ED50024 – Reflecting Upon Leadership in the IB

Unit 1: Chapter 2: Critical Reflection and Learning

Activity 1: Defining Reflection: A first glance

We can begin this part of the unit of work with a reflective activity. Consider what the word
‘reflection’ means to you. Record your ideas in your journal. This is a key concept
underpinning the learning in this module, so it is important to consider what we know, what
we wonder, and then, as the materials unfold, how your definition transforms. Revisit your
definition when you are half way through this chapter, and again at the end of the chapter,
each time revising, rethinking, and redefining where appropriate.

The role of reflection in learning

Reflection is the process by which we systematically learn from practice. Powell (1989) cited
in Ghaye & Lillyman (1997, p.77) argues that

"experienced practice is not wholly dependent upon the time spent in the job,
therefore the experience has to be gained through some other process"– namely,
reflection.

Reflection can serve learning by:

Aiding self-management of learning and promoting self-evaluation.

Facilitating self-directed learning and developing critical awareness.

Helping make the unconscious conscious and constructing personal meaning.

Consolidating learning and integrating existing and new knowledge.

Supporting intuitive learning that can result in the development of more effective learning
approaches and strategies.

The notion of the 'reflective practitioner' and engagement in critical reflective practice has
become central to professional educators. For the professional, reflection is a catalyst
toward improvement, and is embedded throughout all aspects of teaching, resulting in
continued development (Lawrence-Wilkes and Ashmore, 2014; Hallet, 2013).

With this is mind, it is important to be aware that the act of reflecting within an education
context can be practiced to varying degrees and with varying impact on practice and
professional development. In their research, Ward and McCotter (2004) used a systematic
approach to design a rubric allowing them to distinguish between different degrees of
meaningful reflection. Through considering this measure, we are able to make more obvious
the qualities that define meaningful reflection leading to impactful professional development.

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 Routine reflection: this is a considered a low-level reflection. It is characterised by a

lack of personal responsibility, lack of in depth consideration or inquiry, and
contributing cause/barriers to success to external factors such as lack of resource or
time availability.
 Technical reflection: with this level of reflection the emphasis is on solving a
problem, without concern for identifying the root cause of the problem. The
practitioner reflecting on this level, may consider using various strategies to engage
learners in a lecture, but would not consider a deeper reflection around the use of the
lecture as an instructional approach.
 Dialogic Reflection: this is an ongoing reflective process leading to a synthesis of
new ideas. It evolves through discussion and collaboration with other practitioners.
Through this process of reflection an individual begins to consider the pedagogical
processes underlying an area of concern. Questions are asked, new pedagogical
approaches are suggested and trialled, and there is a sense of practitioners
‘grappling’ (p. 253) with a problem. However, missing from this level of reflection, is
consideration of socio-cultural implications, and children’s views.
 Transformative Reflection: this is the deepest level of reflection, which challenges
underlying assumptions, involves sustained inquiry and self- questioning, dialogue
with others -ultimately resulting in professional change and a profound impact on
practice.

Critical Reflection

Critical reflection, is interchangeable with transformative reflection. It is an extension of

critical thinking, which involves objectively analysing and evaluating a set of information as a
way of determining its efficacy (Mezirow, 1990). Through critical reflection, an individual
thinks about their practice and ideas through a ‘stepping-back’ approach that allows for close
examination, and deep thinking by asking probing questions. It asks us to not only delve into
the past and look at the present but importantly it asks us to speculate about the future and
act. Through this process, an individual comes to examine personal assumptions, values,
and beliefs. Equally, it allows opportunity to examine events, or actions in a wider context,
identifying social, political, cultural influences that influence decision making. It is through
this process of critical reflection that you will engage with the module materials, your
practice, and with the IB.

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Through the 20th century, the concept of reflection for learning evolved. Dewey (1933),
Schön (1983) and Kolb (1984) place an emphasis on the relationship between experience
and reflection as a route to understanding.

John Dewey (1859-1952): Introducing a Link between Reflection and Action

An early American philosopher and educational reformer, Dewey was an early founder of
experiential education, linking reflection and action, leading to new experience, knowledge
and understanding. In his book, ‘How We Think’ (1910), he paralleled critical thinking with
reflective thought, a distinct move beyond reflection as mere contemplation. In his work,
Dewey described Reflective Thoughts as:

"...Active, persistent, and careful consideration of any belief, or supposed form of

knowledge, in light of grounds that support it, and the further conclusions to which it
tends..." (Dewey, 1910, p. 6)

Further, Dewey (1933) describes two phases of reflective thinking; phase one is
characterized by a feeling of perplex ion, and doubt; with phase two moving toward action
states, characterized by inquiry involving a search for new information to address the
feelings of doubt (p. 12).

From Dewey, we begin to understand reflective thought as a deep way of thinking, leading to
interpretation about experiences, knowledge, or beliefs that objectively influence future
judgements. It involves purposeful reasoning, delayed impulsive action to make way for
reflective judgement leading to new ways of thinking or acting in our lives.

Donald Schön (1930-1997): Building on Dewey’s Ideas: Reflection in and on action

References to the theories of Donald Schön have been made by various authors writing on
the role of critical reflection. Schön (1983) builds on Dewey’s work by introducing the idea
that competent practitioners usually know more than they can say. By extension is the belief
in a knowledge that is embedded in practice and inseparable from it. Alongside this sense of
an intuitive knowing is the recognition that practitioners also think about what they are doing
when doing it and turn this thought back on action; thus the knowing is implicit in the action.
This thinking about professional actions, acting reflexively and turning thought back on
action was described by Schön (1983) as reflection in action. Bolton (1991) describes
reflection in action as,

"the hawk in your mind constantly circling over your head watching and advising on
yuor actions - while you are practising" (p.15).

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Schön (1983) explained that reflection in action is promoted by an element of surprise about
the outcomes of action. For that reason, when practice becomes more stable and the
outcomes represent less surprise, the danger of over-learning what a professional knows is
identified. A practitioner’s reflection is offered by Schön (1983) as a corrective to such over-
learning. Certain conditions for the promotion of reflection in action are suggested and these
include treating each case as unique or the reframing of a commonly encountered situation
by remaining open to phenomena incongruent with the initial problem setting.

Reflection on action is a structured analytic process by which we deliberately set out to make
new sense and meaning of a situation after it happened so that practice can be enhanced. It
can involve writing about experiences in a structured way, such as through a reflective
journal. The key to reflection on action, according to Schön (1983), is learning to ask yourself
the right questions. We will consider reflection on action more fully in relation to learning
journals and reflective writing later.

David Kolb (1984): Experiential Learning Cycle

Kolb (1984) also attaches significance to the role of reflection in learning. His cyclical model
of experiential learning builds on the foundational work of John Dewey and Kurt Lewin. His
model presents learning as a transactional relationship between the individual, group, or
organization and their environment. Composed of four stages, across two dimensions,
learning involves a systematic interaction between a concrete learning experience (action or
event) followed by reflections and observations on an event, which in turn leads to the
formation of abstract concepts and generalisations (Kolb and Kolb, 2008). A new event or
situation permits testing of the implications of the new concepts and hence the cycle can
begin again. In this sense, learning is a process involving trial and error: the individual
experiences an event, reflects on the event, and potentially learns from the event, trialling
the new knowledge in another setting. Then the process begins again. At the foundation of
this theory is the inherent relationship between action and reflection (Dennison, 2012).

Kolb’s model indicates a belief that a progression through each of the four involved stages is
required for learning to take place. Therefore, facilitating individuals in the processes of
observation, reflection and the formation of abstract conceptions and generalisations will
promote learning. Equally, limiting opportunity for any one of the stages will undermine
learning.

A revised version of Kolb’s model (Chapman, 2006) illustrates the two dimensions involved
in the process of learning. This revised model suggests a learner may enter the cycle at any
stage: experiencing, thinking, reflecting and acting, which is determined by their preferred
learning style and so long as the learner passes through each stage of the cycle, learning

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will occur (Hurst-Wajaszczuk, 2010; Illeris, 2009). Through this revised model, the inherent
relationship between action and reflection leading to meaningful learning is maintained.

(Available at: http://etec.ctlt.ubc.ca/510wiki/index.php?title=Kolb

%27s_Learning_Styles_Model_and_Experiential_Learning_Theory&oldid=26843.)

Graham Gibbs (1988): Gibbs Model of Reflection

Gibb’s (1988) cycle builds on Kolb’s (1984) model, incorporating questioning into the
experiential process as a way of developing the level of reflection that occurs in any
experience (Finlay, 2008). Self-improvement is fostered as the individual asks questions that
challenge assumptions, explores new ideas or approaches, and begins to link theory and
practice.

Further, Gibb’s model acknowledges emotion plays a role in the reflective process, which as
stated by Tripp (2012) is a key aspect for teachers in analysing any critical incident within
their practice. Through questioning the individual, group, or organization completes an
evaluative process analysing the events, feelings, actions involved thereby linking learning,
theory, and future practice.

Activity 2: Padlet Discussion

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The models and theories of reflection introduced so far, share a foundational underpinning -
there is a relationship between reflection and action. Consider this idea. What is action
without reflection? What is reflection without action? Share your thoughts via Padlet. This is
an idea we will revisit in the next chapter of the unit.

Double Loop Learning

The process Denby, Butroyd, Swift, Price and Glazzard (2008) describe Kolb’s learning
cycle as a model of 'single loop learning' and by way of explanation contrast this to 'double
loop learning' which involves not only reflection upon actions, but also upon the reasons and
assumptions that underlie actions (Argyris and Schön, 1974 cited in Denby et al., 2008).
Through this process of double-loop learning, an individual, group, or organization, come to
challenge underpinning values and assumptions, thereby experiencing learning that
promotes permanent transformation (Schimmel and Muntslag, 2009).

Furthermore, Denby et al. (2008) associate engagement in 'double loop learning' with
studying at Masters level, a process of critical thinking, requiring deep analysis and
evaluation, seeking to examine issues and determine underlying relationships.

Tripp (2012) offers another perspective of reflection, identifying evaluation and common
wisdom as two types of reflection underpinning the intellectual aspect of expert performance
within teaching. Evaluation refers to the set of questions the practitioner asks in each task:
‘Did it work?’ What else could have been done?’ ‘How could I improve?’ ‘What are the
implications of this approach?’. Common wisdom refers to the expertise, or implicit
knowledge and skills that develop over time as a result of mentoring; whereby the new
teacher acquires ‘craft knowledge’ that is passed on by a more experienced colleague. This
is not a knowledge and understanding that a teacher can readily identify, and yet it is an
inherent ingredient in teacher practice. Tripp (2012), suggests reflective writing as a model
that would enhance teachers’ ability to recognize and define this aspect of practice. Allowing
for evaluation and analysis leading to explicit understanding, or transformation. Further,
Tripp (2012) suggests, there is a fundamental ingredient missing within teacher practice,
which is essential for successful reflection in any other profession, and that is the ability to
explain and justify choice of action through academic analysis and evaluation. This is an
element of critical reflection that will be key to success within this module.

Procee's Kantian epistemology of reflection in education

Procee (2006), whilst recognising the potential benefits of reflection in education, criticises
the lack of a conceptual basis. Varying interpretations about the nature of the process of

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reflection, the application of different meanings, as well as poor practices in the name of
reflection, are associated with this lack.

With reference to Kant, an epistemology aimed at enhancing understanding of the nature,

structure and processes of reflection is proposed by Procee (2006). Reflection is equated
with Kant’s notion of judgement and contrasted with his notion of understanding. The former
is considered by Kant and cited in Procee (2006, p.246). "A peculiar talent which can be
practised only, and cannot be taught".

Whilst understanding is described thus,

"Capable of being instructed and of being equipped with rules" (p.246).

Kant’s 'understanding' is related by Procee (2006) to formal education in which conceptual

and theoretical content dominates. By contrast judgment, and hence reflection, is considered
to be the domain of the individual who makes,

"All kinds of connections in their attempts to discover the world, their profession, and
themselves" Procee (2006, p.249).

Procee (2006) characterises these connections as intimate and involving the individual, the
subject and judgment. He concludes that,

"Reflection, in my view, is first and foremost aimed at personal and professional

empowerment" (p.252).

As a consequence of the individual nature of the reflective process, as conceptualised by

Procee (2006), it is not considered possible to construct a format by which successful
reflection may be achieved.

Michael Foucault (1926-1984)

Foucault offers an early view of the social implications of critical self-reflection. He saw it as
a process of transformation with implications for wider society. Critical self-reflection was an
opportunity to move beyond superficial contemplation, to in depth consideration tied
inextricably to social-well-being. Through this thinking, it is possible to consider the wider
implications of our own practice, or organization. Foucault writes of self-reflection as an
opportunity to see beyond the current, the status quo, to what might be, and through that
thinking, to explore different ways of acting, rather than using reflection as an opportunity to
justify current policy or practice. Through this, individuals, groups, or organizations seek to
grow beyond professional development. This idea might be linked within the IB, whose goal
is to create internationally minded, globally aware citizens.

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Moon's learning journals

Moon (2006) describes a learning journal as a collection of material that is based on the
writer’s processes of reflection and compares it to an artist’s sketchbook. Engagement in its
writing is considered by Moon (2006) to provide favourable conditions for learning by:

 Slowing its pace

 Increasing a sense of ownership
 Acknowledging the role of emotion
 Providing experience of dealing with ill structured material of learning
 Encouraging learning about the process of learning
 Enhancing learning through the process of writing

To establish a theoretical basis for the role of reflective practice, Moon (2006) makes
reference to a constructivist view of learning. This view suggests that new learning material
is accommodated dependent on the existing structure of learning and that structure itself can
be altered by the new material. Reflective writing is associated with the process of
accommodation and subsequently transformation. Additionally, there is recognition by Moon
(2006) that the cognitive structure of learning can be altered without exposure to new
material and that reflective writing can promote such change. Therefore new learning can
emerge from reflection on the existing structure as well from accommodation of, and
reflection on, new material. The notion of learning and reflection are bound up together, as
illustrated by use of the phrase 'reflective learning'. Some of the particular advantages of
learning journals to be highlighted by Moon (2006) include:

 usefulness to returners to education due to the functions of raising awareness of

learning and integrating varied experiences.
 deepening thinking when learning journals are utilised interactively between equals.
This is associated with a slowing of pace, which in turn can be a virtue of the
particular media of interaction employed.
 an increasing comfort, strengthening voice and confidence in the professional role.

For a learning journal to serve the purposes described above, Moon (2006) indicates that
certain conditions apply and these include:

 a conscious and in an academic sense, stated purpose to the reflection

 clarity as to the degree to which the writing is shared, due to the potential of audience
awareness to influence the writing
 Utilisation of an informal writing style.

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Moon (2006) identifies difficulty with the assessment of reflective writing. She cites Dillon
(1983) who considers such assessment a barrier to effective reflection and Sumsion and
Fleet (1996) who describe problems with consistency and equity. In response, Moon (2006)
favours assessment at a later and deeper stage of writing enabled by distance from the
events and which may cite from the learning journal.

The practicalities of starting to write and managing a learning journal are explored in chapter
9 of Moon’s book, Learning Journals: A Handbook for Reflective Practice and Professional
Development.

Bolton's reflective writing

Gillie Bolton describes an affinity between reflective practice and professionalism. Reflective
practice is referred to by Bolton (2001) as 'critical research' and exploration of the political,
cultural and social contexts through texts is considered part of the process.

She believes that genuine reflective practice involves encountering and working with
uncertainty; it is defined in her work as a state of mind or an attitude. The notion of reflection
through story telling emerges from the importance of exploring experience, knowledge,
values and identity over any attempt to arrive at a true account. The need to describe actual
events is further challenged by promoting the exploration of a situation from a range of
different viewpoints and standing outside of ones own thought processes, values, prejudices
and habitual actions.

The approach rests on the understanding that our professional and personal selves are
inter-related. Bolton (2001) explains that writing itself, rather than thinking and then writing, is
considered a means of accessing emotions, thoughts and experiences and therefore refers
to "reflection in writing"(p.5).

A narrative and aesthetic form is offered as one that expresses the way our cognitive,
physical and spiritual selves are intermixed. The reference to 'aesthetic' emphasises that
stories represent thoughts and feelings rather than events. Such an understanding permits
omission of irrelevant, confidential or awkward detail. Sharing writing with peers in a
facilitated forum is encouraged in order to gain additional insight by encountering differing
viewpoints which may emerge from responses.

Bolton (2001) describes certain preconditions for successful sharing of this type:

A safe, closed environment

Agreed parameters of behaviour

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A time limit

An understanding that dialogue rather than debate be pursued and intellectual points scoring
be avoided

A degree of involvement dependent on strengths, wants and needs

Responses be about the writing not the writer

In her book, Reflective Practice: Writing and Professional Development, Bolton (2001)
provides many examples of reflective writing, advice on starting to write and an indication of
possible ground rules and roles, including facilitative, involved in group work.

Activity 3: Group Discussion

Consider the theoretical and practical differences between the various models and theories
of reflection. Is there one approach which is most relevant to you in your role?

Critically evaluate the practicality of implementation. Is there a potential mismatch between

theory and practice? What barriers might prohibit effective implementation? Use literature to
develop your ideas.

Post your comment to Communications - Group Discussion, Your Approach to Reflection 

Activity 4: Group Discussion

Larrivee (2000, p. 293, quoted in Finlay, 2008) writes:

“Unless teachers develop the practice of critical reflection, they stay trapped in
unexamined judgments, interpretations, assumptions, and expectations. Approaching
teaching as a reflective practitioner involves fusing personal beliefs and values into a
professional identity”.

Based on your work, and associated readings in this chapter, critically respond to this quote.
Post your thoughts in the Discussion Board titled: Critical Reflection in Teaching: A Critical
Response.

Preparing for Learning and Change

Readiness for change might involve an understanding that the change could involve feelings
and emotions. We have all changed in order to be where we are so we should expect that
process of change to continue.

Identifying who and what influenced previous learning and development, and hence change
may promote preparedness for new learning development and change.

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Be prepared to:

 return to and evaluate experiences

 think about what you remembered about the experiences
 about how you reacted and responded to certain experiences
 analyse what you thought of yourself and others in the circumstances.
 attend to and try and connect with feelings that experiences engendered
 be open, thoughtful, analytical and questioning of yourself, writing later.

Consider:

Who and what have influenced where I am now?

To analyse where you are now as a professional, you will have encountered various
agencies of influence. Some of the possibilities are considered below.

People:

Discourse with colleagues, friends or family in work or other contexts.

Change of management or leadership style.

Formal professional development:

Experiences and discourse through attending courses and conferences.

In-house staff development

Employer staff development initiatives:

Engagement in a formal review or evaluation process

Position:

The different settings you have worked in

Your role; its demands and requirements

Change of personal position or responsibilities

New challenges put your way

Reading:

Reading of national documents

Reading about research in articles or the media

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Reading about educational initiatives, learning and teaching or curricular reform

Reflection:

Engagement in a self-evaluation process

Reflection on practice

Shared reflection on practice.

 
Activity 5: Growing through Reflection

Take time to consider each of the headings above. Using your journal, think, reflect and write
down your thoughts about what influenced you and how. The list is not exhaustive so be
attentive to agencies of influence that do not appear in the list and include these in your
writing.

This will get you thinking about this process being an active process and make you feel that
you learn by doing, rather than just learning by reading. You may find this skill very relevant
when it comes to the summative assessment of this module.

Professional Change

As professional educators we have had to engage with continual change that might have
involved organisation, the curriculum, teaching approaches, assessment, testing, etc. At
times everyone will have questioned such change and possibly resisted it. This might be
because, as explained by MacGilchrist, Myers and Reed (1997), change can challenge
fundamental beliefs and attitudes. So change that is encountered as part of our professional
role has to be accommodated alongside our own cognitive and perhaps emotional change.

A distinction is being made between change that is brought to us from external sources and
our own internal development and change. At this stage, although the two are inter related,
we are concerned with the latter as a prelude to reflection and new learning, itself involving
the need for further change.

Who am I as a professional?

The themes that have been explored collaboratively throughout this unit, together with the
reflective tasks, have been designed to help identify what it means to you to be a
professional now and where you have reached as a member of your profession.

Try and bring these thoughts together in an analysis of:

Where you have reached as a member of your profession. In the analysis pay attention to:

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 Leadership, roles and responsibilities

 Beliefs about the profession
 Values and ethics

Beliefs and assumptions

As suggested earlier, our actions, including responses to external change are dependent on
our beliefs and assumptions. Alexander (1992), referring to educational practice, which he
considers to be that which can be observed taking place in classrooms, believes that: "To
make sense of what we see we need to encounter the educational ideas and assumptions in
which the observable practice is grounded" (p.53).

Referring to his conceptual framework of educational practice, Alexander (1992), broadly

groups underlying ideas under three headings:

 Children - most teaching rests on assumptions about what they can or cannot do,
what they need, how they can develop, how they learn, how best they can be
motivated and encouraged.
 Society - teachers usually have some sense of demands and expectations which
emanate from outside the school, of the needs of society or particular sections of it
and of the needs of the individual in relation to that society. Reconciling and
balancing these is one of the central challenges of every teacher and every school.
 Nature of knowledge - all teaching rests upon ideas about the nature of knowledge;
its structure; its character; its source - whether newly created by each individual and
culturally evolved or handed on from one generation to the next.

This framework might assist in an articulation of our beliefs and assumptions. Take time to
consider each of Alexander's headings and try to give shape to your own beliefs and
assumptions by writing against each of the headings.

Summary

Through the material in this part of unit 1, you have begun to develop your knowledge and
understanding about critical reflection. Through each model and theory presented, you were
introduced to three fundamental processes of critical reflection: retrospection, an ability to
look back and think about a situation; self-evaluation, involving critical analysis and
evaluation of the actions and feelings embedded within an experience; reorientation,
applying what you have learned through self-evaluation to shape future actions (Quinn,
2000, p.82).

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Having completed this section of the unit, it is important that you have been engaging in your
own background reading. As was mentioned in the start of the module, it is vital you find a
model of reflection which works for you - not all do, and for some, this process will offer
unique challenges that require new skills, and new approaches to thinking about issues
within your practice.

Remember to add main points taken from the readings in your 'My Journal' and to reference
extracts using guidance given. The articles and/or books read should also be placed in a
bibliography.

Remember the reasons why, at this point in your career, you decided to embark upon this
course. It is an opportunity to develop knowledge and understanding within the IB, and will
bring about a transformation in your thinking, your beliefs and in your actions.

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