Cell Biology Notes: Premed-1

Cells
-this is the basic functional unit of all living things (plants, animals, bacteria, fungus, etc)
-this is comprised of many important organelles, or structures, that have different functions
-there are two very different types of cells:
1. Prokaryotes- cells that DO NOT contain a nucleus. (pro = before, karyo =
nucleus)
2. Eukaryotes- cells that contain a nucleus (eu = true, karyo = nucleus)

Prokaryotes
-these are cells that do not contain a nucleus; instead, their genetic material is floating
around in the cytoplasm (liquid component inside the cell). This region of DNA is called the
Nucleoid.
-chronologically these came before eukaryotes, and prokaryotes are less evolved organisms
than eukaryotes
-most prokaryotes are bacteria and are unicellular
(one prokaryotic cell of E. Coli is an entire E. Coli, whereas humans (which are of
eukaryotic origin) require >1,000,000,000 cells to function
-much smaller than eukaryotes
-Prokaryotes also don't have certain other structures that eukaryotes have such as:
1. Mitochondria
2. Chloroplasts
3. Vacuoles
4. Endoplasmic Reticulum
-prokaryotic DNA is thin and circular, having no real ends (like a rubber band or hair tie),
and it lacks chromosomes
-have small circular plasmids floating around in the cytosol (eukaryotes do not have this)
-contain NO membrane bound organelles
-these can sometimes have whip-like flagella or cilia to help with movement
-prokaryotes have a few main shapes:
a) Cocci (round-spherical shape)
b) Bacilli (rod shaped)
c) Spirilla (spiral shaped)
-some prokaryotic bacteria (eg. B. Anthracis) form what are known as Endospores, which
help the bacteria to survive harsh conditions over a long period of time. Once the harsh conditions
are gone, these cells return from a spore formation into a normal proliferating state.
-these often have a cell wall and cell capsule to help prevent them from being destroyed by
antibodies (white blood cells), but Mycoplasma are bacteria that have no cell wall and therefore no
definitive shape.
Eukaryotes
-these cells contain a nucleus, which is a membrane-bound organelle that safely stores the
cell's genetic information in a centralized location
-much larger and more evolved than prokaryotes
-contain membrane-bound organelles
-these are the cells found within animals, plants, and fungi
-contain many important organelles:
1. Nucleus- "control center" of the brain, stores genetic information
2. Nuclear Envelope- the membrane around the nucleus that surrounds and
protects the nucleus
3. Ribosomes- read information from RNA and make proteins. These work with the
"Rough" Endoplasmic Reticulum
4. Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum- synthesize proteins (these are appear rough
under a microscope because they have ribosomes (which help to synthesize proteins) all around its
membrane.
5. Golgi Apparatus- futher develops proteins synthesized in the Rough ER and helps
to transport them to their final locations
6. Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum- this helps to synthesize lipids (fats). Under a
microscope this appears "smooth" due to an absence of ribosomes
7. Vesicles- these are small sacs that can be used to transport molecules from one
area of the cytosol to another (or to the plasma membrane and ultimately out of the cell)
8. Vacuoles- this structure is made by the fusion (joining) of several vesicles.
Basically this is a large version of a vesicle and serves the same function, which is transport of
molecules either through the cell, out of the cell, or into the cell from the outside.
9. Lysosomes- this is the cellular "trash can" or "stomach." Lysosomes are sacs
that are similar in appearance to vesicles but these function to digest waste products from the cell,
and to remove those digested waste products from the cell.
10. Mitochondria- the "power plant" of the cell. These produce energy (ATP) for
the cell to use.
11. Chloroplasts (plants only)- these are the mitochondria of plant cells. Plant cells
do have mitochondria but these play a bigger role in producing energy than the mitochondria.
Chloroplasts produce energy from photosynthesis, (production of energy from sun-rays)
12. Plasma Membrane- this is the outer shell of all cells. In eukaryotes we have a
phospholipid bilayer, (*which is extremely important to know*) and this bilayer functions to have
selective permeability towards molecules (only allows certain molecules in or out of the cell)
13. Cell Wall (plants only)- in plants this is a tough but flexible extra wall around the
plasma membrane. It's main function is to act as a pressure vessel to prevent the cell from
expanding too much as water enters it.
Nucleus
-this is the MOST important structure in the body
-defined as the centralized organization and storage of the genetic material (DNA) within a
eukaryotic cell
-this is the "Brain" of the cell, it controls all aspects of the cell (including the beginning of
cell division)
-only present in Eukaryotic Cells
-the largest organelle in the cell.
-surrounded by a membrance known as the Nuclear Membrane
-the nucleus is comprised of three separate parts:
1. Nucleolus- the center of the nucleus. This contains:
a) Ribosomes- (some of these ribosomes synthesize proteins but most of the
ribosomes that lead to protein synthesis are in the Endoplasmic Reticulum)
b) RNA (Ribonucleic Acid)
c) DNA
d) Proteins
2. Nuclear Envelope- the membrane around the nucleus
3. Chromatin- are the long very thin subtances that contain DNA and proteins which
are formed into packets called Chromosomes. (chromatin literally means "colored substance").
There are two main types of Chromatin
a) Heterochromatin- this is the condensed form of chromatin organization
during cell replication. Chromatin is called heterochromatin whenever the cell is replicating its
DNA for mitosis. Underneath a microscope it is seen as dense patches of chromatin.
Heterochromatin is considered transcriptionally inactive because it doesn't perform any
transcription, it is only multiplying prior to cell division.
b) Euchromatin- this is the threadlike, delicate chromatin that is seen under
the microscope in a cell that is not in a dividing state. This is transcriptionally active because it uses
transcription to send messages to the other parts of the cell

Nuclear Membrane
-defined as the membrane surrounding the nucleus, hence the name Nuclear Membrane
-this structure has a lot of hole, or pores, which act to allow the entrance and outflow of
genetic messengers (mRNA, tRNA, etc)
-attached to the outside of the nuclear membrane is the Endoplasmic Reticulum
-the nuclear envelope functions to both protect the nucleus, and also to allow the nucleus to
controll the rest of the cell via sending messengers through the pores into the cytoplasm or
endoplasmic reticulum.
-the nuclear envelope allows certain molecules (like ATP) into the nucleus, but prevents
others from entering (in order to protect the nucleus)

DNA
-this is an abbreviated term for Deoxyribonucleic Acid
-DNA is the site of the genetic material within the nucleus
-contains the instructions for the production of the cell's proteins and for reproduction
-has a double-helix shape

Protein Biosynthesis (Production)

-A copy of DNA is made and referred to as Messenger RNA (mRNA) using the process of
transcription, which is defined as when the DNA is transcribed (rewritten) into mRNA
-the mRNA then exits from the nucleus via the pores in the nuclear envelope and migrates
into the cytoplasm and make their way to ribosomes
 -the ribosomes read the mRNA and to find out what protein they need to make
-as the ribosomes read each section or the mRNA, (each section is called a codon), it
retrieves the amino acids that the mRNA tells it to get (in order to form a protein).
-Remember that proteins are just long amino acid chains, thus to form a protein the
ribosomes read mRNA and make long amino acid chains, each codon on the mRNA designates the
next amino acid to be paired up in the chain.

Mitochondria
-this is the second most important structure in the cell
-these are the "cellular power plants" that generate energey (ATP) for the cell to power its
constant functions
-cells that require more energy (eg. Heart muscle cells which are beating (contracting)
constantly all day) also have more mitochondria. Thus the more energy a cell needs, the more
mitochondria it will have
-these are rod shaped double-membraned organelles
a) Outer Membrane- just like any other plasma membrane
b) Inner Membrane- highly folded to form Cristae, these foldings greatly increase
the surface area of the mitochondria, increasing its ability to produce ATP
-this double membrane causes there to be two separate compartments
-mitochondria have their own DNA (separate DNA from the nucleus of the cell) and their
own ribosomes
-mitochondrial DNA is passed ONLY from mother to child

Cell Signaling
-cell signaling refers to the process of cells receiving and sending messages to one another
via messengers that activate receptors (message receivers) in order to perform a function

Messengers
-these intercellular messengers can be of many different types:
a) Hormones- these are secreted by specialized cells into the bloodstream. An
example of this is the excretion of epinephrine (aka: adrenaline) from the Adrenal Medulla
b) Local Mediators- these are messengers usually released from one cell to another
c) Neurotransmitters- these are messengers sent directly from nerves to the adjacent
cells. A good example of this is how motor neurons send the neurotransmitter acetylcholine to
skeletal muscle cells which signals for them to contract

Receptors (of messengers)

-this is the "receptionist" of the cell, it receives messengers from outside the cell
 -these are all located on the plasma membrane of the cell
-there are many different types of receptors
-the most common receptor is the Ligand Receptor, a ligand is defined as any substance
which binds to a receptor, (therefore ligand = messenger, and receptor = receiver of the messenger)
-any messenger which activates the receptor to perform a function is known as an Agonist,
and conversely, any messenger which prevents the receptor from performing a function is known as
an Antagonist. (eg. Acetylcholine is a Nicotinic Ach Receptor Agonist, therefore it promotes
skeletal muscle contraction, and Curare is a Nicotinic Ach Receptor Antagonist, therefore it
prevents skeletal muscle contraction)
-Receptors are very specific, they will only allow certain molecules of certain shape, size, or
electrical activity (+, -) to bind to them. Therefore a cell must contain a certain receptor for a ligand
to bind to it (eg. A cell must have some type of Ach Receptor in order for Acetylcholine to bind to
it)
-Receptors can have subclassifications as well, examples of the two different types of
Acetylcholine Receptors (which perform different functions) are listed below:
a) Nicotinic Ach Receptor
b) Muscarinic Ach Receptor

Ligand Gated Ion Channels

-simply stated these are integral membrane proteins (proteins that span the entirety of the
plasma membrane) that allow ligands (messengers) to bind to it, and once the ligand binds to the
receptor, it allows Ions (positively or negatively charged chemical elements eg. Na+, K+, Cl-) to pass
from the outside of the cell to the inside, or from the inside of the cell to the outside.
-the best example of this is the Nicotinic Ach Receptor on skeletal muscle, once
Acetylcholine binds to the receptor, it allows Na+ to flow into the skeletal muscle cell to help
stimulate contraction
-once the ligand binds to this type of receptor it causes a conformational change, which is
defined as a change in shape of the receptor, in order to open up a pathway for the ion to flow
through.

Receptors with Integral Enzyme Activity

-after a ligand (messenger) binds to these receptors, the receptor undergoes a
conformational change in order to send out a signal of its own.
-this type of messaging (when the receptor also sends out a signal of its own) is referred to
as a Second Messenger, because there is more than one messenger involved
-a great example of this is the Tyrosine-Kinase Receptor, after binding to two ligands it
becomes a dimer (di = two), which is two receptors joining together to be able to send a signal
which ultimately, if the receptor was stimulated by VEGF, can lead to Angiogenesis (angio = vessel,
genesis = beginning/formation, therefore angiogenesis is the formation of new blood vessels).

Receptors with NO Integral Enzyme or Channel Activity

-this is another type of receptor that acts using Second Messengers
-typically these receptors send signals to different types of G-Proteins
-any receptor that is coupled to a G-Protein is known as a GPCR (G-Protein Coupled
Reaction) (there are 7 types of these)
-G-Proteins are proteins that bind to GTP (Guanosine Tri-Phosphate, it is an energy
molecule much like ATP)

Heterotrimeric G-Proteins
-these are G-Proteins that have different subunits, 3 to be exact.
-the three subunits are:
a) α-Subunit (alpha subunit)-this part is bound to the GTP
b) β-Subunit (beta subunit)- this isn't attached to the α-subunit but it is attached to the
γ-Subunit
c) γ-Subunit (gamma subunit)- this attaches to the β-Subunit
-once a signal is received by the GPCR, the α-Subunit exchanges the GDP (Guanosine Di-
phosphate) for GTP (Guanosine Tri-phosphate). This activates the α-subunit which sends a signal
to the βγ-Complex.
-this activation of the α-subunit activates the βγ-Complex to separate from the α-subunit and
the receptor and to go out to transmit another signal to other protein messengers.
-finally, when everything is done, the α-subunit hydrolizes the GTP into GDP, which allows
the βγ-Complex to return and attach to both the α-Subunit and the Receptor

Monomeric G-Proteins
-these are seen most often in Tyrosine Kinase Receptors
-they regulate cell growth and differentiation
-they only have one subunit (which is considered the α-subunit), which acts to have GTPase
activity (breaks down GTP into GDP which activates the G-Protein)

G-Proteins are classified according to the type of α-subunit:

G-Protein Function
Gs Stimulates Adenylyl Cyclase
Gi Inhibits Adenylyl Cyclase
Gq Stimulates Phospholipase C
Gt Transduces signals from light to activate
Enzyme Activation (like photosynthesis)