
2. Value addition
 Petrochemicals production
 Better quality and increased lube oil production
 Power generation from heavier petroleum products
(c
 Speciality chemicals production.

Improvements in Refining
S
Notes
Improvements are taking place in many areas. Some of them are
___________________ listed below:
___________________
 Distillation
___________________
PE
 Fluid Catalytic Cracking (FCC), Resid Fluid Catalytic cracking
___________________ (RFCC).
___________________  Delayed coking – Needle coke manufacturing, Visbreaker–
___________________ Soaker Technology.
___________________  Hydro processing
___________________  Hydro treatment of various streams including residues.
___________________  Hydro cracking
___________________


-U
Super Oil Cracking (SOC) of heavy distillates to get 90%
conversion to distillates.
Mobil Distillate Dewaxing (MDDW) to upgrade
heavy fuel oil to high quality distillate and gas yield of 93–
95%.
 Isomerisation
CE
 Catalytic Reforming
 Alkylation
 Etherification
 Power generation by petroleum residue and coke by using
Gasification Combined Cycle (GCC) technology. In this process
along with power, steam and H2 can be produced which are
required in the refinery.
)C
 More and more use of information technology.

 Modelling simulation are being used for:
 Information Gathering, Decision Making and Business
Profitability.
 Accurate process models for different processes (e.g., FCC,
Hydrocracking, Cat Reforming, etc.) are being developed
and increasingly used for optimization, trouble shooting,
(c
design and optimal control and technology development.

 Typical application of information technology in a refinery.
S
Guide logistic Refinery Primary
planning planning logistic
management
Notes
___________________
Refinery Primary Secondary ___________________

scheduling logistic logistic
management management
PE
___________________
___________________
 Significance of process modelling
___________________
Trouble ___________________
shooting
Pilot plant ___________________

Reactor
design scale up
___________________
Catalyst Modelling ___________________

health
monitoring
Operator
training
and
simulation
Feedstock
selection
-U
Process
optimisation
Catalyst
selection &
optimisation
___________________
Refinery integration and value addition strategies

CE

 Small and medium refineries

 Integration with speciality chemicals for value addition
 Anode grade coke, needle coke production
 Microcrystalline wax production
 Alpha-olefins production
 Larger refineries
)C
 Petrochemical integration and speciality products

 Integration of refining and power generation – IGCC
Technology
 Lubes and fuel integration
 Other major strategies of integration
 Integration with IT
(c
 Process simulation and optimisation

 Advanced control and hierarchical control systems
Check Your Progress
S
Notes
Fill in the blanks:
___________________
___________________
1. …………………….. is becoming heavier and higher in
sulphur and metal content
___________________
PE
2. Improved ……………….. design/automobiles need better
___________________
quality fuel and lubricating oils.
___________________
___________________ Summary
___________________
This unit discusses the advances in petroleum refining. The
___________________ advances can be categorised into improved and integrated refining
___________________ and value addition. This unit also highlights in improvements that
are taking place in various areas of refining.
___________________
-U
Lesson End Activity
Prepare a presentation on the known/proven improvements as on
date, in Refining Process Technologies?
CE
Keywords
Alkylation: A process in which an alkyl group is added to or
substituted in a compound, as in the reaction of alkene.
Catalytic Reforming: Rearranging of hydrocarbon molecules in a
gasoline boiling-range feedstock to form hydrocarbons having a
higher antiknock quality.
Etherification: The act or process of making ether; specifically,
the process by which a large quantity of alcohol is transformed into
)C
ether by the agency of a small amount of sulphuric, or ethyl

sulphuric, acid.
Isomerisation: It is the process by which one molecule is
transformed into another molecule which has exactly the same
atoms, but the atoms are rearranged.

(c
1. Explain the following processes and relate the same to the

relevant products:
(a) Isomerization
(b) Alkylation
S
Notes
(c) Etherification
___________________
(d) DHDS
___________________
(e) Catalytic reforming
PE
___________________
(f) Catalytic cracking ___________________
(g) Thermal cracking ___________________
2. Explain the known/proven processes of Hydrogen Generation ___________________

from heavy residues/petroleum coke/ coal bed methane? ___________________
3. What are the various routes for value addition in Petroleum ___________________
Refining?
___________________
Further Readings
Books
-U
Leffler, William, Petroleum Refining in Nontechnical Language, 4th
Edition, PennWell Corp.
___________________
Gary, James H., Handwerk, Glenn E. and Kaiser, Mark J.,

CE
Petroleum Refining: Technology and Economics, CRC Press
Web Readings
http://sol.rutgers.edu/staff/marianth/ie1010004[1].pdf
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petroleum_industry
)C
(c
S
Notes
___________________
___________________
___________________
PE
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
-U
CE
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UNIT 17: Hydrocarbon Loss Minimisation and Energy Conversation
S
Notes
Activity
What ___________________
will be the order of
Hydrocarbon Loss Minimisation magnitude of savings in a six
___________________
million tonnes per year
and Energy Conversation capacity refinery, if the losses
PE
are ___________________
reduced by 0.2%, cost of
crude being $ 25/barrel?
___________________
Objectives ___________________
___________________
topics:
___________________
 Areas of Hydrocarbon Loss Minimisation
 Energy Optimisation ___________________
___________________
Introduction
-U
During the processing of crude petroleum products, handling and
dispatches from refinery, hydrocarbon losses take place on various
accounts. Efforts are to be made to bring the loss to a level of less
than 0.3% of crude processed. Auditing of the systems and
___________________
operations will lead to continuous improvement.

CE
Conservation of oil and gas has assumed greater importance in
view of the emphasis on demand side management of energy.
Average fuel loss in the refineries in India during 2000–01 was 7–
35% which is higher compared to global levels (of similar
configuration).
Areas of Hydrocarbon Loss Minimisation

Following areas need to be monitored/looked into:
)C
A. Apparent losses
 Measuring devices in storage tanks and custody transfers
for proper accounting
 Automating road/rail dispatch facilities.
B. Real losses
 Vapour recovery from flare and product loading facilities
(c
 Handling of light hydrocarbon slop in process unit and

offsite area in closed blow down system
 Conversion of fixed roof tanks to floating roof tanks for low
S
Notes
flash products including diesel and use of proper type of
___________________
roof seals.
___________________
 Automatic tank gauging
___________________
PE
 Use of proper mixers in crude tanks for minimising sludge
___________________ formation and modern method of removal and recovery of
___________________ only sludge/oil to reduce loss
___________________  Minimising slop generation to reduce evaporation loss in
___________________ slop handling system
___________________  Close monitoring of BSW in crude processed to avoid plant

upsets and increased losses
___________________
___________________


-U
Routing of all sour gases to sulphur recovery unit
Routing of off gases from vacuum column to furnaces.
Energy Optimisation
Energy optimisation for a refinery begins early in the development
and design stage with the establishment of a set of energy saving
guidelines applicable to the project. Some of the areas given below
CE
need to be looked into:
1. Integration of heat – exchange system of the units to utilize
the heat from hot stream of another unit – crude distillation
unit and vacuum distillation units are heat integrated.
2. Optimisation of heat exchangers train – use of pinch
technology.
3. Direct hot feed from one unit to another unit without passing
)C
through intermediate tanks.

4. Energy efficient processes/equipment such as furnaces, pumps,
exchangers etc. Provision of air preheater in furnace.
5. Proper insulation of hot products and steam lines.
6. Optimisation of:
 Reflux ratio in distillation process
 Solvent feed ratio in extraction process
(c
7. Use of soaker technology for visbreaking.

8. Use of microprocessor based control system along with DDCS
S
Notes
(Digital Distributed Control System) and advanced process
control. ___________________
9. Heat recovery from process streams for heating colder process ___________________
streams/ boiler feed water.
PE
___________________
10. Power generation in new refinery will be through combined ___________________

cycle operation integrated with gasification. ___________________
11. Steam system – High pressure steam will be cascaded down to ___________________
lower level by back pressure turbines either generating power
___________________
or coupled with various key process compressors and pumps.
Pressure reduction of steam through a control valve will be ___________________
minimised. ___________________
and turbines.
13. Low level heat recovery.
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12. Minimise leakage through glands/seals of pumps, compressors
14. Soot blowers for convection section of furnaces to improve heat

recovery in furnaces.
___________________
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15. Steam generation from hot streams.
16. Benchmarking, gap analysis and setting targets.
17. Energy audit for continuous improvement of energy
performance.
Check Your Progress

Fill in the blanks:
1. ………………….. generation in new refinery will be
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through combined cycle operation integrated with

gasification.
2. Energy ………………. for a refinery begins early in the
development and design stage with the establishment of
a set of energy saving guidelines applicable to the
project.
Summary
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This unit discusses the techniques of hydrocarbon loss

minimization and energy conservation. It identifies the areas that
need to be monitored. The refineries need to take care of the
apparent losses and the real losses. This unit also describes the
S
Notes concept of energy optimisation. It also identifies the areas that
___________________ need to be looked into for optimisation of energy resources.
___________________
___________________
Lesson End Activity
PE
___________________ Research on how do DDCS and advanced process controls help
conserve energy?
___________________
___________________
Keywords
___________________
Benchmarking: A measurement of the quality of an
___________________
organisation’s policies, products, programs, strategies, etc., and
___________________ their comparison with standard measurements or similar
___________________
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measurements of its peers.
Energy Audit: An assessment of the energy needs and efficiency
of a building or buildings.
Gap Analysis: It is a tool that helps a company to compare its
actual performance with its potential performance.
Optimisation: Finding an alternative with the most cost effective
CE
or highest achievable performance under the given constraints, by
maximizing desired factors and minimizing undesired ones.
Reflux Ratio: The ratio of the amount of condensate being
refluxed to the amount being withdrawn as product.

1. How does energy consumption at Indian refineries compare
)C
with best run refineries overseas? Express this in energy

consumption indices like
(a) EII (Energy Intensity Index)
(b) NRG Factor in MBTU's per NRGF for fuel + loss
2. Explain the role of housekeeping measures for bringing down
energy consumption resulting in energy conservation.
Enumerate some important measures of this nature which the
refineries/ chemical industries take.
(c
Further Readings
S
Notes
Books ___________________
Dr. Sarkar, G.N., Advanced Petroleum Refining, Khanna ___________________

Publishers, Delhi
PE
___________________
Nelson, W.L., Petroleum Refining Engineering, McGraw Hill ___________________
Web Readings ___________________
http://www.ecy.wa.gov/pubs/0207017.pdf ___________________
http://www.isa.org/~chempid/PCC03-P003_PAPER.pdf ___________________
___________________
___________________
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Notes
___________________
___________________
___________________
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___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
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UNIT 18: Gross Refining Margin
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Notes
Activity
List ___________________
down the various factors
Gross Refining Margin which affect GRM
___________________
PE
___________________
Objectives
___________________
topics: ___________________
 Operating Cost of the Refinery ___________________

 Net Back Estimation ___________________
___________________
Introduction ___________________
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Gross Refining Margin (GRM) is the differential between the
product realisation and the cost of crude processed to obtain these
products. GRM of a particular refinery will depend upon various
internal and external factors. Some of these factors are discussed
below:
Internal Factors
___________________
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 The crude mix (low sulphur and high sulphur) processed by
the refinery
 The secondary processing facilities available with the refinery
which affect the product yield of the refinery
 The fuel used and losses incurred in the production processes.
External Factors
 The international prices of various crudes and products
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 The demand and supply balance of various products refined by

the refinery
 The duty structure prevailing in the country relating to crude
and products.
Operating Cost of the Refinery

The operating cost of the refinery includes various elements, some
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of which are as under:

 Power and fuel: Fuel is used either directly in the refining
process or to generate power and utilities to be used in the
refining process. Fuel may be purchased from outside
suppliers (like natural gas); power from electricity board or
S
Notes internal refined products (like LSHS, FO or HSD) may be used
___________________ as fuel.
___________________  Chemicals and catalysts: During the refining process of
___________________ petroleum products, various chemicals and catalysts are used.
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The purpose of chemicals is mainly to improve the quality of
___________________
products so as to meet the desired specifications. Catalysts are
___________________ used in various reformers and other secondary processing
___________________ facilities.
___________________  Establishment cost: This is related to the manpower

___________________
deployed and includes the salary and wages paid to staff,
overtime, bonus etc.
___________________
 Repair and maintenance cost: It is incurred in various
___________________

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mechanical, electrical and civil jobs carried out for the
maintenance of plant and machinery.
General administrative cost: This cost includes expenses
such as traveling. Printing, insurance and other related
overhead expenditure.
 Depreciation: Operating cost includes depreciation on plant
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and machinery, furniture, equipment and other fixed assets
used in the refining process towards general wear and tear.
Net Margin
The net margin is the difference between gross margin and
operating cost. This is virtually the net profit to the refinery.
Net Margin = Gross margin – Operating cost
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For higher profitability, gross margin should be increased and

operating cost reduced by increased efficiency in refining
operations. Table 18.1 shows a sample calculation for gross and net
margin for a refinery.
Table 18.1: Gross Margin
(Crore)
Realisation of transfer of products 4050
(c
Cost of crude (inclusive of freight, wharfage, customs duty) 3720

Gross margin 330
Th’put-MMT 3.98
Contd...
Gross margin /MT 829
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Margin – /BBL 112 Notes
Margin – US $/BBL US $
___________________
2.30
Less: Operating cost /MT 500 ___________________
Net margin /MT 329
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___________________
Net Back Estimation ___________________
In the net back system, the estimated realisation is calculated on ___________________
the basis of expected yield from the particular refinery for specific ___________________
crude. For the purpose of procurement of crude for a particular
___________________
refinery, net back estimation is used to evaluate the suitable crude
___________________
for the refinery. The crude which is having higher net back to the
refinery is normally procured for it. ___________________
Table 18.2 gives a sample netback calculation to select the best

crude out any of seven crudes, considered. All these
seven crudes are sweet (low sulphur) crudes. F.Dos gives the
highest netback of 1054/MT vs. TAPIS with lowest netback of
41/MT.
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Table 18.2: Sample Working of Netback Calculations

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PROD BRENT F.DOS BON. LABUA ESCRAV TAPIS MIRI
PRICE BL LT. N OS
CRUDE RS/MT 11987 11361 11714 11994 11987 12859 11994

PRICE
LPG 14599 7 5 5 4 2 5 4
NAP 12260 8 0 5 2 5 10 3
MS 14832 12 12 12 12 13 12 12
SKO 13617 11 11 11 11 11 11 11
HSD 14361 48 58 54 58 51 53 59
OF 10100 0 0 0 0 0
L.SHS 10100 1 0 0 0 6 0 0
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RPC 5535 2 1 1 2 6 1 1
SULPHUR 256 1 1 1 1 0 1
SL. WAX 13851 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
F&L 0 10 12 11 10 6 8 9
TOTAL 100 100 100 100 100 100 100
DIST% 86.0 86.0 87.0 87.0 82.0 91.0 89.0
CRUDE 11987 11361 11714 11994 11987 12859 11994

VALUE,RS/
MT
PROD 12408 12415 12454 12570 12593 12900 12780

VALUE,
RS/MT
(c
LESS IPN 100 100

COST,
RS/MT
NET 421 1054 740 476 606 41 686

BACK,
RS/MT
Check Your Progress
S
Notes
Fill in the blanks:
___________________
1. ……………….. is the differential between the product
___________________
realisation and the cost of crude processed to obtain
___________________
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these products.
___________________
2. …………….. is used either directly in the refining
___________________ process or to generate power and utilities to be used in
___________________ the refining process.
___________________
Summary
___________________
___________________
This unit discusses the Gross Refining Margin (GRM) and the
factors that influence it. Both, external and international factors
___________________
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affect the GRM. It also describes the elements that are a part of
the operation cost of a refinery. Elements like power and fuel,
repair and maintenance, and depreciation constitute the operating
cost of a refinery. Net margin and net back estimation calculations
are also given in this unit.
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Lesson End Activity
Prepare a presentation on how netback estimation method is used
for crude selection for a refinery?
Keywords
Gross Refining Margin: It is the difference between total value
of petroleum products and price of crude.
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Net Back: It is a system in which the estimated realisation is

calculated on the basis of expected yield from the particular
refinery for specific crude.
Net Margin: It is the difference between gross margin and
operating costs
Operating Costs: Expenses associated with administering a
business on a day to day basis.
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1. What are the most crucial factors and which are indeed
controllable, affecting GRM?
2. What are the various options for reducing Refining Costs in
S
Notes
competitive world?
___________________
Further Readings ___________________
PE
___________________
Books
___________________
Gary, James H., Handwerk, Glenn E. and Kaiser, Mark J., ___________________
Petroleum Refining: Technology and Economics, CRC Press
___________________
Leffler, William, Petroleum Refining in Nontechnical Language, 4 th
___________________
Edition, PennWell Corp.
___________________
Web Readings
___________________
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http://www.petroleumonline.com/content/overview.asp? mod=8
http://www.petrostrategies.org/Learning_Center/refining.htm
___________________
CE
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Notes
___________________
___________________
___________________
PE
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
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UNIT 19: Oil Accounting Excise and Custom on Petroleum Products
S
Notes
Activity
Find___________________
out the present level of
Oil Accounting Excise and custom and excise duties on
crude___________________
and various petroleum
Custom on Petroleum Products products. What is the rationale
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___________________
for fixing the same?
___________________
Objectives ___________________
___________________
topics:
___________________
 Functions of Oil Accounting System
 Excise and Custom Petroleum Products ___________________
___________________
Introduction
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While the physical handling of crude oil, intermediates and
finished petroleum products is done by operations personnel, the
Oil Accounting Section of the finance department of a
refinery/warehouse is responsible for correct depiction of the
___________________
quantitative and financial records pertaining to the crude oil and

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petroleum products.
Functions of Oil Accounting System

Quantitative accountant and correct payment of duties on finished
petroleum products is the focal area of the oil accounting section.
The following are its key functions.
1. Accounting of Crude Oil Receipts and Duty Implications
Thereon: Crude oil received under bond from port locations
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and re-warehoused in a refinery needs to be accounted on

FIFO basis and appropriate customs duty is required to be
paid and accounted for the quantity taken in the process of
refining. This is known as ex-bonding of crude.
2. Accounting of Manufactured Petroleum products and
Those Received for Blending, etc.: The duty liability on
petroleum products arises when the process of manufacture is
completed, although the discharge of duty obligation is allowed
(c
to be deferred to the time of removal from the refinery/onward

removal to warehouse. Hence, tank accountal of receipts and
removals is to be maintained by taking dip measurements and
quality testing reports.
3. Despatch of Finished Petroleum Products: Assessment to
S
Notes
central excise duties is invoice-based. Whether the goods
___________________
removed are duty-paid or under bond, the excise duty liability
___________________ is determined at the time of removal from the refinery
___________________ warehouse. With the invoice being the document in support of
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cenvat credit claim that may accrue to a customer, the
___________________
invoice/application for duty-free removal is the cornerstone for
___________________ correct excise assessment of removals.
___________________ 4. Compliance of Excise Procedure and Maintenance of
___________________ Records: The excise department tests compliance of law and
___________________
procedure primarily through the records maintained by the oil
accounts section of the assessee. For duty-paid goods, the
___________________
liability likely to arise during a working day is to be deposited
___________________
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in advance through treasury challan at the bank and the
deposit credit is to be utilised in accordance with the invoices
issued for the clearances. This is done through the PLA
(Personal Ledger Account). The DSA (Daily Stock Account) is
to be maintained for opening balances, production, dispatch
and closing balances of all certified finished products of the
refinery warehouse. Intimations/declarations are to be
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submitted to the range office for any act or action that may be
regarded as having an impact on revenue.
5. Material Balancing, Production Statistics and
Periodical returns and Statements: As the crude oil is
processed through a combination of distillation and blending,
intermediary products arise during the course of manufacture
of certified finished petroleum products. The control over
inputs and outputs during this refining process is achieved
)C
through the daily material balancing done through the

quantitative measurement of tank and line-fill quantities of
the crude, intermediaries and finished products. The
production statistics are correlated to the standard product
pattern and the actual distillate yield for any particular period
of time.
Statutory returns as per excise procedure are filed periodically by
the oil accounts section with the range office. Records, returns,
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documents, etc. prepared by the oil accounting section are open to

inspection by the range office. Letters, show cause notices, if any,
are normally issued through the oil accounts section.
Excise and Custom Petroleum Products
S
Notes
The removal of petroleum products manufactured in refineries is
either to direct customers or through marketing network ___________________
(warehouses/depots/terminals, etc.) for sale therefrom. Products ___________________
belonging to oil marketing companies are also dealt through
PE
___________________
intercompany transactions.
___________________
These products are either removed on payment of excise duty, or
under bond without payment of excise duty. In the latter case, the ___________________
duty obligation on the manufactured goods is discharged from the ___________________

warehouse when it is finally cleared for sale. In certain cases, the ___________________
goods are removed under bond to special industrial undertakings
___________________
like SEBs, FCI, etc. who are licensed to deal with manufactured
excisable goods without payment of duty. ___________________
The products are removed through pipelines; tank wagon

-U
(railways); tank lorries (oil tankers); or barges (through
waterways).
The primary raw material for finished petroleum products is crude
oil, indigenous and imported. Indigenous crude oil attracts Nil rate
___________________
of excise duty, and imported crude oil attracts zero customs duty.
CE
Indigenous crude oil is sourced from Gujarat and Assam oilfields
and from offshore oilfields of India. Imported crude of different
varieties as per processing requirement are brought through
different ports of the country.
Earlier crude oil only attracts the basic customs duty while other
items of import attract additional duty of customs (equivalent to
the excise duty attracted for such items under the central excise
tariff) and special additional duty of customs on selective basis as
notified. The additional duty of customs levied under the Customs
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Tariff Act and the excise duty levied under the Central Excise
Tariff Act are allowed to be set-off as duty credit by the refineries
(manufacturer) under the Cenvat Credit Scheme of central excise.
During discharge of excise duty obligations arising on the removal
of finished petroleum products from the refineries on duty-paid
basis, the refineries use the accumulated cenvat credit in lieu of
cash payment.
Other than basic excise duty, there is a levy, on selective basis by
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notification, of special excise duty, additional duty of excise ( 1

additional excise duty on diesel cars), and recently introduced
special additional duty of excise on Motor spirit.
Check Your Progress
S
Notes
Fill in the blanks:
___________________
___________________
1. Crude oil received under bond from port locations and
re-warehoused in a refinery needs to be accounted on
___________________
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………. basis
___________________
2. ……………………….. are allowed to be set-off as duty
___________________ credit by the refineries (manufacturer) under the Cenvat
___________________ Credit Scheme of central excise.
___________________
___________________
Summary
___________________ This unit discusses the basic functions of oil accounting section. IT
performs basic functions like accounting of crude oil receipts and
___________________
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duty implications thereon, dispatch of finished petroleum products,
materials balancing, producing production statistics, etc. Excise
duties and custom duties are imposed on petroleum and petroleum
products. The basics of petroleum product related excise and
custom duties are also discussed in this unit.
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Lesson End Activity
Find when is it desirable to export/import any product based on
custom/excise duties prevailing?
Keywords
Customs Duty: A tax levied on imports (and, sometimes, on
exports) by the customs authorities of a country to raise state
revenue, and/or to protect domestic industries from more efficient
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or predatory competitors from abroad.

Excise Duty: A percentage levied on manufacture, sale, or use of
locally produced goods (petrol or diesel).
FIFO: The oldest inventory items are recorded as sold first but do
not necessarily mean that the exact oldest physical object has been
tracked and sold; this is just an inventory technique.
Personal Ledger Account: This is basically used in excise to
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maintain the entries of cash (Cheque or e-payment) deposit and

payment of duty from this amount throughout the year.
S
Notes
1. What are the method and system of accounting crude and
___________________
petroleum products in a refinery?
___________________
2. How is the excise/customs procedure followed by oil accounting
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section? ___________________
___________________
3. In the event of excess refining capacity (with glut in the
market), what level(s) of production should be maintained to ___________________
meet domestic demand and export the product? ___________________
4. What is the significance of bonded warehouse? How are crude ___________________
and products removed and accountal done?
___________________
___________________
Further Readings
Books
Dr. Sarkar, G.N.,
Publishers, Delhi
Advanced Petroleum
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Refining, Khanna
___________________
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Web Readings
http://www.cbec.gov.in/cae1-english.htm
http://english.peopledaily.com.cn/90001/90777/90851/7420480.html
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Notes
___________________
___________________
___________________
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___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
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UNIT 20: Case Study
S
Notes
___________________
Case Study ___________________
PE
___________________
Objectives
___________________
___________________
Case Study: Petroleum Company Stops Leaks with Skylights
___________________
J.D. Streett & Company (commonly shortened to “J.D. Street”),
founded in 1884, is a producer and marketer of petroleum ___________________
products including vehicle and industrial lubricants, diesel engine
___________________
oils, hydraulic oils, transmission fluids, gear lubricants and anti-
Illinois. -U
freeze products. The company also owns and operates a chain of
convenience stores with fuel products that span Missouri and
In 2009, the company voiced concern about long-standing poor

energy performance (primarily excessive heat gain) and water
leaks from three 20-year-old barrel vault acrylic skylights at its
headquarters building in Maryland Heights, MO, a suburb of St.
___________________
Louis. Each of the three curb-mounted barrel vault units was

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approximately 4’ X 24’. There was also a square curb mount
acrylic bubble skylight of similar age and with similar issues.
A meeting was scheduled with the building owner to determine

what could be done. VELUX and Roofers Mart of St. Louis
additionally called in St. Louis Skylights to provide design and
installation advice. The team came up with a flat glass solution
using the fixed curb mounted (FCM) custom-tempered low-E
laminated insulating glass skylights. In addition to the insulated
glass lens, this patented fixed curb mounted skylight is
constructed of a durable metal frame that mounts directly to a
site-built curb. The smooth, low profile of the skylight does not
)C
obstruct the roofline.

The solution required removal of the old barrel vaults,
construction of site-built individual curbs over the existing curb
openings and installation of a total of 22 49 ¾” X 70 ¾” skylight
units. The design featured custom metal flashings between the
units with wood framing for extra structural support and an
attractive finished appearance.
The existing individual acrylic bubble skylight was approximately
8’ X 8’, set on a built-up wood curb framing with site-built metal
flashing. The key to a successful installation was aligning the new
(c
skylight with the existing wood beams on the inside.

In 2012, a severe hailstorm hit the area with 3” hailstones that
broke all the way through many acrylic skylights in the vicinity.
Contd…
However, while the outer pane of the fixed curb mounted glass
S
Notes skylights did break, the laminated inner pane held, preventing
___________________
water and debris from entering the building.
The building owner is reportedly quite pleased with the expansive
___________________ daylighting with reduced heat gain and the proven impact
___________________ resistance of the new units and was particularly satisfied with the
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end of that plague of leaks.
___________________ Question:
___________________ Critically analyse the case.
___________________ Source: http://www.aamanet.org/news/2/10/0/all/893/case-study-petroleum-company-stops-
leaks-with-skylights
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
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UNIT 21: Environment, Health and Safety Guidelines
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Notes
___________________
___________________
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___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
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BLOCK-V
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Detailed Contents
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Notes
UNIT 21: ENVIRONMENT, HEALTH AND SAFETY
___________________ UNIT 23: IT APPLICATIONS IN HYDROCARBON
GUIDELINES INDUSTRY
 ___________________
___________________
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 Industry-Specific Impacts and Management  Application of Information Technology
___________________  IT Application in Design and Engineering

UNIT 22: FUNDAMENTALS OF ULSF
PRODUCTION
___________________  IT Application in Operation
 Introduction
___________________  Maintenance Management Software
 Key Properties of Gasoline and Diesel Blendstocks  Enterprise Resource Planning and Management
___________________
(ERP)
___________________
___________________ UNIT 24: PETROLEUM REFINING:

TERMINOLOGY
___________________
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
Introduction
Key Terms
UNIT 25: CASE STUDY

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S
Notes
Activity
List ___________________
Prevention and control
Environment, Health and Safety measures to reduce risks of
___________________
asphyxiant gas release.
Guidelines
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___________________
___________________
Objectives ___________________
___________________
topics:
___________________
 Industry-Specific Impacts and Management
 Community Health and Safety ___________________
___________________
Introduction
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The Environmental, Health, and Safety (EHS) Guidelines are
technical reference documents with general and industry specific
examples of Good International Industry Practice (GIIP). When
one or more members of the World Bank Group are involved in a
___________________
project, these EHS Guidelines are applied as required by their

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respective policies and standards. These industry sector EHS
guidelines are designed to be used together with the General EHS
Guidelines document, which provides guidance to users on common
EHS issues potentially applicable to all industry sectors. For
complex projects, use of multiple industry-sector guidelines may be
necessary.
The EHS Guidelines for Petroleum Refining cover processing
operations from crude oil to finished liquid products, including
liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), Mo-Gas (motor gasoline), kerosene,
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diesel oil, heating oil, fuel oil, bitumen, asphalt, sulfur, and
intermediate products (e.g. propane/propylene mixtures, virgin
naphtha, middle distillate and vacuum distillate) for the
petrochemical industry.
Industry-Specific Impacts and Management

The following section provides a summary of EHS issues associated
(c
with petroleum refining which occur during the operational phase,

along with recommendations for their management.
Recommendations for the management of EHS issues common to
most large industrial facilities during the construction and
decommissioning phases are provided in the General EHS
S
Notes Guidelines.
___________________
Environmental
___________________
Potential environmental issues associated with petroleum refining
___________________
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include the following:
___________________
 Air emissions
___________________
 Wastewater
___________________
 Hazardous materials
___________________
 Wastes
___________________
 Noise
___________________
___________________


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Air Emissions
Exhaust Gases
Exhaust gas and flue gas emissions (carbon dioxide (CO2),
nitrogen oxides (NOX) and carbon monoxide (CO)) in the
petroleum refining sector result from the combustion of gas and
fuel oil or diesel in turbines, boilers, compressors and other engines
CE
for power and heat generation. Flue gas is also generated in waste
heat boilers associated with some process units during continuous
catalyst regeneration or fluid petroleum coke combustion. Flue gas
is emitted from the stack to the atmosphere in the Bitumen
Blowing Unit, from the catalyst regenerator in the Fluid Catalytic
Cracking Unit (FCCU) and the Residue Catalytic Cracking Unit
(RCCU), and in the sulfur plant, possibly containing small
amounts of sulfur oxides. Low-NOX burners should be used to
reduce nitrogen oxide emissions. Air quality impacts should be
)C
estimated by the use of baseline air quality assessments and

atmospheric dispersion models to establish potential ground level
ambient air concentrations during facility design and operations
planning as described in the General EHS Guidelines.
Guidance for the management of small combustion source
emissions with a capacity of up to 50 megawatt thermal (MWth),
including air emission standards for exhaust emissions, is provided
in the General EHS Guidelines. For combustion source emissions
(c
with a capacity of greater than 50 MWth, refer to the EHS

Guidelines for Thermal Power.
Venting and Flaring
S
Notes
Venting and flaring are important operational and safety measures
used in petroleum refining facilities to ensure that vapours and ___________________
gases are safely disposed of. Petroleum hydrocarbons are emitted ___________________
from emergency process vents and safety valves discharges. These
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___________________
are collected into the blow-down network to be flared.
___________________
Excess gas should not be vented, but instead sent to an efficient
flare gas system for disposal. Emergency venting may be ___________________
acceptable under specific conditions where flaring of the gas ___________________

stream is not possible, on the basis of an accurate risk analysis and ___________________
integrity of the system needs to be protected. Justification for not
___________________
using a gas flaring system should be fully documented before an
emergency gas venting facility is considered. ___________________
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Before flaring is adopted, feasible alternatives for the use of the
gas should be evaluated and integrated into production design to
the maximum extent possible. Flaring volumes for new facilities
should be estimated during the initial commissioning period so
that fixed volume flaring targets can be developed. The volumes of
gas flared for all flaring events should be recorded and reported.
___________________
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Continuous improvement of flaring through implementation of
best practices and new technologies should be demonstrated.
The following pollution prevention and control measures should be
considered for gas flaring:
 Implementation of source gas reduction measures to the
maximum extent possible;
 Use of efficient flare tips, and optimization of the size and
number of burning nozzles;
)C
 Maximizing flare combustion efficiency by controlling and

optimizing flare fuel/air/steam flow rates to ensure the correct
ratio of assist stream to flare stream;
 Minimizing flaring from purges and pilots, without
compromising safety, through measures including installation
of purge gas reduction devices, flare gas recovery units, inert
purge gas, soft seat valve technology where appropriate, and
installation of conservation pilots;
(c
 Minimizing risk of pilot blow-out by ensuring sufficient exit

velocity and providing wind guards;
 Use of a reliable pilot ignition system;
 Installation of high integrity instrument pressure protection
S
Notes
systems, where appropriate, to reduce over pressure events
___________________
and avoid or reduce flaring situations;
___________________
 Installation of knock-out drums to prevent condensate
___________________ emissions, where appropriate;
PE
___________________  Minimizing liquid carry-over and entrainment in the gas flare
___________________ stream with a suitable liquid separation system;
___________________  Minimizing flame lift off and / or flame lick;
___________________  Operating flare to control odour and visible smoke emissions
___________________ (no visible black smoke);
___________________  Locating flare at a safe distance from local communities and

___________________


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the workforce including workforce accommodation units;
Implementation of burner maintenance and replacement
programs to ensure continuous maximum flare efficiency;
· Metering flare gas.
To minimize flaring events as a result of equipment breakdowns
and plant upsets, plant reliability should be high (>95 percent),
CE
and provision should be made for equipment sparing and plant
turn down protocols.
Fugitive Emissions
Fugitive emissions in petroleum refining facilities are associated
with vents, leaking tubing, valves, connections, flanges, packings,
open-ended lines, floating roof storage tanks and pump seals, gas
conveyance systems, compressor seals, pressure relief valves,
tanks or open pits/containments, and loading and unloading
)C
operations of hydrocarbons. Depending on the refinery process

scheme, fugitive emissions may include:
 Hydrogen;
 Methane;
 Volatile organic compounds (VOCs), (e.g. ethane, ethylene,
propane, propylene, butanes, butylenes, pentanes, pentenes,
C6-C9 alkylate, benzene, toluene, xylenes, phenol, and C9
(c
aromatics);
 Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and other
semivolatile organic compounds;
 Inorganic gases, including hydrofluoric acid from hydrogen
S
Notes
fluoride alkylation, hydrogen sulfide, ammonia, carbon
dioxide, carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide and sulfur trioxide ___________________
from sulfuric acid regeneration in the sulfuric acid alkylation ___________________
process, NOX, methyl tert-butyl ether (MTBE), ethyl tertiary
PE
___________________
butyl ether (ETBE), t-amylmethyl ether (TAME), methanol,
and ethanol. ___________________
___________________
The main sources of concern include VOC emissions from cone roof
storage tanks during loading and due to out-breathing; fugitive ___________________
emissions of hydrocarbons through the floating roof seals of ___________________
floating roof storage tanks; fugitive emissions from flanges and/or
___________________
valves and machinery seals; VOC emissions from blending tanks,
valves, pumps and mixing operations; and VOC emissions from ___________________
-U
oily sewage and wastewater treatment systems. Nitrogen from
bitumen storage tanks may also be emitted, possibly containing
hydrocarbons and sulfur compounds in the form of aerosols. Other
potential fugitive emission sources include the Vapour Recovery
Unit vents and gas emission from caustic oxidation.
___________________
Occupational Health and Safety

CE
The occupational health and safety issues that may occur during
the construction and decommissioning of petroleum refining
facilities are similar to those of other industrial facilities, and their
management is discussed in the General EHS Guidelines.
Facility-specific occupational health and safety issues should be
identified based on job safety analysis or comprehensive hazard or
risk assessment, using established methodologies such as a hazard
identification study [HAZID], hazard and operability study
)C
[HAZOP], or a quantitative risk assessment [QRA]. As a general

approach, health and safety management planning should include
the adoption of a systematic and structured approach for
prevention and control of physical, chemical, biological, and
radiological health and safety hazards described in the General
EHS Guidelines
The most significant occupational health and safety hazards occur
(c
during the operational phase of a petroleum refining facility and

primarily include:
 Process Safety: Process safety programs should be
implemented, due to industry-specific characteristics,
including complex chemical reactions, use of hazardous
S
Notes materials (e.g. toxic, reactive, flammable or explosive
___________________ compounds), and multi-step reactions. Process safety
management includes the following actions:
___________________
___________________  Physical hazard testing of materials and reactions;
PE
___________________  Hazard analysis studies to review the process chemistry
and engineering practices, including thermodynamics and
___________________
kinetics;
___________________
 Examination of preventive maintenance and mechanical
___________________
integrity of the process equipment and utilities;
___________________
 Worker training; and
___________________
 Development of operating instructions and emergency
___________________
 -U
response procedures.
Oxygen-Deficient Atmosphere: The potential release and
accumulation of nitrogen gas into work areas may result in the
creation of asphyxiating conditions due to the displacement of
oxygen. Prevention and control measures to reduce risks of
asphyxiant gas release include:
CE
 Design and placement of nitrogen venting systems
according to industry standards;
 Installation of an automatic Emergency Shutdown System
that can detect and warn of the uncontrolled release of
nitrogen (including the presence of oxygen deficient
atmospheres in working areas6), initiate forced
ventilation, and minimize the duration of releases;
 Implementation of confined space entry procedures as
)C
described in the General EHS Guidelines with

consideration of facility-specific hazards.
 Chemical Hazards: Releases of hydrofluoric acid, carbon
monoxide, methanol and hydrogen sulfide may present
occupational exposure hazards.
Hydrogen sulfide leakage may occur from amine regeneration in
amine treatment units and sulfur recovery units. Carbon monoxide
leakage may occur from Fluid and Residue Catalytic Cracking
(c
Units and from the syngas production section of the Hydrogen

Plant. Carbon monoxide/air mixtures are explosive and
spontaneous / explosive re-ignition may occur. Hydrogen sulfide
S
poses an immediate fire hazard when mixed with air. Notes
Workers may be exposed to potential inhalation hazards (e.g. ___________________

hydrogen sulfide, carbon monoxide, VOCs, polycyclic aromatic ___________________
hydrocarbons (PAHs) during routine plant operations. Dermal
PE
___________________
hazards may include contact with acids, steam, and hot surfaces.
Chemical hazards should be managed based on the results of a job ___________________
safety analysis and industrial hygiene survey and according to the ___________________
occupational health and safety guidance provided in the General ___________________
EHS Guidelines. Protection measures include worker training,
___________________
work permit systems, use of personal protective equipment (PPE),
and toxic gas detection systems with alarms. ___________________
___________________
Fire and Explosions
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Fire and explosion hazards generated by process operations
include the accidental release of syngas (containing carbon
monoxide and hydrogen), oxygen, methanol, and refinery gases.
Refinery gas releases may cause ‘jet fires’, if ignited in the release
section, or give rise to a vapour cloud explosion (VCE), fireball or
___________________
flash fire, depending on the quantity of flammable material

CE
involved and the degree of confinement of the cloud. Methane,
hydrogen, carbon monoxide, and hydrogen sulfide may ignite even
in the absence of ignition sources, if their temperature is higher
than their auto ignition temperatures of 580°C, 500°C, 609°C, and
260°C, respectively. Flammable liquid spills present in petroleum
refining facilities may cause pool fires. Explosive hazards may also
be associated with accumulation of vapours in storage tanks (e.g.
sulfuric acid and bitumen).
)C
Recommended measures to prevent and control fire and explosion

risks from process operations include the following:
 Designing, constructing, and operating petroleum refineries
according to international standards10 for the prevention and
control of fire and explosion hazards, including provisions for
segregation of process, storage, utility, and safe areas. Safety
distances can be derived from specific safety analyses for the
facility, and through application of internationally recognized
(c
fire safety standards;

 Providing early release detection, such as pressure monitoring
of gas and liquid conveyance systems, in addition to smoke and
heat detection for fires;
 Evaluation of potential for vapour accumulation in storage
S
Notes
tanks and implementation of prevention and control
___________________
techniques (e.g. nitrogen blanketing for sulfuric acid and
___________________ bitumen storage);
___________________ Avoiding potential sources of ignition (e.g. by configuring the
PE

___________________ layout of piping to avoid spills over high temperature piping,

equipment, and / or rotating machines);
___________________
___________________
 Providing passive fire protection measures within the
modelled fire zone that are capable of withstanding the fire
___________________
temperature for a time sufficient to allow the operator to
___________________ implement the appropriate fire mitigation strategy;
___________________  Limiting the areas that may be potentially affected by
___________________

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accidental releases by:
Defining fire zones and equipping them with a drainage
system to collect and convey accidental releases of
flammable liquids to a safe containment
Community Health and Safety

Community health and safety impacts during the construction and
CE
decommissioning of petroleum refining facilities are common to
those of most other industrial facilities and are discussed in the
General EHS Guidelines.
The most significant community health and safety hazards
associated with petroleum refining facilities occur during the
operational phase including the threat from major accidents
related to fires and explosions at the facility and potential
accidental releases of raw materials or finished products during
)C
transportation outside the processing facility. Guidance for the

management of these issues is presented below and in the General
EHS Guidelines.
Additional relevant guidance applicable to the transport by sea
and rail as well as shore-based facilities can be found in the EHS
Guidelines for Shipping; Railways; Ports and Harbours; and Crude
Oil and Petroleum Products Terminals.
(c
Major Hazards
The most significant safety hazards are related to the handling
and storage of liquid and gaseous substances. Impacts may include
significant exposures to workers and, potentially, to surrounding
communities, depending on the quantities and types of accidentally
S
released chemicals and the conditions for reactive or catastrophic Notes
events, such as fire and explosion. Major hazards should be ___________________
prevented through the implementation of a Process Safety
___________________
Management Program that includes all of the minimum elements
PE
outlined in the respective section of the General EHS Guidelines ___________________
including: ___________________
 Facility wide risk analysis, including a detailed consequence ___________________

analysis for events with a likelihood above 10-6/year (e.g. ___________________
HAZOP, HAZID, or QRA);
___________________
 Employee training on operational hazards;
___________________
 Procedures for management of change in operations, process
___________________
hazard analysis, maintenance of mechanical integrity, pre-

-U
start review, hot work permits, and other essential aspects of
process safety included in the General EHS Guideline;
Safe Transportation Management System as noted in the
General EHS Guidelines if the project includes a
transportation component for raw or processed materials;
___________________
 Procedures for handling and storage of hazardous materials;

CE
 Emergency planning, which should include, at a minimum, the
preparation and implementation of an Emergency
Management Plan, prepared with the participation of local
authorities and potentially affected communities.
Check Your Progress

Fill in the blanks:
1. …………………….. and flaring are important operational
)C
and safety measures used in petroleum refining

facilities to ensure that vapours and gases are safely
disposed of.
2. ……………… emissions in petroleum refining facilities
are associated with vents, leaking tubing, valves,
connections, flanges, packings, open-ended lines, etc.
Summary
(c
The Environmental, Health, and Safety (EHS) Guidelines are

technical reference documents with general and industry specific
examples of Good International Industry Practice (GIIP). The EHS
Guidelines contain the performance levels and measures that are
S
Notes generally considered to be achievable in new facilities by existing
___________________ technology at reasonable costs.
___________________ The EHS Guidelines for Petroleum Refining cover processing
___________________ operations from crude oil to finished liquid products, including
PE
liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), Mo-Gas (motor gasoline), kerosene,
___________________
diesel oil, heating oil, fuel oil, bitumen, asphalt, sulfur, and
___________________ intermediate products (e.g. propane / propylene mixtures, virgin
___________________ naphtha, middle distillate and vacuum distillate) for the
petrochemical industry.
___________________
___________________
Lesson End Activity
___________________
Prepare an assignment on the measures to prevent and control fire
___________________
Keywords
-U
and explosion risks from process operations.
Environmental, Health, and Safety (EHS) Guidelines:

Environmental, Health, and Safety (EHS) guidelines are technical
reference documents with general and industry specific examples
CE
of Good International Industry Practice (GIIP).
Fugitive Emissions: Fugitive emissions these facilities are
associated with vents, leaking tubing, valves, connections, flanges,
packings, open-ended lines, floating roof storage tanks and pump
seals, gas conveyance systems, compressor seals, pressure relief
valves, tanks or open pits/containments, and loading and
unloading operations of hydrocarbons.
Venting and Flaring: Venting and flaring are important
)C
operational and safety measures used in petroleum refining

facilities to ensure that vapours gases are safely disposed of.
Petroleum hydrocarbons are emitted from emergency process vents
and safety valves discharges.

1. Discuss the guidelines for community health and safety
(c
impacts during the construction and decommissioning of

petroleum refining facilities.
2. What are the recommended measures to prevent and control
fire and explosion risks from process operations?
Further Readings
S
Notes
Books ___________________
Nelson, W.L., Petroleum Refining Engineering, McGraw Hill ___________________
PE
___________________
___________________
2009
___________________
Web Readings ___________________
http://www1.ifc.org/wps/wcm/connect/52870d80488557e5be44fe6a6 ___________________
515bb18/Final%2B-
___________________
%2BPetroleum%2BRefining.pdf?MOD=AJPERES&id=1323153091
008 ___________________
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CE
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(c
S
Notes
___________________
___________________
___________________
PE
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
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CE
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(c
UNIT 22: Fundamentals of ULSF Production
S
Notes
Activity
___________________
Prepare a presentation on
Fundamentals of ULSF Production refining processes
___________________
producing ULSF
for
PE
___________________
Objectives
___________________
topics: ___________________
 Key Properties of Gasoline and Diesel Blendstocks ___________________

 ULSG Production ___________________
___________________
Introduction ___________________
-U
This section addresses four topics bearing on the production of
ULSG and ULSD in conversion and deep conversion refineries.
Key properties – especially sulfur content – of the refinery streams
and blendstocks that are blended to produce gasoline and diesel
fuel, the refining processes needed for producing ULSG and ULSD,
routes for upgrading existing refineries to meet ULSG and ULSD
___________________
CE
standards and refining costs associated with meeting ULSF
standards
Key Properties of Gasoline and Diesel Blendstocks
Gasoline Blendstocks
Individual refineries produce one to four gasoline grades
(distinguished by their octane, sulfur content, and other physical
properties). Typically, each grade is a blend of six to ten
)C
blendstocks (refinery-produced or purchased). All of the grades are

blended from the same set of blendstocks, but with different
recipes.
Exhibit 22.1 lists the most common gasoline blendstocks and
indicates typical ranges for the more important blending properties
of each blendstock, including sulfur content.
(c
Exhibit 22.1: Typical Volume Shares and Properties of
S
Notes Standard Gasoline Blendstocks
___________________
___________________
___________________
PE
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
Exhibit 22.1 shows ranges for many of the blendstock properties
___________________
-U
because specific property values depend on the properties of the
crude oil and (for some blendstocks, notably reformate and FCC
naphtha) the processing severity in the units that produce them.
For example, as a rough rule of thumb, the sulfur content of FCC
naphtha is about 1/10 that of the crude oil from which it is
produced. Thus, a crude oil containing 2 wt% sulfur (20,000 ppm)
would yield an FCC naphtha with sulfur content ≈ 0.2 wt% (2000
CE
ppm).
The indicated properties are for “raw” streams – that is, for
streams that have not been further processed to improve their
properties. In particular, the indicated sulfur contents reflect no
hydrotreating downstream of the units that produced the streams.
Due to its high sulfur content and high volume share in the
gasoline pool, FCC naphtha is the primary source of sulfur in
gasoline, contributing up to 90% of the sulfur in gasoline, prior to
)C
processing for sulfur control. Coker naphtha and straight run

naphtha contribute most of the remaining sulfur.
Consequently, ULSG production requires severe desulfurization
(primarily via hydrotreating) of FCC naphtha. In deep conversion
refineries, it requires desulfurization of coker naphtha as well. For
the most stringent sulfur standards, ULSG production also
requires desulfurization of straight run naphtha and natural gas
liquids.
(c
Diesel Blendstocks
S
Notes
Individual refineries produce one or two diesel grades
(distinguished by their sulfur content, primarily, as well as by ___________________
cetane number, density, and other physical properties). Typically, ___________________
each grade is a blend of three to five refinery-produced blendstocks
PE
___________________
(plus, in some locales, purchased bio-diesel and (in a few instances)
Fischer-Tropsch diesel). As with gasoline, all of the diesel grades ___________________
are blended from the same set of blendstocks, but with different ___________________
recipes.
___________________
Exhibit 22.2 lists the most common diesel blendstocks and ___________________
___________________
of each blendstock.
___________________
Exhibit 22.2: Typical Volume Shares and Properties of
-U
Standard Diesel Blendstocks ___________________
CE
This exhibit does not show ranges for the blendstock properties,
but (as with gasoline blendstocks) the values of these properties
depend on the properties of the crude oil slate.
As before, the indicated properties are for “raw” streams – that is,
for streams that have not been further processed to improve their
properties. In particular, the indicated sulfur contents reflect no
hydrotreating downstream of the units that produced the streams.
)C
FCC light cycle oil is the largest single contributor to the sulfur
content of the diesel pool, prior to processing for sulfur control.
Coker distillate (in deep conversion refineries) and straight run
distillates account for the remaining sulfur.
ULSD production requires severe desulfurization (primarily via
hydrotreating) of all of the refinery-produced diesel blendstocks.
(c
The Special Role of the Conversion Units
S
Notes
Exhibits 22.1 and 22.2 indicate that
___________________
 The upgrading processes, by virtue of their process technology
___________________
and catalyst requirements, produce ultra-low sulfur gasoline
___________________ blendstocks.
PE
___________________  The conversion processes – FCC, hydrocracking, and coking –
___________________ produce blendstocks for both gasoline and diesel. In many
refineries, the FCC unit, in particular, is the largest single
___________________
contributor to both the gasoline pool and the diesel pool.
___________________
 FCC and coking are primary sources of sulfur in the gasoline
___________________
pool and the diesel pool (and particularly the gasoline pool).
___________________
Consequently, the primary task in producing ULSG and ULSD is
___________________
-U
controlling the sulfur content of the gasoline and diesel blendstocks
produced by the conversion processes (although the straight run
kerosene and distillate streams also require desulfurization).
Refining Processes Involved in Meeting ULSG and ULSD

Standards
Using advanced versions of a few well-established refining
CE
processes, refineries can produce ULSG and ULSD with sulfur
content as low as < 5 ppm at the refinery gate.11
Many of the elements of current sulfur control technology were
developed in direct response to the stringent ULSG and ULSD
standards adopted in the U.S., Canada, Western Europe, and
Japan and elsewhere in the last decade. By now, the economics,
performance, and reliability of stringent sulfur control technology
are well understood.
)C
Exhibit 22.3 shows the primary refining processes that contribute

to meeting ULSF standards.
Exhibit 22.3: Refining Processes for Producing ULSF

(c
Exhibit 22.3 shows these processes in two categories.
S
Notes
 Sulfur Control: The sole purpose of these processes is to
___________________
achieve the sulfur control needed to meet prevailing ULSF
standards. In virtually all instances, these processes are ___________________
required for ULSF production, and in most instances, they are
PE
___________________
sufficient for that purpose.
___________________
Investments in these processes are “stay-in-business”
___________________
investments. They do not yield an economic return on the
investment; they simply enable the refinery to meet the ___________________
prevailing standards on sulfur and thereby remain in ___________________

business. ___________________
 Yield Improvement: The primary purpose of these processes ___________________
-U
is to increase the refinery yield of light products by converting
heavy crude fractions to lighter streams. Hydrocracking
increases refinery yields of light products directly; FCC feed
hydrotreating serves the same purpose indirectly, by
improving FCC operations (Section 4.2). These processes
contribute to meeting ULSF standards, but are not required
___________________
for doing so. In general, these processes alone are not

CE
sufficient for producing ULSF.
Investments in these processes are primarily “profitability”
investments. They are made to improve product realizations and
overall refining economics sufficiently to yield a satisfactory return
on the investment. These investments provide ancillary benefits,
including some bearing on sulfur control, but these benefits are
seldom sufficient in themselves to economically justify investment
in these processes.
)C
ULSF production also requires adequate capacity for hydrogen

production, refinery energy supply, sulfur recovery, oil movement
and storage.
Both kinds of refinery capacity investment (as well as others) come
into play in (1) the design and construction of new, “grass-roots”
refineries and (2) the expansion of existing refineries to increase
crude running capacity and product out-turns, as well as meet new
regulatory standards. However, in most instances, only Sulfur
(c
Control investments come into play when a refinery is upgraded to

meet new regulatory standards without any concurrent increase in
product demand.
Refinery Upgrading to Meet More Stringent Sulfur Standards
S
Notes
In broad terms, there are three routes for upgrading an existing
___________________ refinery to produce ULSF or to produce ULSF to a new, more
___________________ stringent standard.
___________________  Add new, “grass-roots” process units for sulfur control – most
PE
___________________ likely FCC naphtha hydrotreating for ULSG and distillate
hydrotreating for ULSD and (less likely) FCC naphtha
___________________
hydrotreating);
___________________
 Expand the throughput capacity of existing process units for
___________________ sulfur control; and
___________________
 Retrofit existing process units to enable more stringent sulfur
___________________ control.
___________________
-U
In some cases, the most practical or economic route to producing
ULSF may be some combination of these three routes.13 Each
route requires upgrading or added capacity for hydrogen
production and recovery, refinery energy supply, sulfur recovery,
oil movement and storage, and other support facilities, as well as
new catalysts, new operating procedures, etc.
CE
Because each refinery is unique, each is likely to have a unique
upgrading path.
ULSG Production
As Exhibit 15 suggests, reducing the sulfur content of gasoline
calls for desulfurizing (in order of priority) FCC naphtha, coker
distillate (in deep conversion refineries), and straight run naphtha.
 FCC naphtha, the main contributor to gasoline sulfur, can be
desulfurized to < 10 ppm sulfur in a suitably configured FCC
)C
naphtha hydrotreater. These units can be designed or

upgraded to achieve > 97% reduction in the sulfur content of
FCC naphtha and can produce FCC naphtha with sulfur
content as low as 10 ppm. In conversion refineries, this step
alone can suffice to meet gasoline sulfur standards as low as
10 ppm.
 Coker naphtha, produced in deep conversion refineries, is
usually desulfurized either in the FCC naphtha hydrotreater
(c
(for direct blending to gasoline) or in the naphtha

hydrotreater, (for use as reformer feed).
 Straight run naphtha, from the crude distillation unit, is
S
Notes
desulfurized in the isomerization unit (an upgrading process,
discussed in Section 4.1.3), if the refinery already has one. ___________________
Otherwise, and if necessary, straight run naphtha can be ___________________
desulfurized in a dedicated (new) hydrotreater.
PE
___________________
One other approach, though rare, deserves mention. A few large
___________________
U.S. refineries have FCC feed hydrotreaters that operate at
___________________
exceptionally high severity (almost verging on hydrocracking).
These units accomplish such a high degree of FCC feed ___________________
desulfurization that the FCC naphtha needs no further ___________________
desulfurization (i.e., no FCC naphtha hydrotreating) in order for
___________________
the refinery’s gasoline pool to meet a very stringent sulfur
standard. ___________________
ULSD Production
-U
As Exhibit suggests, reducing the sulfur content of diesel calls for
desulfurizing all of the primary diesel fuel blendstocks: straight
run kerosene and diesel, light cycle oil, coker distillate (in deep
conversion refineries), and hydrocracked distillate (in refineries
___________________
with hydrocrackers).
CE
The usual practice is to blend all of these streams and then
desulfurize them in a single distillate hydrotreater. Meeting a new,
more stringent diesel sulfur standard involves replacing,
expanding, and/or retrofitting an existing distillate hydrotreater,
depending on the specific capabilities of that unit and the sulfur
standard to be met.
Severe FCC hydrotreating, of the type discussed above, can
substantially reduce the sulfur content of FCC-produced light cycle
)C
oil, but not nearly enough to obviate the need for additional
distillate hydrotreating capability to meet more stringent diesel
sulfur standards.
Economics of Meeting ULSF Standards

 Investment Requirements: The capital investment required
to meet a given ULSF standard depends not only on the
upgrading path of choice but also on local economic factors,
(c
such as refinery ownership, labour costs, construction lead

times, currency exchange rate, tax rates, etc.
These factors make it difficult to generalize on the investment
S
Notes
requirements for ULSF production.
___________________
 Refining Cost: The primary components of the additional per-
___________________
gallon refining cost associated with meeting a new, more
___________________ stringent gasoline or diesel sulfur standard are:
PE
___________________  Capital charge associated with the investment in new or
___________________ upgraded process capacity and support facilities
___________________  Cost of additional hydrogen supply: Hydrogen
___________________ consumption in the various processes involved in sulfur
control depends on the refinery crude slate and the
___________________
operating severity in the various processes.
___________________
Exhibit 22.4: Shows Approximate Levels of Hydrogen Consumption
___________________
-U in the Processes of Interest

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 Cost of replacing lost product yield: Hydrotreating
processes always incur some yield loss, as a result of
unwanted (but unavoidable) side reactions that convert
hydrotreater feed material into light gases. The yield loss
is small (usually on the order of ≈ 1 vol%), but increases
with increasing hydrotreating severity.
Cost of replacing lost gasoline octane: FCC naphtha
)C

contains a high concentration of olefin compounds. Olefins
react readily with hydrogen to form paraffins – a reaction
known as olefin saturation, a side reaction to the desired
desulfurization. The paraffins in general have lower
octane than the olefins, so that olefin saturation, to the
extent that it occurs, reduces the octane of the FCC
naphtha. FCC naphtha hydrotreating catalysts are
designed to limit olefin saturation, but they do not
(c
eliminate it altogether. Consequently, FCC naphtha

hydrotreating results in a loss of ≈ 1½ octane numbers.
The lost octane must be made up by increased output of
upgrading units, primarily reforming, with attendant
S
operating costs. Notes
The first three of the above cost categories apply to both ULSG and ___________________
ULSD; the last clearly applies only to ULSG. ___________________
Finally, the refining cost of meeting a new, more stringent ULSF
PE
___________________
standard is a function of the new sulfur standard and the prior
___________________
sulfur standard. For example, the cost of meeting a 10 ppm sulfur
___________________
standard is higher if the current standard is 500 ppm than if it is
50 ppm. ___________________
___________________
Energy Use and CO2 Emissions
___________________
Reducing the sulfur content of a refinery stream or a finished
product (i.e., gasoline, diesel fuel, and residual fuel) requires the ___________________
-U
expenditure of some refinery energy and, consequently, leads to
some increase in refinery emissions of CO2. Refinery energy must
be expended to (1) produce the additional hydrogen required for
the necessary desulfurization, (2) increase refinery and process
through put as needed to replace the product yield losses incurred
in desulfurization, and (3) increase the severity of reforming and
___________________
other upgrading operations as needed to replace the octane losses

CE
incurred in desulfurization. The required increment of refinery
energy comes from burning additional natural gas (purchased)
and, to a lesser extent, additional still gas (a mixture of light gas
streams that are by-products of various refining processes). The
combustion of the additional hydrocarbons leads to additional
refinery emissions of CO2. (In addition, hydrogen plants produce
CO2 as a by-product.)
As with refining costs, the magnitudes of the additional energy
)C
consumption and CO2 emissions associated with meeting a new,

more stringent ULSF standard are functions of the new sulfur
standard and the prior sulfur standard. For example, the
additional energy requirements and CO2 emissions associated
with meeting a 10 ppm sulfur standard are higher if the current
standard is 500 ppm than if it is 50 ppm.
The recent history of U.S. refinery energy use provides a rough
indication of the magnitude of the additional energy use associated
(c
with production of low-sulfur fuels. On a per-barrel basis,

aggregate U.S. refinery energy use decreased by about 10% in the
twenty-year period ending in 2005. The downward trend in energy
use per barrel of crude reversed in 2006, and by 2010 energy use
per barrel of crude had increased by about 5% from its 2006 level.
S
Notes This reversal probably was the result of compliance with new
___________________ federal gasoline sulfur (Tier 2) and diesel fuel sulfur (ULSD)
standards that took effect in 2006 in most parts of the country.
___________________
___________________ Check Your Progress
PE
___________________ Fill in the blanks:
___________________ 1. Reducing the sulfur content of a refinery stream or a
___________________ finished product requires the expenditure of some
refinery energy and, consequently, leads to some
___________________
increase in refinery emissions of ………………..
___________________
2. ……………………. production also requires adequate
___________________
capacity for hydrogen production, refinery energy
___________________
Summary
-U
supply, sulfur recovery, oil movement and storage.
Individual refineries produce one to four gasoline grades

(distinguished by their octane, sulfur content, and other physical
properties).
CE
Key properties – especially sulfur content – of the refinery streams
and blendstocks that are blended to produce gasoline and diesel
fuel, the refining processes needed for producing ULSG and ULSD,
routes for upgrading existing refineries to meet ULSG and ULSD
standards and refining costs associated with meeting ULSF
standards
Lesson End Activity

)C
Prepare a chart to lists the most common gasoline blendstocks and

of each blendstock, including sulfur content.
Keywords
Investment Requirements: The capital investment required to
meet a given ULSF standard depends not only on the upgrading
(c
path of choice but also on local economic factors, such as refinery

ownership, labour costs, construction lead times, currency
exchange rate, tax rates, etc.
Refining Cost: The primary components of the additional per-
S
Notes
gallon refining cost associated with meeting a new, more stringent
gasoline or diesel sulfur standard. ___________________
___________________
PE
___________________
1. Discuss the typical volume shares and properties of standard ___________________

diesel blendstocks. ___________________
2. Explain the special role of the conversion units. ___________________
3. Describe the refining processes involved in meeting ULSG and ___________________

ULSD standards. ___________________
4. Discuss economics of meeting ULSF standards. ___________________
Further Readings
Books
-U
___________________

CE
2009
Web Readings
http://www.theicct.org/sites/default/files/publications/ICCT05_Refi
ning_Tutorial_FINAL_R1.pdf
http://www.epa.gov/sectors/pdf/energy/ch3-11.pdf
)C
(c
S
Notes
___________________
___________________
___________________
PE
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
-U
CE
)C
(c
UNIT 23: IT Applications in Hydrocarbon Industry
S
Notes
Activity
___________________
Make a presentation on
IT Applications in Hydrocarbon FEED.
___________________
Industry
PE
___________________
___________________
Objectives ___________________
___________________
topics:
___________________
 Plant life cycle in the Oil and Gas Industry
 Overview of the application of Information Technology during various ___________________
phases of project
___________________
 Type of software used and their capabilities
Introduction -U
Like most of the other industries, the hydrocarbon industry is also
facing the pressure and challenge from expanding global
competition. Further, there have been huge investments and
___________________
CE
expenditure arising out of the stringent environment and pollution
regulatory controls and greater concerns for safety. This is driving
the hydrocarbon industry towards more consistent higher quality
products involving stricter requirements on the traditional plant
operation.
Application of Information Technology

To be profitable in the venture, every industry is looking for cost
)C
effectiveness in the total life cycle of the process plant in all

business sectors and professional disciplines. In order to achieve
these objectives and meet the challenge, the Process Industry in
Hydrocarbon area is endeavouring to reap the benefits of
computing technology. In that respect the role of software
programs can never be over emphasized.
Plant Life Cycle

The Plant Life Cycle (Fig 10.1) starts with exploration for oil, and
(c
its production. This is followed by development of numerous

downstream plants. The life cycle comprises of their design,
operation, production, maintenance, safety, profitability, revamp
and expansion. It is a complex series of technical, commercial and
management activities, requiring high level of technological skills,
S
Notes improvement of operating efficiency, information generation,
___________________ information management and overall management skills.
Information technology and use of computers plays an extensive
___________________
role in the design, operation and management of hydrocarbon
___________________
PE
industry.
___________________
Substantial developments have taken place in the application of IT
___________________ in Process Industries, due to the collaborative efforts from process
___________________ engineers, professionals from all engineering disciplines and
software program developers. Use of IT during various phases of
___________________
plant life cycle is summarized in Fig. 23.1.
___________________
___________________
___________________
-U
CE
Figure 23.1: IT Application during Plant Life Cycle
Project Cost Estimation and Feasibility Study

Cost estimate is an assessment of the cost of a project based on the
facts available on the project and historical records of similar
projects. The better and more precise the facts, the more accurate
is the estimate.
)C
Cost estimates of progressively increasing accuracy are required at

every stage of project since they provide the basis for economic
analysis, management decisions, approval of budgets and cost
control.
With larger projects, it is common to ask for phased approval of
expenditure because of the limited technical definition against
which preliminary estimates are often prepared. At first a ball-
perk type or order of magnitude type of estimate may be required.
(c
For budgetary approval to pursue the project, a feasibility study is

required. If the preliminary estimate (feasibility report) looks
attractive, funds may be sanctioned to allow Front End
Engineering Design (FEED) to take place. A more definitive
S
estimate is based on FEED. Notes
FEED allows for accurate sizing and layout of the equipment and ___________________
facilities in the plant and get more accurate and detailed cost ___________________
estimate from past data on similar equipment or fresh quotations
PE
___________________
on the equipment and facilities.
___________________
The final approval for a project to proceed is usually given on the
___________________
basis of this detailed estimate.
___________________
In short, there are two types of estimate done before start of a
project: ___________________
 Feasibility Study ___________________
___________________
 Detailed Feasibility Report (Also called Detailed Project Report
or Definition of Facilities).
-U
In feasibility study stage often the accuracy is defined as ±25 or
±30% estimate. In such cases factored cost figures are used. In
Detailed Feasibility Report or Project Definition Report a more
definitive cost (±10% accuracy) is required and more accurate
estimation of hardware and services are required and factoring is
___________________
CE
minimized.
Key Features of Cost Estimate Software Programs

Software programs are available where estimates are broken down
and structured in such a way that they reflect the project
organization, the requirements of any applicable budgetary
control, accounting requirements and agreements. The structure of
such software is given in Fig. 10.2. The programs generally have
the following features:
)C
 Breakdown the project into cost heads (Table 23.1) and to a

level of detail appropriate for the type of estimate required. For
example these could be equipment cost, hardware or bulk
material (piping, cables etc.) cost, services cost, financial cost
etc.
 Further breakdown of each cost head into discrete project
activities, unit rates for each activity covering the entire project
span and scope.
(c
 One of the key elements is to estimate the equipment and

hardware cost as accurately as possible. Depending on the
accuracy required, it could be taken from an existing cost data
base, related to specification of the major equipments. Again
S
Notes depending on the accuracy of the equipment required,
___________________ approximate sizing or engineered specification of equipment is
done.
___________________
___________________  Cost database in the software contains collection of data
PE
obtained from records of plants built earlier. Data base are
___________________
correlated and updated from time to time. Usually the input
___________________ data is cost of equipment and major items obtained from
___________________ quotations or records.
___________________  Major equipment cost forms the base cost for various types of
___________________
estimates. For feasibility study estimates, other cost heads are
often factored. It estimates cost of erection, piping,
___________________
instrumentation, electrical items, civil etc. by adding a series of
___________________

-U
factors over the equipment cost. Inflation indices are
introduced.
When an engineered detailing of the plant is done, often for the
sake of accuracy, current quotations and rates are taken from
vendors as input to the software database.
 Add appropriate allowances and contingencies to the individual
CE
estimates at Hardware Item or Project Function level.
 Phase the components of the total cost estimate to obtain
expenditure profile which reflects the project schedule.
 Develop the complete estimate by adding up all the cost heads
from the definition of scope, through the definition of
quantities/services and the application of unit cost rates to the
final estimated-cost of the project.
 Most of the software have additional features like carrying out
)C
cash flow calculations, financial analysis and profitability

based on the estimates made and inputs on financial cost and
operational cost.
It is possible to use these programs along with design or flow-sheet
simulation programs to optimize and estimate. Thus by use of
modern cost estimate software, design and costing can be brought
together. There is an immediate feedback on information on
improved design and lower costs.
(c
Table 23.1: Major Cost Heads for Process Plant
S
Some of the major cost heads for capital cost are: Notes
 Equipment and Material Cost ___________________
 Land Development Cost ___________________

Infrastructure Cost
PE
 ___________________
 Construction Cost ___________________
 Commissioning Cost
___________________
 Project Management Cost
___________________
 Engineering and Design Cost
___________________
 Cost of Financing
___________________
 Contingency Allowance
___________________
Some of the cost heads can be factored based on equipment cost.
Linear Programming Applications in Process Plant

-U
Linear Programming (LP) application software is used for process
plant cost optimization or optimization of production plan. It is
designed to provide plants with an economic advantage in today’s
highly competitive environment. This system uses feedstock
___________________
CE
properties, plant models, and economic considerations to help
planners maximize profitability over a broad operating range- both
in conceptual and design stage as well as to optimize the operation.
It takes into consideration all the constraints and variables
expressed in the form of linear equations. The ideal application of
LP model is where:
 There are many potential solutions
 Certain objectives to be optimized
)C
 Interconnectedness between the variable elements of the

system
Oil refineries face an enormous number of options in their
operations:
 Which crude oils to refine
 What processing conditions to use
 Which products to sell
(c
 How to blend them from the intermediate components

There is a straightforward objective to arrive at optimized
solutions: the profit. The operations of the refinery are intrinsically
interconnected: it is a sequential process with one decision
S
Notes affecting the other; for example, choosing to process one crude
Activity
___________________
Write a Report on Autocad
means that you have less processing capacity available for others.
Software. Thus the problems which a refinery faces have the characteristics
___________________
of a LP solution.
___________________
PE
A typical structure of LP software for optimization of a refinery
___________________
(conceptual stage) as well as optimization of operation of existing
___________________ refinery is shown in Fig. 23.2. This has been described in Unit 6,
___________________ page 69-70.
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
-U
CE
Figure 23.2: LP Software Structure
Check Your Progress

Fill in the blanks:
1. ……………………… is an assessment of the cost of a
project based on the facts available on the project and
historical records of similar projects.
2. ……………………… application software is used for
)C
process plant cost optimization or optimization of

production plan.
IT Application in Design and Engineering
Process Design and Engineering

In the process industry, the design phase starts with the Process
Design and followed by Engineering Design for other disciplines.
(c
Two of the most important drawing documents in this stage are:

A Process Flow Diagram (PFD) shows all equipment in the process
scheme like pumps, compressors, heater, reactor and distillation
column that are required for processing, and links them up in the
S
form of a flow diagram showing materials flow and heat flow Notes
through each of the equipment. ___________________
Simulation and optimization of the flow diagram is carried out by ___________________
making use of process simulation software available from reputed
PE
___________________
software companies like SimSci, Aspentech, Hyprotech and others.
These enable the Process engineers to design new processes, ___________________
evaluate alternative plant configurations and arrive at the ___________________

optimum design. ___________________
The other most important drawing is Piping and Instrumentation ___________________
Diagrams (P&IDs) showing all interconnecting pipe sizes, pipe
___________________
specifications, control systems and control instrument
specifications. It also gives major equipment sizes and performance ___________________
specification.
-U
In earlier days, P&IDs were being conceived and drafted totally
manually. Now, P&ID software programs provide the capability to
build schematics intelligently, performing design checks for
consistency and compatibility of components. Once the process
simulation is done, the actual drafting works are carried out by
___________________
CE
software programs like AutoCAD, Microstation and other software.
A typical P&ID generated by process design and drafted by
Autocad software is given in Fig.23.3.
)C
(c
Figure 23.3: A Typical P&ID

Detailed Engineering Using 3-D Model
S
Notes
Once the process design is over, a multi-disciplinary engineering
___________________ team starts what is known as detailed engineering. While
___________________ mechanical engineers carry out the mechanical design and
drawings of the equipment, electrical engineers estimate the power
___________________
PE
requirement in the plant and start making drawings for cable
___________________
layout and power distribution. Similarly piping engineers make
___________________ piping layout drawings and civil engineers start foundation and
___________________ structural drawings. For each discipline, there are specific design
tools (software).
___________________
The drawings were generally done earlier using 2-Dimension
___________________
drafting software like AutoCAD, Microstation, etc.
___________________
With the complexity of integrating multi-disciplinary designs and
___________________
-U
drawings, 2-D systems for drafting and modelling had become
inadequate. A number of good 3-D modelling for engineering
design of process plants along with data management and a lot of
other options are available now. Examples of such software are
PDMS, PDS, AUTOPLANT, etc. Some of the features in these
software are described below.
CE
The 3-D software allows interaction between all disciplines in the
3D design workflow by allowing a comprehensive set of integrated
applications covering all engineering disciplines at its core.
Through the design, standard and automated deliverables can be
generated directly from the model. The in-built linkages within the
software allows for updating of sequential designs or drawings for
any changes in the input, minimizing the possibility of errors,
when a series of drawings are generated.
Typical 3-D model generated by such software is shown in Fig.
)C
23.4. Such software allows the projects to be executed within an

unlimited, multi-user, multi-site access environment globally using
low bandwidth technology on multiple platforms.
The major advantage the 3-D software provides over conventional
2-D software are:
 Saving in time
 Saving in material as the impact on bill of material for changes
(c
in design is taken care of more effectively by this kind of

software.
 Visualization of the 3-D model, which helps in better
S
Notes
judgement in design and operability. In the specialized world of Activity
plant design, it is called “immersive group visualization”- a ___________________
Make a presentation on DCS
System.
theatre style system enabling a group of engineers and their ___________________
customers to take a big-screen ride through a proposed new
PE
___________________
plant.
___________________
Fig. 23.5 presents typical networking for a global engineering
___________________
design operation.
___________________
With the improvements is software system and communication,
engineering services outsourcing is gradually getting as common ___________________
as outsourcing in the IT industry. ___________________
___________________
-U ___________________
CE
Figure 23.4: Typical Networking for a Global

Engineering Design Operation
)C
Check Your Progress

Fill in the blanks:
1. ……………………… show all interconnecting pipe sizes,
pipe specifications, control systems and control
instrument specifications.
2. Piping engineers make ……………………… drawings.
(c
IT Application in Operation
Nowadays computer and software application are extensively used
for operation, control and monitoring of a process plant.
First let us understand what functions are required for optimum
S
Notes
and safe operation of a plant. The main functions to be carried out
___________________
in a plant are:
___________________
 Local plant control and management
___________________
PE
 Plant optimization functions.
___________________
 Communication system between plants and between plant and
___________________
a central control station and management of the
___________________ communication
___________________  Plant maintenance functions
___________________  Overall production planning, monitoring and control
___________________
 Management functions.
___________________
-U
To do all these functions a lot of plant operating data and other
parameters need to be collected and processed. Let us understand
what kind of data is collected:
 Normally, an oil gas related plant is a complex of several
process units spread over a large area.
 In each process unit, there are numerous measurements of
CE
operating conditions in various equipments which affect the
plant operation. Some of the parameters are pressure,
temperature, flow rate, level of liquid, composition of feedstock,
composition of products, properties of feed and products and
numerous other information.
 For optimum and safe operation of the plant many of the above
parameters need to be monitored and controlled.
Also in each plant numerous equipment oriented data are collected
)C
such as:
 Equipment status (on-off, in line, isolated, on maintenance)
 Equipment health parameters (vibration, bearing temperature,
corrosion status)
For all these functions to be effectively done a lot of measurement
and recording of data, data processing, optimization and control of
operating conditions to meet the production are required. Till 1960
(c
it was done either manually or through local control. Later with

increasing computer application, a completely centralized control
system was developed. But after mid-seventies, with the
development of powerful micro-processors, Process Control System
(PLC) and software technology, modern distributed control system
S
(DCS) gained ground. Now Advanced Process Control System are Notes
used, which combines DCS with process dynamic model and ___________________
management information system into one.
___________________
Fig. 23.5 depicts visualization of a typical control of a petroleum
PE
___________________
product storage and despatch system. Here a large number of
parameters and logistics are to be managed and controlled: ___________________
___________________
 Filling of the tanks by products from the plant or raw material
from external sources, ___________________
 Emptying the tanks during loading in tankers or pumping to ___________________
pipeline, ___________________
___________________
-U ___________________
CE
)C
Note:
APC: Advance Process Control
DCS/DDCS: Distributed Control System / Digital Distributed Control System
Figure 23.5: Advanced Process Control Hierarchy
 Measuring and monitoring the material received and

(c
despatched,
 Quality of the various products and raw material are to be
maintained.
In a large storage terminal with a number of storages, pumps,
S
Notes loading racks, tanker movements, it becomes a complex operation
___________________ and may have logistics problems. Today the whole operation is
carried out by DCS system using software to manage the logistics.
___________________
___________________
PE
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
-U
Figure 23.6: Automation of Storage and Handling of Products
For monitoring and control of facilities laid over long distances and
integrated together (e.g. pipeline), SCADA system was developed.
Enterprise Resource Planning software (ERP) now sits above DCS
and other software for overall planning and asset management.
Descriptions of some of these IT applications are given below.
CE
Distributed Control System (DCS) in Process Plant
Distributed Control System for plant operation and management is
very popular nowadays. It is so called, because in a large complex
of plant facilities the data is stored where they have been created
and where they will be needed. Similar principles hold for the
control and operating functions also. But certain information and
functions are centralized. Typically:
)C
 Local control and supervision of plant is located next to the

plant instrumentation.
 Processing of data for higher purposes (optimization,
calculations of set point value, etc.) is allocated in central
control room.
 Production planning and plant management is located closer to
the relevant plant management staff.
As shown in Fig. 23.7, the operator’s console in the control room is
(c
connected through a shared communication facility to several

distributed local control units.
S
Notes
___________________
___________________
PE
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
Figure 23.7: DCS System ___________________
DCS has three essential features: ___________________
1.
-U
DCS distributes its functions into smaller sets of semi-
autonomous sub-systems covering specific process or
geographic areas of the plant complex.
The functions generally are:
 Data Collection
___________________
CE
 Process Control
 Process Analysis and Supervision
 Storage and Retrieval of Information
 Presentation of Information and Reports
2. The second is to automate the manufacturing process by
integrating advanced regulatory control logic and procedural
languages with advanced application packages, expert
systems, including information to support such manufacturing
)C
enterprise application as:

 Production scheduling and dispatching
 Preventive and predictive maintenance scheduling
 Information exchanges with business and logistics
application
3. The third characteristic is the system aspect of the DCS, which
organizes information flow between the constituent parts so
(c
that a single automation system unifying the semi-

autonomous sub-systems is created.
DCS has been used extensively for all round application in
S
Notes operation, process control, maintenance, equipment availability
___________________ etc. A typical imprint from the monitor of a control room with DCS
is shown in Fig. 23.8.
___________________
___________________
PE
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
(APC)
-U
Figure 23.8: Monitor Imprint from Control Room
Dynamic Simulation Model and Advanced Process Control
Building the system model involves entering the details about each
item in the process system. Much of the information needed to
build the model is obtained during the design stage. It is always
CE
best to create the model during the design stage and keep the
model current through start-up and operation.
Dynamic model predicts responses of various equipment and
process parameters due to any change in:
 Feedstock quality or quantity
 Operating conditions
 Utility parameters (e.g. fuel gas quality for the furnace)
)C
 Price of products.
The software can have in built process optimization system. It
calculates the new sets of operating conditions required for each
part of the flow system to get the requisite yield and quality of
products in the most economical way.
The program allows the operator to calculate new control set points
to achieve optimum performance, carry out studies and determine
where problems are occurring and the reasons.
(c
In Advanced Process Control System, the model transmits the

corrective actions required to the plant control system, which
automatically resets the plant operating parameters.
Training Simulators
S
Notes
Plant operating personnel need to know how the plant will operate
during a variety of conditions. They can either gain that experience ___________________
by actually putting the plant into that condition, or they can ___________________
simulate the operation using training simulators. Using software,
PE
___________________
an operator can safely simulate the operation of the process system
in these infrequent or potentially dangerous system-operating ___________________
conditions. Thus a plant operator gains experience in system ___________________

operation without affecting the operation of the physical plant.
___________________
The program allows the operator to determine optimum product ___________________
distributions based on current economic conditions, calculate new
___________________
control set points to achieve optimum performance, carry out
studies and determine where problems are occurring and why. ___________________
SCADA System
-U
SCADA stands for Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition. It
refers to the combination of the fields of telemetry and data
acquisition. It is extensively used in facilities covering very large
area (e.g. cross country pipeline or a complex of offshore platforms)
___________________
monitoring, control, operations, maintenance and management.

CE
Example of application of SCADA for cross country pipeline is
given in Unit 8.
SCADA encompasses the following:
 Collection of the information
 The method of measurement and transfer of the information
from the remote site by telemetry and telecommunication.
 The analysis and control of the system and display of the
)C
received information. SCADA facilitates the capability to

monitor and control network operations in real time.
SCADA systems are distinguished from traditional control systems
by their extensive use of telemetry to link physically isolated
measurement and control points. SCADA systems are
predominantly used in Oil, Gas and Petrochemical Processing and
pipeline industries. Basic SCADA structure comprises of:
 Master Terminal Unit (MTU) or Master Control Station (MCS)
(c
for processing of the data and presenting it to console

operators.
 Communication System for transmitting remote data to the
S
Notes
MTU and control commands to the remote sight for device
___________________
controlling.
___________________
 Remote Terminal Unit (RTU) for acquisition of device status
___________________ and data at remote sites.
PE
___________________ The communication could be through optical fibres, radio, cable or
___________________ satellite. But for its functioning extensive range of software are
___________________
used. Besides Operating System Software, the following are
essential for SCADA system:
___________________
Application software related to a specific application. For example,
___________________
for a typical pipeline SCADA system, the application software will
___________________ be transient model of pipeline dynamic flow operations including
___________________



-U
real-time leak detection and location software.
The modules to be included are:
Flow measurement
Meter proving
Batch tracking
CE
 Interface detection/composition tracking
 Pig tracking
 Over or under pressure protection module
 Pipeline efficiency module
 Predictive module
SCADA software comprises of System and database configuration:
 Generation of current raw database and processed data base
)C
(telemetered information)
 Generation of historic data for trending and archival
 Alarm handling including information display and print out
 Generation, storage, presentation of mimic diagrams with
dynamic information (presented on VDUs)
 Display management for alarm, mimic diagrams, analog and
digital values, trend graphs, bar charts in high resolution
(c
colour graphic modes

 The calculation software package
 Free format report generation storage and print out
 Transmission of control commands and configuration
S
Notes
parameters to out stations in system with fast update of related Activity
information on Man Machine Interface (MMI). Make ___________________
a presentation on the
different Maintenance
___________________
Management Software
Check Your Progress available.
PE
___________________
Fill in the blanks:
___________________
1. ……………………… Unit in SCADA is for acquisition of
___________________
device status and data at remote sites.
___________________
2. ……………………… Unit is for processing of the data
and presenting it to console operators. ___________________
___________________
Maintenance Management Software ___________________
The following are

Software available:
the different
Computerized Maintenance Management System (CMMS)

-U
Maintenance
CMMS integrates routine maintenance, preventive maintenance,

work orders, inventory and purchasing in an intuitive interface.
Management ___________________
CE
Specifically designed to be easy and powerful, minimizing operator
input during start-up and normal operations.
Planned as well as Preventive Maintenance Tasks are scheduled
by Days, Shifts or Meter readings. Any maintenance tasks that are
not completed are rescheduled for the next week. A critical
preventive maintenance work order is never missed because they
are automatically regenerated until completed.
Field condition and process information data are accumulated and
passed on to computerized maintenance management system
)C
(CMMS) software for analysis. However, these information can’t

tell the user what actually went wrong or how severe the problem
is. Specialised condition-monitoring equipment, e.g. corrosion
monitoring to identify corrosion problems in piping and vessels,
vibration monitoring to identify rotor dynamic and bearing faults,
and performance monitoring to identify performance degradations,
are needed.
(c
Condition Monitored Maintenance Software

Intelligent field devices and smart chips combined with
maintenance management software are now helping process
industry companies to move toward predictive maintenance in
S
Notes their plants.
___________________
It collects data generated by “smart” field instruments, organizes
___________________ this data for various maintenance functions, and monitors for early
___________________ warning signs of field device stress or deterioration so that
PE
corrective action can be taken before a serious equipment failure
___________________
occurs. There are diagnostic software to actually carry out the
___________________ diagnosis of the problem and recommend preventive actions.
___________________ The program reduces overall maintenance costs and increases
___________________ process uptime by providing advanced warning about potential
___________________
equipment failures. Automating work order creation and
eliminating manual data entry further reduce the chance for
___________________
human error in handling maintenance information. By combining
___________________
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these important maintenance tools, the user can establish a
predictive maintenance environment to keep the plant running at
top efficiency. Potential problems are corrected before serious
damage occurs, and the cost of maintenance is reduced
significantly.
Direct interfaces between the computerized maintenance
CE
management system (CMMS) and other diagnostic and monitoring
systems such as compressor and pump automation, predictive
maintenance, and product quality testing equipment can assist
greatly in streamlining the maintenance process. It allows
maintenance personnel to respond to early warning signals before
they escalate into critical repair problems. CMMS build upon these
types of interfaces to automatically create work orders and update
equipment histories based upon alarms and test results received
through these interfaces.
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CMMS provides maintenance professionals with:

 An easy-to-use library of possible problems for major capital
expenditure assets and critical patient care items
 Problem diagnosis techniques
 A recommendation to repair the cause of the problem and avoid
repeated wasting of money treating its symptoms rather than
the actual cause.
(c
S
Notes
Activity
Write___________________
a report stating the
different uses of ERP in any
two ___________________
sectors, along with
examples.
PE
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
Figure 23.9: Maintenance Cost Distribution in
Process Plant Equipment ___________________
___________________
Check Your Progress
___________________
Fill in the blanks:
1. ……………………… integrates routine maintenance,
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preventive maintenance, work orders, inventory and
purchasing in an intuitive interface.
2. Field condition and process information data are
accumulated and passed on to ………………………
___________________
software for analysis.

CE
Enterprise Resource Planning and Management (ERP)
What is ERP?
Earlier, most of the large process plant complex used to maintain
independent information centre/databank for individual functions
like Planning, Operation, Maintenance Management, Finance and
Marketing. However, now software programs integrate
)C
information from those activities. But modern Enterprise Resource

Planning software (ERP) combines information, data and reports
from all departments together into a single, integrated software
program with a single data base, from which all can share
information and communicate with each other.
Members of staff of different departments see the same
information and can update it. Accountability, responsibility and
communication are the major benefit of the ERP.
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In short ERP consists of the following modules:

 Asset Management
 Controlling
 Financial Accounting
S
Notes
___________________
 Human Resources
___________________  Industry Specific Solutions
___________________  Plant Maintenance
PE
___________________  Production Planning
___________________  Project System
___________________  Quality Management
___________________  Sales and Distribution
___________________
 Materials Management
___________________
 Business Work Flow
___________________
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Major benefits of ERP
Integration of financial information - ERP integrates and creates a
single version of format that cannot be questioned because
everyone is using the same system.
Integration of customer order information - ERP systems manages
CE
all information from enquiry to ordering, shipping, delivery and
payment. By having this information in one software system,
rather than scattered among many different systems, companies
can keep track of orders more easily, and coordinate production,
inventory and shipping. It helps in reducing inventory.
Standardize HR information - Especially in companies with
multiple business units, ERP can provide a unified, simple method
for tracking employees’ time, utilization, and communicating with
them about benefits and services.
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Integration with Operation - ERP systems provide a platform that

links sales, inventory and quality with the production data,
operation and production planning. The inter-phasing with the
plant operation is done by interaction with DCS system by
transmitting key production and operating information for the
management.
By providing the link between ERP and plant operation, the
(c
program enables true plant optimization.

Integration with Maintenance - Like integration with operation,
ERP can sit over and inter-phase with the maintenance software
also.
Essentially through modern ERP system, all departments covering
S
Notes
management functions, production functions, maintenance
functions, marketing functions and safety functions are managed ___________________
and monitored. ___________________
PE
___________________
Project Management
___________________
Discussion on IT application is incomplete without mention of
project management software like Primavera, MS Project etc. Such ___________________
software are extensively used to meet specific objectives to make ___________________
the project on time, within budgeted cost and meeting quality.
___________________
Such software have both text and graphic interfaces to carry out
functions like: ___________________
 Planning and scheduling - Gantt Chart, PERT Chart, Bar ___________________

Chart
Resource Management
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Cost control - Ordering, purchase order, budget vs. actual
Progress Monitoring - Engineering progress, ordering progress,

vendor shop status, delivery schedules, construction progress,
___________________
projected and actual progress curves (S-Curves).

CE
Such software have the capability of integrating the project related
activities of the entire company (Fig. 23.10)
)C
(c
Figure 23.10: Enterprise Project Management

Check Your Progress
S
Notes
Fill in the blanks:
___________________
1. ……………………… integrates and creates a single
___________________
version of format that cannot be questioned because
___________________
PE
everyone is using the same system.
___________________
2. ……………………… software combines information, data
___________________ and reports from all departments together into a single,
___________________ integrated software program with a single data base,
from which all can share information and communicate
___________________
with each other.
___________________
___________________ Summary
___________________
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This unit gave a complete overview of IT application in the
hydrocarbon industry. The entire operation in a project life cycle
from conceptualization of the project to the project feasibility
study, design, construction, operation, maintenance and
management has extensive application of IT.
The project life cycle and application of IT in various phases of
CE
plant life was at first identified. This was followed by a description
of software application in each of the above phases. Examples of IT
application in design, operation and maintenance were explained
in detail.
Keywords
Computerized Maintenance Management System (CMMS):
CMMS integrates routine maintenance, preventive maintenance,
)C
work orders, inventory and purchasing in an intuitive interface.

Enterprise Resource Planning-software (ERP): It combines
information, data and reports from all departments together into a
single, integrated software program with a single data base, from
which all can share information and communicate with each other.
SCADA: It stands for Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition. It
refers to the combination of the fields of telemetry and data
acquisition.
(c
Lesson End Activity
S
Notes
Using the Internet, find out more information on Gantt Chart,
___________________
PERT Chart and Bar Chart.
___________________
PE
Review Questions ___________________
___________________
1. What are the various phases in plant life cycle where IT
application is commonly used? ___________________
___________________
2. Explain the extent of integration in IT application for
management, operation and maintenance in the hydrocarbon ___________________
industry. ___________________
3. Expand the following terminologies: ___________________
4.
ERP LP
DCS APC SCADA
DFRDPR
P&ID PFD
FEED -U
What is Condition Monitored Maintenance (CMM) and how is
___________________
IT used for the purpose?

CE
5. What is SCADA? Explain a SCADA system for a cross country
pipeline.
Further Readings
Applied homogeneous catalysis with organometallic compounds: a
..., Volume 1 Boy Cornils, Wolfgang A. Herrmann - Science – 1996
Handbook of Industrial Hydrocarbon Processes James G. Speight -
Technology & Engineering – 2010
)C
Classics in hydrocarbon chemistry: syntheses, concepts,

perspectives Henning Hopf - Science – 2000
Organic electrochemistry Henning Lund, Ole Hammerich - Science
- 2001
Web Readings
www.geosocindia.org/Goldenjubilee/lucknowseminar.pdf
(c
vinci.celuga.net/images/contenu/documents/Rock%20Eval% 206.pdf
S
Notes
___________________
___________________
___________________
PE
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
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CE
)C
(c
UNIT 24: Petroleum Refining: Terminology
S
Notes
Activity
Do ___________________
you think that the
Petroleum Refining: Terminology keywords are important to
___________________
know, so as to have a better
understanding of the subject
PE
or a___________________
topic?
Objectives
___________________
topics: ___________________
 Key Terms ___________________
___________________
Introduction ___________________
In this unit we will focus on the basic terminology of fundamentals ___________________
have a better understanding of the subject.
Key Terms
A
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of petroleum refining that is essential for the students so as to ___________________
CE
 Alcohol: The family name of a group of organic chemical
compounds is composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. The
series of molecules varies in chain length and is composed of a
hydrocarbon plus a hydroxyl group; CH3-(CH2)n-OH (e.g.,
methanol, ethanol, and tertiary butyl alcohol).
 Alkylate: The product of an alkylation reaction. It usually
refers to the high octane product from alkylation units. This
alkylate is used in blending high octane gasoline.
)C
 Alkylation: A refining process for chemically combining

isobutane with olefin hydrocarbons (e.g., propylene, butylene)
through the control of temperature and pressure in the
presence of an acid catalyst, usually sulfuric acid or
hydrofluoric acid. The product, alkylate, an isoparaffin, has
high octane value and is blended with motor and aviation
gasoline to improve the antiknock value of the fuel.
 Aromatics: Hydrocarbons characterized by unsaturated ring
structures of carbon atoms. Commercial petroleum aromatics
(c
are benzene, toluene, and xylene (BTX).

 Asphalt: A dark-brown-to-black cement-like material
containing bitumens as the predominant constituent obtained
by petroleum processing; used primarily for road construction.
S
Notes It includes crude asphalt as well as the following finished
___________________ products: cements, fluxes, the asphalt content of emulsions
(exclusive of water), and petroleum distillates blended with
___________________
asphalt to make cutback asphalts.
___________________
PE
 ASTM: The acronym for the American Society for Testing and
___________________
Materials.
___________________
 Atmospheric Crude Oil Distillation: The refining process of
___________________ separating crude oil components at atmospheric pressure by
___________________ heating to temperatures of about 600 degrees Fahrenheit to
___________________
750 degrees Fahrenheit (depending on the nature of the crude
oil and desired products) and subsequent condensing of the
___________________
fractions by cooling.
___________________
B

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Barrels Per Stream Day: The maximum number of barrels
of input that a distillation facility can process within a 24-hour
period when running at full capacity under optimal crude and
product slate conditions with no allowance for downtime.
CE
 Benzene (C6H6): An aromatic hydrocarbon present in small
proportion in some crude oils and made commercially from
petroleum by the catalytic reforming of naphthenes in
petroleum naphtha. Also made from coal in the manufacture of
coke. Used as a solvent, in manufacturing detergents,
synthetic fibres, and petrochemicals and as a component of
high-octane gasoline.
 Blending Plant: A facility which has no refining capability
but is either capable of producing finished motor gasoline
)C
through mechanical blending or blends oxygenates with motor

gasoline. Bonded Petroleum Imports. Petroleum imported and
entered into Customs bonded storage. These imports are not
included in the import statistics until they are: (1) withdrawn
from storage free of duty for use as fuel for vessels and aircraft
engaged in international trade; or (2) withdrawn from storage
with duty paid for domestic use.
 BTX: The acronym for the commercial petroleum aromatics
(c
benzene, toluene, and xylene. See individual categories for

definitions.
 Bulk Station: A facility used primarily for the storage and/or
S
Notes
marketing of petroleum products which has a total bulk
storage capacity of less than 50,000 barrels and receives its ___________________
petroleum products by tank car or truck. ___________________
Bulk Terminal: A facility used primarily for the storage
PE
 ___________________
and/or marketing of petroleum products which has a total bulk
___________________
storage capacity of 50,000 barrels or more and/or receives
___________________
petroleum products by tanker, barge, or pipeline.
___________________
C
___________________
 Catalytic Hydrocracking: A refining process that uses
___________________
hydrogen and catalysts with relatively low temperatures and
high pressures for converting middle boiling or residual ___________________

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material to high-octane gasoline, reformer charge stock, jet
fuel, and/or high grade fuel oil. The process uses one or more
catalysts, depending upon product output, and can handle high
sulfur feedstocks without prior desulfurization.
Catalytic Hydrotreating: A refining process for treating
petroleum fractions from atmospheric or vacuum distillation
___________________
CE
units (e.g., naphthas, middle distillates, reformer feeds,
residual fuel oil, and heavy gas oil) and other petroleum (e.g.,
cat cracked naphtha, coker naphtha, gas oil, etc.) in the
presence of catalysts and substantial quantities of hydrogen.
Hydrotreating includes desulfurization, removal of substances
(e.g., nitrogen compounds) that deactivate catalysts,
conversion of olefins to paraffins to reduce gum formation in
gasoline, and other processes to upgrade the quality of the
fractions.
)C
 Catalytic Reforming: A refining process using controlled

heat and pressure with catalysts to rearrange certain
hydrocarbon molecules, thereby converting paraffinic and
naphthenic type hydrocarbons (e.g., low-octane gasoline
boiling range fractions) into petrochemical feedstocks and
higher octane stocks suitable for blending into finished
gasoline. Catalytic reforming is reported in two categories.
 Crude Oil, Refinery Receipts: Receipts of domestic and
(c
foreign crude oil at a refinery. Includes all crude oil in transit

except crude oil in transit by pipeline. Foreign crude oil is
reported as a receipt only after entry through customs. Crude
oil of foreign origin held in bonded storage is excluded.
 Crude Oil Losses: Represents the volume of crude oil
S
Notes
reported by petroleum refineries as being lost in their
___________________
operations. These losses are due to spills, contamination, fires,
___________________ etc. as opposed to refinery processing losses.
___________________ Crude Oil Production: The volume of crude oil produced
PE

___________________ from oil reservoirs during given periods of time. The amount of
such production for a given period is measured as volumes
___________________
delivered from lease storage tanks (i.e., the point of custody
___________________ transfer) to pipelines, trucks, or other media for transport to
___________________ refineries or terminals with adjustments for (1) net
___________________
differences between opening and closing lease inventories, and
(2) basic sediment and water (BS&W).
___________________
 Crude Oil Qualities: Refers to two properties of crude oil, the
___________________
D

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sulfur content and API gravity, which affect processing
complexity and product characteristics.
Delayed Coking: A process by which heavier crude oil

fractions can be thermally decomposed under conditions of
CE
elevated temperatures and pressure to produce a mixture of
lighter oils and petroleum coke. The light oils can be
processed further in other refinery units to meet product
specifications. The coke can be used either as a fuel or in other
applications such as the manufacturing of steel or aluminium.
 Desulfurization: The removal of sulfur, as from molten
metals, petroleum oil, or flue gases. Petroleum desulfurization
is a process that removes sulfur and its compounds from
various streams during the refining process. Desulfurization
)C
processes include catalytic hydrotreating and other

chemical/physical processes such as adsorption.
 Disposition: The components of petroleum disposition are
stock change, crude oil losses, refinery inputs, exports, and
products supplied for domestic consumption.
 Distillate Fuel Oil: A general classification for one of the
petroleum fractions produced in conventional distillation
(c
operations. It includes diesel fuels and fuel oils. Products

known as No. 1, No. 2, and No. 4 diesel fuel are used in on-
highway diesel engines, such as those in trucks and
automobiles, as well as off-highway engines, such as those in
S
railroad locomotives and agricultural machinery. Notes
___________________
F
___________________
 Field Production: Represents crude oil production on leases,
PE
natural gas liquids production at natural gas processing ___________________
plants, new supply of other hydrocarbons/oxygenates and ___________________

motor gasoline blending components, and fuel ethanol blended
___________________
into finished motor gasoline.
___________________
 Flexicoking: A thermal cracking process which converts
___________________
heavy hydrocarbons such as crude oil, tar sands bitumen, and
distillation residues into light hydrocarbons. Feedstocks can be ___________________
any pumpable hydrocarbons including those containing high ___________________

concentrations of sulfur and metals.
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Fluid Coking: A thermal cracking process utilizing the
fluidized solids technique to remove carbon (coke) for
continuous conversion of heavy, low-grade oils into lighter
products.
Fresh Feed Input: Represents input of material (crude oil,
___________________
CE
unfinished oils, natural gas liquids, other hydrocarbons and
oxygenates or finished products) to processing units at a
refinery that is being processed (input) into a particular unit
for the first time.
 Fuel Ethanol (C2 H5 OH): An anhydrous alcohol (ethanol
with less than 1% water) intended for gasoline blending as
described in Oxygenates definition.
 Fuels Solvent Deasphalting: A refining process for
)C
removing asphalt compounds from petroleum fractions, such

as reduced crude oil. The recovered stream from this process is
used to produce fuel products.
G
 Gas Oil: A liquid petroleum distillate having a viscosity
intermediate between that of kerosene and lubricating oil. It
derives its name from having originally been used in the
manufacture of illuminating gas. It is now used to produce
(c
distillate fuel oils and gasoline.

 Gasohol: A blend of finished motor gasoline containing alcohol
(generally ethanol but sometimes methanol) at a concentration
of 10 percent or less by volume. Data on gasohol that has at
S
Notes least 2.7 percent oxygen, by weight, and is intended for sale
___________________ inside carbon monoxide nonattainment areas are included in
data on oxygenated gasoline. See Oxygenates.
___________________
___________________  Gasoline Blending Components: Naphthas will be used for
PE
blending or compounding into finished aviation or motor
___________________
gasoline (e.g., straight-run gasoline, alkylate, reformate,
___________________ benzene, toluene, and xylene). They exclude oxygenates
___________________ (alcohols, ethers), butane, and pentanes plus.
___________________  Gross Input to Atmospheric Crude Oil Distillation Units:

___________________
Total input to atmospheric crude oil distillation units. Includes
all crude oil, lease condensate, natural gas plant liquids,
___________________
unfinished oils, liquefied refinery gases, slop oils, and other
___________________
H

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liquid hydrocarbons produced from tar sands, gilsonite, and oil
shale.
Heavy Gas Oil: Petroleum distillates with an approximate

boiling range from 651 degrees Fahrenheit to 1000 degrees
Fahrenheit. High-Sulfur Distillate Fuel Oil. Distillate fuel oil
CE
having sulfur content greater than 500 ppm.
 Hydrogen: The lightest of all gases, occurring chiefly in
combination with oxygen in water; exists also in acids, bases,
alcohols, petroleum, and other hydrocarbons.
I
 Idle Capacity: The component of operable capacity that is not
in operation and not under active repair, but capable of being
)C
placed in operation within 30 days; and capacity not in

operation but under active repair that can be completed
within 90 days.
 Imported Crude Oil Burned As Fuel: The amount of foreign
crude oil burned as a fuel oil, usually as residual fuel oil,
without being processed as such. Imported crude oil burned as
fuel includes lease condensate and liquid hydrocarbons
produced from tar sands, gilsonite, and oil shale.
(c
 Imports: Receipts of crude oil and petroleum products into the

50 States and the District of Columbia from foreign countries,
Puerto Rico, the Virgin Islands, and other U.S. possessions
S
and territories. Notes
 Isobutane (C4 H10): A normally gaseous branch-chain ___________________

hydrocarbon. It is a colourless paraffinic gas that boils at a ___________________
temperature of 10.9 degrees Fahrenheit. It is extracted from
PE
___________________
natural gas or refinery gas streams.
___________________
 Isobutylene (C4 H8): An olefinic hydrocarbon recovered from
___________________
refinery processes or petrochemical processes.
___________________
 Isohexane (C6 H14 ): A saturated branch-chain hydrocarbon.
It is a colourless liquid that boils at a temperature of 156.2 ___________________
degrees Fahrenheit. ___________________
___________________
L

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Lease Condensate: A mixture consisting primarily of
pentanes and heavier hydrocarbons which is recovered as a
liquid from natural gas in lease separation facilities. This
category excludes natural gas liquids, such as butane and
propane, which are recovered at downstream natural gas
processing plants or facilities. See Natural
___________________
CE
 Gas Liquids: Light Gas Oils: Liquid Petroleum distillates
heavier than naphtha, with an approximate boiling range from
401 degrees Fahrenheit to 650 degrees Fahrenheit.
 Liquefied Petroleum Gases (LPG): A group of hydrocarbon-
based gases derived from crude oil refining or natural gas
fractionation. They include: ethane, ethylene, propane,
propylene, normal butane, butylene, isobutane, and
isobutylene. For convenience of transportation, these gases are
)C
liquefied through pressurization.

 Liquefied Refinery Gases (LRG): Liquefied petroleum gases
fractionated from refinery or still gases. Through compression
and/ or refrigeration, they are retained in the liquid state. The
reported categories are ethane/ethylene, propane/propylene,
normal butane/ butylene, and isobutane/isobutylene. Excludes
still gas.
 Low-Sulfur Distillate Fuel Oil: Distillate fuel oil having
(c
sulfur content greater than 15 ppm to 500 ppm. Low sulfur

distillate fuel oil also includes product with sulfur content
equal to or less than 15 ppm if the product is intended for
pipeline shipment and the pipeline has a sulfur specification
S
Notes below 15 ppm.
___________________
M
___________________
 Merchant Oxygenate Plants. Oxygenate production facilities
___________________
PE
that are not associated with a petroleum refinery. Production
___________________ from these facilities is sold under contract or on the spot
___________________ market to refiners or other gasoline blenders.
___________________  Middle Distillates. A general classification of refined

petroleum products that includes distillate fuel oil and
___________________
kerosene.
___________________
 Military Kerosene-Type Jet Fuel. See Kerosene-Type Jet Fuel.
___________________
Miscellaneous Products. Includes all finished products not
___________________
N
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classified elsewhere (e.g., petrolatum, lube refining by-
products (aromatic extracts and tars), absorption oils, ram-jet
fuel, petroleum rocket fuels, synthetic natural gas feedstocks,
and specialty oils).
 Natural Gas Field Facility: A field facility designed to

CE
process natural gas produced from more than one lease for the
purpose of recovering condensate from a stream of natural gas;
however, some field facilities are designed to recover propane,
normal butane, pentanes plus, etc., and to control the quality
of natural gas to be marketed.
 Natural Gas Liquids: Those hydrocarbons in natural gas
that are separated from the gas as liquids through the process
of absorption, condensation, adsorption, or other methods in
)C
gas processing or cycling plants. Generally such liquids consist

of propane and heavier hydrocarbons and are commonly
referred to as lease condensate, natural gasoline, and liquefied
petroleum gases. Natural gas liquids include natural gas plant
liquids (primarily ethane, propane, butane, and isobutane; see
Natural Gas Plant Liquids) and lease condensate (primarily
pentanes produced from natural gas at lease separators and
field facilities; see Lease Condensate).
(c
 Natural Gas Plant Liquids: Those hydrocarbons in natural

gas that are separated as liquids at natural gas processing
plants, fractionating and cycling plants, and, in some
instances, field facilities. Lease condensate is excluded.
Products obtained include ethane; liquefied petroleum gases
S
(propane, butanes, propane-butane mixtures, ethanepropane Notes
mixtures); isopentane; and other small quantities of finished ___________________
products, such as motor gasoline, special naphthas, jet fuel,
___________________
kerosene, and distillate fuel oil.
PE
___________________
O ___________________
 OPRG: “Oxygenated Fuels Program Reformulated Gasoline” is
___________________
reformulated gasoline which is intended for use in an
___________________
oxygenated fuels program control area.
___________________
 Operable Utilization Rate: Represents the utilization of the
atmospheric crude oil distillation units. The rate is calculated ___________________
by dividing the gross input to these units by the operable ___________________

refining capacity of the units.
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Operating Capacity: The component of operable capacity
that is in operation at the beginning of the period.
Operating Utilization Rate: Represents the utilization of
the atmospheric crude oil distillation units. The rate is
calculated by dividing the gross input to these units by the
___________________
CE
operating refining capacity of the units.
R
 Refinery: An installation that manufactures finished
petroleum products from crude oil, unfinished oils, natural gas
liquids, other hydrocarbons, and oxygenates.
 Refinery Input, Crude Oil: Total crude oil (domestic plus
foreign) input to crude oil distillation units and other refinery
processing units (cokers, etc.).
)C
 Refinery Input, Total: The raw materials and intermediate

materials processed at refineries to produce finished petroleum
products. They include crude oil, products of natural gas
processing plants, unfinished oils, other hydrocarbons and
oxygenates, motor gasoline and aviation gasoline blending
components and finished petroleum products.
 Refinery Production: Petroleum products produced at a
(c
refinery or blending plant. Published production of these

products equals refinery production minus refinery input.
Negative production will occur when the amount of a product
produced during the month is less than the amount of that
same product that is reprocessed (input) or reclassified to
S
Notes become another product during the same month. Refinery
___________________ production of unfinished oils and motor and aviation gasoline
blending components appear on a net basis under refinery
___________________
input.
___________________
PE
___________________ S
___________________  Steam (Purchased): Steam, purchased for use by a refinery
that was not generated from within the refinery complex.
___________________
 Strategic Petroleum Reserve (SPR): Petroleum stocks
___________________
maintained by the Federal Government for use during periods
___________________
of major supply interruption.
___________________
T
___________________


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TAME (Tertiary amyl methyl ether) (CH3)2(C2H5)
COCH3: An oxygenate blend stock formed by the catalytic
etherification of isoamylene with methanol.
Tank Farm: An installation used by gathering and trunk
pipeline companies, crude oil producers, and terminal
operators (except refineries) to store crude oil.
CE
 Tanker and Barge: Vessels that transport crude oil or
petroleum products. Data are reported for movements between
PAD Districts; from a PAD District to the Panama Canal; or
from the Panama Canal to a PAD District.
 TBA (Tertiary butyl alcohol) (CH3 ) 3 COH: An alcohol
primarily used as a chemical feedstock, a solvent or feedstock
for isobutylene production for MTBE; produced as a co-
product of propylene oxide production or by direct hydration of
)C
isobutylene.
U
 Unfinished Oils: All oils requiring further processing, except
those requiring only mechanical blending. Unfinished oils are
produced by partial refining of crude oil and include naphthas
and lighter oils, kerosene and light gas oils, heavy gas oils, and
residuum.
(c
 Unfractionated Streams: Mixtures of unsegregated natural

gas liquid components excluding, those in plant condensate.
This product is extracted from natural gas.
 United States: The United States is defined as the 50 States
S
Notes
and the District of Columbia.
___________________
V ___________________
 Vacuum Distillation: Distillation under reduced pressure
PE
___________________
(less the atmospheric) which lowers the boiling temperature of
___________________
the liquid being distilled. This technique with its relatively low
temperatures prevents cracking or decomposition of the charge ___________________
stock. ___________________
 Visbreaking: A thermal cracking process in which heavy ___________________
atmospheric or vacuum-still bottoms are cracked at moderate
___________________
temperatures to increase production of distillate products and
reduce viscosity of the distillation residues. ___________________
W
 -U
Wax: A solid or semi-solid material at 77 degrees Fahrenheit
consisting of a mixture of hydrocarbons obtained or derived
from petroleum fractions, or through a Fischer-Tropsch type
process, in which the straight-chained paraffin series
___________________
predominates. This includes all marketable wax, whether

CE
crude or refined, with a congealing point (ASTM D 938)
between 80 (or 85) and 240 degrees Fahrenheit and a
maximum oil content (ASTM D 3235) of 50 weight percent.
 Working Storage Capacity: The difference in volume
between the maximum safe fill capacity and the quantity
below which pump suction is ineffective (bottoms).
X
)C
 Xylene (C6 H4 (CH3)2): Colourless liquid of the aromatic

group of hydrocarbons made the catalytic reforming of certain
naphthenic petroleum fractions. Used as high-octane motor
and aviation gasoline blending agents, solvents, chemical
intermediates. Isomers are metaxylene, orthoxylene
andparaxylene.
(c
Check Your Progress
S
Notes
Fill in the blanks:
___________________
___________________
1. …………… is the difference in volume between the
maximum safe fill capacity and the quantity below
___________________
PE
which pump suction is ineffective (bottoms).
___________________
2. The ……………… is defined as the 50 States and the
___________________ District of Columbia.
___________________
___________________ Summary
___________________ In this unit we have discussed the important terms that are very
___________________ essential to understand the subject in a better manner
___________________
-U
Lesson End Activity
Conduct a class test on the various terms that you have learned in
this unit
Keywords
CE
Operating Capacity: The component of operable capacity that is
in operation at the beginning of the period.
TBA (Tertiary butyl alcohol) (CH3) 3 COH: An alcohol
primarily used as a chemical feedstock, a solvent or feedstock for
isobutylene production for MTBE; produced as a co-product of
propylene oxide production or by direct hydration of isobutylene.
Visbreaking: A thermal cracking process in which heavy
atmospheric or vacuum-still bottoms are cracked at moderate
)C
temperatures to increase production of distillate products and

reduce viscosity of the distillation residues.

1. Define the Following
(a) Alkylation
(b) Asphalt
(c
(c) Barrels Per Stream Day

(d) Bulk Station
(e) Catalytic Hydrocracking
S
Notes
(f) Fuel Ethanol
___________________
(g) Gasoline Blending Components
___________________
(h) Hydrogen
PE
___________________
(i) Isobutane ___________________
(j) Low-Sulfur Distillate Fuel Oil ___________________
(k) Merchant Oxygenate Plants ___________________
(l) Natural Gas Field Facility ___________________
(m) Natural Gas Plant Liquids ___________________
(n) Operable Utilization Rate ___________________
(o) Operating Capacity

(p) Operating Utilization Rate
(q) Refinery
(r) Refinery Production
-U ___________________
(s) Strategic Petroleum Reserve (SPR

CE
(t) Tank Farm
(u) Unfractionated Streams
(v) Visbreaking
(w) Working Storage Capacity
(x) Xylene
Further Readings
)C
Books
2009
Web Readings
(c
http://www.alken-murray.com/fuel-glossary.htm
http://www.opisnet.com/resources/glossary-terms.aspx
S
Notes
___________________
___________________
___________________
PE
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
-U
CE
)C
(c
UNIT 25: Case Study
S
Notes
___________________
Case Study ___________________
PE
___________________
Objectives
___________________
___________________
Case Study: A Case Study for Environmental Impact
Assessment of Oil Refinery in Iran with Emphasis of ___________________
Environmental and Social Action Plan (ESAP) ___________________
The concept of social learning described and effort to show how ___________________
-U
communities of people with both diverse and common interests
can reach agreement on collective action to solve a shared
problem. The reality is that with the increasing need for oil
exploration and industrial world to its position the largest and
most important source of energy resources and raw polymers and
plastics, social and economic direction in many countries and
Iran, the general changed. Social impact assessment is defined as
the process of identifying the future consequences of a current or
___________________
proposed action which are related to individuals, organizations

CE
and social macro systems (Becker, 2001).
New oil to world markets, face, structure and function of all
institutions of political, social, economic and even cultural country
greatly affect. Samples of this nature and identity of its affiliated
institutions have oil and if not, all relations and equations of
political, economic and social changes in countries were emerged
like Iran's good and important developments. The many
categories, dimensions and interactions of risks have led to
concerns for multiple and cumulative risks. Function of the oil
change history of Iran and the country's economic dire ction in
recent centuries, including strategic issues in economic and social
analysis of counts. By identifying potential impacts in advance of
)C
large project, agencies and individuals, can make better decisions

about which interventions should be undertaken, and how. The
reality is that with the growing need for oil exploration and
industrial world to its position the largest and most important
source of energy resources and raw polymers and plastics, social
and economic direction in many countries and Iran, completely
changed. Potentially, guidelines and principles can be directed to
many different groups, each of whom has different interests. All
relations and equations of political, economic, social and countries
like Iran has undergone major changes and developments were
emerged. A group of oil experts believe that the main cause of lack
(c
of development in various dimensions, and all our psychological

problems due to connection to the source of enormous wealth is
God-given [6]. So, if Iran's oil situation had not improved and
perhaps better than their current situation. Although the
Contd…
situation in Iran without oil and certainly cannot stop drawing
S
Notes and be files, but not from the negative effects of oil were neglected
___________________
in various social fields. The following major functions of oil will be
in various institutions of the social groups of country. The largest
___________________ negative effect of oil refinery in Iran's social groups, covering
social and cultural weaknesses and inertia came to Iran.
___________________
PE
Although the foundations in terms of production technology and
business environment is not among the rich and developed
___________________
countries, but the oil fortune without trouble and tribulation has
___________________ been given community, country has row in developing countries
with relatively high per capita income. Brush oil and poor social
___________________ groups of patients from the comments kept secret because of their
financial obligations easily with oil supply has never felt the need
___________________
and have no shortage of brains and hands - and their efforts to
___________________ rush formation in the economy forced.
Although Iran is rich in terms of per capita consumption but
___________________
produced a decisive great (especially for luxury goods) can be
___________________
-U
considered. Oil revenues from the anti-productivity culture in the
dominant institutions and organizations promoting the country
have replaced the traditional culture and religious work in the
community are satisfied; samples already in many developed
countries, consumption patterns more balanced pattern of
consumption in our country's agenda have. The major
disadvantages of deep social and economic culture, somehow clear
the injection of oil revenues in the system forthright national
economy goes, and unfortunately lose colour elements such as
CE
punctuality, activist, working order and have led to the
conscience. Fundamental elements would be impossible which are
definitely and certainly without any kind of development. High
government subsidies in the energy sector through the financing
of oil are high and fuel consumption in the country, the main
reason for the growing energy and environmental crisis in Iran
are considered. In the country of 70 million more than the
countries with population above 300 million people will use gas or
gasoline and the destruction process and renewal of natural
resources, erosion, loss of forests and rangelands, drought,
reduced rainfall. The country has faced serious crises. Iran enjoys
enormous resources due to oil, fuels and energy carrier’s never
)C
reasonable price. This problem, energy and environmental crisis

in Iran has been created unfortunately, due to open despite oil
revenues, not such a critical sense.
Though it seems negative functions mismanagement of oil
revenues in Iran has expanded its interests, but this should not
hide the interests and benefits of oil and keep covered [15]. Oil,
among the main three components of power in international
relations and equations are considered. Considering the critical
dependence on the public, especially the industrial countries and
countries in the world and powerful, energy resources, and all
(c
governments combined with behavioural compliance with caution

and are oil-rich countries and this particular weight in the
Contd…
UNIT 25: Case Study
political negotiations and discussions to give them. Oil the other
S
hand, an important factor of national solidarity and integration Notes
can be considered. Because all the benefits of oil sales of
government is therefore to strengthen the base of central ___________________
government in Iran has been led. It should be noted, Iran's ___________________
extensive national and religious and ethnic variety and enjoyment
PE
of a strong central government if national unity is strength. Oil ___________________
revenue, strong and important factor has in strengthening the
central government and key functional preservation of territorial ___________________
integrity.
___________________
Material and methods
___________________
For this project the data obtained by mixing the LEOPLD matrix
and environmental risk assessment by using the special software ___________________
under SQL server system. The assessment model for oil refinery
social impact assessment and analysis of the results were ___________________
established based on the interactions matrixes in which the ___________________
interactions of two stages of oil refinery construction and
-U
operating activities on all environmental and social parameters
were studied under the three general categories of social
management, land usage and future development plans and its
socio-economic effects and social and cultural aspects integrating
all involved agents. All construction and operating stages'
elements and sociological parameters were determined given the
operational need. In order to evaluate the interactions between
social parameters and both construction and exploitation
___________________
operations, special tables designed for evaluation of interactions

CE
for taking conclusion and final summing up. For evaluating the
environmental and social, some special items have been selected
that including: severity impact (negligible, moderate, critical, and
catastrophic), probability impact (rare, seldom, occasional, likely,
continuous), importance impact (short term, long term, reversible,
irreversible, indirect, direct, and cumulative), impact type
(positive, negative, no impact), significant impact.
Significant Impact
0-3, Green, no impact-low, 4-6, Yellow, minor impact moderate, 7-
10, Orange, major impact, 10>, Red, critical major impact. Special
)C
software under SQL server program designed getting accurate

results of social and environmental impact assessment of Tehran
oil refinery as selected for case study. After calculations results
were provide as a graph. The graph shows the final evaluation for
this case study.
Tehran oil refinery
As mentioned earlier the oil refinery and environment
interactions were studied given the size of the job and
environmental features in the framework of different units of oil
refinery (executive, constructional, operational and processing)
and different environmental (physical, biological, socio-economical
(c
and cultural) parameters. The major environmental impacts and

consequences of oil refineries include gas emissions, effluents,
solid wastes, noise, odour and visional and aesthetic impacts [8].
Tehran Oil refining Company discussion is: Date of
Contd…
establishment: 1965-1968, Date of operating: 1969 (South
S
Notes refinery)-1973 (North refinery), Nominal capacity: 220,000 barrels
___________________
per day, Operational capacity: 240,000 barrels per day, Feed:
Light crude oil of Ahvaz-Asmari oil field, crude oil of
___________________ Maroon/Shadgan, Middle Asia, Production units: crude oil
distillation, viscosity, liquid gas recovery, gasoline hydrogenated
___________________
PE
refining and gasoline conversion, hydrocracker, Hydrogen,
Nitrogen, Sulfur recovery, Amine gas treatment.
___________________
All researches and studies about this issue entail three kinds of
___________________ operations:
___________________ 1. Detailed investigations and studies about environment.
___________________ 2. Investigations and studies about oil refinery.

3. Investigations and studies about oil refinery environmental
___________________
impact assessment
___________________ Regarding the first item, studies about environment, the studies
were conducted given the refinery neighbouring lands suitability
___________________
-U
and surrounding environment and necessity to consider the soil
and environment protection by the vegetation. Regarding the
second item, studies about crude oil refinery, the studies were
carried out given the main agents in production and interference
in area oil industry and as the major agent of oil pollution in the
area. In this respect, oil refinery different units were focused.
Regarding the third item, studies about oil refinery
environmental impact assessment, given the diversity in crude oil
CE
and creation of severe environmental pollution by all oil refineries
upon refinery technical default (in all stages including design,
execution and operating).
A. Air Pollution
Air pollution due to the refineries' operation mainly derives in
operating stage according to the facilities' age and employing
processes by firing, steam boilers, furnaces, pumps, compressors,
reserve tanks and distillation towers.
The most important air pollutants are sulfur oxides, nitrogen
oxides, carbon monoxide, aldehydes, ammonia, particles and
hydrocarbons [24]. The emitted hydrocarbons from the refinery
)C
are the most important source of pollution. Emitted hydrocarbons

from the exhausting pipes and reserve tanks are the major air
pollutants deriving from a refinery operation. Part of
hydrocarbons is produced via evaporation [29]. During
combustion process, nitrogen oxides are formed particularly in
facilities such as boilers, compressors, catalytic reducers and
introduced into the environment. The particles are produced by
turbines and boilers directly related to consuming fuel.
B. Water Pollution
Discharging effluents into the environment can contaminate
(c
surface waters, soil and underground water due to leak or oozing

of raw materials or products. Such a condition could be occurred
due to tanks' or pipelines' leak
Contd…
UNIT 25: Case Study
C. Solid Wastes
S
Refineries produce noticeable amounts of solid wastes [3]. The Notes
largest amount of solid wastes originate from cracking, coke
production, sludge production and treatment (sludge deriving ___________________
from cleaning tanks), water and oil separators and effluent ___________________
treatment system.
PE
D. Ecosystem Demolition ___________________
In recent years, oil and gas prospecting and extraction operations ___________________
imposed some damages to the marine and land environments in
___________________
the areas that are under oil industries operations due to lack of a
definite description for studying and investigating environmental ___________________
impact assessment services
___________________
Result and discussion
As the Fig 1 shows on the base of the information gathered in the ___________________
field of social and environmental features within the project,
___________________
review and understanding of the environmental, economic, social
-U
and cultural features of the project area affected, prevention of
negative social and environmental destruction through the
possible effects of control project. Construction of oil refinery in
Tehran province makes jobs in the way of direct and indirect. The
opinions of local people and authorities of all the statistics
authorities and regional authorities, before entering the industry
rates of social pathologies, including drug, theft and prostitution
was low, at least in social insecurity may have been, an
___________________
appropriate level of social contact between people was established

CE
and goods price inflation in the main requirement is an acceptable
level.
Conclusion
Refinery construction occurs in areas of the province that are
deprived of land without cultivation or development of argument
that supporters of this plan. Sponsors building more oil
installations in Tehran, in rail transport facilities and road
facilities suitable for the oil industry are considered in Tehran.
Some opponents also suggest construction of oil facilities in
Tehran should be responding to future generations.
)C
Acknowledgement
Any decision about the establishment of oil in Tehran, should
consider other measures of social impacts of development occur in
this province. Tehran Refinery project development is one of the
measures that can be caused by cumulative effects of the
interaction effects of construction and setting up oil installations,
damaging effects on this province instead of leaves. Should be
tried instead of merely providing information that opponents or
people familiar with the consequences of actions make a positive
comprehensive information available to people. Public
broadcasters should serve the target and allowed the people to
(c
decide, even if facilities are constructed, consciously and are

familiar with such complications.
Contd…
S
Notes
___________________
___________________
___________________
PE
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
Question:
-U
Source: http://www.ipcbee.com/vol6/no1/75-F10010.pdf
CE
)C
(c
Glossary
Glossary
S
Notes
___________________
Alkylation: A process in which an alkyl group is added to or substituted ___________________
in a compound, as in the reaction of alkene.
PE
___________________
Amine Treating Unit (ATU): The purpose of this process unit is to
___________________
remove H2S from fuel gases to meet environmental requiremen ts.
___________________
Aromatics Complex: Aromatics complex is a fully integrated facility for
the production of paraxylene and orthoxylene, comprising of platformer ___________________
primarily to produce feed for main plants.
___________________
Benchmarking: It is a measurement of the quality of an organization’s
___________________
policies, products, programs, strategies, etc., and their comparison with
standard measurements or similar measurements of its peers. ___________________
-U
Bromine Number: Bromine number is defined as the grams of bromine
that react with 100 grams of the sample.
Bureau of Mines Correlation Index: Bureau of mines correlation index

is an indication of predominant nature of Hydrocarbons in a product.
Captive Power Plant: Captive power plant to provide uninterrupted

power and steam supply for running the pumps, compressors and o ther
___________________
CE
equipment, captive power plant is provided in the refinery.
Catalytic Reformer Unit: Catalytic reformer unit is used to convert the

naphtha-boiling range molecules into higher octane reformate
Catalytic Reforming: Rearranging of hydrocarbon molecules in a

gasoline boiling-range feedstock to form hydrocarbons having a higher
antiknock quality.
Cetane Number: This number indicates the length of time (ignition lag)
between injection of the fuel and combustion.
)C
Claus Reaction: “When two molecules of Hydrogen Sulphide (H2S) react

with one molecule of Sulphur Dioxide (SO2) to give elemental sulphur in
the presence of Alumina Catalyst, the reaction is called Claus Reaction”.
Claus Reaction: It is the most significant gas desulfurising process,

recovering elemental sulfur from gaseous hydrogen sulfide.
Computerized Maintenance Management System (CMMS): CMMS

integrates routine maintenance, preventive maintenance, work orders,
inventory and purchasing in an intuitive interface.
(c
Cracking: Cracking is a phenomenon by which large oil molecules are

thermally decomposed into smaller lower-boiling molecules.
Crude Assay: It is essentially the chemical evaluation of crude oil

feedstocks by petroleum testing laboratories.
Crude oil Distillation Unit (CDU): Crude oil distillation unit is the
S
Notes
first processing unit in virtually all petroleum refineries.
___________________
Customs Duty: A tax levied on imports (and, sometimes, on exports) by
___________________ the customs authorities of a country to raise state revenue, and/or to
___________________
protect domestic industries from more efficient or predatory competitors
PE
from abroad.
___________________
Desalting: It is removal of salt from crude oil.
___________________
Energy Audit: An assessment of the energy needs and efficiency of a
___________________ building or buildings.
___________________ Enterprise Resource Planning-software (ERP): It combines
___________________ information, data and reports from all departments together into a single,
integrated software program with a single data base, from which all can
___________________
share information and communicate with each other.
___________________
-U
Environmental, Health, and Safety (EHS) Guidelines:
Environmental, Health, and Safety (EHS) guidelines are technical
reference documents with general and industry-specific examples of Good
International Industry Practice (GIIP).
Etherification: The act or process of making ether; specifically, the

process by which a large quantity of alcohol is transformed into ether by
the agency of a small amount of sulphuric, or ethyl sulphuric, acid.
CE
Excise Duty: A percentage levied on manufacture, sale, or use of locally -
produced goods (petrol or diesel).
Existent Gum: As the name implies, gum is the sticky, tacky, varnish-
like material that is objectionable in fuel systems.
FIFO: The oldest inventory items are recorded as sold first but do not
necessarily mean that the exact oldest physical object has been tracked
and sold; this is just an inventory technique.
Firewater Tanks: Firewater tanks are provided in offsites area to have

)C
an immediate supply source for fighting any major fire.
Flash Point: It is the minimum temperature at which the sample gives

sufficient vapour which forms an explosive mixture with air giving a flash
when a flame is applied to it under conditions of the test method.
Fluid Catalytic Cracking (FCC): Fluid catalytic cracking is one of the

most important conversion processes used in petroleum refineries. It is
widely used to convert the high-boiling,
Fresh Water Supply System: Fresh water supply system this provides
(c
utility water supply, make up to the circulating water system, make-up to

fire water supply system and make up to drinking water treatment
system.
Glossary
Fugitive Emissions: Fugitive emissions these facilities are associated
S
with vents, leaking tubing, valves, connections, flanges, packings, open- Notes
ended lines, floating roof storage tanks and pump seals, gas conveyance ___________________
systems, compressor seals, pressure relief valves, tanks or open
___________________
pits/containments, and loading and unloading operations of hydrocarbons.
PE
___________________
Gap Analysis: It is a tool that helps a company to compare its actual
performance with its potential performance. ___________________
Gross Refining Margin: It is the difference between total value of ___________________

petroleum products and price of crude.
___________________
Hydrocracking: A process by which the hydrocarbon molecules of
___________________
petroleum are broken into simpler molecules, as of gasoline or kerosene,
by the addition of hydrogen under high pressure and in the presence of a ___________________
catalyst. ___________________
-U
Hydro-desulphurisation: It is a catalytic chemical process widely used
to remove sulfur (S) from natural gas and from refined petroleum
products such as gasoline or petrol, jet fuel, kerosene, diesel fuel, and fuel
oils.
Investment Requirements: The capital investment required to meet a
given ULSF standard depends not only on the upgrading path of choice
___________________
but also on local economic factors, such as refinery ownership, labour

CE
costs, construction lead times, currency exchange rate, tax rates, etc.
Isomer: Isomer is a catalytic isomerisation process to efficiently convert a

mixture of C8 aromatics to a near equilibrium mix that favours PX and
OX production from metaxylene and ethyl benzene.
Isomerisation: It is the process by which one molecule is transformed

into another molecule which has exactly the same atoms, but the atoms
are rearranged.
Knock Values: They indicate whether a fuel will burn uniformly and
)C
evenly in a cylinder without preignition or detonation.
Merox: It is a proprietary catalytic chemical process developed by UOP

used in oil refineries and natural gas processing plants to remove
mercaptans from LPG, propane, butanes, light naphthas, kerosene and
jet fuel by converting them to liquid hydrocarbon disulfides.
Merox: Merox is the abbreviation of Mercaptan Oxidation. In this process

mercaptan is separated from hydrocarbon by washing with caustic
solution.
(c
Metallurgy: The science that deals with procedures used in extracting

metals from their ores, purifying and alloying metals, and creating useful
objects from metals.
Net Back: A system in which the estimated realization is calculated on
S
Notes
the basis of expected yield from the particular refinery for specific crude.
___________________
Net Margin: It is the difference between gross margin and operating
___________________ costs
___________________ Oil Refinery: It is an industrial process plant where crude oil is
PE
___________________
processed and refined into more useful petroleum products.
___________________
Operating Capacity: It is the component of operable capacity that is in
operation at the beginning of the period.
___________________
Operating Costs: Expenses associated with administering a business on
___________________ a day to day basis.
___________________ Optimisation: Finding an alternative with the most cost effective or
___________________ highest achievable performance under the given constraints, by
maximizing desired factors and minimizing undesired ones.
___________________
-U
Personal Ledger Account: This is basically used in excise to maintain
the entries of cash (Cheque or e-payment) deposit and payment of duty
from this amount throughout the year.
Petroleum Refinery: Petroleum refinery is an industrial process plant

where crude oil is processed and refined into more useful products such as
petroleum naphtha, gasoline, diesel fuel, asphalt base, heating oil,
CE
kerosene, and liquefied petroleum gas.
Platformer unit: Platformer unit processes hydrotreated naphtha from

the Heavy Naptha Unionfining unit, stripper column bottoms, for the
production of aromatics for downstream unit processing and separation.
Polypropylene: It is a plastic polymer used in everything from carpets to

car parts.
Pour Point: A point is the lowest temperature at which a liquid becomes

semi solid and loses its flow characteristics.
)C
Refining Cost: The primary components of the additional per-gallon

refining cost associated with meeting a new, more stringent gasoline or
diesel sulfur standard.
Reflux Ratio: The ratio of the amount of condensate being refluxed to

the amount being withdrawn as product.
Reid Vapour Pressure: It is a common measure of the volatility of

gasoline.
Saturated Gas: The state of saturation of a fluid indicates that the fluid
(c
is at its boiling point temperature.
SCADA: It stands for Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition. It refers

to the combination of the fields of telemetry and data acquisition.
Glossary
TBA (Tertiary butyl alcohol) (CH3) 3 COH: An alcohol primarily
S
used as a chemical feedstock, a solvent or feedstock for isobutylene Notes
production for MTBE; produced as a co-product of propylene oxide ___________________

production or by direct hydration of isobutylene.
___________________
Total Acid Number: It is the amount of potassium hydroxide in
PE
___________________
milligrams that is needed to neutralize the acids in one gram of oil. It is
an important quality measurement of crude oil. ___________________
Venting and Flaring: Venting and flaring are important operational ___________________
and safety measures used in petroleum refining facilities to ensure that
___________________
vapours and gases are safely disposed of. Petroleum hydrocarbons are
emitted from emergency process vents and safety valves discharges. ___________________
Visbreaking: A thermal cracking process in which heavy atmospheric or ___________________

vacuum-still bottoms are cracked at moderate temperatures to increase ___________________
residues.
-U
production of distillate products and reduce viscosity of the distillation
Viscosity: The state of being thick, sticky, and semifluid in consistency,

due to internal friction.
Viscosity: The state of being thick, sticky, and semifluid in consistency,

due to internal friction.
___________________
CE
)C
(c
S
Notes
___________________
___________________
___________________
PE
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
-U
CE
)C
(c

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UNIT 20: Case Study

Dr Satya Sheel Prof I M Mishra Mr M K Goel

SLM Development Team

Mr Kapil Mehra Mr A N Sinha

Course Code: MDSO-804D

Course Name: Fundamentals of Petroleum Refining

Version: July 2013

© MPower Applied Learning Enterprise

Unit 1 Introduction to Oil Refinery ................................ ................................ ......................... 3

Important Test on Petroleum Products................................ ................................ ...... 43

Unit 11 Hydrogen Production and Management................................ ................................ ..... 95

Unit 14 Future Refining Scenario................................ ................................ .......................... 125

Unit 16 Advances in Petroleum Refining ................................ ................................ .............. 135

Unit 18 Gross Refining Margin................................ ................................ .............................. 147

Unit 22 Fundamentals of ULSF Production................................ ................................ .......... 175

Unit 23 IT Applications in Hydrocarbon Industry ................................ ................................ 187

Unit 25 Case Study ................................ ................................ ................................ ................ 225

Glossary ................................ ................................ ................................ ................................ .......... 231

piping running throughout, carrying streams of fluids between

Raw or unprocessed crude oil is not generally useful in industrial

and as feedstocks in petrochemical processes that manufacture

Petroleum fossil fuels are burned in internal combustion engines to

___________________ Oil can be used in a variety of ways because it contains

chained one, by various forms of cracking such as fluid catalytic

continuously, as opposed to processing in batches, at steady state

makes process optimization and advanced process control very

to oil refineries. For example, light hydrocarbons are steam-

Common Process Units Found in a Refinery

See Continuous distillation.

 Naphtha hydrotreater unit uses hydrogen to desulfurize

 Liquefied gas storage vessels store propane and similar

 Utility units such as cooling towers circulate cooling water, ___________________

boiler plants generates steam, and instrument air systems ___________________

Wastewater collection and treating systems consist of API

Check Your Progress

1. Different boiling points allow the hydrocarbons to be

Flow Diagram of Typical Refinery

one of the literally hundreds of different oil refinery configurations.

Figure 1.1: Schematic Flow Diagram of a Typical Oil Refinery

There are many process configurations other than that depicted

The Crude Oil Distillation Unit

Below is a schematic flow diagram of a typical crude oil distillation ___________________

Figure 1.2: Schematic Flow Diagram of a Typical Crude Oil Distillation

unit as used in Petroleum Crude Oil Refineries

The cooling and condensing of the distillation tower overhead is

and partially by either an air-cooled or water-cooled condenser.

organic sulfur-containing compounds. Sulfur and sulfuric acid

 Petrochemicals or petrochemical feedstocks, which are often

of ways. The petrochemicals may be olefins or their precursors,

2. The ……………………………… is the first processing ___________________

Raw or unprocessed crude oil is not generally useful in industrial

Lesson End Activity

What are the expected refining capacities of upcoming refineries in

Crude oil Distillation Unit (CDU): Crude oil distillation unit is

Petroleum Refinery: Petroleum refinery is an industrial process