Introduction to Integration

Integration is a way of adding slices to find the whole.

Integration can be used to find areas, volumes, central points

and many useful things. But it is easiest to start with finding the
area under the curve of a function like this:

What is the area under y = f(x) ?

Slices

We could calculate the function at a few

points and add up slices of

width Δx like this (but the answer won't

be very accurate):
We can make Δx a lot smaller and add up
many small slices(answer is getting
better):

And as the slices approach zero in

width, the answer approaches thetrue
answer.

We now write dx to mean the Δx slices

are approaching zero in width.

That is a lot of adding up!

But we don't have to add them up, as there is a "shortcut".
Because ...

... finding an Integral is the reverse of finding a

Derivative.

(So you should really know about Derivatives before reading

more!)

Like here:
Example: What is an integral of 2x?

We know that the derivative of x2 is 2x ...

... so an integral of 2x is x2
Notation

The symbol for "Integral" is a

stylish "S"

(for "Sum", the idea of

summing slices):

After the Integral Symbol we put the function we want to find

the integral of (called the Integrand),

and then finish with dx to mean the slices go in the x direction

(and approach zero in width).

And here is how we write the answer:

Plus C
We wrote the answer as x2 but why + C ?

It is the "Constant of Integration". It is there because of all the

functions whose derivative is 2x:

The derivative of x2+4 is 2x, and the derivative of x2+99 is

also 2x, and so on! Because the derivative of a constant is
zero.

So when we reverse the operation (to find the integral) we only

know 2x, but there could have been a constant of any value.

So we wrap up the idea by just writing + C at the end.

Tap and Tank

Integration is like filling a tank from a tap.

The input (before integration) is the flow rate from the tap.

Integrating the flow (adding up all the little bits of water) gives
us thevolume of water in the tank.

Imagine the flow starts at 0 and gradually increases (maybe a

motor is slowly opening the tap).

As the flow rate increases, the tank fills up faster and faster.

With a flow rate of 2x, the tank fills up at x2.

We have integrated the flow to get the volume.

Example: (assuming the flow is in liters per minute) after 3
minutes (x=3):

the flow rate has reached 2x = 2×3 = 6 liters/min,

and the volume has reached x2 = 32 = 9 liters.

We can do the reverse, too:

Imagine you don't know the flow rate.

You only know the volume is increasing by x2.

We can go in reverse (using the derivative, which gives us the

slope) and find that the flow rate is 2x.

Definite Integral
A Definite Integral has start and end values: in other words
there is an interval (a to b).

The values are put at the bottom and top of the "S", like this:
 Indefinite Integral Definite Integral

(no specific values) (from a to b)

We can find the Definite Integral by calculating the Indefinite

Integral at points a and b, then subtracting:

Example:

The Definite Integral, from 1 to 2, of 2x dx:

The Indefinite Integral is: ∫2x dx = x 2 +C

 • At x=1: ∫2x dx = 1 2 +C

• At x=2: ∫2x dx = 2 2 +C

Subtract:

(22 + C) − (12 + C)
22 + C − 1 2 − C
4−1+C−C=3
And "C" gets cancelled out ... so with Definite Integrals we can
ignore C.

In fact we can give the answer directly like this:

We can check that, by calculating the area of the shape:

Yes, it has an area of 3.

Let's try another example:
Example:
The Definite Integral, from 0.5 to 1.0, of cos(x) dx:

(Note: x must be in radians)

The Indefinite Integral is: ∫cos(x) dx = sin(x) + C

We can ignore C when we do the subtraction (as we saw above):

= sin(1) − sin(0.5)

= 0.841... − 0.479...

= 0.362...

Integration Rules
Integration
Integration can be used to find areas,
volumes, central points and many useful
things. But it is often used to find the
area underneath the graph of a
function like this:
The integral of many functions are well known, and there are
useful rules to work out the integral of more complicated
functions, many of which are shown here.

Common Functions Function Integral

Constant ∫a dx ax + C
Examples
Power Rule

Example: What is ∫x3 dx ?

The question is asking "what is the integral of x3 ?" We can use the

Power Rule, where n=3:

∫x n
dx = xn+1/(n+1) + C

∫x 3
dx = x4/4 + C

Example: What is ∫√x dx ?

√x is also x0.5

We can use the Power Rule, where n=½:

∫x n
dx = xn+1/(n+1) + C

∫x 0.5
dx = x1.5/1.5 + C

Sum, Difference, Constant Multiplication And Power

Rules

Example: What is ∫8z + 4z 3

− 6z2 dz ?
Use the Sum and Difference Rule:

∫8z + 4z 3
− 6z2 dz =∫8z dz + ∫4z 3
dz − ∫6z 2
dz
Constant Multiplication:

= 8∫z dz + 4∫z3 dz − 6∫z2 dz

Power Rule:

= 8z2/2 + 4z4/4 − 6z3/3 + C

Simplify:

= 4z2 + z4 − 2z3 + C

Integration by Parts
Integration by Parts is a special method of integration that is
often useful when two functions are multiplied together, but is
also helpful in other ways.

You will see plenty of examples soon, but first let us see the
rule:

∫u v dx = u∫v dx −∫u' (∫v dx) dx

• u is the function u(x)
• v is the function v(x) As a diagram:

And let us get straight into an example:

Example: What is ∫x cos(x) dx ?

First choose u and v:

u=x v
= cos(x)
Differentiate u: u' = x' = 1

Integrate v: ∫v dx = ∫cos(x) dx = sin(x) Now put it

together:
Simplify and solve:

x sin(x) − ∫sin(x) dx
x sin(x) + cos(x) + C

So we followed these steps:

• Choose u and v

• Differentiate u: u'

• Integrate v: ∫v dx

• Put u, u' and ∫v dx here: u∫v dx −∫u' (∫v dx) dx

• Simplify and solve

In English, to help you remember, ∫u v dx becomes:

(u integral v) minus integral of (derivative u, integral v)

Let's try some more examples:

Example: What is ∫ln(x)/x 2

dx ?
First choose u and v:

• u = ln(x)

• v = 1/x2
Differentiate u: ln(x)' = 1/x

Integrate v: ∫1/x
2
dx = ∫x -2
dx = −x-1 = -1/x (by

the power rule) Now put it together:

Simplify:

−ln(x)/x − ∫−1/x 2
dx = −ln(x)/x − 1/x + C
−(ln(x) + 1)/x + C

Example: What is ∫ln(x) dx ?

But there is only one function! How do we choose u and v ?

Hey! We can just choose v as being "1":

 • u = ln(x)

• v=1
Differentiate u: ln(x)' = 1/x

Integrate v: ∫1 dx = x Now

put it together:

Simplify:

x ln(x) − ∫1 dx = x ln(x) − x + C

Example: What is ∫ex x dx ?

Choose u and v:
 • u = ex

• v=x
Differentiate u: (ex)' = ex

Integrate v: ∫x dx = x /2
2

Now put it together:

Well, that was a spectacular disaster! It just got more

complicated.

Maybe we could choose a different u and v?

Example: ∫ex x dx (continued)

Choose u and v differently:

• u=x

• v = ex
Differentiate u: (x)' = 1

Integrate v: ∫e x
dx = ex

Now put it together:

Simplify:

x ex − ex + C
ex(x−1) + C

The moral of the story: Choose u and v carefully!

Choose a u that gets simpler when you differentiate it and a v

that doesn't get any more complicated when you integrate it.

A helpful rule of thumb is I LATE. Choose u based on which of

these comes first:

• I: Inverse trigonometric functions such as sin-1(x), cos-1(x),

tan-1(x)

• L: Logarithmic functions such as ln(x), log(x)

• A: Algebraic functions such as x2, x3

• T: Trigonometric functions such as sin(x), cos(x), tan (x)

• E: Exponential functions such as ex, 3x

Area under a Curve

The area between the graph of y = f(x) and the x-axis is given by the
definite integral below. This formula gives a positive result for a
graph above the x-axis, and a negative result for a graph below the
x-axis.
Note: If the graph of y = f(x) is partly above and partly below the x-axis,
the formula given below generates the net area. That is, the area above
the axis minus the area below the axis.
Area between Curves

The area between curves is given by the formulas below.

Formula 1:

for a region bounded above and below by y = f(x) and y = g(x), and on the left and
right by x = a and x = b.

Formula 2:

for a region bounded left and right by x = f(y) and x = g(y), and above and
below by y = c and y = d.

Example 1:1 Find the area between y = x and y = x2 from x = 0 to x = 1.

Example 2:1 Find the area between x = y + 3 and x = y2 from y = –1 to y = 1.

INTEGRATION OF TRIGONOMETRIC INTEGRALS
Recall the definitions of the trigonometric functions.

The following indefinite integrals involve all of these well-known

trigonometric functions. Some of the following trigonometry
identities may be needed.

A.) B.)

C.) so that

D.) so that

E.)

F.) so that

G.) so that
It is assumed that you are familiar with the following rules of
differentiation.

These lead directly to the following indefinite integrals.

o 1.)

o 2.)

o 3.)

o 4.)

o 5.)
 o 6.)

The next four indefinite integrals result from trig identities and
usubstitution.

o 7.)

o 8.)

o 9.)

o 10.)

We will assume knowledge of the following well-known, basic

indefinite integral formulas :

• , where is a constant
 • , where is a constant

Most of the following problems are average. A few are

challenging. Many use the method of u-substitution. Make careful
and precise use of the differential notation and and be
careful when arithmetically and algebraically simplifying
expressions.

SOLUTION 1 : Integrate . Use u-substitution. Let

so that

or

.
Substitute into the original problem, replacing all forms of ,
getting

(Use antiderivative rule 2 from the beginning of this section.)

Exact Integrals as Limits of Sums

Using the definition of an integral, we can evaluate the limit as

goes to infinity. This technique requires a fairly high degree of
familiarity with summation identities. This technique is often
referred to as evaluation "by definition," and can be used to find
definite integrals, as long as the integrands are fairly simple. We
start with definition of the integral:
 Then picking to

be
we
get,

In some simple cases, this expression can be reduced to a

real number, which can be interpreted as the area under the
curve if f(x) is positive on [a,b].

Example 1

Find by writing the integral as a limit of Riemann

sums.
In other cases, it is even possible to evaluate indefinite
integrals using the formal definition. We can define the
indefinite integral as follows:
Example 2
Suppose , then we can evaluate the indefinite
integral as follows.
Volumes of Revolution

Rotation About the x-axis

Integration can be used to find the area of a region bounded by a

curve whose equation you know. If we want to find the area under
the curve y = x2 between x = 0 and x = 5, for example, we simply
integrate x2 with limits 0 and 5.
Now imagine that a curve, for example y = x2, is rotated around
the x-axis so that a solid is formed. The volume of the shape that
is formed can be found using the formula

Rotation about the y-axis

If the body is rotated about the y-axis rather than the x-axis, then

we use the formula:

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