Transformer Differential Protection:
Challenges and Solutions
Prepared & Presented By:
Mohit Sharma
Relay Applications Engineer
January 19th, 2017
1
Moderator
Jamie Smith
• Digital Marketing Specialist
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Q&A
Send us your questions and comments during
the presentation
3
Today’s Presenter
Mohit Sharma
• Megger Relay Applications Engineer
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Scope:
• Transformer differential protection scheme
• Challenges to transformer differential
• Adopted methods by relay manufacturers
For future scope:
• Performance of schemes discussed
• Assessment of algorithms/methods adopted by relay manufacturers
• Transformer differential testing
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Outline
Introduction
Transformer Protection Schemes – A Functional Overview
Phase Differential Protection
• Operation Principle
• Challenges to Differential
• Logics/Algorithms Adopted by Some Manufacturers
Conclusion
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Outline
Introduction
Transformer Protection Schemes – A Functional Overview
Phase Differential Protection
• Operation Principle
• Challenges to Differential
• Logics/Algorithms Adopted by Some Manufacturers
Conclusion
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What is a Power Transformer?
IEC 421-01 Definition - A static piece of
apparatus with two or more windings which, by
electromagnetic induction, transforms a system
of alternating voltage and current into another
system of voltage and current usually of different
values and at the same frequency for the
purpose of transmitting electrical power
IEEE C57.12.80 Definition - A transformer that
transfers electric energy in any part of the circuit
between the generator and the distribution
primary circuits
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Transformer Components
Bushings
Windings
Core
Radiators
Tank
Tap changers
Insulation
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What constitute transformer failures?
Winding Failures
26% Tap-changer Failures
37%
Bushing Failures
1%
Terminal Board
3% Failures
11%
Core Failures
22%
Miscellaneous
IEEE C37.91 2000 U.S Data for 1983-88
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Why do we need protection?
High cost of repair and replacement
Minimize the risk of damage to adjacent equipment
Limit damage to the faulted equipment
Minimize the possibility of fire
Improve personnel safety
Avoid unnecessary cascade tripping
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Outline
Introduction
Transformer Protection Schemes – A Functional Overview
Phase Differential Protection
• Operation Principle
• Challenges to Differential
• Logics/Algorithms Adopted by Some Manufacturers
Conclusion
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How do we protect?
Electrical Protection:
Differential (87T)
Overcurrent (50/51)
Volts/Hz (24)
Over-frequency (81)
Mechanical Protection:
Buchholz relay
SPR/RPR
Thermal overload
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Outline
Introduction
Transformer Protection Schemes – A Functional Overview
Phase Differential Protection
• Operation Principle
• Challenges to Differential
• Logics/Algorithms Adopted by Some Manufacturers
Conclusion
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Operation Principle: Single Phase
C.T- 1 C.T- 2
No two C.Ts can be
similar !!!!
Operate = 0
Relay
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Operation Principle: Single Phase
C.T- 1 C.T- 2
Ideally, no current in
operating coil for external
faults
Operate = 0
Rest-1 Rest-2
Relay
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Operation Principle: Single Phase
C.T- 1 C.T- 2 Operate when
IO > k x IR
IO Io = IR1 + IR2
Operate
Rest-1 Rest-2
IR =( IR1 + IR2 )/2
Relay
IR1 IR2
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Operation Principle: Three Phase
DAB Wye
A a
B b
C c
Operate
A phase
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Primary Protection: Differential
Sensitive:
Operates for low level inputs
Clear distinction:
Clearly differentiates in-zone
and out-zone faults.
Dependability:
Operate as intended
Secured:
Does not operate incorrectly
Speed:
No intentional time delay
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Outline
Introduction
Transformer Protection Schemes – A Functional Overview
Phase Differential Protection
• Operation Principle
• Challenges to Differential
• Logics/Algorithms Adopted by Some Manufacturers
Conclusion
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Challenges to Transformer Differential
Current mismatch caused by C.Ts
Different C.T ratios
Phase shift due to winding configuration
Zero sequence current
Errors due to Tap Changers
C.T saturation
Over-excitation
Magnetizing inrush
Switch onto fault
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C.T Mismatch Errors
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C.T Mismatch Errors
50 MVA, 110/33 kV Transformer
50 ∗ 103
I primary = = 454.54 A
110
50 ∗ 103
I secondary = = 1515.15 A
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Let’s assume CT selected for primary side = 500 :5
CT selected for secondary side = 1600:5
Relay readings:
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Winding-1 current = 454.54 * = 4.545 A
500
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Winding-2 current = 1515.15 * = 4.735 A
1600
Selecting relay tap of 4.6 on both windings –
4.735 4.545
% Mismatch = ( - ) * 100 = 4.13 %
4.6 4.6
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C.T Mismatch Errors: How to Overcome?
Select most appropriate taps on electro-mechanical relays
Micro-processor relays do some math to eliminate such errors
Relay input
For wye-connected C.Ts, C =1
For delta-connected C.Ts, C = √3
MVA = Maximum power transformer capacity
VWDG = Winding Line-Line voltage setting in kV
CTRn = Current transformer ratio setting
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C.T Mismatch Errors: How to Overcome?
Some relays will auto-compute the high and low side taps
using MVA, high and low side voltage, C.T ratios and
connection types across the transformer
Other relays will determine a magnitude compensation factor
due to CT mismatch error. These relays only use MVA and
voltage values to do the correction. They correct the CT ratio
to decimal values.
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Phase Shift due to Winding Configuration
Ia - Ib DAB
Ia
Wye
A a
B b
C c
w 87
w
1 2
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Phase Shift due to Winding Configuration
V VAB VA VB
VA VM 0 VM 120
VAB VM 1 cos 120 j sin 120
3 3
VM j
2 2
VC
VB 3VM 30
VM = Magnitude of VA or VB
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Phase Shift Issues: How to Overcome?
Dy1
Wye Delta
For electromechanical relays simply
connect C.Ts in Delta if the
transformer winding is Wye and vice-
versa (External Compensation)
Microprocessor relays do some math
calculations internally to compensate
(Internal Compensation)
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Phase Shift Issues: How to Overcome?
Transformer type: Dy1 with a DAB for HV , C.Ts are Wye
and DAB respectively for HV and LV side
HV Winding LV Winding
IAW1 IAW2
• No compensation from the relay is required. C.T
connections solved the issue.
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Phase Shift Issues: How to Overcome?
Transformer type: Yd7 with a DAB for d7 , C.Ts are Wye
connected on both sides
HV Winding LV Winding
IAW1
IAW2
• 7 x 30 = 210 deg CCW compensation required
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Phase Shift Issues: How to Overcome?
Manufacturer-1: Each winding is given a number 0-12, which
corresponds to the number of 30 deg angle increments to be rotated
in CCW direction for ABC phase rotation. Each winding is corrected
back to zero degrees.
Manufacturer-2: Compensation for both transformer and C.T is
done. Transformer windings are given a number from 0-11, whereas
C.T windings are given from 13-23. The number corresponds to the
number of 30 deg angle increments to be rotated in CCW direction
for ABC phase rotation.
Manufacturer-3: Each winding is given an angle which corresponds
to the lagging angle relative to the designated reference winding
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Zero Sequence Currents
Only present during ground faults: SLG, L-L-G, 3ph-G
Gets trapped in delta winding as circulating current
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Zero Sequence Current
Why do we worry about it in differential protection?
SLG
Fault
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Zero Sequence Elimination
The simplest way to eliminate zero sequence currents is to have wye
connected CTs on the side of a delta connected transformer winding
and vice versa
In micro-processor relays that are connected from wye connected
CTs for a Delta-Wye transformer, the zero sequence current is
removed numerically by applying compensation matrices. All
compensation matrix numbers from 1-12 remove zero sequence
mathematically
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Zero Sequence Elimination
1
Ia Ib 1
I 1 I 2 I 0 2 I 1 I 2 I 0
1 1 0 Ia 3 3
CTC (1) 1 0 1 1 Ib 1 Ib Ic 1 2 I1 I 2 I 0 I1 2 I 2 I 0
3 3 3
1 0 1 Ic 1
Ic Ia 1
I 1 2 I 2 I 0 I 1 I 2 I 0
3 3
Matrix 1 is equivalent to a delta connection
Note that zero sequence current is still present in the circuit. The
settings tell the relay how to ignore it
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Tap Changer Issues
A tap-changer is a mechanism in
transformers that allows for
variable turn ratios to be selected
in discrete steps
If operators change the tap without
the setting engineer’s knowledge,
this could create enough current
mismatch to trip
LTCs : (13716-12470)/12470 =
10% (Maximum of +/- 10%
Mismatch)
NLTCs: Maximum of +/- 5%
Mismatch
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Tap Changer Issues: How to Overcome?
Percentage restraint
Provide additional slope in slope
characteristic to provide a margin
for such errors
Add 10-15% to slope setting
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CT Saturation
Once CT saturation occurs, ratio error increases and secondary current is
no more linear to primary current
AC Saturation (AC components):
• High symmetrical faults
• Contains only odd harmonics
DC Saturation (DC + AC components):
• Asymmetrical faults
• Motor starting
• Generator synchronization
• Contains both odd and even harmonics
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Percentage Restrained Characteristic
Region 1 and Region 2: Steady state and Proportional Error Compensation
a) CT Accuracy Errors ( 5% typical)
b) LTC and NLTC Errors (10 + 5 = 15%)
c) Tap Mismatch Errors
d) Magnetizing Current Errors
d) Relay Measuring Errors (< 5%)
e) Extra Margin
Slope 1 = Around 30-35%
Region 3: Transient Error Compensation
a) CT Saturation on Through Faults
Slope 2 = Around 60% to 70% (Depends on type of restraint equation used)
Unrestrained: Clearly indicates internal fault
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Slope Characteristics
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Magnetizing Inrush
Inrush is high magnetizing current drawn by a transformer
from the source during:
a) Energization after complete de-energization
b) Post fault voltage recovery
c) Energization of a parallel transformer
Point of switching Transformer
switched on at
primary voltage zero
crossing
𝐸 = 𝑁 𝑑∅/𝑑𝑡
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Effects on Differential Protection
Usually of the order of 10 p.u. Magnitude and duration depends on
factors like point-on-wave of switching, remnant flux, sizing, source
impedance etc.
Transient in nature (Few milliseconds)
Not an internal fault
Operating current higher than slope
might cause false trip
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Magnetizing Inrush Problem: How to Overcome?
Even Harmonic Blocking Method
Inrush is rich in even harmonics especially 2nd and 4th harmonics.
• A typical setting of 15-20% provides enough security
I diff mag(120Hz)2 + I diff mag(240Hz)2
• If > setting, then block 87
I diff mag(60Hz)
• Electro-mechanical relays have filter circuits to detect 2nd harmonics
• Micro-processor relays look for inrush conditions(above) before
issuing a percentage restrained differential trip in their differential
logic
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Magnetizing Inrush Problem: How to Overcome?
Low Second Harmonic Detection Methods
Typically, one phase exhibits low second-harmonic content
Cross-phase Blocking:
Cross-phase Averaging:
Used with fundamental component
in each of the phases (independent)
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Over-excitation
Nothing but over-fluxing in transformer or excessive V/Hz
Rich in 5th harmonics
ANSI C37.106 and C57.12 – Secondary V/Hz > 1.05 p.u full load, 0.8 pf
Secondary V/Hz > 1.1 p.u no-load
Possible reasons:
• Sudden load loss causing voltage rise
• Generator start up at low frequency
• Transmission line is lightly loaded and proper shunt compensation is not
provided
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Effects on Differential Protection
V/f = 4.44 x A x N x B
V = Voltage applied
f = Frequency applied
A = cross sectional area of core
N = # of turns
B = Magnetic flux density
I = Excitation current
Transformer core saturation leads to high
magnetizing current from the source
Increase in differential current activates 87
No time for AVRs and Capacitor Banks to
kick-in to correct the problem
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Over-excitation: How to Overcome?
Method-1
• 5th harmonic restraint, 87 gets blocked if 5th
harmonic in current is higher than set value
Method-2
• Raises minimum pick-up level when 5th
harmonic exceeds a set value
• Security of the relay remains intact
To keep the element secure against undesired tripping, yet allow the
element to release if an internal fault occurs during the over-excitation
event
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Switch Onto Fault
If a transformer experiences an internal fault on energization,
the harmonic restraint feature could delay tripping
Microprocessor relays employ unrestrained
element set above max expected inrush
current, typically 8-12 p.u
Electromechanical relays have instantaneous
o/c unit in series with differential unit
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Outline
Introduction
Transformer Protection Schemes – A Functional Overview
Phase Differential Protection
• Operation Principle
• Challenges to Differential
• Logics/Algorithms Adopted by Some Manufacturers
Conclusion
49
Conclusion
Transformer differential is one of the most popular protection
scheme. However, it requires extreme care and attention while
setting up.
Knowledge about possible challenges and solutions is the key to
design an effective differential scheme
Relay engineers should understand the characteristics of transformer
and CT and should procure the right data
Validation of scheme is crucial!!! - For both manufacturers
and customers
Tests- Commissioning (Scheme based, element based), Acceptance
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Megger Solutions
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Hardware
SMRT-410/410D : 10 Current Channels (Max)
60 Amps secondary
SMRT 46/46D : 6 Current Channels (Max)
60 Amps secondary
SMRT-1 : 2 Current Channels (Max)
Tests all electromechanical
differential relays
60 Amps secondary
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Software: RTMS
Manual testing feature
Automated slope tests with slope
characteristics of various relays
Stabilization test
Automated pick up tests
Automated harmonic restraint tests
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Survey & Contact Info
Contact Information
• Presenter
– Mohit Sharma
– Mohit.sharma@megger.com
• USA and Mexico Sales
– sales@megger.com
– +1 800 723 2861
• Canada Sales
– caenquiries@megger.com Please help us improve by filling out
the survey after the webinar ends
– +1 800 297 9688
"Corona discharge 1" by Nitromethane - Own work. Licensed under CC BY-SA 3.0 via Wikimedia Commons -
54 http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Corona_discharge_1.JPG#/media/File:Corona_discharge_1.JPG
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