ENT 311 – MEDICAL ELECTRONICS AND BIO-
INSTRUMENTATION
WEEK: 4 & 5
ORIGIN OF BIOPOTENTIALS
Prepared by:
Dr M.Murugappan
Universiti Malaysia Perlis
ENT 311: MEDICAL ELECTRONICS AND BIO-INSTRUMENTATION
• Origin of Biopotentials
• The Cell Membrane
• Living cell properties
• Biopotential generation
• Volume Conductor Fields and Experiment
• Muscles Revisited
• Muscle Physiology
• Bioelectric signals
• Recording methods
• Conclusion
BIOPOTENTIAL
• Bioelectrical potential or biopotential is a result of electrochemical activity
across the membrane of the selective cells/tissues/organisms.
• Definition: Ionic voltages produced as a result of the electrochemical activity of
excitable cells.
• Give 3 different cell classes associated under excitable cells.
• Cell classes:
i. Nervous cells
Can produce bioelectric potentials as a result of electrochemical
ii. Muscular cells activity
iii. Glandular cells
• Transducers (biosensors) are used to convert ionic potentials into electrical
potentials.
• Electrically, they exhibit resting potential.
• When properly stimulated, an action potential will be generated.
ENT 311: MEDICAL ELECTRONICS AND BIO-INSTRUMENTATION
ENT 311: MEDICAL ELECTRONICS AND BIO-INSTRUMENTATION
Main component
constituting
human’s
nervous
system.
THE CELL MEMBRANE
• Fluid Mosaic Model -Phospholipid bilayer with
proteins, cholesterol, glycoproteins (lipoproteins)
• Na+ - Sodium ions
• K+ - Potassium ions
• A- - Anions
• Cl- - Chlorines
• Selectively permeable-allows the passage
of some not all ions (Na+ & K+)
• Forms barrier that separates cell from its
environment (intra cellular and extra cellular)
• Controls what enters and exits the cell
• Site of signal conduction
LIVING CELL PROPERTIES
• Intra- and Extracellular fluids : Na+, Cl-, K+
• Concentration of potassium (K+) ions is 30-50 times higher inside as
compared to outside
• Sodium ion (Na+) concentration is 10 times higher outside the membrane
than inside
• Membrane keeps high Ki+ , Low Nai+ and Low Cli-
• Membrane 7- 15 nm thick lipoprotein
• Membrane impermeable to intracellular protein
• Membrane is moderately permeable to Na+ and freely permeable to K+ and
Cl-
PRINCIPLE OF CONDUCTION IN MEMBRANE
MEMBRANE ION CHANNELS
• Passive (leakage) channel:
Always open.
• Active (gated) channel:
Have protein molecules that open or closes
in response to various signals.
• Active channels can further be classified to:
i. Transmitter-gated
ii. Voltage-gated
BIO-INSTRUMENTATION
PRINCIPLE OF CONDUCTION IN MEMBRANE
• When the gated ion channels open, ions diffuse quickly across the membrane
following their electrochemical gradient, creating electrical currents and
voltage change across the membrane.
• This is given by the following equation.
Voltage (V) = Current (I) x Resistance (R)
• In the body, electrical currents reflect the flow of ions (rather than free
electrons) across cellular membranes.
ELECTRO-CHEMICAL GRADIENT IN MEMBRANE
• The electrochemical gradient are a
combination of electrical and chemical
gradient.
• Electrical gradient:
Ions move to the area of opposite electrical
charge.
• Chemical gradient:
Ions diffuse passively from an area of high
concentration to an area of low concentration.
RESTING POTENTIAL
• Two potentials created in the membrane
• Resting Potential
• Action Potential
ENT 311: MEDICAL ELECTRONICS AND
RESTING POTENTIAL
RESTING POTENTIAL
• The potential difference between two points is measured by using two
microelectrodes connected to a voltmeter.
• The potential difference between the inside and the outside of the neuron
membrane measures about
-70mV.
• The cytoplasmic side of the neuron is negatively charged compared
to outside.
RESTING POTENTIAL
ENT 311: MEDICAL ELECTRONICS AND BIO-INSTRUMENTATION
Sodium and potassium plays the
most important role in
generation of membrane
potential.
• At rest the membrane is polarized, slightly negative in and positive out
• This potential difference is called the resting membrane potential and its
mainly due to the unequal distribution of Na+ and K+ across the membrane
• There is more Na+ outside the membrane
• There is more K+ inside the membrane.
• At rest the membrane is 50 to 100 times more permeable to K+ than to Na+
• For the most part, the membrane is impermeable to negative ions
• Range of resting potential varies between different types of neurons (-40mV
to -90mV).
• Cell cytosol (Intracellular) :
i. Low concentration of sodium (Na+) and high concentration of potassium
(K+) than the extracellular fluid.
ii. The negatively charged proteins (A-) help to balance positive charges of
intracellular cations (primarily K+).
• Extracellular fluid:
i. High concentration of sodium (Na+) and low concentration of potassium
(K+) than the cell cytosol.
ii. In the extracellular fluid, the positive charges of sodium and other
cations are balanced chiefly by chloride ions (Cl-).
• How does the ionic difference exists and maintained?
i. Differential permeability of the plasma membrane to sodium and
potassium ions.
ii. Operation of sodium-operation pump, which actively transports Na+ out
of the cell and K+ into the cell.
• At rest the membrane is:
i. Impermeable to large anionic cytoplasmic proteins.
ii. Slightly permeable to sodium.
iii. 75 times more permeable to potassium than sodium.
iv. Freely permeable to chlorine ions.
• This reflects the properties of passive ion channels.
NERNST EQUATION –RESTING POTENTIAL MEASUREMENT
Equilibrium potential for potassium:
RT K o
EK ln
nF Ki
Where,
R : Universal gas constant (8.31 Joule/mol.oK)
T : Absolute temperature in oK
N : Valence of K
F : Faraday constant (96500 c/equivalent)
[K]i : Intracellular concentration of potassium ions
[K]o : Extracellular concentration of potassium ions
ENT 311: MEDICAL ELECTRONICS AND BIO-INSTRUMENTATION
GOLDMAN EQUATION –RESTING POTENTIAL MEASUREMENT
Considering other ionic species:
RT P K Na Cl
K Po Na P o Cl i
E ln
F PK PNa PCl Clo
K i Nai
Where,
R : Universal gas constant (8.31 Joule/mol.oK)
T : Absolute temperature
[n]i : Intracellular concentration of ionic species n
[n]o : Extracellular concentration of ionic species n
Pn : Permeability coefficient of ionic species n
1. F : Faraday constant (96500 c/equivalent)
STIMULATIONS – RESTING POTENTIAL TO ACTION POTENTIAL
Resting
Potential
Action
Stimulations
Potential
• Membrane potential used as communication signal to receive, integrate and
sending information.
• Membrane potential can be changed by:
i. Anything that changes the membrane permeability to any type of ion.
ii. Anything that alters ion concentrations on the two sides of membrane.
ENT 311: MEDICAL ELECTRONICS AND BIO-INSTRUMENTATION
ACTION POTENTIAL –IN SHORT
• The action potential is the rapid change in the membrane potential due to
external stimulation or excitation.
• Two phases depolarization and repolarization
• There is a rapid change in the permeability to Na+
• Na+ rushes in following its concentration gradient
• This brings a significant number of positive charges into the cell
• Changes the charge at the inside of the membrane from negative to positive
ACTION POTENTIAL –IN BRIEF
• The principal way of communication by neurons are by generating
and propagating action potentials (APs).
• Only achievable by cells with excitable membranes. Give examples of
these cells.
• Action potential is a brief reversal of the membrane potential with a total
amplitude of 100mV (-70mV to +30mV).
• AP generation and transmission is identical in neurons and skeletal muscle cells.
• Involve 4 main phases:
i. Resting state
ii. Depolarizing phase
iii. Repolarizing phase
iv. Undershoot
DEPOLARIZATION
GENERATION OF ACTION POTENTIAL
• Resting State:
Voltage-gated channels closed.
• Depolarizing Phase:
Increase in sodium permeability and reversal
of membrane potential.
• Repolarizing Phase:
i. Decrease in sodium permeability.
ii. Increase in potassium permeability.
• Undershoot (Hyperpolaization):
Potassium permeability continues.
ONICS AND BIO-INSTRUMENTATION
DEPOLARIZATION
DEPOLARIZATION
DEPOLARIZATION
Reduction in membrane potential.
Entering of Na into the cell from
extracellular side to intercellular side.
The inside of the membrane becomes less
negative than the resting potential.
Includes events where the potential
becomes positive.
ENT 311: MEDICAL ELECTRONICS AND BIO-INSTRUMENTATION
THRESHOLD
• The depolarization needs to reach certain threshold value to generate action
potential.
• A stimulus that depolarizes the cell to a potential higher than the threshold
potential causes the cell to generate an action potential.
• Action Potential:
• Typical firing rate: 1000 action potentials per second for nerves
• All-or-none
• V = 120 mV for nerves
• Value approximately +15mV to +20mV of the resting potential.
THRESHOLD
ENT 311: MEDICAL ELECTRONICS AND BIO-INSTRUMENTATION
VOLUME CONDUCTOR FIELDS
Increase in membrane potential.
The inside of the membrane becomes
more negative than the resting potential.
Mainly due to K+ channels remaining open
for several milli seconds after
repolarization
Extends refractory period
ENT 311: MEDICAL ELECTRONICS AND BIO-INSTRUMENTATION
VOLUME CONDUCTOR FIELDS
• Most biomedical recordings occur on the surface of the body
• Volume conductor electric field
• model for link (mapping) between
• microscopic electrical activity generated within the bioelectric source.
• macroscopic potential distribution produced at the surface of the body
• describes flow of action current through the conducting medium
• conducting medium = infinite (relative to source) volume conductor
• two components of the model
• bioelectric source – modelled as a constant current source.
• conducting medium – modelled as an electrical load as an electrical load.
External medium Local closed (solenoidal)
lines of current flow
++++++++- - - - - - - ++++++++
- - - - - - - - +++++++- - - - - - - -
Active region Axon
- - - - - - - - +++++++- - - - - - - -
++++++++- - - - - - - ++++++++
Resting Repolarized
membrane membrane
Direction of Depolarized
propagation membrane
ENT 311: MEDICAL ELECTRONICS AND BIO-INSTRUMENTATION
• If the extracellular resistance increase, the potential also increases.
• The extracellular load increases by:
i. Increasing the resistivity, .
ii. Reducing the volume of conductor.
• Relate these phenomenon to the basic laws learned. Include the relevant Law
and formula.
VOLUME CONDUCTOR EXPERIMENT
