LAKE 2012: National Conference on Conservation and Management of Wetland Ecosystems

06th - 09th November 2012

LAK E 2 0 1 2 School of Environmental Sciences
Mahatma Gandhi University, Kottayam, Kerala
In association with
Energy and Wetlands Research Group, Centre for Advanced Centre of Environmental Studies and Sustainable
Ecological Sciences, Indian Institute of Science, & Development, Mahatma Gandhi University, Kottayam, Kerala
Bangalore

Biodiversity: Western Ghats rivers and wetlands 06

Conservation Strategies for the Hygrophilous Pteridophytes of

Central Western Ghats
Sumesh N. Dudani1, 2, M. K. Mahesh2, M. D. Subash Chandran1 and T. V. Ramachandra1*
1
Energy and Wetlands Research Group, Centre for Ecological Sciences, Indian Institute of
Science, Bangalore – 560 012
2
Department of Botany, Yuvaraja’s College (Autonomous), University of Mysore, Mysore – 57005
Tel: 91-80- 22933099/22933503 (extn 107)
Fax: 91-80-23601428/23600085/23600683[CES-TVR]
Email: sumesh@ces.iisc.ernet.in; mds@ces.iisc.ernet.in; cestvr@ces.iisc.ernet.in
http://ces.iisc.ernet.in/energy
Pteridophytes, the most primitive vascular plants which originated in the Silurian Period 438
million years ago constitute a significant part of the vegetation next only to the angiosperms.
They occur all over the lands barring snow-covered regions and many associated with water-
bodies. Acrostichum aureum is a fern found in mangrove swamps of tropics. The Indian Western
Ghats with about 320 species of ferns and fern-allies is one of the richest regions in
pteridophytes. The pteridophyte richness in the Western Ghats tends to decline from southern to
northern latitudes in correlation with progressive reduction in number of rainy months with
higher latitudes. Thus the 8-12°N latitude, with 8-10 rainy months, shelters 230 species, the
central Western Ghats (12-16°N) with 5-8 rainy months 174 species and northern portion (16-
20°N) with 3-4 rainy months having just 64 species. Of the terrestrial ferns the species that tend
to taper off towards more north are several epiphytic and lithophytic ones of shaded and damp
forests, of cooler and shaded sholas, spray zones of waterfalls, of perennial water courses,
swamps etc. Our study in central Western Ghats indicates that if humid microhabitats such as
Myristica swamps, dipterocarp dominated relic primary forests, perennial waterfalls, sholas etc.,
most sought after for hydro-electric projects, expansion of coffee and tea plantations, betelnut
gardens etc. are prioritized for conservation, the continuance of even relatively rarer
pteridophytes like Cyathea nilgiriensis, Psilotum nudum, Lycopodium squarrosum, Stenochlaena

1
palustris, Lindsea odorata, Hymenophyllum polyanthose and Asplenium crinicole etc. will be
reassured.
Key words: Western Ghats, pteridophytes, conservation, relic forests

1.0 INTRODUCTION arborescent pteridophytes perished en masse these

Pteridophyta (pteron = feather, phyton = plants), swamps were drained and the burial deposits of
also known as ‘vascular cryptogams,’ are the most these ancient pteridophytes are today the major
primitive vascular plants. The earliest of them sources of coal.
appeared on the earth, in the mid-Paleozoic Era
during the Silurian Period around 438 million The arrival and dominance of land during later
years ago. The pteridophytes attained their peak of times by gymnosperms and angiosperms found the
luxuriance during the Carboniferous and started near end of arborescent pteridophytes and greater
declining in diversity and richness thereafter. desiccation of land surfaces, which required more
Their decline continued with the evolution and superior water conducting elements in the xylem,
dominance of flowering plants so much so what is which bulk of the ancient pteridophytes lacked.
left today of the primitive pteridophytes groups, More diminutive pteridophytes co-evolved with
many of them of arborescent nature that gymnosperms and flowering plants, better
dominated the Carboniferous forests, are merely equipped to live in drier conditions. Yet their
seven herbaceous living genera: Psilotum, prolific development happened in humid tropical
Tmesipteris, Equisetum, Lycopodium, forests in the shade and microclimatic conditions
Phylloglossum, Selaginella and Isoetes, all being furnished by the modern forest ecosystems. Those
miniatures of their past. The development of of modern pteridophytes which can live
xylem with woody elements for water conduction independent of the microclimates of forests are
enabled the pteridophytes to be successful mainly hydrophytic ones (like members of
colonizers of drier lands, a big step forward from Marsiliales, Isoetales and Salviniales). Many
the amphibious bryophytes. These vascular plants others are annuals that come up gregariously on
evolved from the bryophytes, which may be called wet soils, damp walls and rocks etc. especially
as the ‘amphibians of the plant kingdom’. The during the rainy season (eg. Ophioglossales,
Bryophytes, mainly the mosses and liverworts, Selaginellales, Adiantales, etc.). The aquatic
primarily lived in wet and humid conditions, and pteridophytes and the seasonal annuals seldom
had no advanced conducting tissues like xylem or faced any threats as they could last as long as their
phloem. The arrival of pteridophytes, with wet habitats remain or the season of rains last. It is
specialized water and food conducting tissues, the others, a great number of species which are
heralded an era of greater colonization of land perennial pteridophytes that constantly require
surfaces, so much so many of them could attain dampness and shade of forests, of stream-sides and
great heights like the flowering trees. Yet the early of marshes and swamps that constitute the subject
pteridophytes had greater dependence on watery matter of this paper, the hygrophilous
habitats, as during the Carboniferous Period, when pteridophytes.
the land was dominated by pteridophytes, the
major groups of which the Lycophytes and The pteridophytes, even the perennial ones, had to
Euphyllophytes, many of them attaining up to 40 retain their evolutionary links with hydrologically
m height, dominated swampy lands. When their rich habitats because of their fragile gametophytic
golden era ended and the Carboniferous generation which live independent of the

2
dominant, larger sized sporophytic generations International, 2005). The rugged range of hills
that are successful in colonizing drier landscapes. stretching for about 1600 km along the west coast
The male gametes produced by the gametophytes from south of Gujarat to the end of the peninsula
are ciliate requiring a watery medium to swim (lat. 8° and 21° N and long. 73° and 78° E), is
about for reaching the archegonium, inside which interrupted only by a 30 km break in Kerala, the
the female gamete is lodged. Therefore, Palghat Gap (Radhakrishna, 2001). Covering a
understandably, to this day, the highest diversity geographical area of about 160,000 km2, the
of pteridophytes is found in the humid tropics, Western Ghats have an average height of 900 m,
their numbers in general declining with increasing with several cliffs rising over 1000 m. The Nilgiri
latitudes because of pronounced seasonality of Plateau to the north and Anamalais to the south of
climates. In the light of these generalizations on the Palghat Gap exceed 2000 m in many places.
the water-relationships of pteridophytes, reviewing Towards the eastern side the Ghats merge with the
their distribution in Western Ghats, and Deccan Plateau which gradually slopes towards
particularly based on field studies in the central the Bay of Bengal. The Western Ghats of
parts of this mountain range, this paper highlights Karnataka state encompasses the areas of Uttara
the importance of conserving all hydrologically Kannada, Shimoga, Chikmagalur, Hassan, Kodagu
significant natural habitats for conservation of and Dakshina Kannada. These areas together form
especially perennial pteridophyte diversity. the Central Western Ghats, a region endowed with
Pteridophytes have highest speciation in moist a wide range of vegetation types and extremely
tropical forests, followed by temperate regions and rich biodiversity.
their decline in diversity is more pronounced with
further increasing latitudes. Each fern species has The Western Ghats form one of the important
its own preferences for temperature, humidity, soil habitats for pteridophytes due to the presence of
type, moisture, etc. Admitting the need for much perennial streams, evergreen forests, grasslands
more rigorous work needed to substantiate the and many other habitats, all supporting ferns and
microclimatic requirements of pteridophytes, the fern-allies and some , the damper ones their
importance of moisture conditions, apparently is luxuriant growth. Approximately 320 species of
the most singular decisive criterion for high ferns and fern-allies have found their abode in the
diversity of perennial land pteridophytes in any varied habitats of Western Ghats. The major
given region. The range of habitats sheltering families of the pteridophytes of the Western Ghats
pteridophytes include fresh water bodies, are Thelypteridaceae, Aspleniaceae, Pteridaceae,
including marshes and swamps, even mangrove Selaginellaceae, Polypodiaceae, etc. Western
swamps, forest floors and edges, alongside Ghats also support luxuriant growth of important
perennial streams, deep ravines and gorges, endemic species such as Cyathea nilgirensis,
grasslands and cultivation areas of various crops, Polystichum manickamii, Bolbitis semicordata,
specially of tea, coffee and cardamom. Osmuda huegeliana, etc. and endangered species
such as Helminthostachys zeylanica, Grammitis
1.1 PTERIDOPHYTES OF CENTRAL medialis, Tectaria zeylanica, Psilotum nudum, etc.
WESTERN GHATS in their preferred microclimates. The pteridophytes
The Western Ghats of the Indian peninsula tend to increase in number in the north-south
constitute one of the 34 global biodiversity direction in Western Ghats, obviously due to the
hotspots along with Sri Lanka, on account of more number of rainy months and higher altitudes
exceptional levels of plant endemism and by with cooler climates, which prevail more towards
serious levels of habitat loss (Conservation the central and southern sectors. Thus whereas

3
Maharashtra has 64 species of Pteridophytes, most 174 species. Ramachandra et al (2010)
of them confined to northern Western Ghats, documented 54 species of pteridophytes from the
(Manickam et al., 2003), Karnataka has about 174 Gundia river basin in Hassan district. The
species of pteridophytes, mostly growing in important pteridophytes hot-spots in Karnataka
central Western Ghats (Rajagopal and Bhat, 1998) include Kemmangundi and Bababudan hills
and Kerala and Tamil Nadu together, especially in (Chikmagalur district), Bisle Ghat and adjoining
a block south of Palghat gap account for 239 areas (Hassan district), Agumbe Ghats (Shimoga
species (Manickam and Irudayaraj, 1992) (Table district) and Gerusoppa Ghats, Kaiga and Castle
1). Rock (Uttara Kannada district).

The Karnataka State, encompassing central 1.2 HYDROLOGICAL AFFINITIES

Western Ghats, is a rich region in biodiversity due The era of inventorisation of pteridophytes in
to its diversity of climatic conditions, soil and central Western Ghats has, understandably, come
topographic variations. The different to an end with the monumental work of Rajgopal
environmental regimes support their own and Bhat (1998), and it is high time that in future
characteristic set of plants and animals. Notable ecology and conservation are given greater
studies here began with listing of 75 species of importance. Our routine observations in the field,
ferns from North Canara (Uttara Kannada) district especially during forest ecological studies, and
by Matchperson (1890). Later, in 1922, Blatter & reviews of sporadic mention of pteridophytes
Almeida included 90 species of ferns from Uttara habitats in literature bring to the fore the fact that
Kannada district, then a part of Bombay among the most sensitive of the ferns, that are
Presidency, in their “Ferns of Bombay”. After a prone to early eliminations from their natural
long lapse of time Alston (1945) gathered 4 habitats, are the ones that are associated with very
species of Selaginella from the State contributing humid conditions (especially rainy season fern
to his collection pool 58 species from India. communities). The focus of this work is on gross
Kammathy et al (1967) listed 25 species of ferns affinities of pteridophytes with humid habitats.
and fern-allies in their “Contribution towards a Figure 1 shows the similarity between the 8
Flora of Biligirirangana Hills”. Razi & Rao (1971) different major habitats of pteridophytes based on
published an artificial key to the Pteridophytes of species occurrence. The habitats can be divided
Mysore city and its neighbouring areas in which into two major groups A (which includes Aquatic,
they included 70 species of ferns and fern-allies brackish water habitat) and B (which includes
spread over 41 genera. Bhaskar & Razi (1973) remaining 7 habitats). Group A is totally different
recorded 7 species of ferns and one species of from group B and includes a mangrove fern
Selaginella from aquatic and semi-aquatic habitats (Acrostichum aureum), found growing
of Mysore district. Holttum (1976) included 10 gregariously in the tidal backwaters in the costal
members of Thelypteridaceae in the “Flora of swamps and marshes; it is the only species of fern
Hassan District”. Yoganarsimhan et al (1981) known so far growing in the brackish water
described 12 species of ferns in their “Flora of environs of the State. Group B can be further sub-
Chikmagalur District”. However, the only in depth divided into two sub-groups viz. B1 (including
and comprehensive work on the pteridophytes of Fresh water aquatic and amphibious habitats) and
Karnataka was carried out by Rajagopal and Bhat B2 (including remaining 5 habitats). Group B1 is
(1998). Their work spanning a period from 1988- mostly represented by those species which need
1995 culminated in the “Pteridophytic Flora of extremely watery or marshy habitats and include
Karnataka State, India” published in 1998 listed some of the rare hydrophytic species such as

4
Isoetes sahyadriensis and I. sampathkumarani specialized root-like shoots (Schneider, 2000). The
which deserve greater attention from hygrophilous habitat is prevalent in many ferns, so
conservationists. Two of the aquatic ferns namely much so in some of them occur even in association
Marsilea minuta and Azolla pinnata falling in this with swamps. The endemic and threatened tree
group are found widely distributed in ponds, fern Cyathea nilgirensis has its habitat confined to
paddy fields and other fresh water wetlands in the the relic evergreen forests with rare kind of
plains and hills of the State. In stark contrast is swamps and perennial streams. We found it in the
Salvinia molesta, an exotic free-floating fern, has Myristica swamps of Kathalekan (……), its
become a serious weed choking many water northernmost limit of distribution in the Western
bodies. It is a fast growing plant usually found in Ghats. It occurred there along with rare trees such
ponds, lakes, paddy fields, etc. significantly as Syzygium travancoricum (Critically
affecting the aquatic flora and fauna. Group B2 is Endangered), Dipterocarpus indicus and Myristica
further sub-divided into three clusters – B2a magnifica (both Endangered), Gymnacranthera
(including stream banks and moist forests), B2b canarica (vulnerable) and Semecarpus
(including roadsides and rock crevices) and an kathalekanensis (newly discovered rare tree)- all
intermediate cluster B2c (which includes the high of them of hygrophilic nature in the latitude of
altitude sholas and meadows). These habitats Uttara Kannada, where the rainfall barely lasts six
shelter most of the members of fern group – months. List of notable pteridophytes of central
Filicales. Western Ghats in relation to the eight different
habitats related to various hydrological conditions
The fern group – Filicales is the largest group is given in Table 2.
present on the earth today represented by almost
6000 species of ferns, most of which are 1.3 THREATS AND CONSERVATION
mesothermal hygrophytes; that is, they flourish The pteridophytes in general are moisture and
under moist conditions with moderate temperature, shade loving plants. Where humid and damp
and the majority of them are shade loving plants. conditions prevail on the land we find greater
Of the perennial fern species preferring congregations of them. As humid places and water
swampy/moist habitats for their growth include bodies are prioritized by humans for settlements,
tree fern species Cyathea gigantea, Angiopteris farming, power generation, setting up of industries
indica and A. helferiana. Similarly, another etc. most sensitive pteridophytes tend to vanish
endemic fern Osmunda huegeliana prefers the from such regions. The conversion of humid
moist and humid banks of free flowing perennial forests in large scale into monoculture plantations
streams and rivers. The filmy ferns belonging to of teak, acacia, eucalypts, rubber etc. has caused
family Hymenophyllaceae are strongly massive eliminations of hygrophilous
hygrophilous and their growth is restricted to wet pteridophytes. Factors like climate change,
and moist places, dense and dark forests with a increasing urbanization, encroachment of forest
relative constant high degree of humidity being lands, unplanned developmental activities etc.
their preferred habitats. Their delicate frond pose major threats to especially humidity and
morphology has enabled them to grow as shade loving ferns. Due to felling of trees in the
epiphytes in very humid regions (Dubuisson et al. forests the members of epiphytic pteridophytes
2003). It is probable that the absorption of water is belonging to the families Polypodiaceae,
mostly performed in them by diffusion through the Davalliaceae, Aspleniaceae, Vittariaceae etc. were
filmy lamina (as in bryophytes; Hébant, 1977), reported to be reduced substantially by Dixit,
less often by rootless stems and sometimes by (2000). Large scale collection of ferns from the

5
forests by the visitors and local people for 5. Conservation International (2005), Hotspots
ornamental purpose, medicinal purpose and during Revisited: Earth’s Biologically Richest and Most
excursions also increases the pressure on these Endangered Terrestrial Ecoregions. CI, US, 392 pp.
plants. For saving hygrophilous ferns from en- 6. Dixit R.D. (2000), Conspectus of Pteridophytic
diversity in India. Indian Fern Journal, 17: 77 –
mass destruction, their habitat conservation is of
91.
paramount importance. By declaring primary
7. Dubuisson J-Y, Hennequin S., Rakotondrainibe F.
forest relics of Western Ghats, the Myristica and Schneider H. (2003), Ecological diversity and
swamps and dipterocarp forests, for instance, as adaptive tendencies in the tropical fern
‘Heritage Sites’ or Conservation Reserves, bulk of Trichomanes L. (Hymenophyllaceae) with special
the germplasm of most humid tropical ferns of reference to climbing and epiphytic habits.
Western Ghats can be preserved. The Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society, 142: 41-
conservation of the humid and shaded habitats 63.
along with their gamut of flowering plants is an 8. Dudani S.N., Chandran M.D.S., Mahesh M.K. and
outstanding necessity for conservation of non- Ramachandra T.V. (2011), Diversity of
Pteridophytes of Western Ghats. Sahyadri E-News
hydrophytic, perennial pteridophytes, more so
Issue-33.
with increasing northern latitudes in Western
9. Fraser-Jenkins C.R. (2008a), Taxonomic revision
Ghats with progressive decline in rainy months. of three hundred Indian sub-continental
As knowledge on pteridophytes as such is sorely pteridophytes with a revised census list – a new
lacking among the public in general, their picture of fern-taxonomy and nomenclature in the
conservation is difficult, necessitating need for Indian subcontinent. Bishen Singh Mahendra Pal
awareness programmes for holistic habitat Singh Publishers, Dehradun.
conservation, which is a more sensible exercise to 10. Fraser-Jenkins C.R. (2008b), Endemics and
do in this regard. pseudo-endemics in relation to the distribution
patterns of Indian pteridophytes. Taiwania, 53(3):
264 – 292.
Acknowledgement: We thank G R Rao and
11. Hébant C. (1977), The conducting tissues of
Balachandran C. for their scientific inputs. We are
bryophytes. Lehre: J. Cramer.
grateful to the Ministry of Environment and 12. Holttum R.E. (1976), Thelypteridaceae, In:
Forests, Government of India, Karnataka Saldanah C.J. and Nicolson D.H. (Eds), Flora of
Biodiversity Board, Government of Karnataka and Hassan district of Karnataka, India. Amerind
Indian Institute of Science for the financial and Publishing Co Pvt Ltd, New Delhi.
infrastructure support. 13. Kammathy R.V., Rao A.S. and Rao R.S. (1967), A
contribution towards Flora of Biligirirangan Hills,
References: Mysore state. Bull Bot Surv India, 9(1-4): 206-234.
1. Alston A.H.G. (1945), An enumeration of Indian 14. Manickam V.S. and Irudayaraj V. (1992),
species of Selaginella. Proc Nat Inst Sci India, 11: Pteridophyte flora of the Western Ghats – South
211-235. India. B.I. Publications Pvt Ltd, New Delhi.
2. Bhaskar V. and Razi B.A. (1973), Hydrophytes and 15. Matchperson T.R.M. (1986), List of ferns gathered
Marsh plants of Mysore city. Prasaranga Univ in North Kanara. J Bomb Nat Hist Soc, 5: 375-377.
Mysore. 16. Radhakrishna B. P. (2001), The Western Ghats of
3. Blatter E. and Almeida J. F. (1922), The Ferns of the Indian peninsula. Memoir Geological Society of
Bombay. D. B. Taraporevala Sons & Co., Bombay. India 47: 133 – 144.
4. Chandra S., Fraser-Jenkins C.R., Kumari A. and 17. Rajagopal P.K. and Gopalkrishna Bhat K. (1998),
Srivastava A. (2008), A summary of the status of Pteridophytic flora of Karnataka state, India.
threatened pteridophytes of India. Taiwania, 53(2): Indian Fern Journal, 15: 1 – 28.
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R Bhat, Rao G R, Sumesh D, Vishnu Mukri and

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 Boominathan M, 2010. Biodiversity, Ecology and 20. Schneider H. (2000), Morphology and anatomy of
Socio-Economic Aspects of Gundia River Basin in roots in the filmy fern tribe Trichomaneae H.
the context of proposed Mega Hydro Electric Schneider (Hymenophyllaceae, Filicatae) and the
Power Project, CES Technical Report 122, CES. evolution of rootless taxa. Botanical Journal of the
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from the herbarium Mansagangotri Mysore: An B.A. (1981), Flora of Chikmagalur district,
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21-33.

Figure 1: Similarity of different habitats of pteridophytes based on species occurrence in central

Western Ghats

Table 1: Pteridophyte species distribution in relation to rainy months in Western Ghats

SOUTHERN WESTERN CENTRAL WESTERN NORTHERN WESTERN
GHATS GHATS GHATS
Number of rainy
8-10 6-8 3-5
months
Number of
232 174 64
pteridophytes

7
 Table 2: Notable pteridophytes in relation to different habitats in central Western Ghats

HABITATS PTERIDOPHYTE SPECIES STATUS

Aquatic (Brackish Water) Acrostichum aureum None
Marsilea minuta L. None
Azolla pinnata R. Br. None
Salvinia molesta Mitchell None
Aquatic (Fresh water) and
Ceratopteris thalictroides (L.) Brongn. Least Concern
Amphibious
Isoetes coromandelina L.f. subsp. coromandelina Least Concern
Isoetes sahyadriensis Mahabale Rare
Isoetes sampathkumarani Rao Rare
Osmunda huegeliana Presl. Near-Threatened
Angiopteris indica Desv. None
Cyathea gigantea (Wall. ex Hook.) Holttum None
Cyathea nilgirensis Holttum Near-Threatened
Trichomanes intramarginale Hook. & Grev. Rare
Diplazium esculentum (Retz.) Sw. None
Stream banks and Moist forests Diplazium polypodioides Blume None
Bolbitis appendiculata (Willd.) K. Iwatz None
Bolbitis semicordata (Bak.) Ching Rare
Pteris aspericaulis Wallich ex Agardh Rare
Pteris argyraea T. Moore Rare
Asplenium normale D. Don Rare
Asplenium crinicaule Hance Rare
Ophioglossum reticulatum L. None
Meadows Pteridium aquilinum (L.) Kuhn None
Loxogramme parallela Copel. Rare
Selaginella wightii Hieron. None
Selaginella delicatula (Desv. ex Poiret) Alston None
Pteris vittata L. subsp. vittata None
Actiniopteris radiata (Sw.) Link None
Roadsides and Rock crevices Cheilanthes farinosa (Forssk.) Kaulf. None
Adiantum incisum Forssk. None
Adiantum philippense subsp. philippense None
Athyrium hohenackerianum (Kuntze) T. Moore None
Blechnum orientale L. None