Chapter 4

Discrete probability distributions

BB113 Statistics and its applications
Jan. – Apr. 2020

Textbook: Chapter 5

Copyright © 2017, 2014, 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter 5 - 1

 Objectives
In this chapter, you learn:
 The properties of a probability distribution.

 How to compute the expected value and variance

of a probability distribution.

 How to compute probabilities from binomial and

Poisson distributions.

 How to use the binomial and Poisson.

Copyright © 2017, 2014, 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter 5 - 2

 Definitions

 A random variable represents a possible

numerical value from an uncertain event.

 Discrete variables produce outcomes that

come from a counting process (e.g. number of
classes you are taking).

 Continuous variables produce outcomes that

come from a measurement (e.g. your annual
salary, or your weight).

Copyright © 2017, 2014, 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter 5 - 3

Types Of Variables

Types Of
Variables

Discrete Continuous
Variable Variable

Copyright © 2017, 2014, 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter 5 - 4

 Discrete Variables
 Can only assume a countable number of
values.
Examples:

 Roll a die twice

Let X be the number of times 4 occurs
(then X could be 0, 1, or 2 times).

 Toss a coin 5 times.

Let X be the number of heads
(then X = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5).
Copyright © 2017, 2014, 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter 5 - 5
Probability Distribution For A Discrete
Variable
 A probability distribution for a discrete variable is a
mutually exclusive list of all possible numerical outcomes
for that variable and a probability of occurrence associated
with each outcome.

Table 1 Interruptions Per Day Probability

Probability distribution of the In Computer Network
number of interruptions per day
0 0.35
in a large computer network
1 0.25
2 0.20
3 0.10
4 0.05
5 0.05
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 Probability Distributions Are
Often Represented Graphically
P(X)

0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

0 1 2 3 4 5 X

Figure 1: Probability distribution of the number of interruptions per day in a large

computer network

Copyright © 2017, 2014, 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter 5 - 7

Expected Value Of Discrete Variables,
Measuring Center

Expected Value (or mean) of a discrete variable

(Weighted Average):

𝜇=𝐸 𝑋 = 𝑥𝑖 𝑃(𝑋 = 𝑥𝑖 )
𝑖=1

where
𝑥𝑖 = the ith value of the discrete variable 𝑋
𝑃 𝑋 = 𝑥𝑖 = probability of occurrence of the ith value of 𝑋

Copyright © 2017, 2014, 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter 5 - 8

Example: Compute and interpret the expected value
of the number of interruptions per day in a large
computer network.
Interruptions Per Day In Probability
Computer Network 𝑷(𝑿 = 𝒙𝒊 ) 𝒙𝒊 𝑷(𝑿 = 𝒙𝒊 )
𝒙𝒊
0 0.35
1 0.25
2 0.20
3 0.10
4 0.05
5 0.05
1.00 𝝁=𝑬 𝑿 =

The mean number of interruptions per day is

Copyright © 2017, 2014, 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter 5 - 9

 Discrete Variables:
Measuring Dispersion
 Variance of a discrete variable.
𝑁

𝜎2 = 𝑥𝑖 − 𝜇 2 𝑃(𝑋 = 𝑥𝑖 )
𝑖=1

 Standard Deviation of a discrete variable.

𝜎= 𝜎2 = 𝑥𝑖 − 𝜇 2 𝑃(𝑋 = 𝑥𝑖 )
𝑖=1
where:
𝜇 = Mean/Expected value of the discrete variable 𝑋
𝑥𝑖 = the ith outcome of 𝑋
𝑃(𝑋 = 𝑥𝑖) = Probability of the ith occurrence of 𝑋

Copyright © 2017, 2014, 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter 5 - 10

Discrete Variables:
Measuring Dispersion Computing
formula

 Variance of a discrete variable.

𝑁

𝜎2 = 𝑥𝑖2 𝑃(𝑋 = 𝑥𝑖 ) − 𝜇2
𝑖=1

 Standard Deviation of a discrete variable.

𝜎= 𝜎2 = 𝑥𝑖2 𝑃(𝑋 = 𝑥𝑖 ) − 𝜇2
𝑖=1
where:
𝜇 = Mean/Expected value of the discrete variable 𝑋
𝑥𝑖 = the ith outcome of 𝑋
𝑃(𝑋 = 𝑥𝑖) = Probability of the ith occurrence of 𝑋

Copyright © 2017, 2014, 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter 5 - 11

Discrete Variables: Measuring Dispersion
𝑁 (continued)
𝜎= 𝑥𝑖2 𝑃(𝑋 = 𝑥𝑖 ) − 𝜇2
𝑖=1 𝜇=𝐸 𝑋 =
𝒙𝒊 𝑷(𝑿 = 𝒙𝒊 ) 𝒙𝟐𝒊 𝒙𝟐𝒊 𝑷(𝑿 = 𝒙𝒊 ) 𝜎=
0 0.35
1 0.25
2 0.20
3 0.10
Roughly speaking, on
4 0.05
average, the number of
5 0.05 interruptions per day is
𝑁 ________ from the mean
1.00
𝑥𝑖2 𝑃 𝑋 = 𝑥𝑖 = of _______ interruptions.
𝑖=1

Copyright © 2017, 2014, 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter 5 - 12

 Probability Distributions
Probability
Distributions

Discrete Continuous
Probability Probability
Distributions Distributions

Binomial Normal

Poisson Uniform

Copyright © 2017, 2014, 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter 5 - 13

 Binomial Probability Distribution
 A fixed number of observations, 𝑛.
 e.g., 15 tosses of a coin; ten light bulbs taken
from a warehouse.

 Each observation is classified into one of

two mutually exclusive & collectively
exhaustive categories.
 e.g., head or tail in each toss of a coin; defective or
not defective light bulb.

Copyright © 2017, 2014, 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter 5 - 14

 Binomial Probability Distribution
 The probability of being classified as the event
of interest, 𝑝, is constant from observation to
observation.
 Probability of getting a tail is the same each time we toss
the coin.
 Since the two categories are mutually exclusive and
collectively exhaustive, when the probability of the event of
interest is 𝑝, the probability of the event of interest not
occurring is 1 – 𝑝.

 The value of any observation is independent of

the value of any other observation.
Copyright © 2017, 2014, 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter 5 - 15
 Possible Applications for the
Binomial Distribution
 A manufacturing plant labels items as either
defective or acceptable.
 A firm bidding for contracts will either get a
contract or not.
 A marketing research firm receives survey
responses of “yes I will buy” or “no I will not.”
 New job applicants either accept the offer or
reject it.

Copyright © 2017, 2014, 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter 5 - 16

 The Binomial Distribution
Counting Techniques
 Suppose the event of interest is obtaining heads on the
toss of a fair coin. You are to toss the coin three times.
In how many ways can you get two heads?

 Possible ways: HHT, HTH, THH, so there are three

ways you can getting two heads.

 This situation is fairly simple. We need to be able to

count the number of ways for more complicated
situations.

Copyright © 2017, 2014, 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter 5 - 17

 Counting Techniques
Rule of Combinations

 The number of combinations of selecting 𝑥

objects out of 𝑛 objects is:
Binomial
coefficient
𝑛 𝑛! 𝑛
𝐶𝑥 = =
𝑥! 𝑛 − 𝑥 ! 𝑥

where:
𝑛! = 𝑛 𝑛 − 1 𝑛 − 2 ⋯ (2)(1)
𝑥! = 𝑥 𝑥 − 1 𝑥 − 2 ⋯ (2)(1)
0! = 1 (by definition)

Copyright © 2017, 2014, 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter 5 - 18

 Counting Techniques
Rule of Combinations

 How many possible 3 scoop combinations could you

create at an ice cream parlor if you have 31 flavors to
select from and no flavor can be used more than once
in the 3 scoops?
 The total choices is 𝑛 = 31, and we select 𝑥 = 3.

31 31! 31
𝐶3 = = = 4495
3! 31 − 3 ! 3

Copyright © 2017, 2014, 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter 5 - 19

 Binomial Distribution Formula
𝑛 𝑥 𝑛−𝑥
𝑃 𝑋 = 𝑥 𝑛, 𝑝 = 𝑝 1−𝑝
𝑥

𝑃 𝑋 = 𝑥 𝑛, 𝑝 = probability that 𝑋 = 𝑥 events of

interest, given 𝑛 and 𝑝
𝑥 = number of “events of interest” in sample, Example: Flip a coin
(𝑥 = 0, 1, 2, … , 𝑛) four times, let 𝑋 = #
𝑛 = sample size (number of trials heads:
or observations) 𝑛 = 4; 𝑝 = 0.5;
𝑝 = probability of “event of interest”
1 − 𝑝 = 1 − 0.5 = 0.5
𝑥 = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4
1 – 𝑝 = probability of not having an
event of interest

Copyright © 2017, 2014, 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter 5 - 20

Example:
Calculating a Binomial Probability
What is the probability of one success in five observations
if the probability of an event of interest is 0.1?

𝑥 = 1, 𝑛 = 5, and 𝑝 = 0.1

Copyright © 2017, 2014, 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter 5 - 21

The Binomial Distribution
Example
Suppose the probability of an invoice payment being late is
0.10. What is the probability of 1 late invoice payment in a
group of 4 invoices?
𝑥 = 1, 𝑛 = 4, and 𝑝 = 0.1

Copyright © 2017, 2014, 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter 5 - 22

Computing Binomial Probabilities In
Excel
Suppose the probability of an invoice
payment being late is 0.10. What is
the probability of 1 late invoice
payment in a group of 4 invoices?
x = 1, n = 4, and p = 0.10

Copyright © 2017, 2014, 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter 5 - 23

The Binomial Distribution Using
Binomial Tables
𝑥 = 1, 𝑛 = 4, and 𝑝 = 0.10

n=4
x p =.10 p =.20 p =.25 p =.30 p =.35 p =.40 p =.45 p =.50
0 0.6561 0.4096 0.3164 0.2401 0.1785 0.1296 0.0915 0.0625 4
1 0.2916 0.4096 0.4219 0.4116 0.3845 0.3456 0.2995 0.2500 3
2 0.0486 0.1536 0.2109 0.2646 0.3105 0.3456 0.3675 0.3750 2
3 0.0036 0.0256 0.0469 0.0756 0.1115 0.1536 0.2005 0.2500 1
4 0.0001 0.0016 0.0039 0.0081 0.0150 0.0256 0.0410 0.0625 0

p =.90 p =.80 p =.75 p =.70 p =.65 p =.60 p =.55 p =.50 x

Copyright © 2017, 2014, 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter 5 - 24

 The Binomial Distribution Using
Binomial Tables
n = 10

x … p =.20 p =.25 p =.30 p =.35 p =.40 p =.45 p =.50

0 … 0.1074 0.0563 0.0282 0.0135 0.0060 0.0025 0.0010 10

1 … 0.2684 0.1877 0.1211 0.0725 0.0403 0.0207 0.0098 9
2 … 0.3020 0.2816 0.2335 0.1757 0.1209 0.0763 0.0439 8
3 … 0.2013 0.2503 0.2668 0.2522 0.2150 0.1665 0.1172 7
4 … 0.0881 0.1460 0.2001 0.2377 0.2508 0.2384 0.2051 6
5 … 0.0264 0.0584 0.1029 0.1536 0.2007 0.2340 0.2461 5
6 … 0.0055 0.0162 0.0368 0.0689 0.1115 0.1596 0.2051 4
7 … 0.0008 0.0031 0.0090 0.0212 0.0425 0.0746 0.1172 3
8 … 0.0001 0.0004 0.0014 0.0043 0.0106 0.0229 0.0439 2
9 … 0.0000 0.0000 0.0001 0.0005 0.0016 0.0042 0.0098 1
10 … 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0001 0.0003 0.0010 0

… p =.80 p =.75 p =.70 p =.65 p =.60 p =.55 p =.50 x

Examples:
𝑛 = 10, 𝑝 = 0.35, 𝑥 = 3: 𝑃(𝑋 = 3|10, 0.35) = 0.2522
𝑛 = 10, 𝑝 = 0.75, 𝑥 = 8: 𝑃(𝑋 = 8|10, 0.75) = 0.2816

Copyright © 2017, 2014, 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter 5 - 25

 The Binomial Distribution
Shape

 The shape of the

𝑷(𝑿 = 𝒙|𝟓, 𝟎. 𝟏)
binomial distribution .6
depends on the values .4
of 𝑝 and 𝑛. .2
 Here, 𝑛 = 5 and 𝑝 = 0.1. 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 x

𝑷(𝑿 = 𝒙|𝟓, 𝟎. 𝟓)
.6
.4
 Here, 𝑛 = 5 and 𝑝 = 0.5. .2
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 x

Copyright © 2017, 2014, 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter 5 - 26

 Binomial Distribution
Characteristics

 Mean: 𝜇 = 𝐸 𝑋 = 𝑛𝑝

 Variance and Standard Deviation:

𝜎 2 = 𝑛𝑝(1 − 𝑝)

𝜎= 𝑛𝑝(1 − 𝑝)
where 𝑛 = sample size
𝑝 = probability of the event of interest for any trial
(1 – 𝑝) = probability of no event of interest for any trial
Copyright © 2017, 2014, 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter 5 - 27
 The Binomial Distribution
Characteristics

Examples 𝑷(𝑿 = 𝒙|𝟓, 𝟎. 𝟏)

𝜇 = 𝑛𝑝 = 5 0.1 = 0.5 .6
.4
𝜎 = 𝑛𝑝(1 − 𝑝) .2
= 5(0.1)(1 − 0.1) 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 x
= 0.6708
𝜇 = 𝑛𝑝 = 5 0.5 = 2.5 𝑷(𝑿 = 𝒙|𝟓, 𝟎. 𝟓)
.6
𝜎 = 𝑛𝑝(1 − 𝑝) .4
= 5(0.5)(1 − 0.5) .2
0
= 1.118
0 1 2 3 4 5 x

Copyright © 2017, 2014, 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter 5 - 28

 The Poisson Distribution
Definitions Area of opportunity =
Fixed interval of time or space

 You use the Poisson distribution when you

are interested in the number of times an event
occurs in a given area of opportunity.
 An area of opportunity is a continuous unit or
interval of time, volume, or such area in which
more than one occurrence of an event can
occur.
 The number of scratches in a car’s paint.
 The number of mosquito bites on a person.
 The number of computer crashes in a day

Copyright © 2017, 2014, 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter 5 - 29

 The Poisson Distribution
 Apply the Poisson Distribution when:
 You are interested in counting the number of times a
particular event occurs in a given area of opportunity. An
area of opportunity is defined by time, length, surface area,
and so forth.
 Theprobability that an event in a given area of opportunity is
the same for all the areas of opportunity.
 Thenumber of events that occur in one area of opportunity
is independent of the number of events that occur in any
other area of opportunity.
 The probability that two or more events will occur in an area
of opportunity approaches zero as the area of opportunity
becomes smaller.
 The average number of events per unit is  (lambda).

Copyright © 2017, 2014, 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter 5 - 30

Example
Consider the number of customers arriving during the
lunch hour at a bank.

You are interested in the number of customers who

arrive each minute.

Copyright © 2017, 2014, 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter 5 - 31

Event of interest: customer arriving.
Given area of opportunity: a one-minute interval.
Will 0 customers arrive, 1 customer arrive, and so on?

Is it reasonable to assume
P(a customer arrives during a particular 1-minute interval) =
P(all other 1-minute intervals)

The arrival of 1 customer in any 1-minute interval has no effect

on the arrival of any other customers in any other 1-minute
interval.

The prob. of 2 or more customers will arrive in a given time

period approaches 0 as the time interval becomes small.
Copyright © 2017, 2014, 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter 5 - 32
 Poisson Distribution Formula

𝑒 −𝜆 𝜆𝑥
𝑃 𝑋=𝑥𝜆 =
𝑥!

where:
𝑥 = number of events in an area of opportunity
 = expected number of events
𝑒 = base of the natural logarithm system (2.71828...)

Copyright © 2017, 2014, 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter 5 - 33

Poisson Distribution
Characteristics

 Mean: 𝜇=𝜆

 Variance and Standard Deviation:

𝜎2 = 𝜆

𝜎= 𝜆

where  = expected number of events.

Copyright © 2017, 2014, 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter 5 - 34

 The Poisson Distribution

 Example

Copyright © 2017, 2014, 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter 5 - 35

 The Poisson Distribution

 Solution:

Copyright © 2017, 2014, 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter 5 - 36

 The Poisson Distribution

Example:
The average customer arrival rate at a drive-thru
window of a fast food restaurant is 0.5 customers
per minute. What is the probability that 2
customers arrive in a minute?

𝑥 = 2, 𝜆 = 0.5

Copyright © 2017, 2014, 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter 5 - 37

Using Excel For The Poisson Distribution
The average customer arrival rate at a drive-thru
window of a fast food restaurant is 0.5 customers
per minute. What is the probability that 2
customers arrive in a minute?
𝑥 = 2, 𝜆 = 0.50

Copyright © 2017, 2014, 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter 5 - 38

Using Poisson Tables (Available
Online) The average customer arrival rate at a drive-thru
window of a fast food restaurant is 0.5 customers
per minute. What is the probability that 2
customers arrive in a minute?
𝑥 = 2, 𝜆 = 0.50


0.10 0.20 0.30 0.40 0.50 0.60 0.70 0.80 0.90
X
0 0.9048 0.8187 0.7408 0.6703 0.6065 0.5488 0.4966 0.4493 0.4066
1 0.0905 0.1637 0.2222 0.2681 0.3033 0.3293 0.3476 0.3595 0.3659
2 0.0045 0.0164 0.0333 0.0536 0.0758 0.0988 0.1217 0.1438 0.1647
3 0.0002 0.0011 0.0033 0.0072 0.0126 0.0198 0.0284 0.0383 0.0494
4 0.0000 0.0001 0.0003 0.0007 0.0016 0.0030 0.0050 0.0077 0.0111
5 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0001 0.0002 0.0004 0.0007 0.0012 0.0020
6 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0001 0.0002 0.0003
7 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000

Copyright © 2017, 2014, 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter 5 - 39

 Graph of Poisson Probabilities

Graphically:
 = 0.50

𝑋  = 0.50

0 0.6065
1 0.3033
2 0.0758
3 0.0126
4 0.0016
5 0.0002
6 0.0000
𝑃(𝑋 = 2 | = 0.50) = 0.0758
7 0.0000

Copyright © 2017, 2014, 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter 5 - 40

 Poisson Distribution Shape

 The shape of the Poisson Distribution

depends on the parameter :
 = 0.50  = 3.00

Copyright © 2017, 2014, 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter 5 - 41